ARCHITECTURE

Form, Space, & Order

Fourth Edition
ARCHITECTURE
Form, Space, & Order
Fourth Edition

Francis D.K. Ching

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Ching, Frank, 1943-
Architecture : form, space, & order / Francis D.K. Ching. -- Fourth edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-74508-3 (paperback); 978-1-118-74513-7 (ebk); 978-1-118-74519-9 (ebk)
1. Architecture--Composition, proportion, etc. 2. Space (Architecture) I. Title.
NA2760.C46 2014
720.1--dc23
201402021

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 C ON T E N T S
Preface vii
Acknowledgments viii
Introduction ix

1 Primary Elements 3 Form & Space

Primary Elements 2 Form & Space 100
Point 4 Form & Space: Unity of Opposites 102
Point Elements 5 Form Defining Space 110
Two Points 6 Horizontal Elements Defining Space 111
Line 8 Base Plane 112
Linear Elements 10 Elevated Base Plane 114
Linear Elements Defining Planes 15 Depressed Base Plane 120
From Line to Plane 14 Overhead Plane 126
Plane 18 Vertical Elements Defining Space 134
Planar Elements 20 Vertical Linear Elements 136
Volume 28 Single Vertical Plane 144
Volumetric Elements 30 L-Shaped Configuration of Planes 148
L-Shaped Planes 149
2 Form Parallel Vertical Planes 154
Form 34 Parallel Planes 155
Properties of Form 35 U-Shaped Planes 160
Shape 36 Four Planes: Closure 166
Primary Shapes 38 Four Planes: Enlosure 170
Circle 39 Openings in Space-Defining Elements 174
Triangle 40 Openings within Planes 176
Square 41 Openings at Corners 178
Surfaces 42 Openings between Planes 180
Curved Surfaces 43 Qualities of Architectural Space 182
Primary Solids 46 Degree of Enclosure 184
Regular & Irregular Forms 50 Light 186
Transformation of Form 54 View 190
Dimensional Transformation 56
Subtractive Form 58 4 Organization
Subtractive & Additive Forms 61 Organization of Form & Space 196
Additive Form 62 Spatial Relationships 197
Centralized Form 64 Space within a Space 198
Linear Form 66 Interlocking Spaces 200
Radial Form 70 Adjacent Spaces 202
Clustered Form 72 Spaces Linked by a Common Space 204
Grid Form 76 Spatial Organizations 206
Formal Collisions of Geometry 78 Centralized Organizations 208
Circle & Square 80 Linear Organizations 218
Rotated Grid 82 Radial Organizations 228
Articulation of Form 84 Clustered Organizations 234
Edges & Corners 86 Grid Organizations 242
Corners 87
Surface Articulation 92
C ON T E N TS

5 Circulation A Selected Bibliography 425

Circulation: Movement through Space 252 Glossary 427
Circulation Elements 253 Index of Buildings 435
Approach 254 Index of Designers 441
Entrance 262 Index of Subject Matter 443
Configuration of the Path 276
Path-Space Relationships 290
Form of the Circulation Space 294

6 Proportion & Scale

Proportion & Scale 306
Material Proportions 307
Structural Proportions 308
Manufactured Proportions 310
Proportioning Systems 311
Golden Section 314
Regulating Lines 318
Classical Orders 320
Renaissance Theories 326
Modulor 330
Ken 334
Anthropometry 338
Scale 341
Visual Scale 342
Human Scale 344
A Scalar Comparison 346

7 Principles
Ordering Principles 350
Axis 352
Symmetry 360
Hierarchy 370
Datum 380
Rhythm 396
Repetition 397
Transformation 418

Conclusion 422
 P RE FA C E

The original edition of this study introduced the student of architecture to form and space and the principles that guide their
ordering in the built environment. Form and space are the critical means of architecture comprising a design vocabulary that
is both elemental and timeless. The second edition continued to be a comprehensive primer on the ways form and space are
interrelated and organized in the shaping of our environment, and was refined by editing the text and incorporating diagrams for
greater clarity, adding selected examples of architectural works, expanding the sections on openings, stairways, and scale, and
finally, by including a glossary and an index to designers. The third edition persisted in illustrating the ways the fundamental
elements and principles of architectural design manifest themselves over the course of human history but added an electronic
component to introduce the aspects of time and movement to the exposition of elements and principles.

In this fourth edition, major changes consist of the addition of more than two dozen contemporary examples, selected to
illustrate the new forms that go beyond the timeless elements of basic statics—the columns, beams, and load-bearing walls of
stable constructions that are fixed in time and space. Five more modules have also been added to the electronic component to
animate certain design decisions regarding scale and proportion, the type of visual, often subtle judgements that designers face
in the development of a project.

The historical models in this book span time and cross cultural boundaries. While the juxtaposition of styles may appear to be
abrupt at times, the diverse range of examples is deliberate. The collage is intended to persuade the reader to look for likenesses
among seemingly unlike constructions and bring into sharper focus the critical distinctions that reflect the time and place of
their making. Readers are encouraged to take note of additional examples encountered or recalled within the context of their
individual experiences. As the design elements and principles become more familiar, new connections, relationships, and levels of
meaning may be established.

The illustrated examples are neither exhaustive nor necessarily the prototypes for the concepts and principles discussed. Their
selection merely serves to illuminate and clarify the formal and spatial ideas being explored. These seminal ideas transcend
their historical context and encourage speculation: How might they be analyzed, perceived, and experienced? How might they be
transformed into coherent, useful, and meaningful structures of space and enclosure? How might they be reapplied to a range of
architectural problems? This manner of presentation attempts to promote a more evocative understanding of the architecture
one experiences, the architecture one encounters in literature, and the architecture one imagines while designing.

P REFACE / V II
A C K NOWL E D G ME NTS

I will always be indebted to the following people for their invaluable

contributions to the original edition of this work: Forrest Wilson, whose
insights into the communication of design principles helped clarify
the organization of the material, and whose support made its initial
publication possible; James Tice, whose knowledge and understanding
of architectural history and theory strengthened the development of
this study; Norman Crowe, whose diligence and skill in the teaching
of architecture encouraged me to pursue this work; Roger Sherwood,
whose research into the organizational principles of form fostered the
development of the chapter on ordering principles; Daniel Friedman,
for his enthusiasm and careful editing of the final copy; Diane Turner
and Philip Hamp, for their assistance in researching material for the
illustrations; and to the editorial and production staff at Van Nostrand
Reinhold, for their exceptional support and service during the making of
the first edition.

For the second edition, my appreciation extends to the many students

and their teachers who have used this book over the years and offered
suggestions for its improvement as a reference and tool for study
and teaching. I want to especially thank the following educators for
their careful critique of the first edition: L. Rudolph Barton, Laurence
A. Clement, Jr., Kevin Forseth, Simon Herbert, Jan Jennings, Marjorie
Kriebel, Thomas E. Steinfeld, Cheryl Wagner, James M. Wehler, and
Robert L. Wright.

In preparing the third edition, I am grateful to Michele Chiuini, Ahmeen

Farooq, and Dexter Hulse for their thoughtful reviews of the second
edition. While I attempted to incorporate much of their wise counsel,
I remain solely responsible for any deficiencies remaining in the
text. I especially want to express my gratitude to the editorial and
production staff at John Wiley & Sons for their invaluable support and
encouragement, and to Nan-ching Tai for his creative contributions and
technical assistance in preparing the electronic component of the third
edition.

Dr. Karen Spence, Gary Crafts, Lohren Deeg, and Dr. Ralph Hammann
provided valuable insights and suggestions for this fourth edition. I want
to especially recognize Paul Drougas and Lauren Olesky of John Wiley &
Sons for their continuing editorial assistance and support, which made
this publication not only possible but also an enjoyable endeavor. To Debra, Emily, and Andrew, whose love of life it is
ultimately the role of architecture to nourish.

V I I I / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 IN T RODUC T I ON

Architecture is generally conceived—designed—realized—built—in response to an existing set of conditions. These

conditions may be purely functional in nature, or they may also reflect in varying degrees the social, political, and economic
climate. In any case, it is assumed that the existing set of conditions—the problem—is less than satisfactory and that a
new set of conditions—a solution—would be desirable. The act of creating architecture, then, is a problem-solving or design
process.

The initial phase of any design process is the recognition of a problematic condition and the decision to find a solution to it.
Design is above all a willful act, a purposeful endeavor. A designer must first document the existing conditions of a problem,
define its context, and collect relevant data to be assimilated and analyzed. This is the critical phase of the design process since
the nature of a solution is inexorably related to how a problem is perceived, defined, and articulated. Piet Hein, the noted Danish
poet and scientist, puts it this way: “Art is solving problems that cannot be formulated before they have been solved. The shaping
of the question is part of the answer.”

