PAVEMENT AND LOAD DISTRIBUTION

Module-1
Pavement
A pavement is defined as a hard layered structure that forms a road carriageway, airfield runway, or
vehicle park etc. It is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and processed materials
whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle load to the sub-grade. It is constructed over
the natural soil to support and distribute the loads of vehicles over a wide area of underlying soil.
There are two types of pavements; flexible and rigid pavements. The flexible pavements are made of
bitumen and the rigid pavement is made of concrete.

Functions
 Reduce and distribute the traffic loading so as not to damage the subgrade.
 Provide vehicle access between two points under all-weather conditions.
 Provide safe, smooth and comfortable ride to road users without undue delays and
excessive wear & tear.
 Meet environmental and aesthetics requirement.
 Limited noise and air pollution.
 Reasonable economy.

Requirements
 Sufficient thickness to spread loading to a pressure intensity tolerable by sub-grade.
 Sufficiently strong to carry imposed stress due to traffic load.
 Sufficient thickness to prevent the effect of frost susceptible sub-gade.
 Pavement material should be impervious to penetration of surface water which could
weaken sub-gade and subsequently pavement.
 Pavement mat. shd be non-frost susceptible.
 Pavement surface shd. be skid resistant.

FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

A flexible pavement is a structure that maintains intimate contact with and distributes load to the sub-
grade and depends on aggregate interlock, particle friction and cohesion for stability. The material
layers are usually arranged in order of descending load bearing capacity with the highest load bearing
capacity material (and most expensive) on the top and the lowest load bearing capacity material (and
least expensive) at the bottom.
It consists of a mixture of bituminous material and aggregates placed on a bed of compacted granular
material of appropriate quality in layers over the sub-grade. The intensity of load diminishes as it is
transmitted downward from the surface by spreading over an increasingly larger area by carrying it
deep enough into the ground through successive layers of granular material. It is usually from 150 psi
at wearing surface to 3 psi at the sub-grade.
Flexible pavements are so named because the total pavement structure deflects, or flexes, under
loading.  A flexible pavement structure is typically composed of several layers of different
materials. Each layer receives the loads from the above layer, spreads them out and then passes on
these loads to the next layer below.  Thus, further down in the pavement structure a particular layer is,
low load (in terms of force per unit area) it must carry.
The following are the various components of pavement:

• Sub-grade
• Sub-base
• Base
• Surfacing/Wearing Course

Structure of Flexible Pavement

Sub-grade
The layer of natural soil on which the pavement rests is called sub-grade. It is the foundation layer
which receives traffic loads from pavement and transfers to the natural ground safely. It is provided
by digging up the sub-soil or it may simply be the natural earth surface. The upper 50 cm layer of the
sub-grade should be well compacted under controlled conditions of optimum moisture content and
maximum dry density. Although a pavement's wearing course is most prominent, the
performance of a pavement is more often than not dependent upon the sub-grade, the material
upon which the pavement structure is built. 

Sub-grade Preparation Sub-grade Failure Crack

Sub-base Course
The sub-base course is between the base course and the sub-grade.  It functions primarily as structural
support but it also:
• Minimizes the intrusion of fines from the sub-grade into the pavement structure
• Improves drainage
• Minimizes frost action damage
• Provides a working platform for construction.
The sub-base generally consists of lower quality materials than the base course but better than the
sub-grade soils. 
A sub-base course is not always needed or used. For example, a pavement constructed over a high
quality, stiff sub-grade may not need the additional features offered by a sub-base course. However, a
pavement constructed over a low quality soil such as swelling clay having low bearing capacity may
require the additional load distribution characteristic that a sub-base course can offer. 

Base Course
The base course is immediately beneath the surface course.  It provides additional load distribution
and contributes to drainage and frost resistance. 

It is made of durable crushed stone aggregate (of a higher strength than those used in the sub-base)
that will not be damaged by moisture or frost action. Aggregates can be either un-stabilized or
stabilized with cementing material. The cementing material can be Portland cement, lime fly ash, or
asphalt cement. Its main function is to transfer the load of the traffic to the sub-base and sub-grade so
that sub-grade soil is prevented from being over-stressed

In certain situations where high base stiffness is desired, base courses can be constructed using a
variety of HMA mixes.  In relation to surface course HMA mixes, base course mixes usually contain
larger maximum aggregate sizes, are more open graded and are subject to more lenient specifications.

Aggregate Base Course

Asphalt Base Course

Surface/Wearing Course
The surface course is the top layer in contact with traffic loads and normally contains the
highest quality materials. It is made of asphaltic concrete which is a mixture of asphalt cement and
aggregates. It provides characteristics such as smooth riding, friction (skid-resistant surface for
safe vehicle stops), noise control, rut and shoving resistance, noise control and drainage.

