Technology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Technology is the making, usage and knowledge of tools,

techniques, crafts, systems or methods of organization in order to
solve a problem or serve some purpose. The
word technology comes from Greek
τεχνολογία (technología); from τέχνη
(téchnē), meaning "art, skill, craft", and -
λογία (-logía), meaning "study of-".[1] The
term can either be applied generally or to
specific areas: examples include construction
technology, medical technology, and
information technology.

Technologies significantly affect human as

well as other animal species' ability to control
and adapt to their natural environments. The By the mid 20th century, humans
human species' use of technology began with the had achieved a mastery of
conversion of natural resources into simple technology sufficient to leave the
atmosphere of the Earth for the
tools. The prehistorical discovery of the ability first time and explore space.  
to control fire increased the available sources of
food and the invention of the wheel helped humans in travelling in
and controlling their environment. Recent technological
developments, including the printing press, the telephone, and the
Internet, have lessened physical barriers to communication and
allowed humans to interact freely on a global scale. However, not
all technology has been used for peaceful purposes; the
development of weapons of ever-increasing destructive power has
progressed throughout history, from clubs to nuclear weapons.
Technology has affected society and its surroundings in a number
of ways. In many societies, technology has helped develop more
advanced economies (including today's global economy) and has
allowed the rise of a leisure class. Many technological processes
produce unwanted by-products, known as pollution, and deplete
natural resources, to the detriment of the Earth and its
environment. Various implementations of technology influence the
values of a society and new technology often raises new ethical
questions. Examples include the rise of the notion of efficiency in
terms of human productivity, a term originally applied only to
machines, and the challenge of traditional norms.

Philosophical debates have arisen over the present and future use
of technology in society, with disagreements over whether
technology improves the human condition or worsens it. Neo-
Luddism, anarcho-primitivism, and similar movements criticise the
pervasiveness of technology in the modern world, opining that it
harms the environment and alienates people; proponents of
ideologies such as transhumanism and techno-progressivism view
continued technological progress as beneficial to society and the
human condition. Indeed, until recently, it was believed that the
development of technology was restricted only to human beings,
but recent scientific studies indicate that other primates and certain
dolphin communities have developed simple tools and learned to
pass their knowledge to other generations.
Contents
▪ 1 Definition and usage
▪ 2 Science, engineering and technology
▪ 3 History
▪ 3.1 Paleolithic (2.5 million – 10,000 BC)
▪ 3.1.1 Stone tools
▪ 3.1.2 Fire
▪ 3.1.3 Clothing and shelter
▪ 3.2 Neolithic through Classical Antiquity
(10,000BC – 300AD)
▪ 3.2.1 Metal tools
▪ 3.2.2 Energy and Transport
▪ 3.3 Medieval and Modern history (300 AD —)
▪ 4 Technology and philosophy
▪ 4.1 Technicism
▪ 4.2 Optimism
▪ 4.3 Skepticism and Critics of Technology
▪ 4.4 Appropriate technology
▪ 5 Technology and competitiveness
▪ 6 Other animal species
▪ 7 Future technology
▪ 8 See also
▪ 8.1 Theories and concepts in technology
▪ 8.2 Economics of technology
▪ 9 References
▪ 10 Further reading
▪ 11 External links
 Definition and usage
The use of the term technology has changed
significantly over the last 200 years. Before the
20th century, the term was uncommon in English,
and usually referred to the description or study of
the useful arts.[2] The term was often connected to
technical education, as in the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (chartered in 1861).[3]
"Technology" rose to prominence in the 20th
century in connection with the second industrial
revolution. The meanings of technology changed
in the early 20th century when American social
The invention of the printing scientists, beginning with Thorstein Veblen,
press made it possible for
scientists and politicians to
translated ideas from the German concept of
communicate their ideas with Technik into "technology." In German and other
ease, leading to the Age of European languages, a distinction exists between
Enlightenment; an example of
technology as a cultural force.   Technik and Technologie that is absent in English,
as both terms are usually translated as
"technology." By the 1930s, "technology" referred not to the study
of the industrial arts, but to the industrial arts themselves.[4] In
1937, the American sociologist Read Bain wrote that "technology
includes all tools, machines, utensils, weapons, instruments,
housing, clothing, communicating and transporting devices and the
skills by which we produce and use them."[5] Bain's definition
remains common among scholars today, especially social
scientists. But equally prominent is the definition of technology as
applied science, especially among scientists and engineers,
although most social scientists who study technology reject this
definition.[6] More recently, scholars have borrowed from
European philosophers of "technique" to extend the meaning of
technology to various forms of instrumental reason, as in
Foucault's work on technologies of the self ("techniques de soi").
Dictionaries and scholars have offered a variety of definitions. The
Merriam-Webster dictionary offers a definition of the term: "the
practical application of knowledge especially in a particular area"
and "a capability given by the practical application of
knowledge".[1] Ursula Franklin, in her 1989 "Real World of
Technology" lecture, gave another definition of the concept; it is
"practice, the way we do things around here".[7] The term is often
used to imply a specific field of technology, or to refer to high
technology or just consumer electronics, rather than technology as
a whole.[8] Bernard Stiegler, in Technics and Time, 1, defines
technology in two ways: as "the pursuit of life by means other than
life", and as "organized inorganic matter."[9]

