MODULE 3

LEVELLING

Levelling may be defined as the art of determining the relative heights or elevation of point‘s or
objects on the earth surface. It deals with measurement in a vertical plane.

The object of Levelling is:

➢ To find the elevations of given points with respect to a given or assumed datum &
➢ To establish points at a given elevation or at different elevation with respect to given or
assumed datum.

Basic terms and definitions

• Level surface: A level surface is any surface parallel to the mean spheroidal surface of the earth.
Since the earth is an oblate spheroid, a level surface any be regarded as a curved surface, every
point on which is equidistant from the center of the earth. It is normal to the plumb line at all
points.
• Level line: A level line is a line lying in a level surface. It is, therefore, normal to the plumb line
at all points.
• Horizontal plane: Horizontal plane through a point is a plane tangential to the level surface at
that point. It is also perpendicular to the plumb line.
• Horizontal line: Any line laying in the horizontal plane. It is straight line tangential to the level
line at a point.
• Vertical line: It is a line normal to the level line at a point.
• Vertical plane: It is plane containing a vertical line.
• Datum: Datum is any surface to which elevations are referred. The mean sea level refers as
convenient datum world over & elevations are commonly given as so much above or below sea
level.
• Elevation: The elevation of a point on or near the surface of the earth is its vertical distance
above or below the datum. It is also known as reduced level (R.L). The elevation of a point is lus
or minus according as the point is above or below the datum.

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 The difference in elevation between the (H) between the two point is the vertical distancebetween
the level surface passing through the points.
• Vertical angle:It is an angle between two intersecting lines in a vertical plane.
• Mean sea level:It is the average height of the sea for all stages of the tides. At any particular
place it is derived by averaging the hourly tide heights over a long period of 19 years.
• Bench Mark:It is relatively permanent point of reference whose elevation with respect to some
assumed datum is known.
Types:
(1) G.T.S Bench Mark: The Great Trigonometrical Survey [G.T.S] bench marks are
established by the Survey of India throughout the country. The elevations of the bench
marks are correct to two decimal places of a meter.
(2) Permanent Bench Mark: The permanent bench marks are established at a closer
interval between widely spaced G.T.S bench marks.
(3) Temporary Bench Marks: These are the bench marks established temporarily whenever
required.
(4) Arbitary Bench Marks: These are the bench marks whose elevations are arbitrary
assumed for leveling of a small area.

Fig

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Methods of Levelling

Three principal methods are used for determining difference in elevation, namely, barometric
levelling, trigonometric levelling and spirit leveling.

➢ Barometric levelling: Barometric levelling makes use of the phenomenon that difference
in elevation between two points is proportional to thedifference in atmospheric pressures
at these points.A barometer, therefore, may be used and the readings observed at different
points would yield a measure of the relative elevations of those points.At a given point,
the atmospheric pressure does not remain constant in the Course of the day, even in the
course of an hour. The method is, therefore, relatively inaccurate and is little used in
surveying work except on reconnaissance or exploratory surveys.
➢ Trigonometric Levelling (Indirect levelling):Trigonometric or Indirect levelling is the
process of levelling in which the elevations of points are computed from the vertical
angles and horizontal distances measured in the field, just as the length of any side in any
triangle can be computed from proper trigonometric relations. In a modified form called
stadia levelling, commonly used in mapping, both the difference in elevation and the
horizontal distance between the points are directly computed from the measured vertical
angles and staff readings.
➢ Spirit Levelling (Direct Levelling): It is that branch of levelling in which the vertical
distances with respect to a horizontal line (perpendicular to the direction of gravity) may
be used to determine the relative difference in elevation between two adjacent points. A
horizontal plane of sight tangent to level surface at any point is readily established by
means of a spirit level or a level vial. In spiritlevelling, a spirit level and a sighting device
(telescope) are combined and vertical distances are measured by observing on graduated
rods placed on the points. The method is also known as direct levelling. It is the most
precise method of determining elevations and the one most commonly used by engineers.
The commonly used type of direct levelling are,

➢ Simple leveling: One set up of level. To find elevation of points.

➢ Differential leveling: Numbers of set-ups of level. To find elevation of non-intervisible
points.

