HAND OUT # 1 Course Instructor: Etikaf Hussain

Engineering Surveying-I Batch: 2015-16

MEASUREMENT OF HORIZONTAL DISTANCES

1. INTRODUCTION: Measuring the horizontal distance between two points on the surface of
earth is one of the most fundamental surveying operations. It is also one of the most basic
engineering measurements. It can be measured in millimetres, centimetres, metres, and
kilometres in SI unit system and in inches, foot, yard and mile in FPS unit system. The
conversion factors are:

1 m = 100 cm 1 km = 1000 m 1 ft = 12 in
1 m = 3.281 ft 1 km = 0.62 miles 1 yard = 3 ft
1 mile = 5280 ft 1 nautical mile = 1.852 km 1 in = 2.54 cm

2. TYPES OF MEASUREMENTS: According to the method employed to find the distances, there
are three types of measurements. 1. Direct, 2. Indirect, and 3. Electronic.

3. METHODS OF DISTANCE MEASUREMENTS:

3.1 Pacing: It is the useful method for approximate measure. A person can determine the value
of his average pace by counting the paces necessary for him to walk a distance which has
previously been measured more precisely (for example, with a steel tape). For most people
pacing is done most satisfactorily, when taking natural steps. Some others like to try to take
paces of certain lengths (e.g. 1 m), but this method is tiring for long distances and usually gives
results of lower precision for short or long distances. As horizontal distances are needed, some
adjustments should be made when pacing is done on sloping ground. With a little practice a
person can pace distances with a precision of roughly 1/50 to 1/100 depending on the ground
conditions.

3.2 Odometer: An odometer converts the number of revolutions of a wheel of a known

circumference to a distance. This has advantage in preliminary surveys where precise distances
are not necessary. Odometer distances should be converted to horizontal distance when the
slope of the ground is steep. With odometers, an accuracy of approximately 1/200 of the
distance is reasonable. Distance can be found by the following formula:

Distance = (number of revolutions of the wheel) x (circumference of the wheel)

Q1: What is the distance measured in feet, if revolution of wheel counted are 655.5 and the
radius of the wheel is 10 inches? (3432.2ft)

(See lecture notes for solution)

3.3 Tacheometry: Techniques that indirectly provide required measurements are called
tacheometry. Tacheometry (stadia in US) is a surveying method used to determine the
horizontal distance to, and elevation of, a point. In this, distance is measured not directly but
indirectly with the help of an optical instrument called tacheometer. A theodolite with three
cross-hairs can be used with the intercept on a levelling staff between the top and bottom cross-
hairs multiplied by a constant giving the horizontal distance. An accuracy of 1/500 of the
distance is achieved with reasonable care.

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3.4 Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM): EDM instrument function by sending a light
wave or microwave along the path to be measured and then measuring the phase difference
between the transmitted and received signals (microwave), or measuring the noted phase
difference when reflecting the light wave back to its source.

3.5 Chain: Chain is one of the most common instruments for measuring distances (Rarely used
in Pakistan). It has medium precision level. The chains are composed of 100 pieces of steel or
iron wire called links. The end of each link are bent into a loop and connected together by
means of three oval rings. The end of the chain is provided with a brass handle. The outside of
the handle is the zero point or end of the chain, and the length of the chain is measured from the
outside of the one handle to the outside of the other. The length of a link is the distance between
the centres of the two consecutive middle rings. To facilitate reading of the chain, every tenth
link from each end of the chain is marked by a brass tag, also called teller, tally or tablet shown
in Fig. 1.

Fig.1. Chain and brass tags

There are various kinds of chains used for measurement.

3.5.1 Gunter’s Chain: The Gunter’s (or surveyor’s) chain is 22 yards or 66 ft long and it is
divided into 100 links, each of 0.66 ft (7.92 inches) long. It is very convenient because of its
relation to the furlong, mile for length and acre for area.

1 Gunter’s chain = 22 yards 10 Gunter’s chains = 1 furlong

80 Gunter’s chains= 8 furlong = 1 mile
10 sq. Gunter’s chains = 1 acre

3.5.2 Engineer’s chain: The engineer’s chain is 100 ft long and is divided into 100 links, each 1
foot in length. It is more convenient than the Gunter’s chain in levelling operations, since the
levelling staff is graduated in feet. When long lines are to be measured, it is more accurate than
the Gunter’s chain because of its greater length.

3.5.3 Metre chain: Countries in which the meter is the unit of length, chains of 10, 20 and 25
metres are commonly used. The 20 metres chain which is in most common use is divided into
links; each of 2 decimetre in length, and the brass tags is attached at every two metres from
each end.
100 links = 20 m 1 link = 0.2 m

3.6 Tapes: Tapes come in a variety of lengths and materials. For engineering work the lengths
are generally 10 m, 30 m, 50 m and 100 m.
For general use, linen or glass fibre tapes may be used. The linen tapes are made from high-
class linen, combined with metal fibres to increase their strength. These are graduated in 5
millimetres.