Technology can be most broadly defined as the entities, both

material and immaterial, created by the application of mental and
physical effort in order to achieve some value. In this usage,
technology refers to tools and machines that may be used to solve
real-world problems. It is a far-reaching term that may include
simple tools, such as a crowbar or wooden spoon, or more complex
machines, such as a space station or particle accelerator. Tools and
machines need not be material; virtual technology, such as
computer software and business methods, fall under this definition
of technology.[10]

The word "technology" can also be used to refer to a collection of

techniques. In this context, it is the current state of humanity's
knowledge of how to combine resources to produce desired
products, to solve problems, fulfill needs, or satisfy wants; it
includes technical methods, skills, processes, techniques, tools and
raw materials. When combined with another term, such as
"medical technology" or "space technology", it refers to the state of
the respective field's knowledge and tools. "State-of-the-art
technology" refers to the high technology available to humanity in
any field.
Technology can be viewed as an activity that forms or changes
culture.[11] Additionally, technology is the application of math,
science, and the arts for the benefit of life as it is known. A modern
example is the rise of communication technology, which has
lessened barriers to human interaction and, as a result, has helped
spawn new subcultures; the rise of cyberculture has, at its basis,
the development of the Internet and the computer.[12] Not all
technology enhances culture in a creative way; technology can also
help facilitate political oppression and war via tools such as guns.
As a cultural activity, technology predates both science and
engineering, each of which formalize some aspects of
technological endeavor.

Science, engineering and technology

The distinction between science, engineering and technology is not
always clear. Science is the reasoned investigation or study of
phenomena, aimed at discovering enduring principles among
elements of the phenomenal world by employing formal
techniques such as the scientific method.[13] Technologies are not
usually exclusively products of science, because they have to
satisfy requirements such as utility, usability and safety.

Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and making

tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical
human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques
from science. The development of technology may draw upon
many fields of knowledge, including scientific, engineering,
mathematical, linguistic, and historical knowledge, to achieve
some practical result.

Technology is often a consequence of science and engineering —

although technology as a human activity precedes the two fields.
For example, science might study the flow of electrons in electrical
conductors, by using already-existing tools and knowledge. This
new-found knowledge may then be used by engineers to create
new tools and machines, such as semiconductors, computers, and
other forms of advanced technology. In this sense, scientists and
engineers may both be considered technologists; the three fields
are often considered as one for the purposes of research and
reference.[14]