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 ➢ Fly leveling: Low precision, to find/check approximate level, generally used during
reconnaissance survey.
➢ Precise leveling: Precise form of differential leveling.
➢ Profile leveling: finding of elevation along a line and its cross section.
➢ Reciprocal leveling: Along a river or pond. Two level simultaneously used, one at either
end.

Leveling Instrument

The instruments commonly used in direct leveling are:

(5) A level
(6) A leveling staff

1. A level

The purpose of level is to provide a horizontal line of sight. A level consists of the following four
parts.

(a) A telescope to provide line of sight.

(b) A level tube to make the line of sight horizontal.

(c) A leveling head ( tribrach & trivet stage ) to bring the bubble in its centre of run.

(d) A tripod

A schematic diagram of an engineer's level is shown in Figure 4.2. An engineer's level primarily
consists of a telescope mounted upon a level bar which is rigidly fastened to the spindle. Inside
the tube of the telescope, there are objective and eye piece lens at the either end of the tube. A
diaphragm fitted with cross hairs is present near the eye piece end. A focussing screw is attached
with the telescope. A level tube housing a sensitive plate bubble is attached to the telescope (or
to the level bar) and parallel to it. The spindle fits into a cone-shaped bearing of the leveling
head. The leveling head consists of tribrach and trivet with three foot screws known as leveling
screws in between. The trivet is attached to a tripod stand.

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 Schematic diagram of an engineer‘s level.

Functions of Salient Parts:

• Telescope : used to sight a staff placed at desired station and to read staff reading
distinctly.
• Diaphragm : holds the cross hairs (fitted with it).
• Eye piece : magnifies the image formed in the plane of the diaphragm and thus to read
staff during leveling.
• Level Tube : used to make the axis of the telescope horizontal and thus the line of sight.
• Leveling screws : to adjust instrument (level) so that the line of sight is horizontal for
any orientation of the telescope.
• Tripod stand : to fix the instrument (level) at a convenient height of an observer.

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 The following are the chief types of levels:

• Dumpy level • Auto level

• Wye or (Y) level • Digital level
• Reversible level • Laser level.
• Tilting level
➢ Dumpy level

Dumpy level

The Dumpy level originally designed by Gravatt, consists of a telescope tube firmly secured in
two collars fixed by adjusting screws to the stage carried by the vertical spindle. The Dumpy level
is commonly used for leveling. The dumpy level consists of a telescope fixed on vertical spindle.
The telescope tube and the vertical spindle are cast as one piece. The spindle revolves in the socket
of the leveling head. The leveling head consists of two parallel plates held apart by three leveling
screws. The upper parallel plate is called tribatch, the lower plate, known as trivet stage, is screwed
on the top of a tripod when the instrument is to be used. The telescope can be rotated in the
horizontal plane about its vertical axis.

The telescope of the dumpy level is generally of the internal focusing type. A sensitive level tube
is fitted on the top of the telescope or on its one side. The cross hairs of the diaphragm normally

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have a vertical line and horizontal line (the line joining the point of intersection of the cross hairs
and the optical centre of the objective is called the ―Line of Sight‖ or ―line of collimation‖.

The advantages of the dumpy level over Wye level are:

(i). Simpler construction with fewer movable parts.

(ii). Fewer adjustments to be made.

(iii). Longer life of the adjustments

➢ Wye or (Y) level

Y level or Wye-level consists y-shaped frames which supports the telescope. Telescope cane be
removed from the y-shaped supports by releasing clamp screws provided. These y-shaped frames
are arranged to vertical spindle which helps to cause the rotation of telescope. The wye support
consists of curved clips. If the clips are raised, the telescope rotated in the Wye. The bubble tube
may be attached to the telescope or to the stage carrying wyes.

Compared to dumpy level, adjustments can be rapidly tested in y- level. But, there may be a
chance of frictional wear of open parts of level.

Y level

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 ➢ Reversible level

Reversible level is the combination of dumpy level and y-level. In this instrument, the telescope
can be reversed without rotation the instrument. Collimation error can be eliminated in this case
because of bubble left and bubble right reading of telescope.

➢ Tilting level

In tilting level, the line of sight can be tilted slightly without tilting the vertical axis. Tilting level
consist a telescope which enabled for the horizontal rotation as well as rotation about 4 degree in
its vertical plane. Centering of bubble can be easily done in this type of level. But, for every setup
bubble is to be centered with the help of tilting screw.