Designers inevitably and instinctively prefigure solutions to the problems they are confronted with, but the depth and range of
their design vocabulary influence both their perception of a question and the shaping of its answer. If one’s understanding of a
design language is limited, then the range of possible solutions to a problem will also be limited. This book focuses, therefore, on
broadening and enriching a vocabulary of design through the study of its essential elements and principles and the exploration of
a wide array of solutions to architectural problems developed over the course of human history.

As an art, architecture is more than satisfying the purely functional requirements of a building program. Fundamentally, the
physical manifestations of architecture accommodate human activity. However, the arrangement and ordering of forms and
spaces also determine how architecture might promote endeavors, elicit responses, and communicate meaning. So while this
study focuses on formal and spatial ideas, it is not intended to diminish the importance of the social, political, or economic
aspects of architecture. Form and space are presented not as ends in themselves but as means to solve a problem in response to
conditions of function, purpose, and context—that is, architecturally.

The analogy may be made that one must know and understand the alphabet before words can be formed and a vocabulary
developed; one must understand the rules of grammar and syntax before sentences can be constructed; one must understand
the principles of composition before essays, novels, and the like can be written. Once these elements are understood, one
can write poignantly or with force, call for peace or incite to riot, comment on trivia or speak with insight and meaning. In a
similar way, it might be appropriate to be able to recognize the basic elements of form and space and understand how they
can be manipulated and organized in the development of a design concept, before addressing the more vital issue of meaning in
architecture.

I NTROD UCTION / IX
I N T R O D U CTION

In order to place this study in proper context, the following is an overview of the In all cases, however, these elements and systems should be interrelated
basic elements, systems, and orders that constitute a work of architecture. All to form an integrated whole having a unifying or coherent structure.
of these constituents can be perceived and experienced. Some may be readily Architectural order is created when the organization of parts makes visible
apparent while others are more obscure to our intellect and senses. Some may their relationships to each other and the structure as a whole. When these
dominate while others play a secondary role in a building’s organization. Some relationships are perceived as mutually reinforcing and contributing to the
may convey images and meaning while others serve as qualifiers or modifiers of singular nature of the whole, then a conceptual order exists—an order that
these messages. may well be more enduring than transient perceptual visions.

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X / ARCHIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 IN T RODUC T I ON

…& Orders

Physical Form and Space Systems and organizations of

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I NTROD UCTION / X I
I N T R O D U CTION

Spatial System Structural System

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Villa Savoye, Poissy, east of Paris, 1923–31, Le Corbusier This graphic analysis illustrates the way architecture embodies the
harmonious integration of interacting and interrelated parts into a
complex and unified whole.

XI I / AR C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 IN T RODUC T I ON

Circulation System Context

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“Its severe, almost square exterior surrounds an intricate interior configura-

tion glimpsed through openings and from protrusions above. . . . Its inside order
accommodates the multiple functions of a house, domestic scale, and partial
mystery inherent in a sense of privacy. Its outside order expresses the unity of
the idea of house at an easy scale appropriate to the green field it dominated
and possibly to the city it will one day be part of.”

Robert Venturi, Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture, 1966

I N T ROD UCTION / X III

XI V / AR C HIT EC T UR E: FORM , S PA C E , & O R D E R
1
Primary Elements
“All pictorial form begins with the point that sets itself in motion…
The point moves . . . and the line comes into being—the first dimension.
If the line shifts to form a plane, we obtain a two-dimensional element.
In the movement from plane to spaces, the clash of planes gives rise to
body (three-dimensional) . . . A summary of the kinetic energies
which move the point into a line, the line into a plane,
and the plane into a spatial dimension.”

Paul Klee
The Thinking Eye: The Notebooks of Paul Klee
(English translation)
1961
P R I M A RY E L E M E N TS

This opening chapter presents the primary elements of form in the order of
their growth from the point to a one-dimensional line, from the line to a two-
dimensional plane, and from the plane to a three-dimensional volume. Each
element is first considered as a conceptual element, then as a visual element
in the vocabulary of architectural design.

As conceptual elements, the point, line, plane, and volume are not visible
except to the mind’s eye. While they do not actually exist, we nevertheless feel
their presence. We can sense a point at the meeting of two lines, a line marking
the contour of a plane, a plane enclosing a volume, and the volume of an object
that occupies space.

When made visible to the eye on paper or in three-dimensional space, these

elements become form with characteristics of substance, shape, size, color,
and texture. As we experience these forms in our environment, we should be
able to perceive in their structure the existence of the primary elements of
point, line, plane, and volume.

2 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M, S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PR IMA RY E L E M E N T S

As the prime generator of form, the

Point indicates a position in space. Point

A point extended becomes a

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PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 3

POINT

t A point marks a position in space. Conceptually, it has no

length, width, or depth, and is therefore static, centralized,
and directionless.

As the prime element in the vocabulary of form, a point can

serve to mark:

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Although a point theoretically has neither shape nor form, it

begins to make its presence felt when placed within a visual
field. At the center of its environment, a point is stable and
at rest, organizing surrounding elements about itself and
dominating its field.

When the point is moved off-center, however, its field becomes

more aggressive and begins to compete for visual supremacy.
Visual tension is created between the point and its field.

4 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M, S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PO INT E L E M E N T S

A point has no dimension. To visibly mark a position in space or on the

ground plane, a point must be projected vertically into a linear form, as a
column, obelisk, or tower. Any such columnar element is seen in plan as a
point and therefore retains the visual characteristics of a point. Other
point-generated forms that share these same visual attributes are the: Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome, c. 1544, Michelangelo Buonarroti.
The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius marks the center of this urban space.

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1153–1265, Diotisalvi

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Mont St. Michel, France, 13th century and later.

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establish this fortified monastery as a specific place in the landscape.

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 5

TW O P OIN TS

Two points describe a line that connects them. Although the points give this
line finite length, the line can also be considered a segment of an infinitely
longer path.

Two points further suggest an axis perpendicular to the line they describe
and about which they are symmetrical. Because this axis may be infinite in
length, it can be at times more dominant than the described line.

In both cases, however, the described line and the perpendicular axis are
optically more dominant than the infinite number of lines that may pass
through each of the individual points.

6 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M, S PA C E , & O R D E R

 T W O P OI N T S

Two points established in space by columnar elements or centralized

forms can define an axis, an ordering device used throughout history
to organize building forms and spaces.

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In plan, two points can denote a gateway

signifying passage from one place to
another. Extended vertically, the two
points define both a plane of entry and an
approach perpendicular to it.

The Mall, Washington, D.C., lies along the axis established by the Lincoln Memorial, the Washington Monument, and the United States Capitol building.

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 7

LINE

A point extended becomes a line. Conceptually, a line

has length, but no width or depth. Whereas a point
is by nature static, a line, in describing the path of
a point in motion, is capable of visually expressing
direction, movement, and growth.

A line is a critical element in the formation

of any visual construction.

A line can serve to:

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intersect other visual elements

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8 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M, S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LINE

Although a line theoretically has only one

dimension, it must have some degree of thickness
to become visible. It is seen as a line simply
because its length dominates its width. The
character of a line, whether taut or limp, bold or
tentative, graceful or ragged, is determined by our
perception of its length–width ratio, its contour,
and its degree of continuity.

Even the simple repetition of like or similar

elements, if continuous enough, can be regarded
as a line. This type of line has significant textural
qualities.

The orientation of a line affects its role in a visual

construction. While a vertical line can express
a state of equilibrium with the force of gravity,
symbolize the human condition, or mark a position
in space, a horizontal line can represent stability,
the ground plane, the horizon, or a body at rest.

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the vertical or horizontal.
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vertical line falling or a
horizontal line rising. In either
case, whether it is falling toward a
point on the ground plane or rising to a
place in the sky, it is dynamic and visually
active in its unbalanced state.

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 9

L I N EA R E L E ME N TS

Vertical linear elements, such as columns, obelisks, and towers, have been
used throughout history to commemorate significant events and establish
particular points in space.

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a prehistoric monument consisting of an Piazza Colonna, Rome, A.D. 174. Place de la Concorde, Paris. The obelisk, which
upright megalith, usually standing alone This cylindrical shaft commemorates marked the entrance to the Amon Temple at Luxor,
but sometimes aligned with others. the emperor’s victory over Germanic was given by the viceroy of Egypt, Mohamed Ali, to
tribes north of the Danube. Louis Phillipe and was installed in 1836.

Vertical linear elements can also define a transparent volume of

space. In the example illustrated to the left, four minaret towers
outline a spatial field from which the dome of the Selim Mosque
rises in splendor.