The exact relations between science and technology in particular

have been debated by scientists, historians, and policymakers in
the late 20th century, in part because the debate can inform the
funding of basic and applied science. In the immediate wake of
World War II, for example, in the United States it was widely
considered that technology was simply "applied science" and that
to fund basic science was to reap technological results in due time.
An articulation of this philosophy could be found explicitly in
Vannevar Bush's treatise on postwar science policy, Science—The
Endless Frontier: "New products, new industries, and more jobs
require continuous additions to knowledge of the laws of nature...
This essential new knowledge can be obtained only through basic
scientific research." In the late-1960s, however, this view came
under direct attack, leading towards initiatives to fund science for
specific tasks (initiatives resisted by the scientific community).
The issue remains contentious—though most analysts resist the
model that technology simply is a result of scientific
research.[15][16]

History
Main articles: History of technology and Timeline of historic
inventions

Paleolithic (2.5 million –

10,000 BC)  

The use of tools by early humans was partly a process of

discovery, partly of evolution. Early humans evolved from a
species of foraging hominids which were already bipedal,[17] with
a brain mass approximately one third that of modern humans.[18]
Tool use remained relatively unchanged for most of early human
history, but approximately 50,000 years ago, a complex set of
behaviors and tool use emerged, believed by many archaeologists
to be connected to the emergence of fully modern language.[19]

Stone tools

Human ancestors have been using

stone and other tools since long
before the emergence of Homo
sapiens approximately 200,000
years ago.[20] The earliest
Hand axes from methods of stone tool making,
the Acheulian known as the Oldowan "industry",
period  
date back to at least 2.3 million A Clovis point, made via
years ago,[21] with the earliest direct evidence of pressure flaking
tool usage found in Ethiopia within the Great Rift  
Valley, dating back to 2.5 million years ago.[22]
This era of stone tool use is called the Paleolithic, or "Old stone
age", and spans all of human history up to the development of
agriculture approximately 12,000 years ago.

To make a stone tool, a "core" of hard stone with specific flaking

properties (such as flint) was struck with a hammerstone. This
flaking produced a sharp edge on the core stone as well as on the
flakes, either of which could be used as tools, primarily in the form
of choppers or scrapers.[23] These tools greatly aided the early
humans in their hunter-gatherer lifestyle to perform a variety of
tasks including butchering carcasses (and breaking bones to get at
the marrow); chopping wood; cracking open nuts; skinning an
animal for its hide; and even forming other tools out of softer
materials such as bone and wood.[24]

The earliest stone tools were crude, being little more than a
fractured rock. In the Acheulian era, beginning approximately 1.65
million years ago, methods of working these stone into specific
shapes, such as hand axes emerged. The Middle Paleolithic,
approximately 300,000 years ago, saw the introduction of the
prepared-core technique, where multiple blades could be rapidly
formed from a single core stone.[23] The Upper Paleolithic,
beginning approximately 40,000 years ago, saw the introduction of
pressure flaking, where a wood, bone, or antler punch could be
used to shape a stone very finely.[25]

Fire

The discovery and utilization of fire, a simple energy source with

many profound uses, was a turning point in the technological
evolution of humankind.[26] The exact date of its discovery is not
known; evidence of burnt animal bones at the Cradle of
Humankind suggests that the domestication of fire occurred before
1,000,000 BC;[27] scholarly consensus indicates that Homo erectus
had controlled fire by between 500,000 BC and
400,000 BC.[28][29] Fire, fueled with wood and charcoal, allowed
early humans to cook their food to increase its digestibility,
improving its nutrient value and broadening the number of foods
that could be eaten.[30]

Clothing and shelter

Other technological advances made during the Paleolithic era were
clothing and shelter; the adoption of both technologies cannot be
dated exactly, but they were a key to humanity's progress. As the
Paleolithic era progressed, dwellings became more sophisticated
and more elaborate; as early as 380,000 BC, humans were
constructing temporary wood huts.[31][32] Clothing, adapted from
the fur and hides of hunted animals, helped humanity expand into
colder regions; humans began to migrate out of Africa by
200,000 BC and into other continents, such as Eurasia.[33]

Neolithic through Classical Antiquity (10,000BC –

300AD)