The main advantage of tilting level is it is useful when the few observations are to be taken with
one setup of level.

➢ Auto level

Automatic level is like the dumpy level. In this case the telescope is fixed to its supports. Circular
spirit can be attached to the side of the telescope for approximate leveling. For more accurate
leveling, compensator is attached inside the telescope.

Compensator can help the instrument to level automatically. Compensator is also called as
stabilizer which consists two fixed prisms and it creates an optical path between eye piece and
objective.

Due to the action of gravity, the compensator results the optical system to swing into exact
position of line of sight automatically. But before the process of leveling, compensator should be
checked.

To check the compensator, just move the foot screws slightly if the leveling staff reading remains
constant then compensator is perfect. If it is not constant, then tap the telescope gently to free the
compensator. Automatic level is also called as self-adjusting level. Advantages of auto level are:

(1) Operational comfort: - Measurement is not fatiguing. Control of level which is so trying to
the eyes, nerves and hands is eliminated. The automatic level does not require any protection
from the sun.

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(2) High Precision: - Mean elevation error on invar staff graduated to 5mm divisions varies
between ± 0,5 to 0.8 mm per km of forward and backward levelling.

(3) High Speed: - Time required for levelling work is about 50% of that required with ordinary
level. This is an advantage where work is to be carried out in a limited time. Errors due to
settlement are thereby eliminated.

(4) Freedom for errors: - The accuracy of a single measurement is increased by an erect
telescope image, the levelling rods with erect figures in proper sequence, freedom from fatigue,
the possibility of forgetting to get the bubble in the centre as well as simple and quick means of
operation.

(5) Freedom from external influences: - The external influences like marshy ground, rain
wind, sun, loss of light due to clouds, magntic fields, continuous vibrations, transport vibrations,
have no influence on the levelling work.

(6) Range of application :- The level can be used on medium and large sized projects and
setting bench marks of the 3rd to 1st order.

Automatic level

➢ Digital level

The digital levels whose distinguishing features are automatic leveling, reading and recording
(Figure 4.5). The chief features of a digital level are:

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 • A CCD (Charged coupled device) at the plane of diaphragm. It captures an image of the
rod and processes it resulting in a rod reading and a distance to the rod.
• A data collector which keeps the level notes, performs checks and keeps a record of every
rod reading and elevation automatically.
• A bar-coded rod having a scale represented through a series of bars of different widths.
Bars are spaced constantly or variably. The spacing and width of the bars denote the
code.

Advantages of digital levels include the speed of leveling, the virtual elimination of rod reading
and calculation errors and the accuracy in reading rod.

Limitation of digital level lies in its range. Beyond a certain limit it is to be used in ―manual
mode‖.

Fig 4.5 The digital level

➢ Laser level.

A laser level is a fairly recent invention, and has changed the way surveying is being done. With
a self-levelinglaser level you can be assured that your measurement will be as accurate as
humanly possible. A laser level is a level that uses a laser light to project a line. Most surveying
laser levels us a rotating mirror so that they can project a horizontal plane around in a circle. A
laser level is more accurate than a Dumpy level but can break down from time to time.

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As its name suggests, a laser level is a leveler that illuminates a horizontal plane using a laser..
The laser level works by being stationed on a tripod. This projector also has a rotatable head with
a mirror, so that the laser beam can also sweep across the vertical axis. It is adjusted through the
many visually interpretable level vials and the numerous screws that must be manually adjusted
by a human for correction projection. Then, a staff with an operator equipped to it with a
moveable sensor, detects the laser beam and makes an audible signal every time the line is in
accordance with the beam. The key behind the laser level is the position of the sensor on the
graduated staff, as it interprets the elevation differences between various points on a certain
terrain.

There is also a tower mounted laser level. This is often used together with the wheel tractor-
scraper, which has a sensor attached to it. This is commonly used during land laser leveling
process (such as agricultural lands and when building the foundations of skyscrapers) to flatten
the land at a certain degree for a functional drainage system.

Laser level

2. A leveling staff

A leveling staff is a straight rectangular rod having graduations, the foot of the staff representing
zero reading. The purpose of a level is to establish a horizontal line of sight. The purpose of the
leveling staff is to determine the amount by which the station is above or below the line of sight.