Selim Mosque, Edirne, Turkey,

A.D. 1569–1575

1 0 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LIN EA R E L E M E N T S

Linear members that possess the necessary material

strength can perform structural functions. In these three
examples, linear elements:

t
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BDSPTT
TQBDF
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for architectural space

$BSZBUJE
1PSDI, The Erechtheion, Athens, 421–405 B.C., Mnesicles. 4BMHJOBUPCFM
#SJEHF, Switzerland, 1929–1930, Robert Maillart.
The sculptured female figures stand as columnar supports for the Beams and girders have the bending strength to span the space
entablature. between their supports and carry transverse loads.

,BUTVSB
*NQFSJBM
7JMMB, Kyoto, Japan, 17th century.

Linear columns and beams together form a three-dimensional framework for architectural space.

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 1 1

L I N EA R E L E ME N TS

A line can be an imagined element rather than a visible one in

architecture. An example is the axis, a regulating line established
by two distant points in space and about which elements are
symmetrically arranged.

7JMMB
"MEPCSBOEJOJ, Italy, 1598–1603, Giacomo Della Porta

)PVTF
, 1966, John Hejduk

Although architectural space exists in three dimensions, it can be linear

in form to accommodate the path of movement through a building and
link its spaces to one another.

Buildings also can be linear in form, particularly

when they consist of repetitive spaces
organized along a circulation path. As
illustrated here, linear building forms have the
ability to enclose exterior spaces as well as
adapt to the environmental conditions of a site.

$PSOFMM
6OJWFSTJUZ
6OEFSHSBEVBUF
)PVTJOH (Project), Ithaca,

New York, 1974, Richard Meier

1 2 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LIN EA R E L E M E N T S

5PXO
)BMM
4ÊZOÊUTBMP, Finland, 1950–1952, Alvar Aalto

At a smaller scale, lines articulate the edges and surfaces of planes and
volumes. These lines can be expressed by joints within or between building
materials, by frames around window or door openings, or by a structural grid
of columns and beams. How these linear elements affect the texture of a
surface will depend on their visual weight, spacing, and direction.

$SPXO
)BMM, School of Architecture and Urban Design, Illinois Institute of Technology, 4FBHSBN
#VJMEJOH, New York City, 1956–1958,
Chicago, 1956, Mies van der Rohe Mies van de Rohe and Philip Johnson

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 1 3

FR O M L IN E TO P L ANE

Two parallel lines have the ability to visually describe a plane. A transparent
spatial membrane can be stretched between them to acknowledge their visual
relationship. The closer these lines are to each other, the stronger will be the
sense of plane they convey.

A series of parallel lines, through their repetitiveness, reinforces our perception

of the plane they describe. As these lines extend themselves along the plane
they describe, the implied plane becomes real and the original voids between
the lines revert to being mere interruptions of the planar surface.

The diagrams illustrate the transformation of a row of round columns, initially

supporting a portion of a wall, then evolving into square piers which are an
integral part of the wall plane, and finally becoming pilasters—remnants of
the original columns occurring as a relief along the surface of the wall.

“The column is a certain strengthened part of a wall, carried up perpendicular

from the foundation to the top … A row of columns is indeed nothing but a
wall, open and discontinued in several places.” Leon Battista Alberti

1 4 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LIN EA R ELEMEN T S D EF INI N G P L A N E S

"MUFT
.VTFVN, Berlin, 1823–1830, Karl Friedrich Schinkel

A row of columns supporting an entablature—a colonnade—is

often used to define the public face or facade of a building, especially
one that fronts on a major civic space. A colonnaded facade can
be penetrated easily for entry, offers a degree of shelter from the
elements, and forms a semi-transparent screen that unifies individual
building forms behind it.

The Basilica, Vicenza, Italy.

Andrea Palladio designed this two-story loggia in 1545 to
wrap around an existing medieval structure. This addition not
only buttressed the existing structure but also acted as a
screen that disguised the irregularity of the original core and 4UPB
PG
"UUBMVT fronting the Agora in Athens
presented a uniform but elegant face to the Piazza del Signori.

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 1 5

L I N EA R E L E ME N TS DEFINING PLANES

Cloister of .PJTTBD
"CCFZ, France, c. 1100

In addition to the structural role columns play in supporting an These two examples illustrate how columns
overhead floor or roof plane, they can articulate the penetrable can define the edges of an exterior space
boundaries of spatial zones which mesh easily with adjacent defined within the mass of a building
spaces. as well as articulate the edges of a building
mass in space.

5FNQMF
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"UIFOB
1PMJBT,
Priene, c. 334 B.C., Pythius

4U
1IJMJCFSU, Tournus, France, 950–1120.

This view of the nave shows how rows of columns can
provide a rhythmic measure of space.

1 6 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LIN EA R ELEMEN T S D EF INI N G P L A N E S

$BSZ
)PVTF, Mill Valley, California, 1963, Joseph Esherick Trellised Courtyard, (FPSHJB
0,FFGF
3FTJEFODF,
Abiquiu, northwest of Sante Fe, New Mexico

The linear members of trellises and pergolas can provide a moderate degree of
definition and enclosure for outdoor spaces while allowing filtered sunlight and
breezes to penetrate.

Vertical and horizontal linear elements together can define a volume of space
such as the solarium illustrated to the right. Note that the form of the volume
is determined solely by the configuration of the linear elements.

Solarium of $POEPNJOJVN
6OJU

4FB
3BODI, California, 1966,

Moore, Lyndon, Turnbull, Whitaker (MLTW)

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 1 7

P LA N E

A line extended in a direction other than

its intrinsic direction becomes a plane.
Conceptually, a plane has length and width,
but no depth.

Shape is the primary identifying characteristic

of a plane. It is determined by the contour of
the line forming the edges of a plane. Because
our perception of shape can be distorted by
perspective foreshortening, we see the true
shape of a plane only when we view it frontally.

The supplementary properties of a plane—its

surface color, pattern, and texture—affect its
visual weight and stability.

In the composition of a visual construction, a

plane serves to define the limits or boundaries
of a volume. If architecture as a visual art
deals specifically with the formation of three-
dimensional volumes of mass and space, then
the plane should be regarded as a key element in
the vocabulary of architectural design.

1 8 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PLANE

Planes in architecture define three-dimensional

volumes of mass and space. The properties of each
plane—size, shape, color, texture —as well as
their spatial relationship to one another ultimately
determine the visual attributes of the form they
define and the qualities of the space they enclose.

In architectural design, we manipulate three generic

types of planes:

Overhead Plane
The overhead plane can be either the roof plane that
spans and shelters the interior spaces of a building
from the climatic elements, or the ceiling plane that
forms the upper enclosing surface of a room.

Wall Plane
The wall plane, because of its vertical orientation, is
active in our normal field of vision and vital to the
shaping and enclosure of architectural space.

Base Plane
The base plane can be either the ground plane that
serves as the physical foundation and visual base
for building forms, or the floor plane that forms the
lower enclosing surface of a room upon which we
walk.

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 1 9

P LA N AR E L E ME N TS

The ground plane ultimately supports all architectural

construction. Along with climate and other environmental
conditions of a site, the topographical character of the ground
plane influences the form of the building that rises from it. The
building can merge with the ground plane, rest firmly on it, or be
elevated above it.

The ground plane itself can be manipulated as well to establish

a podium for a building form. It can be elevated to honor a
sacred or significant place; bermed to define outdoor spaces
or buffer against undesirable conditions; carved or terraced
to provide a suitable platform on which to build; or stepped to
allow changes in elevation to be easily traversed.

Scala de Spagna (Spanish Steps), Rome, 1721–1725.

Alessandro Specchi designed this civic project to connect the Piazza di
Spagna with SS. Trinita de’ Monti; completed by Francesco de Sanctis.

.PSUVBSZ
5FNQMF
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)BUTIFQTVU,
Dêr el-Bahari, Thebes, 1511–1480 B.C., Senmut.
Three terraces approached by ramps rise toward the base of
the cliffs where the chief sanctuary is cut deep into the rock.

Machu Picchu, an ancient Incan city established c.1500 in

the Andes Mountains on a saddle between two peaks, 8000 ft.
above the Urubamba River in south-central Peru.

2 0 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PLA N AR E L E M E N T S

Sitting Area, -BXSFODF
)PVTF,

Sea Ranch, California, 1966, MLTW

The floor plane is the horizontal element that sustains the force of gravity
as we move around and place objects for our use on it. It may be a durable
covering of the ground plane or a more artificial, elevated plane spanning
the space between its supports. In either case, the texture and density of
the flooring material influences both the acoustical quality of a space and
how we feel as we walk across its surface.

While the pragmatic, supportive nature of the floor plane limits the extent
to which it can be manipulated, it is nonetheless an important element
of architectural design. Its shape, color, and pattern determine to what
degree it defines spatial boundaries or serves as a unifying element for the
different parts of a space.