An array of Neolithic artifacts, including bracelets, axe heads, chisels, and

polishing tools.
Man's technological ascent began in earnest in what is known as
the Neolithic period ("New stone age"). The invention of polished
stone axes was a major advance because it allowed forest clearance
on a large scale to create farms. The discovery of agriculture
allowed for the feeding of larger populations, and the transition to
a sedentist lifestyle increased the number of children that could be
simultaneously raised, as young children no longer needed to be
carried, as was the case with the nomadic lifestyle. Additionally,
children could contribute labor to the raising of crops more readily
than they could to the hunter-gatherer lifestyle.[34][35]

With this increase in population and availability of labor came an

increase in labor specialization.[36] What triggered the progression
from early Neolithic villages to the first cities, such as Uruk, and
the first civilizations, such as Sumer, is not specifically known;
however, the emergence of increasingly hierarchical social
structures, the specialization of labor, trade and war amongst
adjacent cultures, and the need for collective action to overcome
environmental challenges, such as the building of dikes and
reservoirs, are all thought to have played a role.[37]

Metal tools

Continuing improvements led to the furnace and bellows and

provided the ability to smelt and forge native metals (naturally
occurring in relatively pure form).[38] Gold, copper, silver, and
lead, were such early metals. The advantages of copper tools over
stone, bone, and wooden tools were quickly apparent to early
humans, and native copper was probably used from near the
beginning of Neolithic times (about 8000 BC).[39] Native copper
does not naturally occur in large amounts, but copper ores are quite
common and some of them produce metal easily when burned in
wood or charcoal fires. Eventually, the working of metals led to
the discovery of alloys such as bronze and brass (about 4000 BC).
The first uses of iron alloys such as steel dates to around 1400 BC.

Energy and Transport

The wheel
Meanwhile, humans
was invented were learning to
circa 4000
harness other forms of
BC. energ  y. The earliest
  known use of wind
power is the
sailboat.[40] The earliest record of a
ship under sail is shown on an
Egyptian pot dating back to 3200
BC.[41] From prehistoric times,
Egyptians probably used the power of the Nile annual floods to
irrigate their lands, gradually learning to regulate much of it
through purposely built irrigation channels and 'catch' basins.
Similarly, the early peoples of Mesopotamia, the Sumerians,
learned to use the Tigris and Euphrates rivers for much the same
purposes. But more extensive use of wind and water (and even
human) power required another invention.

According to archaeologists, the wheel was invented around 4000

B.C. probably independently and nearly-simultaneously in
Mesopotamia (in present-day Iraq), the Northern Caucasus
(Maykop culture) and Central Europe. Estimates on when this may
have occurred range from 5500 to 3000 B.C., with most experts
putting it closer to 4000 B.C. The oldest artifacts with drawings
that depict wheeled carts date from about 3000 B.C.; however, the
wheel may have been in use for millennia before these drawings
were made. There is also evidence from the same period of time
that wheels were used for the production of pottery. (Note that the
original potter's wheel was probably not a wheel, but rather an
irregularly shaped slab of flat wood with a small hollowed or
pierced area near the center and mounted on a peg driven into the
earth. It would have been rotated by repeated tugs by the potter or
his assistant.) More recently, the oldest-known wooden wheel in
the world was found in the Ljubljana marshes of Slovenia.[42]

The invention of the wheel revolutionized activities as disparate as

transportation, war, and the production of pottery (for which it may
have been first used). It didn't take long to discover that wheeled
wagons could be used to carry heavy loads and fast (rotary) potters'
wheels enabled early mass production of pottery. But it was the use
of the wheel as a transformer of energy (through water wheels,
windmills, and even treadmills) that revolutionized the application
of nonhuman power sources.

Medieval and Modern history (300 AD —)

Main articles: Medieval technology, Renaissance technology, and
Industrial Revolution
Innovations continued through the Middle Ages with new
innovations such as silk, the horse collar and horseshoes in the first
few hundred years after the fall of the Roman Empire. Medieval
technology saw the use of simple machines (such as the lever, the
screw, and the pulley) being combined to form more complicated
tools, such as the wheelbarrow, windmills and clocks. The
Renaissance brought forth many of these innovations, including
the printing press (which facilitated the greater communication of
knowledge), and technology became increasingly associated with
science, beginning a cycle of mutual advancement. The
advancements in technology in this era allowed a more steady
supply of food, followed by the wider availability of consumer
goods.