Leveling staffs may be divided into two classes:

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 • Self reading staff
• Target staff
➢ Self-reading staff: A self-reading staff is the one which can be read directly by the
instrument through the telescope.In a metric system staff, one metre length is divided into
200 subdivisions, each of uniform thickness of 5 mm. All divisions are marked with black in
a white background. Metres and decimetres are written in red colour [Fig 15.4 (a)].

Levelling staffThe

following three types of self-reading staffs are available:

(a) Solid staff: It is a single piece of 3 m, 75 mm wide and 25 mm thick, with a metal shoe at the
bottom, and graduated on one face. The smallest division is of 5 mm in metric system(Fig a).
(b) Folding staff: A staff of two pieces each of 2 m which can be folded one over the other. It is
hinged in the middle so that top half can be folded over to lie against the lower half(Fig b).
(c) Telescopic staff: A staff of 3 pieces with upper one solid and lower two hollow. The upper
part can slide into the central one and the central part can go into the lower part. Each length can
be pulled up and held in position by means of brass spring. The total length may be 4 m or 5 m
[Fig. (c)].

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a) Solid staff b) Folding staff c) Telescpic staff

(ii) Target staff: If the sighting distance is more, instrument man finds it difficult to read self-
reading staff. In such case a target staff shown in may be used. Target staff is similar to self-
reading staff, but provided with a movable target. Target is a circular or oval shape, painted red
and white in alternate quadrant. It is fitted with a vernier at the centre. The instrument man
directs the person holding target staff to move the target, till its centre is in the horizontal line of
sight. Then target man reads the target and is recorded.

Target staff

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➢ Temporary adjustment of a dumpy Level
Temporary adjustments are the adjustments which are done at every setting of the
instruments and preparatory to taking observation with the instrument. When the setup is
changed, the temporary adjustments are disturbed.The following adjustments are done in the
case of a dumpy level.
1. Setting up
First the tripod is setup so that its top is at a convenient height. For fixing the level on the
tripod, hold the level in the right hand and fix it on the tripod by turning the trivet stage with
the left hand. The tripod legs are moved radially or circumferentially so that leveling head is
approximately horizontal some instruments are also provided with a small circular bubble
on the tribrach.
2. Leveling up
After having leveled the instrument approximately, accurate leveling is done with the help
of foot screws and with reference to the plate levels. The purpose of leveling is to make the
vertical axis truly vertical. The manner of leveling the instrument by the plate levels
depends upon whether there are three leveling screws or four leveling screws.
a) Three screw head
(1) Loose the clamp, turn the instrument until the longitudinal axis of the plate level is
roughly parallel to a line joining any two of the leveling screws.
(2) Hold these two leveling screws between the thumb and first finger of each hand and
turn them uniformly so that the thumbs move either towards each other or away from
each other until the bubble is central. It should be noted that the bubble will move in
the direction of movement of the left thumb.
(3) Turn the upper plate through 90° i.e until the axis on the level passes over the
position of the third leveling screw as shown in fig below.
(4) Turn this leveling screw until the bubble is central.
(5) Return the upper part through 90° to its original position and repeated step (2) till
bubble is central.
(6) Turn back again through 90° and repeat step (4).
(7) Repeat steps (2) & (4) till the bubble is central in both the positions.

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 (8) Now rotate the instrument through 180°. The bubble should remain in the centre of
its run, provided it is in correct adjustment. The vertical axis will then be truly
vertical. If not, it needs permanent adjustment.

Levelling up with three foot screw

3. Elimination of Parallax

Parallax is a condition arising when the image formed by the objective is not in the plane of
the cross-hairs. Unless parallax is eliminated, accurate sighting is impossible. Parallax can
be eliminated in two steps.

1) By focusing the eye-piece

2) By focusing the objective.
1) By focusing the eye-piece

To focus the eye-piece for distinct vision the cross-hairs, point the telescope towards the sky
and move eye-piece in or out till the cross hairs are seen sharp and distinct.

2) Focusing the objective

The telescope is now directed towards the staff and the focusing screw in turned till the
image appears clear and sharp. The image so formed is in the plane of cross hairs.