In addition, it serves to prevent the entrance of excessive quantities of surface water into the
underlying base, sub-base and sub-grade. The thickness may range from less than 1 inch in the
case of a bituminous surface used for low-cost, light traffic road, to 6 inches or more of asphalt
concrete used for heavily travelled routes.

The surface course is sometimes subdivided into two layers:

Wearing Course
It is meant to take the brunt of traffic wear and can be removed and replaced as it
becomes worn. This way, the wearing course can be rehabilitated before distress
propagates into the underlying intermediate/binder course. The wearing course may be
laid in one or two layers according to the total designed thickness and the thickness of each
layer should not exceed 4 inches.
Intermediate/Binder Course
This layer provides the bulk of the HMA structure.  Its main purpose is to distribute
load.

Flexible Pavement: Construction

RIGID PAVEMENT

It is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete slabs. It provides high bending
resistance and distributes loads to the sub-grade by its beam action over comparatively large
area. Because of its relative rigidity, the pavement structure distributes loads over a wide area
with only one, or at most two, structural layers. 
Rigid pavements are so named because the pavement structure deflects very little under
loading due to the high modulus of elasticity of their surface course.  A rigid pavement
structure is typically composed of a PCC surface course built on top of either the sub-grade or
an underlying base course.  Rigid pavements are laid as single layer by ‘concrete paver’.
Joints are provided in non-continuous pavements to allow for thermal movement. The joint
includes a ‘filler’ and surface sealant.
Air entrained in concrete increases resistance to frost damage and de-icing salt corrosion

Load Distribution in Rigid Pavements

Basic Components of Concrete Pavement

Structure of Rigid Pavement

Surface course:  This is the top layer, which consists of the PCC slab, reinforced or
continuously reinforced slabs.  
 PCC Surface

Rigid Pavement Slab

(Surface Course) Thickness
Base course:  This is the layer directly below the PCC layer and generally consists of
aggregate or stabilized sub-grade.

Completed CTB with Curing Seal Lean Concrete Base Material

Sub-base course: 
This is the layer (or layers) under the base layer.  A sub-base is not always needed and
therefore may often be omitted.

Lean concrete:  Contains less Portland cement paste than a typical PCC and is stronger than
a stabilized aggregate.  Lean concrete bases (LCB s) can be built to as much as 25 - 50
percent of the surface course strength.  A lean concrete base, functions much like a regular
PCC surface course and therefore, it requires construction joints and normally cracks over
time.  These joints and cracks can potentially cause reflection cracking in the surface course.

Sub-grade provides support to the overlying concrete slab. If it is of good quality then slab
can be laid over it without providing sub-base otherwise if it is extremely poor then a sub-
base layer should be incorporated .

For design purpose the only thing to know about sub-grade is its classification and the unit
pressure coming from slab to sub-grade should be calculated for its selection. However, it
must be resistant to moisture damages.
Types of rigid pavement

Jointed Plain Concrete Pavem

(JPCP)

Fixed form

Comparison of Flexible and Rigid Pavement

Sr.
# Flexible Pavement Rigid Pavement
1 Bituminous surface Concrete surface

2 Has low flexural strength Has high flexural strength

Design is based on load distributing Design is based on flexural strength of
3
characteristics of the component layers concrete or the slab action
Its stability depends upon the aggregate Its structural strength is provided by the
4
interlock, particle friction and cohesion pavement slab itself by its beam action
Deformation in the subgrade is transferred Deformation in the subgrade is not
5
to the upper layers transferred to subsequent layers
Initial cost is low. Unit cost approximately Initial cost is high. Unit cost approximately
6
2-3 USD per sft 6-8 USD per sft

7 High maintenance cost Low maintenance cost

8 Low life span (10 – 20 years) Higher life span (30+ years)
9 Heavy vehicles consume more fuel Heavy vehicles consume less fuel
1 Surfacing cannot be laid directly on the Surfacing can be directly laid on the
0 subgrade. A sub base is required subgrade
No thermal stresses are induced as the Thermal stresses are more vulnerable to be
1
pavement have the ability to contract and induced as the ability to contract and expand
1
expand freely is very less in concrete
Temperature variations due to change in
1 Temperature changes induce heavy stresses
atmospheric conditions do not produce
2 in rigid pavements.
stresses in flexible pavements.
1
Expansion joints are not required Expansion joints are required
3
1 Strength of the road is highly dependent on Strength of the road is less dependent on the
4 the strength of the subgrade strength of the subgrade
1 Compaction of the surfacing by roller is
Compaction of the surfacing in not needed
5 needed
1 Road can be used for traffic within 24
Road cannot be used until 14 days of curing
6 hours
1
Skid resistance is less Skid resistance is high
7
1 Possesses self-healing properties due to Deformations occurring due to heavy wheel
8 heavy wheel loads. Deformations are loads are not recoverable, i.e. settlements
 recoverable to some extent. are permanent.

Comparison of Airport and Highway Pavement