Starting in the United Kingdom in the 18th century, the Industrial

Revolution was a period of great technological discovery,
particularly in the areas of agriculture, manufacturing, mining,
metallurgy and transport, driven by the discovery of steam power.
Technology later took another step with the harnessing of
electricity to create such innovations as the electric motor, light
bulb and countless others. Scientific advancement and the
discovery of new concepts later allowed for powered flight, and
advancements in medicine, chemistry, physics and engineering.
The rise in technology has led to the construction of skyscrapers
and large cities whose inhabitants rely on automobiles or other
powered transit for transportation. Communication was also
improved with the invention of the telegraph, telephone, radio and
television.

The second half of the 20th century brought a host of new

innovations. In physics, the discovery of nuclear fission has led to
both nuclear weapons and nuclear energy. Computers were also
invented and later miniaturized utilizing transistors and integrated
circuits. These advancements subsequently led to the creation of
the Internet. Humans have also been able to explore space with
satellites (later used for telecommunication) and in manned
missions going all the way to the moon. In medicine, this era
brought innovations such as open-heart surgery and later stem cell
therapy along with new medications and treatments. Complex
manufacturing and construction techniques and organizations are
needed to construct and maintain these new technologies, and
entire industries have arisen to support and develop succeeding
generations of increasingly more complex tools. Modern
technology increasingly relies on training and education — their
designers, builders, maintainers, and users often require
sophisticated general and specific training. Moreover, these
technologies have become so complex that entire fields have been
created to support them, including engineering, medicine, and
computer science, and other fields have been made more complex,
such as construction, transportation and architecture.

Technology and philosophy

Technicism
Generally, technicism is a reliance or confidence in technology as
a benefactor of society. Taken to extreme, technicism is the belief
that humanity will ultimately be able to control the entirety of
existence using technology. In other words, human beings will
someday be able to master all problems and possibly even control
the future using technology. Some, such as Stephen V.
Monsma,[43] connect these ideas to the abdication of religion as a
higher moral authority.

Optimism
See also: Extropianism
Optimistic assumptions are made by proponents of ideologies such
as transhumanism and singularitarianism, which view
technological development as generally having beneficial effects
for the society and the human condition. In these ideologies,
technological development is morally good. Some critics see these
ideologies as examples of scientism and techno-utopianism and
fear the notion of human enhancement and technological
singularity which they support. Some have described Karl Marx as
a techno-optimist.[44]

Skepticism and Critics of Technology

See also: Luddite, Neo-luddism, Anarcho-primitivism, and
Bioconservatism
On the somewhat skeptical side are certain philosophers like
Herbert Marcuse and John Zerzan, who believe that technological
societies are inherently flawed. They suggest that the inevitable
result of such a society is to become evermore technological at the
cost of freedom and psychological health.

Many, such as the Luddites and prominent philosopher Martin

Heidegger, hold serious, although not entirely deterministic
reservations, about technology (see "The Question Concerning
Technology[45])". According to Heidegger scholars Hubert
Dreyfus and Charles Spinosa, "Heidegger does not oppose
technology. He hopes to reveal the essence of technology in a way
that 'in no way confines us to a stultified compulsion to push on
blindly with technology or, what comes to the same thing, to rebel
helplessly against it.' Indeed, he promises that 'when we once open
ourselves expressly to the essence of technology, we find ourselves
unexpectedly taken into a freeing claim.'[46]" What this entails is a
more complex relationship to technology than either techno-
optimists or techno-pessimists tend to allow.[47]
Some of the most poignant criticisms of technology are found in
what are now considered to be dystopian literary classics, for
example Aldous Huxley's Brave New World and other writings,
Anthony Burgess's A Clockwork Orange, and George Orwell's
Nineteen Eighty-Four. And, in Faust by Goethe, Faust's selling his
soul to the devil in return for power over the physical world, is also
often interpreted as a metaphor for the adoption of industrial
technology. More recently, modern works of science fiction, such
as those by Philip K. Dick and William Gibson, and films (e.g.
Blade Runner, Ghost in the Shell) project highly ambivalent or
cautionary attitudes toward technology's impact on human society
and identity.