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CURVATURE AND REFRACTION

From the definition of a level surface and a horizontal line it is evident that a horizontal line
departs from a level surface because of the curvature of the earth. Again, in the long sights, the
horizontal line of sight does not remain straight but it slightly bends downwards having
concavity towards earth surface due to refraction. In Fig. 4.10, AC is the horizontal line which
deflects upwards from the level line AB by an amount BC. AD is the actual line of sight.

Curvature: BC is the departure from the level line. Actually the staff reading should have been
taken at B where the level line cuts the staff, but since the level provides only the horizontal line
of sight (in the absence of refraction), the staff reading is taken at the point C. Thus, the apparent
staff reading is more and, therefore, the object appears to be lower than it really is. The
correction for curvature is, therefore, negative as applied to the staff reading, its numerical value
being equal to the amount BC.

Curvature and refractionIn order

to find the value BC, we have, from Fig. 9.38 (b)

OC2 = OA2 + AC2∠CAO being 90°

Let BC = Cc = correction for curvature

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AB = d = horizontal distance between A and B

AO = R = radius of earth in the same unit as that of d

(R + Cc) 2= R2 + d 2

R2 + 2RCc + Cc2 = R2 + d 2

Cc (2R + Cc) =d2

2
Cc2= 𝑑
(Neglecting Cc in comparison to 2R)
2𝑅+ 𝐶𝐶

That is, to find the curvature correction, divide the square of the length of sight by earth's
diameter. Both d and R may be taken in the same units, when the answers will also be in terms of
that unit. The radius of the earth can be taken equal to 6370 km. If d is to be in km, and R = 6370
km, C, = 0.07849d2 metres. In the above expression d is to be substituted in km, while C, will be
in metres.

Refraction: The effect of refraction is the same as if the line of sight was curved downward or
concave towards the earth's surface and hence the rod reading is decreased. Therefore, the effect
of refraction is to make the objects appear higher than they really are. The correction, as applied
to staff readings, is positive. The refraction curve is irregular because of varying atmospheric
conditions, but for average conditions it is assumed to have a diameter about seven times that of
the earth.

The correction of refraction, Cr is therefore, given by

Cr =1 𝑑2(+𝑣𝑒) = 0.01121 𝑑 2, where d is in km.

7

The combined correction due to curvature and refraction will be given by

2 2 2
C= 𝑑 - 1 𝑑 = 6 𝑑 (Subtractive)
2𝑅 7 2𝑅 7 2𝑅

= 0.06728 𝑑2 meter, where d in km.

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THEORY OF DIRECT LEVELLING (SPIRIT LEVELING)

A level provides horizontal line of sight, i.e., a line tangential to level surface at the point where
the instrument stands. The difference in elevation between two points is the vertical distance
between two level lines. Strictly speaking, therefore, we must have a level line of sight and not a
horizontal line of sight; but the distinction between a level surface and a horizontal plane is not
an important one in plane surveying. Neglecting the curvature of earth and refraction, therefore,
the theory of direct levelling is very simple. With a level set up at any place, the difference in
elevation between any two points within proper lengths of sight is given by the difference
between the rod readings taken on these points. By a succession of instrument stations and
related readings. the difference in elevation between widely separated points is thus obtained.

SPECIAL METHODS OF SPIRIT LEVELLING

(a) Differential Levelling. It is the method of direct levelling the object of which is solely to
determine the difference in elevation of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the
points with respect of each other. When the points are apart, it may be necessary to set up the
instruments serveral times. This type of levelling is also known as fly levelling.

(b) Profile Levelling. It is the method of direct-levelling the object of which is to determine the
elevations of points at measured intervals along a given line in order to obtain a profile of the
surface along that line.

(c) Cross-Sectioning. Cross-sectioning or cross-levelling is the process of taking levels on each

side of a main line at right angles to that line, in order to determine a vertical cross-section of the
surface of the ground, or of underlying strata, or of both.

(d) Reciprocal Levelling. It is the method of levelling in which the difference in elevation
between two points is accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations when it is not
possible to set up the level between the two points.

(e) Precise Levelling. It is the levelling in which the degree of precision required is too great to
be attained by ordinary methods, and in which, therefore, special, equipment or special
precautions or both are necessary to eliminate, as far as possible. all sources of error.