Like the ground plane, the form of a floor plane can be stepped or terraced
to break the scale of a space down to human dimensions and create
platforms for sitting, viewing, or performing. It can be elevated to define
a sacred or honorific place. It can be rendered as a neutral ground against
which other elements in a space are seen as figures.
&NQFSPShT
4FBU
*NQFSJBM
1BMBDF, Kyoto, Japan, 17th century

#BDBSEJ
0GGJDF
#VJMEJOH

(Project), Santiago de Cuba,
1958, Mies van der Rohe

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 2 1

P LA N AR E L E ME N TS

4
.BSJB
/PWFMMB, Florence, 1456–1470.

The Renaissance facade by Alberti presents a public face to a square.

Exterior wall planes isolate a portion of space to create a controlled 6GGJ[J
1BMBDF, 1560–1565, Giorgio Vasari.
interior environment. Their construction provides both privacy and This Florentine street defined by the two wings of the Uffizi
protection from the climatic elements for the interior spaces of a Palace links the Piazza della Signoria with the River Arno.
building, while openings within or between their boundaries reestablish a
connection with the exterior environment. As exterior walls mold interior
space, they simultaneously shape exterior space and describe the form,
massing, and image of a building in space.

As a design element, the plane of an exterior wall can be articulated as the

front or primary facade of a building. In urban situations, these facades
serve as walls that define courtyards, streets, and such public gathering
places as squares and marketplaces.

1JB[[B
4BO
.BSDP, Venice.
The continuous facades of buildings form
the “walls” of the urban space.

2 2 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PLA N AR E L E M E N T S

A compelling way to use the vertical wall plane is as a supporting element in the
bearing-wall structural system. When arranged in a parallel series to support
an overhead floor or roof plane, bearing walls define linear slots of space with
strong directional qualities. These spaces can be related to one another only by
interrupting the bearing walls to create perpendicular zones of space.
1FZSJTTBD
3FTJEFODF, Cherchell, Algeria, 1942, Le Corbusier

$PVOUSZ
)PVTF
JO
#SJDL (Project), 1923, Mies van der Rohe

In the project to the right, freestanding brick bearing

walls, together with L-shaped and T-shaped configurations
of planes, create an interlocking series of spaces.

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 2 3

P LA N AR E L E ME N TS

$PODFSU
)BMM (Project), 1942,

Mies van der Rohe

Interior wall planes govern the size and shape of the internal spaces or rooms As a design element, a wall plane can merge with the floor or ceiling plane, or be
within a building. Their visual properties, their relationship to one another, and articulated as an element isolated from adjacent planes. It can be treated as a
the size and distribution of openings within their boundaries determine both passive or receding backdrop for other elements in the space, or it can assert
the quality of the spaces they define and the degree to which adjoining spaces itself as a visually active element within a room by virtue of its form, color,
relate to one another. texture, or material.

While walls provide privacy for interior spaces and serve as barriers that limit
our movement, doorways and windows reestablish continuity with neighboring
spaces and allow the passage of light, heat, and sound. As they increase in size,
these openings begin to erode the natural sense of enclosure walls provide.
Views seen through the openings become part of the spatial experience.

'JOOJTI
1BWJMJPO, New York World’s Fair, 1939, Alvar Aalto

2 4 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PLA N AR E L E M E N T S

)BOHBS
%FTJHO
*, 1935, Pier Luigi Nervi.

The lamella structure expresses the way forces are resolved and channeled
down to the roof supports. #SJDL
)PVTF, New Canaan, Connecticut, 1949, Philip
Johnson. The detached vaulted ceiling plane appears to float
above the bed.

While we walk on a floor and have physical contact with walls, the ceiling plane As a detached lining, the ceiling plane can symbolize the sky vault or be the
is usually out of our reach and is almost always a purely visual event in a primary sheltering element that unifies the different parts of a space. It can
space. It may be the underside of an overhead floor or roof plane and express serve as a repository for frescoes and other means of artistic expression or
the form of its structure as it spans the space between its supports, or it be treated simply as a passive or receding surface. It can be raised or lowered
may be suspended as the upper enclosing surface of a room or hall. to alter the scale of a space or to define spatial zones within a room. Its form
can be manipulated to control the quality of light or sound within a space.

$IVSDI
BU
7VPLTFOOJTLB, Imatra, Finland, 1956, Alvar Aalto.

The form of the ceiling plane defines a progression of spaces and enhances their acoustical quality.

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 2 5

P LA N AR E L E ME N TS

The roof plane is the essential sheltering element that protects

the interior of a building from the climatic elements. The form
and geometry of its structure is established by the manner in
which it spans across space to bear on its supports and slopes to
shed rain and melting snow. As a design element, the roof plane
is significant because of the impact it can have on the form and
silhouette of a building within its setting.

Dolmen, a prehistoric monument consisting of two or more large upright The roof plane can be hidden from view by the exterior walls of a
stones supporting a horizontal stone slab, found especially in Britain and building or merge with the walls to emphasize the volume of the
France and usually regarded as a burial place for an important person. building mass. It can be expressed as a single sheltering form that
encompasses a variety of spaces beneath its canopy, or comprise
a number of hats that articulate a series of spaces within a single
building.

A roof plane can extend outward to form overhangs that shield

door and window openings from sun or rain, or continue downward
further still to relate itself more closely to the ground plane. In
warm climates, it can be elevated to allow cooling breezes to flow
3PCJF
)PVTF, Chicago,1909, Frank Lloyd Wright.
across and through the interior spaces of a building.
The low sloping roof planes and broad overhangs are characteristic
of the Prairie School of Architecture.

4IPEIBO
)PVTF, Ahmedabad, India, 1956, Le Corbusier.

A grid of columns elevates the reinforced concrete roof slab
above the main volume of the house.

2 6 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PLA N A R E L E M E N T S

'BMMJOHXBUFS
,BVGNBOO
)PVTF
, near
Ohiopyle, Pennsylvania ,1936–1937,
Frank Lloyd Wright.
Reinforced concrete slabs express the
horizontality of the floor and roof planes
as they cantilever outward from a central
vertical core.

The overall form of a building can be endowed with a distinctly planar

quality by carefully introducing openings that expose the edges of
vertical and horizontal planes. These planes can be further differentiated
and accentuated by changes in color, texture, or material.

4DISÚEFS
)PVTF, Utrecht, 1924–1925, Gerrit Thomas Rietveld.

Asymmetrical compositions of simple rectangular forms and primary
colors characterized the de Stijl School of Art and Architecture.

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 2 7

VOL U M E

A plane extended in a direction other than its intrinsic

direction becomes a volume. Conceptually, a volume has
three dimensions: length, width, and depth.

All volumes can be analyzed and understood to consist

of:
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boundaries of a volume

Form is the primary identifying characteristic

of a volume. It is established by the shapes and
interrelationships of the planes that describe the
boundaries of the volume.

As the three-dimensional element in the vocabulary

of architectural design, a volume can be either a
solid—space displaced by mass—or a void—space
contained or enclosed by planes.

2 8 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 V OL UM E

Plan and Section In architecture, a volume can be seen to be either a portion of space contained
Space defined by wall, floor, and ceiling or roof planes and defined by wall, floor, and ceiling or roof planes, or a quantity of space
displaced by the mass of a building. It is important to perceive this duality,
especially when reading orthographic plans, elevations, and sections.

&MFWBUJPO
Space displaced by
the mass of a building

/PUSF
%BNF
%V
)BVU, Ronchamp, France, 1950–1955, Le Corbusier

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 2 9

VOL U M E TRIC E L E MENTS

Building forms that stand as objects in the

landscape can be read as occupying volumes
in space.

%PSJD
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BU
4FHFTUB, Sicily, c. 424–416 B.C. 7JMMB
(BSDIFT, Vaucresson, France, 1926–1927,

Le Corbusier

#BSO in Ontario, Canada

3 0 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 V O LU MET RI C E L E M E N T S

Building forms that serve as containers can be read

as masses that define volumes of space.

1JB[[B
.BHHJPSF, Sabbioneta, Italy.

A series of buildings enclose an urban square.

Palazzo Thiene, Vicenza, Italy,

1545, Andrea Palladio.
The interior rooms surround a cortile—
the principal courtyard of an Italian
palazzo.

#VEEIJTU
$IBJUZB
)BMM
BU
,BSMJ,
Maharashtra, India, A.D. 100–125.
The sanctuary is a volume of space carved
out of the mass of solid rock.