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More precise versions of the above tapes are made of steel and graduated in millimetres. For
high-accuracy work, steel bands mounted in an open frame are used. They are standardized so
that they measure their nominal length when the temperature is 20°C and the applied tension
between 50 N to 80 N. This information is clearly printed on the zero end of the tape.
For the very highest calibre of work, invar tapes made from 35% nickel and 65% steel are
available. The singular advantage of such tapes is that they have a negligible coefficient of
expansion compared with steel, and hence temperature variations are not critical.

3.6.1 Taping accessories: There are various accessories which are used for taping except
tapes.

3.6.1.1 Plumb bob: A plumb-bob or a plummet is a weight, usually with a pointed tip on the
bottom that is suspended from a string and used as a vertical reference line. It is shown in fig. 3
(d).

3.6.1.2 Ranging rods: Ranging rods or range poles or lining rods made of wood, steel, or
aluminium are about 1 in. thick and 6 to 10 ft long. They are round or hexagonal in cross section
and marked with alternate 1-ft long red and white (or black and white) bands that can be used
for rough measurements [Fig. 3(e)]. The main utility of range poles is to mark the line being
measured so that the tape’s alignment can be maintained.

3.6.1.3 Taping pins: Taping pins or Chaining pins are used to mark tape lengths. Most taping
pins are made of steel wire, sharply pointed at one end, have a round loop at the other end, and
are painted with alternate red and white bands [fig. 3(c)].

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Fig.3 (a) Surveyor’s tape (b) cloth or metallic tape (c) Taping pins (d) plumb bobs (e) ranging
rods

3.7 Errors in Taping/ Taping corrections: There are two types of errors, 1) Systematic errors
and 2) Random errors.

3.7.1 Systematic errors: Systematic errors in experimental observations usually come from
the measuring instruments. This can be due to erroneous length, temperature, tension or pull,
sag, slope and wrong alignment.

3.7.1.1 Incorrect length of tape: An error, caused by incorrect length of a tape, occurs each
time the tape is used. If the true length, known by standardization, is not exactly equal to its
nominal value recorded for every full length, the correction can be determined as:

𝐷𝐿 = 𝐷′𝐿′
Where,
D = True distance (m or ft),
L = True length of tape used (m or ft),
D’ = Erroneous or incorrect distance measured (m or ft),
L’ = Incorrect length of tape used (m or ft).

OR the correction in length is given by:

Cl = D-D’
Where,
Cl= Correction in total length due to use of erroneous tape.

NOTE: “Too short” means that the tape measures more than the true length, therefore we have
to subtract the correction in length ‘Cl’ from erroneous length, and
“Too long” means that the tape measures lesser than the true length, therefore we have to add
the correction in length ‘Cl’ to erroneous length.

Q2: We want to lay off a distance of 50.000 metres with a 30 m tape that is 0.009 m too short.
What tape reading should be used? (Ans. 50.015 m)
(See lecture notes for solution)

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Q3: The distance between two stations were measured with a 20 m chain and found to be 1000
m. The same distance was measured from 30 m chain and found to be 996.17 m. If a 20 m chain
was 50mm too short. What was the error in 30 m chain? (Ans: 0.04m too long)
(See lecture notes for solution)

3.7.1.2 Temperature correction: The correction applied to the length of the tape due to
change in temperature ‘Ct’ is given by,
Ct = D’(T – T0)
Where:
 = is the coefficient of linear expansion; for a steel tape ( = 1.16 x 10-5 /°C or 6.45 x 10-6/°F)
D’= length of line measured
T = is the observed temperature of the tape at the time of measurement
To = is the temperature at which the tape was standardized.

The resulting sign of ‘Ct’ will be either positive or negative and is added algebraically to the
length measured to obtain the correct length.

Q4: If a distance of 412.621 m is measured (recorded) when the tape of 50 m is used at

temperature 39.60C, if  = 1.16 x 10-5 /°C at 20 °C. What is the true length? (Ans: 412.715m)
(see lecture notes for solution)

3.7.1.3 Pull correction: If the tension or pull is greater or less than that for which the tape is
verified, the tape will be elongated or shortened accordingly. The correction for variation in
tension in a steel tape is given by the formula,
(𝑃 − 𝑃𝑜 )
𝐶𝑝 = D’
𝐴𝐸
Where:
Cp = correction per distance L, ft or m
P = applied tension,
P0 = tension for which the tape is standardized,
D’ = measured length , ft or m
A = cross-sectional area, in2 or cm2
E = elastic modulus of the steel,

The modulus of elasticity is taken as 28 to 10 x 107 lb/in2 or 2.1 x 106 kg/cm2.