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Terms & Abbreviations

(i) Station

In levelling, a station is that point where the leveling staff is held and not where the level is set
up. It is a point whose elevation is to be established at a given elevation.

(ii) Height of Instrument (H.I)

For any set up of the level, the height of instrument is the elevation of the line of sight with
respect to the assumed datum is called height of instrument.
(iii) Back sight (B.S)

It is the reading taken on the staff held at a point of known elevation, to ascertain the amount by
which the line of sight is above that point and thus to obtain the height of instrument. It is also
known as plus sight as the back sight reading is always added to the level of the datum to get the
height of instrument. The object of back sighting is therefore to ascertain the height of the line of
sight.

(iv) Fore sight (F.S)

It is the reading taken on the staff held at a point of known elevation, to ascertain the amount by
which the point is below the line of sight and thus to obtain the elevation of the station. It is also
known as minus sight as fore sight reading is always subtracted from the height of instrument.
The object of fore sight is therefore to determine the elevation of the staff station.

(v) Change point (C.P)

A change point or turning (T.P) is the point where staff is held & after taking fore sight to
determine the elevation of thepoint where the staff is held, the instrument is shifted & back sight
is taken at the same point, to determine the new height of instrument. Therefore, at the change
point both the back sight and fore sight are taken.
(vi) Intermediate station (I.S)
Intermediate station is a point, intermediate between two turning points, on which only one sight
(Minus sight) is taken to determine the elevation of the station.

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STEPS IN LEVELLING

There are two steps in levelling: (a) to find by how much amount the line of sight is above the
bench mark, and (b) to ascertain by how much amount the next point is below or above the line
of sight.

A level is set up approximately midway between the bench mark (or a Point of known elevation)
and the point, the elevation of which is to be ascertained by direct levelling. A hack sight is taken
on the rod held at the bench mark. Then

H.I. = Elv. Of B.M + B.S

Turning the telescope to bring into view the rod held on point B, a foresight (minus sight) is
taken.

Then, Elv = H.I -. F.S.

For example, if elevation of B.M. = 210.852 m, B.S. =2.324 m and F.S. = 1.836 m

Then H.I. = 210.852 + 2.324 = 213.176 m

and Elv. Of B = 213.176 — 1.836 = 211.340 m.

It is to be noted that if a back sight is taken on a bench mark located on the roof of a tunnel or on
the ceiling of a room with the instrument at a lower elevation, the back sight must be subtracted
from the elevation to get the height of the instrument. Similarly, if a foresight is taken on a point

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higher than the instrument, the foresight must be added to the height of the instrument, to get the
elevation of the point.

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELLING

The operation of levelling to determine the elevation of points at some distance apart is called
differential levelling and is usually accomplished by direct levelling. When two points are at
such a distance from each other that they cannot both be within range of the level at the same
time, the difference in elevation is not found by single setting but the distance between the points
is divided in two stages by turning points on which the staff is held and the difference of
elevation of each of succeeding pair of such turning points is found by separate setting up of the
level.

Referring to Fig. 4.12, A and B are the two points. The distance AB has been divided into three
parts by choosing two additional points on which staff readings (both plus sight and minus sight)
have been taken. Points 1 and 2 thus serve as turning points.

The R.L. of point A is 240.00 m. The height of the first setting of the instrument is therefore =
240.00 + 2.024 = 242.024. If the following. F.S. is 1.420, the R.L. of T.P. 1=-242.024 - 1.420 =
240.604 m. By a similar process of calculations, R.L. of T.P. 2 =240.490 m and of B = 241.202
m.

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Hand signal during observation

When leveling is done at construction site located in busy areas, it become difficult for the
instrument man to give instruction to man holding the staff at the other end, through vocal sound.
In that case the following hand signal are found to be useful,

BOOKING AND REDUCING LEVELS

There are two methods of booking and reducing the elevation of points from the observed staff
readings: (1) Collimation or Height of Instrument method; (2) Rise and Fall method.