The late cultural critic Neil Postman distinguished tool-using

societies from technological societies and, finally, what he called
"technopolies," that is, societies that are dominated by the ideology
of technological and scientific progress, to the exclusion or harm
of other cultural practices, values and world-views.[48]

Darin Barney has written about technology's impact on practices of

citizenship and democratic culture, suggesting that technology can
be construed as (1) an object of political debate, (2) a means or
medium of discussion, and (3) a setting for democratic deliberation
and citizenship. As a setting for democratic culture, Barney
suggests that technology tends to make ethical questions, including
the question of what a good life consists in, nearly impossible,
because they already give an answer to the question: a good life is
one that includes the use of more and more technology.[49]

Nikolas Kompridis has also written about the dangers of new

technology, such as genetic engineering, nanotechnology, synthetic
biology and robotics. He warns that these technologies introduce
unprecedented new challenges to human beings, including the
possibility of the permanent alteration of our biological nature.
These concerns are shared by other philosophers, scientists and
public intellectuals who have written about similar issues (e.g.
Francis Fukuyama, Jürgen Habermas, William Joy, and Michael
Sandel).[50]

Another prominent critic of technology is Hubert Dreyfus, who has

published books On the Internet and What Computers Still Can't
Do.

Another, more infamous anti-technological treatise is Industrial

Society and Its Future, written by Theodore Kaczynski (aka The
Unabomber) and printed in several major newspapers (and later
books) as part of an effort to end his bombing campaign of the
techno-industrial infrastructure.

Appropriate technology
See also: Technocriticism and Technorealism
The notion of appropriate technology, however, was developed in
the 20th century (e.g., see the work of Jacques Ellul) to describe
situations where it was not desirable to use very new technologies
or those that required access to some centralized infrastructure or
parts or skills imported from elsewhere. The eco-village movement
emerged in part due to this concern.

Technology and competitiveness

In 1983 a classified program was initiated in the US intelligence
community to reverse the US declining economic and military
competitiveness. The program, Project Socrates, used all source
intelligence to review competitiveness worldwide for all forms of
competition to determine the source of the US decline. What
Project Socrates determined was that technology exploitation is the
foundation of all competitive advantage and that the source of the
US declining competitiveness was the fact that decision-making
through the US both in the private and public sectors had switched
from decision making that was based on technology exploitation
(i.e., technology-based planning) to decision making that was
based on money exploitation (i.e., economic-based planning) at the
end of World War II.

Technology is properly defined as any application of science to

accomplish a function. The science can be leading edge or well
established and the function can have high visibility or be
significantly more mundane but it is all technology, and its
exploitation is the foundation of all competitive advantage.

Technology-based planning is what was used to build the US

industrial giants before WWII (e.g., Dow, DuPont, GM) and it
what was used to transform the US into a superpower. It was not
economic-based planning.

Project Socrates determined that to rebuild US competitiveness,

decision making through out the US had to readopt technology-
based planning. Project Socrates also determined that countries
like China and India had continued executing technology-based
(while the US took its detour into economic-based) planning, and
as a result had considerable advanced the process and were using it
to build themselves into superpowers. To rebuild US
competitiveness the US decision-makers needed adopt a form of
technology-based planning that was far more advanced than that
used by China and India.

Project Socrates determined that technology-based planning makes

an evolutionary leap forward every few hundred years and the next
evolutionary leap, the Automated Innovation Revolution, was
poised to occur. In the Automated Innovation Revolution the
process for determining how to acquire and utilize technology for a
competitive advantage (which includes R&D) is automated so that
it can be executed with unprecedented speed, efficiency and
agility.