The cross-sectional area of the tape can be computed from the weight and dimensions,
because steel weighs approximately 490 lb/ft3 or 7.85 x 10-3 kg/cm3.
Light and heavy 30-m tapes have respective cross-sectional areas of about 0.019 and
0.058 cm2. Light (1-lb) and heavy (3-lb) 100-ft tapes have cross-sectional areas of
approximately 0.003 and 0.009 in2, respectively.

Q5: A base line was measured having length of 812.701 m. The tension applied is 110 N. The
tape was standardized as 30 m and a tension of 70 N. The cross-sectional area of tape is 3 mm2,
E = 210 x 103 N/mm2 (210 kN/mm2). Find the actual length? (812.753m)
(See lecture notes for solution)

3.7.1.4 Correction for sag: When the tape sags between the points of support, it takes the form
of a catenary. The correction to be applied is the difference in length between the arc and the
subtending chord. The correction then is given with sufficient precision for most purposes by
the formula using parabolic equation,
𝑤 2 𝐿3 𝑊 2𝐿
𝐶𝑠 = − 𝑂𝑅 𝐶 𝑠 = − ×𝑛
24 𝑃2 24 𝑃2

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Where,
Cs = correction between points of support, ft or m
w = weight of the tape per ft or m, (lb/ft or kg/m),
W = total weight of tape between supports, lb or kg
L = distance between supports, ft or m
P = applied tension, lb or kg.
n = Number of full taping spans

Fig. 4 Effect of sag

Q6: Calculate the horizontal length between two supports, approximately level, if the recorded
length is 450.24 ft, using 100 ft tape, the tape weighs 0.95 lb and the applied tension is 20 lb?
(See lecture notes for solution)

Q7: Find the horizontal distance, if the recorded distance is 550.27 ft, using 100 ft tape. Also the
tape weighs 0.90 lb and the applied tension is 18 lb?
(See lecture notes for solution)

3.7.1.5 Slope correction: If the difference in height of the two measuring heads is ‘d’, the slope
distance ‘L’ and the horizontal equivalent ‘H’, then by Pythagoras theorem:
𝐻 = √𝐿2 − 𝑑2
Alternatively if the vertical angle of the slope of the ground is “α” then,
H = L cos α

Fig. 5 Slope correction

Q8: The slope distance between two points is 78.22’ and the vertical angle is 1°20’. What is the
corresponding horizontal distance? (Ans: 78.20’)

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(See lecture notes for solution)

3.7.1.6 Correction for alignment: If the intermediate points are not in correct alignment with
ends of the line, a correction for alignment given below, is applied to the measured length (Fig.
6).
𝑑2
𝐶𝑎 =
2𝐿
Where,
Ca = correction due to wrong alignment,
d = the distance by which the other end of the tape is out of alignment,
L = Total length measured.

Fig. 6 Alignment correction

Q9: A 30 m steel tape measured 30.015 m when standardized under a 70 N pull at a

temperature of 20°C. The tape weighs 0.9 kg and has a cross-sectional area of 0.028 cm2. What is
the true length of recorded distance AB = 150m for the following conditions:
Average temperature in field is 12°C,
Applied tension is 100N,
Difference of elevation per 100m is 2.5m,
α = 1.15 x 10-5 °C-1, E = 2.1 x 107 N/cm2. (Ans: 149.973m)
(See lecture notes for solution)

3.7.2 Random errors: This is also known as human error. They are may be of the form:
 Plumbing
 Marking tape ends with tape fully supported
 Adding or dropping full tape length
 Adding a foot or decimetre
 Other points incorrectly taken as end mark on tape
 Reading numbers incorrectly
 Calling numbers incorrectly or not clearly

3.8 Field notes: One of the most important aspects of surveying is the taking of neat, legible and
complete field notes. The notes will be used to plot scale drawings of the area surveyed and also
to provide a permanent record of the survey proceedings. Modern surveys, employing
electronic data collectors, automatically store point-positioning angles, distances and attributes,
which are later transferred to computer. The field notes are entered in a book with stiff covers,
about 7.5 in. by 4.5 in., containing plain leaves, opening lengthwise, and secured with an elastic
band. Usually two red lines, about 5/8 in. apart, are ruled centrally down the middle of the page
to represent the survey line, and the notes are recorded up the page, as in looking forward along
the chain the next forward station. This method of upward booking should be characteristic of
all forms of line notes.

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Fig. 7 Example of field book

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