(1) HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD

In this method, the height of the instrument (H.I.) is calculated for each setting of the instrument
by adding back sight (plus sight) to the elevation of the B.M. (First point). The elevation of
reduced level of the turning point is then calculated by subtracting from H.I. the fore sight
(minus sight). For the next setting of the instrument, the H.I. is obtained by adding the B.S taken
on T.P. 1 to its R.L. The process continues till the R.L. of the last point ( a fore sight) is obtained
by subtracting the staff reading from height of the last setting of the instrument. If there are some

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intermediate points, the R.L. of those points is calculated by subtracting the intermediate sight
(minus sight) from the height of the instrument for that setting.

The following is the specimen page of a level field book illustrating the method of booking staff
readings and calculating reduced levels by height of instrument method.

Arithmetic Check: The difference between the sum of back sights and the sum of fore sights
should be equal to the difference between the last and the first R.L. Thus,

Ʃ B.S. – Ʃ F.S. = Last R.L. - First R.L.

The method affords a check for the H.I. and R.L. of turning points but not for the intermediate
points.

3) RISE AND FALL METHOD

In rise and fall method, the height of instrument is not at all calculated but the difference of level
between consecutive points is found by comparing the staff readings on the two points for the
same setting of the instrument. The difference between their staff readings indicates a rise or fall
according as the staff reading at the point is smaller or greater than that at the preceding point.
The figures for 'rise' and 'fall' worked out thus for all the points give the vertical distance of each
point above or below the preceding one, and if the level of any one point is known the level of
the next will be obtained by adding its rise or subtracting its fall, as the case may be. The
following is the specimen page of a level field book illustrating the method of booking staff
readings and calculating reduced levels by rise and fall method:

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Arithmetic Check. The difference between the sum of backsights and sum of fore sights should
be equal to the difference between the sum of rise and the sum of fall and should also be equal
to the difference between the R.L. of last and first point. Thus,

ƩB.S. - ƩF.S. =Ʃ Rise —Ʃ Fall = Last R.L. — First R.L.

This provides a complete check on the intermediate sights also. The arithmetic cheek would only
fail in the unlikely, but possible, case of two more errors occurring in such a manner as to
balance each other. It is advisable that on each page the rise and fall calculations shall be
completed and checked by comparing with the difference of the back and fore sight column
summations, before the reduced level calculations are commenced.

Comparison of the Two Methods.

The height of the instrument (or collimation level) method is more rapid, less tedious and simple.
However, since the check on the calculations for intermediate sights is not available, the
mistakes in their levels pass unnoticed. The rise and fall method though more tedious, provides a
full check in calculations for all sights. However, the height of instrument method is more
suitable in case, where it is required to take a number of readings from the same instrument
setting, such as for constructional work, profile levelling etc.

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PROFILE LEVELLING (LONGITUDINAL SECTIONING)

Profile levelling is the process of determining the elevations of points at short measured intervals
along a fixed line such as the centre line of a railway, highway, canal or sewer. The fixed line
may be a single straight line or it may be composed of a succession of straight lines or of a series
of straight lines connected by curves. It is also known as longitudinal sectioning. By means of
such sections the engineer is enabled to study the relationship between the existing ground
surface and the levels of the proposed construction in the direction of its length. The profile is
usually plotted on specially prepared profile paper, on which the vertical scale is much larger
than the horizontal, and on this profile, various studies relating to the fixing of grades and the
estimating of costs are made.

Field procedure: Profile levelling is a procedure like differential levelling, requires the
establishment of turning points on which both back sight and foresights are taken. In addition,
any number of intermediate may be obtained on points along the line from each set up of
theinstrument (Fig 4.13). In fact, points on the profile line are merely intermediate station, it is
generally best to set up the level to one side of the profile line to avoid too short sight on the
points near the instrument. For each set up, intermediate sights should be taken after the foresight
on the next turning station has been taken. The level is then set up in advanced position and a
back sight is taken on that turning point. The positionof the intermediate station on the profile
points on the profile are simultaneously located by chaining along the profile and noting their
distance from the point of commencement. When the vertical profile of the ground is regular or
gradually curving, levels are taken on points at equal distance apart and generally at intervals of
a chain length. On irregular ground where abrupt changes of slope occur, the points should be
chosen nearer. For purpose of checking and future reference, temporary bench marks should be
established along section.

Field notes for profile levelling are commonly kept in the standard form shown inthe table.. The
method is almost the same as given for 'collimation height, method as computations are easier by
that method.