PRI M ARY ELEMENTS / 3 1

 /PUSF
%BNF
%V
)BVU, Ronchamp, France, 1950–1955, Le Corbusier

3 2 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

2
Form
“Architectural form is the point of contact between mass
and space … Architectural forms, textures, materials,
modulation of light and shade, color, all combine to inject a
quality or spirit that articulates space. The quality of the
architecture will be determined by the skill of the designer
in using and relating these elements, both in the interior
spaces and in the spaces around buildings.”

Edmund N. Bacon
The Design of Cities
1974
FOR M

Form is an inclusive term that has several meanings. It may refer to an In the context of this study, form suggests reference to both internal
external appearance that can be recognized, as that of a chair or the structure and external outline and the principle that gives unity to the whole.
human body that sits in it. It may also allude to a particular condition in While form often includes a sense of three-dimensional mass or volume, shape
which something acts or manifests itself, as when we speak of water in the refers more specifically to the essential aspect of form that governs its
form of ice or steam. In art and design, we often use the term to denote the appearance—the configuration or relative disposition of the lines or contours
formal structure of a work—the manner of arranging and coordinating the that delimit a figure or form.
elements and parts of a composition so as to produce a coherent image.

Shape The characteristic outline or surface

configuration of a particular form.
Shape is the principal aspect by which
we identify and categorize forms.

In addition to shape, forms have

visual properties of:

Size The physical dimensions of length,

width, and depth of a form. While
these dimensions determine the
proportions of a form, its scale is
determined by its size relative to
other forms in its context.

Color A phenomenon of light and visual

perception that may be described in
terms of an individual’s perception
of hue, saturation, and tonal value.
Color is the attribute that most
clearly distinguishes a form from its
environment. It also affects the visual
weight of a form.

Texture The visual and especially tactile

quality given to a surface by the size,
shape, arrangement, and proportions
of the parts. Texture also determines
the degree to which the surfaces of a
form reflect or absorb incident light.

3 4 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PR O PERT I E S OF F ORM

Forms also have relational properties that govern

the pattern and composition of elements:

Position The location of a form relative to

its environment or the visual field
within which it is seen.

Orientation The direction of a form relative

to the ground plane, the compass
points, other forms, or to the
person viewing the form.

Visual Inertia The degree of concentration

and stability of a form. The
visual inertia of a form depends
on its geometry as well as its
orientation relative to the ground
plane, the pull of gravity, and our
line of sight.

All of these properties of form are in reality affected by the conditions under which we view them.

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FORM / 3 5
SHA P E

Shape refers to the characteristic outline of

a plane figure or the surface configuration of
a volumetric form. It is the primary means by
which we recognize, identify, and categorize
QBSUJDVMBS
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shape depends on the degree of visual contrast
that exists along the contour separating a
figure from its ground or between a form and
its field.

Bust of Queen Nefertiti

The pattern of eye movement of a person
viewing the figure, from research by Alfred
L. Yarbus of the Institute for Problems of
Information Transmission in Moscow.

In architecture, we are concerned with the

shapes of:

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space
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enclosure
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3 6 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 SHAPE

These examples illustrate how shaping the juncture between mass and space
expresses the manner in which the contours of a building mass rise from the
ground plane and meet the sky.

Central Pavilion, Horyu-Ji Temple, Nara, Japan, A.D. 607

Villa Garches, Vaucresson, France, 1926–1927,

Le Corbusier. This architectural composition
illustrates the interplay between the shapes of
planar solids and voids.

Suleymaniye Mosque,
Constantinople (Istanbul), 1551–1558,
Mimar Sinan

FORM / 3 7
P R I M A RY SHA P E S

Gestalt psychology affirms that the mind will simplify the visual environment in order to understand
it. Given any composition of forms, we tend to reduce the subject matter in our visual field to
the simplest and most regular shapes. The simpler and more regular a shape is, the easier it is to
perceive and understand.

From geometry we know the regular shapes to be the circle, and the infinite series of regular
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the circle, the triangle, and the square.

Circle A plane curve every point of which is equidistant

from a fixed point within the curve

Triangle A plane figure bounded by three sides and

having three angles

Square A plane figure having four equal sides and four

right angles

3 8 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C I RC L E

Plan of the Ideal City of Sforzinda, 1464, Antonio Filarete

Neutral Stable Unstable Equilibrium

Stable Self-centered Dynamic Fixed in place

Compositions of circles and circular segments

The circle is a centralized, introverted figure that is normally stable

and self-centering in its environment. Placing a circle in the center of
a field reinforces its inherent centrality. Associating it with straight
or angular forms or placing an element along its circumference,
however, can induce in the circle an apparent rotary motion.

Roman Theater according to Vitruvius

FORM / 3 9
TR I A NG L E

The triangle signifies stability. When resting on one of its sides, the triangle is an extremely
stable figure. When tipped to stand on one of its vertices, however, it can either be balanced in
a precarious state of equilibrium or be unstable and tend to fall over onto one of its sides.

Modern Art Museum, Caracas
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Vigo Sundt House, Madison, Wisconsin, 1942, Frank Lloyd Wright Great Pyramid of Cheops at Giza, Egypt, c. 2500 B.C.

4 0 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S QUA RE

Compositions resulting from the rotation and modification of the square

The square represents the pure and the rational. It is a bilaterally symmetrical figure having
two equal and perpendicular axes. All other rectangles can be considered variations of the
square—deviations from the norm by the addition of height or width. Like the triangle,
the square is stable when resting on one of its sides and dynamic when standing on one of
its corners. When its diagonals are vertical and horizontal, however, the square exists in a
balanced state of equilibrium.

Bathhouse, Jewish Community Center, Trenton, New Jersey, Agora of Ephesus, Asia Minor, 3rd century B. C.
1954–1959, Louis Kahn

FORM / 4 1
SU R FAC E S

In the transition from the shapes of planes to the forms of

volumes is situated the realm of surfaces. Surface first refers to
any figure having only two dimensions, such as a flat plane. The
term, however, can also allude to a curved two-dimensional locus
of points defining the boundary of a three-dimensional solid.
There is a special class of the latter that can be generated from
the geometric family of curves and straight lines. This class of
curved surfaces include the following:

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along a plane curve, or vice versa. Depending on the curve,
a cylindrical surface may be circular, elliptic, or parabolic.
Because of its straight line geometry, a cylindrical surface can
be regarded as being either a translational or a ruled surface.

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along a straight line or over another plane curve.

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line. Because of its straight line geometry, a ruled surface is
generally easier to form and construct than a rotational or
translational surface.

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about an axis.

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are either parabolas and ellipses or parabolas and hyperbolas.
Parabolas are plane curves generated by a moving point
that remains equidistant from a fixed line and a fixed point
not on the line. Hyperbolas are plane curves formed by the
intersection of a right circular cone with a plane that cuts
both halves of the cone.
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a parabola with downward curvature along a parabola with
upward curvature, or by sliding a straight line segment with
its ends on two skew lines. It can thus be considered to be
both a translational and a ruled surface.

4 2 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C U RV E D S URFA C E S

Saddle surfaces have an upward curvature in one

direction and a downward curvature in the perpendicular
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action while regions of upward curvature behave as a
cable structure. If the edges of a saddle surface are not
supported, beam behavior may also be present.

The type of structural system that can best take

advantage of this doubly curved geometry is the shell
structure—a thin, plate structure, usually of reinforced
concrete, which is shaped to transmit applied forces by
compressive, tensile, and shear stresses acting in the
plane of the curved surface.

Restaurant Los Manantiales, Xochimilco,

Mexico, 1958, Felix Candela. The structure
consists of a radial arrangement of eight
hyperbolic paraboloid segments.

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structures, which were pioneered by the
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19th century. Like shell structures, gridshells
rely on their double curvature geometry for
their strength but are constructed of a grid
or lattice, usually of wood or steel. Gridshells
are capable of being formed into irregular
curved surfaces, relying on computer modeling
programs for their structural analysis and
optimization and sometimes their fabrication
and assembly as well.

See also pages 172–173 for a related

discussion of diagrids.

FORM / 4 3
C U RVE D SU R FACE S

The fluid quality of curved surfaces contrasts with the

angular nature of rectilinear forms and is appropriate for
describing the form of shell structures as well as non-load-
bearing elements of enclosure.

Symmetrical curved surfaces, such as domes and barrel

vaults, are inherently stable. Asymmetrical curved surfaces,
on the other hand, can be more vigorous and expressive in
nature. Their shapes change dramatically as we view them
from different perspectives.
Olympic Velodrome, Athens, Greece, 2004 (renovation of original 1991 structure), Santiago Calatrava

Walt Disney Concert Hall
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4 4 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C U RV E D S URFA C E S

Banff Community Recreation Center, Banff, Alberta, Canada, 2011, GEC Architecture

Tenerife Concert Hall, Canary Islands, Spain 1997–2003, Santiago Calatrava

FORM / 4 5
P R I M A RY SOL ID S

“…cubes, cones, spheres, cylinders, or pyramids are the great primary forms
that light reveals to advantage; the image of these is distinct and tangible
within us and without ambiguity. It is for this reason that these are beautiful
forms, the most beautiful forms.” Le Corbusier
The primary shapes can be extended or rotated to generate
volumetric forms or solids that are distinct, regular, and easily
recognizable. Circles generate spheres and cylinders; triangles
generate cones and pyramids; squares generate cubes. In this
context, the term “solid” does not refer to firmness of substance
but rather to a three-dimensional geometric body or figure.