Project Socrates developed the means for automated innovation so

that the US could lead the Automated Innovation Revolution in
order to rebuild and maintain the country's economic
competitiveness for many generations. [51] [52] [53]

Other animal species

This adult gorilla uses a branch as a walking stick to gauge the water's depth;
an example of technology usage by primates.
The use of basic technology is also a feature of other animal
species apart from humans. These include primates such as
chimpanzees, some dolphin communities,[54][55] and crows.[56][57]
Considering a more generic perspective of technology as ethology
of active environmental conditioning and control, we can also refer
to animal examples such as beavers and their dams, or bees and
their honeycombs.

The ability to make and use tools was once considered a defining
characteristic of the genus Homo.[58] However, the discovery of
tool construction among chimpanzees and related primates has
discarded the notion of the use of technology as unique to humans.
For example, researchers have observed wild chimpanzees utilising
tools for foraging: some of the tools used include leaf sponges,
termite fishing probes, pestles and levers.[59] West African
chimpanzees also use stone hammers and anvils for cracking
nuts,[60] as do capuchin monkeys of Boa Vista, Brazil.[61]

Future technology
Main article: Emerging technologies
Theories of technology often attempt to predict the future of
technology based on the high technology and science of the time.

See also
Main article: Outline of technology
▪ Bernard Stiegler ▪ Luddite
▪ Golden hammer ▪ Niche construction
▪ Critique of technology ▪ Technology assessment
▪ History of science and technology ▪ Timeline of historic inventions
▪ Knowledge economy ▪ Technological convergence
▪ Lewis Mumford ▪ Technology and society
▪ Technology tree
▪ -ology
▪ Science and technology
▪ Science and technology in
Argentina
▪ Technological superpowers
Theories and concepts in technology
Main article: Theories of technology
▪ Appropriate technology ▪ Technocriticism
▪ Diffusion of innovations ▪ Technological evolut
▪ Paradigm ▪ Technological determ
▪ Philosophy of technology ▪ Technological nation
▪ Posthumanism ▪ Technology readiness
▪ Precautionary principle ▪ Technological singul
▪ Strategy of technology ▪ Technological society
▪ Techno-progressivism ▪ Technorealism
▪ Technocentrism ▪ Technological reviva
▪ Technocracy ▪ Transhumanism
▪ Technology Managem
Economics of technology
▪ Technocracy (bureaucratic)
▪ Technocapitalism
▪ Technological diffusion
▪ Technology acceptance model
▪ Technology lifecycle
▪ Technology transfer
▪ Energy accounting
▪ Nanosocialism
▪ Post-scarcity
References

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Definitions Drawn From the Original Writers, (London: Baldwin,
Cradock and Joy, 1823), s.v. "technology."
3. ^ Julius Adams Stratton and Loretta H. Mannix, Mind and Hand: The
Birth of MIT (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005), 190-92. ISBN
0262195240.
4. ^ Eric Schatzberg, "Technik Comes to America: Changing Meanings of
Technology Before 1930," Technology and Culture 47 (July 2006):
486-512.
5. ^ Read Bain, "Technology and State Government," American Sociological
Review 2 (December 1937): 860.
6. ^ Donald A. MacKenzie and Judy Wajcman, "Introductory Essay" in The
Social Shaping of Technology, 2nd ed. (Buckingham, England : Open
University Press, 1999) ISBN 0-335-19913-5.
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Further reading
▪ Kremer, Michael (1993). "Population Growth and Technological
Change: One Million B.C. to 1990". Quarterly Journal of
Economics (The MIT Press) 108 (3): 681–716.
doi:10.2307/2118405.
▪ Frank Popper (2007) From Technological to Virtual Art,
Leonardo Books, MIT Press
▪ Charlie Gere (2005) Art, Time and Technology: Histories of the
Disappearing Body, Berg
▪ Ambrose, Stanley H. (2001-03-02) (PDF). Paleolithic
Technology and Human Evolution. Science. Retrieved 2007-
03-10.
▪ Kevin Kelly. What Technology Wants. New York, Viking Press,
October 14, 2010, hardcover, 416 pages. ISBN
9780670022151
External links
▪ W5H of Technology Technology for Kids
▪ Science and Technology in the Southern world
▪ RedHerring.com ~ The Business of Technology
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