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 Fig 4.13 Profile levelling

Plotting of the profile

The horizontal distances are plotted along the horizontal axis to some convenient scale and the
distances are also marked. The elevations are plotted along the vertical axis. Each ground point is
thus plotted by two co-ordinates. The various point so obtained are joined by straight line,as
shown in Fig

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 Longitudinal section

CROSS-SECTIONING

Cross-sections are run at right angles to the longitudinal of it for the purpose of lateral outline of
the ground surface. They provide data for estimating quantities of earth work and for other
purposes. The cross section are numbered consecutively from the commencement of the centre
line and set out at right angles to the main line of section with the chain and tape, the cross-staff
or the optical square and the distances are measured left and right from the centre peg (Fig.
4.15).. The length of cross-section depends upon the nature of work. The longitudinal and cross-
sections may be worked together or separately. In the former case, two additional columns are
required in the level field book to give the distances, left and right of the centre line, as illustrated
in table below. To avoid confusion, the bookings of each cross-section should be entered
separately and clearly and full information of the cross-section, whether on the left or right of the
centre line, matter which may be useful, should be recorded.

Cross sectioning

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Plotting the cross section

Cross sections are plotted almost in the same manner as the longitudinal section except that in
this case both the scales are kept equal. The point along the longitudinal section is plotted at the
center of the horizontal axis. The points to the left of center are plotted to the left and those to the
left right are plotted to the right. The points so obtained are joined by straight line.

Cross section

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Fly Leveling

Fly leveling is conducted when the benchmark is very far from the work station. In such case, a
temporary bench mark is located at the work station which is located based on the original
benchmark. Even it is not highly precise it is used for determining approximate level.

If the work site is away from the benchmark, surveyor starts the work with a back sight on the
benchmark by setting instrument at a convenient point. Then he proceeds towards the site by
taking fore sights and back sights on a number of change points till he establishes a temporary
benchmark in the site. Rest of the levelling work is carried out in the site. At the end of the work
again levelling is carried out by taking a set of convenient change points till the bench work is
reached. This type of levelling in which only back sight and fore sights are taken, is called fly
levelling, the purpose being to connect a benchmark with a temporary benchmark or vice versa.
Thus the difference between fly levelling and differential levelling is only in the purpose of
levelling.

Fly levelling

Check leveling:

It is the operation of running levels for the purpose of checking the series of levels, which have
been previously fixed. At the end of each day‘s work, a line of level is run, returning to the
starting point of that day with a view to check the work done on that day.

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Reciprocal Levelling

When it is necessary to carry levelling across a river, ravine or any obstacle requiring a long
sight between two points so situated that no place for the level can be found equal, special from
which the lengths of foresight and backsight will be even approximately special method i.e.,
reciprocal levelling must be used to obtain accuracy and to eliminate the following (1) error in
instrument adjustment ; (2) combined effect of earth's curvature and the refraction of the
atmosphere, and (3) variations in the average refraction.

Let A and B be the points and observations be made with a level, the line of sight of which is
inclined upwards when the bubble is in the centre of its run. The level is set at a point near A and
staff readings are taken on A and B with the bubble in the centre of its run. Since B.M. A is very
near to instrument, no error due to curvature, refraction and collimation will be introduced in the
staff readings at A, but there will be an error e in the staff reading on B. The level is then shifted
to the other bank, on a point very near B.M. B, and the readings are taken on staff held at B and
A. Since B is very near, there will be no error due to the three factors in reading the staff, but the
staff reading on A will have an error e. Let ha and hb be the correspondingstaff readings on A and
B for the first set of the level and ha‘ and hb' be the readings or the second set.

From Fig. 4.18, it is evident that for the first set of the level, the correct staff readings will be

On A : ha ; On B hb – e

True difference in elevation = H = ha - (hb - e)

Similarly for second set, the correct staff reading will be : On A : ha'-e ; On B : hb'

True difference in elevation = H = (ha' - e) - hb'

Taking the average of the two true differences in elevations, we get

2H= [ha - (hb - e) + (ha' - e)- hb']= (ha - hb+ (ha' - hb')

H = (1/2) [(ha - hb) + (ha' - hb')]

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The true difference in elevation, therefore, is equal to the mean of the two appearent differences
in elevations, obtained by reciprocal observations.

Reciprocal levelling

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