Sphere A solid generated by the revolution of a semicircle about its

diameter, whose surface is at all points equidistant from the
center. A sphere is a centralized and highly concentrated form.
Like the circle from which it is generated, it is self-centering and
normally stable in its environment. It can be inclined toward a
rotary motion when placed on a sloping plane. From any viewpoint, it
retains its circular shape.

Cylinder A solid generated by the revolution of a rectangle about one of its

sides. A cylinder is centralized about the axis passing through the
centers of its two circular faces. Along this axis, it can be easily
extended. The cylinder is stable if it rests on one of its circular
faces; it becomes unstable when its central axis is inclined from the
vertical.

4 6 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PR IM A RY S OL I DS

Cone A solid generated by the revolution of a right triangle about one

of its sides. Like the cylinder, the cone is a highly stable form
when resting on its circular base, and unstable when its vertical
axis is tipped or overturned. It can also rest on its apex in a
precarious state of balance.

Pyramid A polyhedron having a polygonal base and triangular faces meeting

at a common point or vertex. The pyramid has properties similar
to those of the cone. Because all of its surfaces are flat planes,
however, the pyramid can rest in a stable manner on any of its
faces. While the cone is a soft form, the pyramid is relatively hard
and angular.

Cube A prismatic solid bounded by six equal square sides, the angle
between any two adjacent faces being a right angle. Because of
the equality of its dimensions, the cube is a static form that lacks
apparent movement or direction. It is a stable form except when
it stands on one of its edges or corners. Even though its angular
profile is affected by our point of view, the cube remains a highly
recognizable form.

FORM / 4 7
P R I M A RY SOL ID S

Maupertius, Project for an Agricultural Lodge, 1775, Claude-Nicolas Ledoux

Chapel, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts,

1955, Eero Saarinen and Associates

Project for a Conical Cenotaph, 1784, Étienne-Louis Boulée

4 8 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PR IM A RY S OL I DS

Pyramids of Cheops, Chephren, and Mykerinos at Giza, Egypt, c. 2500 B.C.

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Palace Complex of Akbar the Great
Mogul Emperor of India, 1569–1574

Hanselmann House, Fort Wayne, Indiana, 1967, Michael Graves

FORM / 4 9
R EG UL A R & IR R E G ULAR FO RMS

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related to one another in a consistent and orderly
manner. They are generally stable in nature and
symmetrical about one or more axes. The sphere,
cylinder, cone, cube, and pyramid are prime
examples of regular forms.

Forms can retain their regularity even when

transformed dimensionally or by the addition or
subtraction of elements. From our experiences
with similar forms, we can construct a mental
model of the original whole even when a fragment is
missing or another part is added.

Irregular forms are those whose parts are

dissimilar in nature and related to one another
in an inconsistent manner. They are generally
asymmetrical and more dynamic than regular
forms. They can be regular forms from which
irregular elements have been subtracted or result
from an irregular composition of regular forms.

Since we deal with both solid masses and

spatial voids in architecture, regular forms can
be contained within irregular forms. In a similar
manner, irregular forms can be enclosed by regular
forms.

5 0 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 R EG U LA R & IR R EG U L A R F ORM S

Irregular Forms:
Philharmonic Hall, Berlin, 1956–1963, Hans Scharoun

A Regular Composition of Regular Forms:

Coonley Playhouse
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An Irregular Composition of Regular Forms:

Katsura Imperial Villa, Kyoto, Japan, 17th century

Irregular Forms within a Regular Field:

Courtyard House Project

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Regular Forms within an Irregular Composition:

Mosque of Sultan Hasan, Cairo, Egypt, 1356–1363

FORM / 5 1
R EG UL A R & IR R E G ULAR FO RMS

An Irregular Array of Regular Forms in the Horizontal Dimension:

City of Justice, Barcelona, Spain, 2010, David Chipperfield Architects, b720 Arquitectos

An Irregular Array of Regular Forms in the Vertical Dimension: Poteries du Don, Le Fel, France, 2008, Lacombe–De Florinier

5 2 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 R EG U LA R & IR R EG UL A R F ORM S

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This example shows how irregular forms contrast with and play off of the horizontal ground and roof planes.

FORM / 5 3
TR A NSFOR MATION O F FO RM

All other forms can be understood to be transformations of the primary solids, variations which
are generated by the manipulation of one or more dimensions or by the addition or subtraction of
elements.

Dimensional Transformation
A form can be transformed by altering one or more of its
dimensions and still retain its identity as a member of a
family of forms. A cube, for example, can be transformed
into similar prismatic forms through discrete changes in
height, width, or length. It can be compressed into a planar
form or be stretched out into a linear one.

Subtractive Transformation
A form can be transformed by subtracting a portion of
its volume. Depending on the extent of the subtractive
process, the form can retain its initial identity or be
transformed into a form of another family. For example,
a cube can retain its identity as a cube even though a
portion of it is removed, or be transformed into a series of
regular polyhedrons that begin to approximate a sphere.

Additive Transformation
A form can be transformed by the addition of elements
to its volume. The nature of the additive process and the
number and relative sizes of the elements being attached
determine whether the identity of the initial form is
altered or retained.

5 4 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 T R A N S F O R MAT IO N OF F ORM

Dimensional Transformation of a Cube into a Vertical Slab:

Unité d’Habitation, Firminy-Vert, France, 1963–1968, Le Corbusier

Subtractive Transformation Creating Volumes of Space:

Gwathmey Residence, Amagansett, New York, 1967,
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Additive Transformation of a Parent Form by the

Attachment of Subordinate Parts:
Il Redentore, Venice, 1577–1592, Andrea Palladio

FORM / 5 5
D I M EN SION A L TRANSFO RMATIO N

A sphere can be transformed into any number of ovoid or ellipsoidal forms by elongating it along an axis.

A pyramid can be transformed by altering the dimensions of the base, modifying the height of the apex, or tilting the normally vertical axis.

A cube can be transformed into similar prismatic forms by shortening or elongating its height, width, or depth.

5 6 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 D IMEN S IO N A L T R A N S F ORM AT I ON

Plan of an Elliptical Church, Pensiero Della Chiesa S. Carlo, Project,

17th century, Francesco Borromini

St. Pierre, Firminy-Vert, France, 1965, Le Corbusier

Project for Yahara Boat Club, Madison, Wisconsin, 1902, Frank Lloyd Wright

FORM / 5 7
SU B TR A C TIVE FOR M

We search for regularity and continuity in the forms we

see within our field of vision. If any of the primary solids
is partially hidden from our view, we tend to complete its
form and visualize it as if it were whole because the mind
fills in what the eyes do not see. In a similar manner, when
regular forms have fragments missing from their volumes,
they retain their formal identities if we perceive them as
incomplete wholes. We refer to these mutilated forms as
subtractive forms.

Because they are easily recognizable, simple geometric

forms, such as the primary solids, adapt readily to
subtractive treatment. These forms will retain their formal
identities if portions of their volumes are removed without
deteriorating their edges, corners, and overall profile.

Ambiguity regarding the original identity of a form will result

if the portion removed from its volume erodes its edges and
drastically alters its profile.

In this series of figures, at what point does the square

shape with a corner portion removed become an L- shaped
configuration of two rectangular planes?

5 8 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S U B T R AC T I V E F ORM

Gorman Residence, Amagansett, New York, 1968, Julian and Barbara Neski

House at Stabio, Ticino, Switzerland, 1981, Mario Botta

Spatial volumes may be subtracted from a form to create recessed

entrances, positive courtyard spaces, or window openings shaded
by the vertical and horizontal surfaces of the recess.
Khasneh al Faroun, Petra, 1st century A.D.

FORM / 5 9
SU B TR A C TIVE FOR M

Gwathmey Residence, Amagansett, New York, 1967, Shodhan House, Ahmedabad, India, 1956, Le Corbusier
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Benacerraf House Addition, Princeton, New Jersey, 1969, Michael Graves

6 0 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S U B T R A C T IV E & A D D I T I V E F ORM S

Le Corbusier comments on form:

“Cumulative Composition
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and hierarchy” La Roche-Jeanneret Houses, Paris

“Cubic Compositions (Pure Prisms)

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House at Stuttgart

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satisfied (light penetration, continuity,
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After a sketch, Four House Forms, by Le Corbusier for the cover of Volume Two of the Oeuvre Complète, published in 1935

FORM / 6 1
A D D I TIVE FORM

While a subtractive form results from the removal of

a portion of its original volume, an additive form is
produced by relating or physically attaching one or more
subordinate forms to its volume.

The basic possibilities for grouping two or more forms are

by:

Spatial Tension
This type of relationship relies on the close proximity of
the forms or their sharing of a common visual trait, such
as shape, color, or material.

Edge-to-Edge Contact
In this type of relationship, the forms share a common
edge and can pivot about that edge.

Face-to-Face Contact
This type of relationship requires that the two forms have
corresponding planar surfaces which are parallel to each
other.

Interlocking Volumes
In this type of relationship, the forms interpenetrate each
other’s space. The forms need not share any visual traits.

6 2 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 A D DI T I V E F ORM

Additive forms resulting from the accretion of discrete elements

can be characterized by their ability to grow and merge with other
Centralized Form
forms. For us to perceive additive groupings as unified compositions of
A number of secondary forms clustered about a
form—as figures in our visual field—the combining elements must
dominant, central parent-form
be related to one another in a coherent manner.

These diagrams categorize additive forms according to the nature of

the relationships that exist among the component forms as well as
their overall configurations. This outline of formal organizations should
be compared with a parallel discussion of spatial organizations in
Chapter 4. Linear Form
A series of forms arranged sequentially in a row

Radial Form
A composition of linear forms extending outward
from a central form in a radial manner

Clustered Form
A collection of forms grouped together by
proximity or the sharing of a common visual trait

Grid Form
A set of modular forms related and
Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneshwar, India, c. A.D. 1100 regulated by a three-dimensional grid

FORM / 6 3
C E NTR A L IZE D FORM

St. Maria Della Salute, Venice, 1631–1682, Baldassare Longhena

Beth Sholom Synagogue, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, 1959, Frank Lloyd Wright Villa Capra (The Rotunda), Vicenza, Italy, 1552–1567, Andrea Palladio

6 4 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C EN T R A L I Z E D F ORM

Tempietto, S. Pietro in Montorio
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Centralized forms require the visual dominance of a geometrically regular,

centrally located form, such as a sphere, cone, or cylinder. Because of their
inherent centrality, these forms share the self-centering properties of the
point and circle. They are ideal as freestanding structures isolated within
their context, dominating a point in space, or occupying the center of a defined
field. They can embody sacred or honorific places, or commemorate significant
persons or events.

Yume-Dono, Eastern precinct of Horyu-Ji Temple, Nara, Japan, A.D. 607

FORM / 6 5
L I N EA R FORM

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in a form’s dimensions or the arrangement of a
series of discrete forms along a line. In the latter
case, the series of forms may be either repetitive
or dissimilar in nature and organized by a separate
and distinct element such as a wall or path.

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respond to topography, vegetation, views, or other
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exterior space, or define a plane of entry into the
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portion of space.

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which a variety of secondary forms are attached.

6 6 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LI N E A R F ORM

Runcorn New Town Housing, England,1967, James Stirling

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Linear Form Expressing Procession or Movement

Burroughs Adding Machine Company, Detroit, Michigan, 1904, Albert Kahn

FORM / 6 7
L I N EA R FORM

Agora of Assos, Asia Minor, 2nd century B.C.

Linear Forms Fronting on or Defining Exterior Space

Queen’s College, Cambridge, England, 1709–1738, Nicholas Hawksmoor 18th-century buildings fronting a tree-lined canal in Kampen, Holland

6 8 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LI N E A R F ORM

Henry Babson House
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Linear Organizations of Space

Mile-High Illinois Skyscraper Project, Chicago, Illinois, 1956, Frank Lloyd Wright

FORM / 6 9
R A D I A L FOR M

A radial form consists of linear forms that extend outward from a

centrally located core element in a radiating manner. It combines the
aspects of centrality and linearity into a single composition.

The core is either the symbolic or

functional center of the organization. Its
central position can be articulated with
a visually dominant form, or it can merge
with and become subservient to the
radiating arms.

The radiating arms, having properties

similar to those of linear forms, give a
radial form its extroverted nature. They
can reach out and relate to or attach
themselves to specific features of a site.
They can expose their elongated surfaces
to desirable conditions of sun, wind, view,
or space.

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centers linked by linear arms.

7 0 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 RA DI A L F ORM

Aerial view

Secretariat Building, UNESCO Headquarters,

Place de Fontenoy, Paris, 1953–1958, Marcel Breuer

Ground-level view

The organization of a radial form can best be seen and understood from an
aerial viewpoint. When viewed from ground level, its central core element
may not be clearly visible and the radiating pattern of its linear arms may
be obscured or distorted through perspective foreshortening.

Skyscraper by the Sea, Project for Algiers, 1938, Le Corbusier

FORM / 7 1
C L U STE R E D FORM

While a centralized organization has a strong geometric

basis for the ordering of its forms, a clustered
organization groups its forms according to functional
requirements of size, shape, or proximity. While it lacks
the geometric regularity and introverted nature of
centralized forms, a clustered organization is flexible
enough to incorporate forms of various shapes, sizes, and
orientations into its structure.

Considering their flexibility, clustered organizations of

forms may be organized in the following ways:

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form or space.

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express their volumes as individual entities.

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form having a variety of faces.

A clustered organization can also consist of forms that

are generally equivalent in size, shape, and function. These
forms are visually ordered into a coherent, nonhierarchical
organization not only by their close proximity to one
another, but also by the similarity of their visual
properties.

7 2 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C LU S T E RE D F ORM

A Cluster of Forms Attached to a Parent Form:

Vacation House,
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A Cluster of Interlocking Forms:

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A Cluster of Articulated Forms:

House Study

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FORM / 7 3
C L U STE R E D FORM

Trulli Village, Alberobello, Italy

Traditional dry-stone shelters in existence
since the 17th century.

Numerous examples of clustered housing forms can be found in the

vernacular architecture of various cultures. Even though each culture
produced a unique style in response to differing technical, climatic,
and sociocultural factors, these clustered housing organizations
usually maintained the individuality of each unit and a moderate
degree of diversity within the context of an ordered whole.

Dogon Housing Cluster, Southeastern Mali, West Africa, 15th century–present Taos Pueblo, New Mexico, 13th century

7 4 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C LU S T E RE D F ORM

Ggantija Temple Complex, Malta, c. 3000 B.C. Habitat Israel, Project, Jerusalem, 1969, Moshe Safdie

Vernacular examples of clustered forms can be readily

transformed into modular, geometrically ordered compositions
which are related to grid organizations of form.

Habitat Montreal, 1967, Moshe Safdie

FORM / 7 5
G R I D FOR M

A grid is a system of two or more intersecting sets of regularly

spaced parallel lines. It generates a geometric pattern of
regularly spaced points at the intersections of the grid lines
and regularly shaped fields defined by the grid lines themselves.

The most common grid is based on the geometry of the square.

Because of the equality of its dimensions and its bilateral sym-
metry, a square grid is essentially nonhierarchical and bidirec-
tional. It can be used to break down the scale of a surface into
measurable units and give it an even texture. It can be used to
wrap several surfaces of a form and unify them with its repeti-
tive and pervasive geometry.

The square grid, when projected into the third dimension,

generates a spatial network of reference points and lines.
Within this modular framework, any number of forms and
spaces can be visually organized.

Conceptual Diagram, Museum of Modern Art, Gunma Prefecture, Japan, 1974, Arata Isozaki

Nakagin Capsule Tower, Tokyo, 1972, Kisho Kurokawa

7 6 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 G RI D F ORM

Cubic volumes

Structural frame

Frame with adjacent spaces

Hattenbach Residence
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FORM / 7 7
FOR MA L C OL L ISIONS O F GEO METRY

When two forms differing in geometry or

orientation collide and interpenetrate
each other’s boundaries, each will vie for
visual supremacy and dominance. In these
situations, the following forms can evolve:
Circle and Square Rotated Grid

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identities and merge to create a new
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totally within its volume.

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identities and share the interlocking
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a third element that recalls the geometry of
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7 8 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

F O R MA L C O LLIS IO N S OF G E OM E T RY

Forms differing in geometry or orientation

may be incorporated into a single
organization for any of the following reasons:

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differing requirements of interior space
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importance of a form or space within its
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incorporates the contrasting geometries
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feature of a building site
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from a building form
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constructional or mechanical systems
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in a building form
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the topography, vegetation, boundaries,
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of movement through a building site

FORM / 7 9
C I R C LE & SQU A RE

Plan for an Ideal City, 1615, Vincenzo Scamozzi

A circular form can be freestanding in its context to express its

ideal shape and still incorporate a more functional, rectilinear
geometry within its boundaries.

The centrality of a circular form enables it to act as a hub and

unify forms of contrasting geometry or orientation about itself. Chancellery Building, French Embassy
(Project),Brasilia, 1964–1965, Le Corbusier

The Island Villa (Teatro Marittimo), Hadrian’s Villa,

Tivoli, Italy, A.D. 118–125

8 0 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C IR C L E & S QUA RE

Museum for North Rhine–Westphalia (Project), Dusseldorf,

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Lister County Courthouse, Solvesborg, Sweden,

1917–1921, Gunnar Asplund

A circular or cylindrical space can serve to organize

the spaces within a rectangular enclosure.

Murray House, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1969, Charles Moore

FORM / 8 1
R O TAT E D G R ID

Pearl Mosque
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1658–1707. The interior space of this mosque is oriented exactly
with the cardinal points so that the quibla wall faces in the direction
of the holy city of Mecca, while its exterior conforms to the existing
layout of the fort.

Plan of the Ideal City of Sforzinda, 1464, Antonio Filarete

St. Mark’s Tower, Project, New York City, 1929, Frank Lloyd Wright

8 2 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 R O TAT E D G RI D

National Museum of Roman Art
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Moneo. The structural grid of the lower level of the museum floats over and
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A Diagram of Architecture:
Taliesin West, near Scottsdale, Arizona, 1938–1959, Frank Lloyd Wright

A diagram by Bernhard Hoesli of the geometry regulating the layout of Taliesin West

Diagram as Architecture:
House III for Robert Miller, Lakeville, Connecticut, 1971, Design Development Drawings, Peter Eisenman

FORM / 8 3
A RTI C U L ATION OF FO RM

Palacio Güell, Barcelona, 1885–1889, Antonio Gaudi

8 4 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 A RT IC U LAT ION OF F ORM

Articulation refers to the manner in which the surfaces of a form come In opposition to the emphasis on joints and joinery, the corners of a form can
together to define its shape and volume. An articulated form clearly CF
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reveals the precise nature of its parts and their relationships to each a material, color, texture, or pattern can be carried across a corner onto the
other and to the whole. Its surfaces appear as discrete planes with adjoining surfaces to de-emphasize the individuality of the surface planes and
distinct shapes and their overall configuration is legible and easily emphasize instead the volume of a form.
perceived. In a similar manner, an articulated group of forms accentuates
the joints between the constituent parts in order to visually express their
individuality.

A form can be articulated by:

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and corners

FORM / 8 5
E D G ES & CORN E RS

Since the articulation of a form depends to a great

degree on how its surfaces meet each other at
corners, how these edge conditions are resolved is
critical to the definition and clarity of a form.

While a corner can be articulated by simply

contrasting the surface qualities of the adjoining
planes, or obscured by layering their joining with
an optical pattern, our perception of its existence
is also affected by the laws of perspective and the
quality of light that illuminates the form.

For a corner to be formally active, there must be

more than a slight deviation in the angle between
the adjoining planes. Since we constantly search
for regularity and continuity within our field of
vision, we tend to regularize or smooth out slight
irregularities in the forms we see. For example,
a wall plane that is bent only slightly will appear
to be a single flat plane, perhaps with a surface
imperfection. A corner would not be perceived.

At what point do these formal deviations become

an acute angle? . . . a right angle?

a segmented line? . . . a straight line?

a circular segment? . . . a change in a line’s

contour?

8 6 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C ORN E RS

Corners define the meeting of two planes. If the two planes simply
touch and the corner remains unadorned, the presence of the corner will
depend on the visual treatment of the adjoining surfaces. This corner
condition emphasizes the volume of a form.

A corner condition can be visually reinforced by introducing a separate

and distinct element that is independent of the surfaces it joins. This
element articulates the corner as a linear condition, defines the edges of
the adjoining planes, and becomes a positive feature of the form.

If an opening is introduced to one side of the corner, one of the planes will
appear to bypass the other. The opening diminishes the corner condition,
weakens the definition of the volume within the form, and emphasizes
the planar qualities of the neighboring surfaces.

If neither plane is extended to define the corner, a volume of space is

created to replace the corner. This corner condition deteriorates the
volume of the form, allows the interior space to leak outward, and clearly
reveals the surfaces as planes in space.

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surfaces of a form, the compactness of its volume, and softness of its
contour. The scale of the radius of curvature is important. If too small, it
becomes visually insignificant; if too large, it affects the interior space it
encloses and the exterior form it describes.

FORM / 8 7
C OR NE RS

Everson Museum, Syracuse, New York, 1968, I.M. Pei.

The unadorned corners of the forms emphasize the volume of their mass.

Corner Detail, Izumo Shrine, Shimane Prefecture, Japan, A.D. 717 (last rebuilt in 1744).
The timber joinery articulates the individuality of the members meeting at the corner.

8 8 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C ORN E RS

Corner Detail, Commonwealth Promenade Apartments
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The corner member is recessed to be independent of the adjoining wall planes.

Corner Detail, The Basilica, Vicenza, Italy, 1545,

Andrea Palladio. The corner column emphasizes the
edge of the building form.

FORM / 8 9
C OR NE RS

Einstein Tower, Potsdam, Germany, 1919, Eric Mendelsohn

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compactness of volume, and softness of form.

Laboratory Tower, Johnson Wax Building
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Frank Lloyd Wright

9 0 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C ORN E RS

Kaufmann Desert House
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definition of planes over volume.

Architectural Design Study, 1923, Van Doesburg and Van Esteren

FORM / 9 1
SU R FAC E ARTIC U L ATIO N

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plane and that of the surrounding field can clarify
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oblique views distort it.

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of a plane can aid our perception of its size and
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weight and scale of a plane and the degree to
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distort the shape or exaggerate the proportions
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9 2 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S U R FA C E A RT I C UL AT I ON

Vincent Street Flats, London, 1928, Sir Edwin Lutyens

Palazzo Medici-Ricardo, Florence, Italy, 1444–1460, Michelozzi

The color, texture, and pattern of surfaces articulate the

existence of planes and influence the visual weight of a form.

Hoffman House
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FORM / 9 3
SU R FAC E ARTIC U L ATIO N

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The linear sun-shading devices accentuate the horizontality of the building form.

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Linear columnar elements emphasize the verticality of this high-rise structure.

Linear patterns have the ability to emphasize the height or length of a

form, unify its surfaces, and define its textural quality.

Fukuoka Sogo Bank, Study of the Saga Branch, 1971, Arata Isozaki.
A grid pattern unifies the surfaces of the three-dimensional composition.

9 4 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S U R FA C E A RT I C UL AT I ON

A transformation from a pattern of IBM Research Center, La Guade, Var, France, 1960–1961, Marcel Breuer.
openings in a plane to an open facade The three-dimensional form of the openings creates a texture of light, shade, and shadows.
articulated by a linear framework.

First Unitarian Church
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The pattern of openings and cavities interrupts the continuity of the exterior wall planes.

FORM / 9 5
SU R FAC E ARTIC U L ATIO N

At a smaller scale, the surfaces of buildings owe

their visual characteristics to the way their
materials are joined and assembled in construction.

From rough to smooth…

9 6 / ARC HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S U R FA C E A RT I C UL AT I ON

From orthogonal to skewed…

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St. Andrew’s Beach House, Victoria, Australia, 2006, Sean Godsell Architects

FORM / 9 7
3
Form & Space
“We put thirty spokes together and call it a wheel;
but it is on the space where there is nothing
that the utility of the wheel depends.
We turn clay to make a vessel;
but it is on the space where there is nothing
that the utility of the vessel depends.
We pierce doors and windows to make a house;
and it is on these spaces where there is nothing
that the utility of the house depends.
Therefore, just as we take advantage of what is,
we should recognize the utility of what is not.”

Lao-tzu
Tao Te Ching
6th century B.C.

99
FOR M & SPACE

Space constantly encompasses our being. Through the volume of space,

we move, see forms, hear sounds, feel breezes, smell the fragrances of a
flower garden in bloom. It is a material substance like wood or stone. Yet it
is an inherently formless vapor. Its visual form, its dimensions and scale,
the quality of its light—all of these qualities depend on our perception
of the spatial boundaries defined by elements of form. As space begins to
be captured, enclosed, molded, and organized by the elements of mass,
architecture comes into being.

Temple of Kailasnath at Ellora, near Aurangabad, India, A.D. 600–1000

1 0 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 F O RM & S PA C E

The Pantheon, Rome, A.D. 120–124

F O RM & SPACE / 1 0 1
FOR M & SPACE : THE UNITY O F O PPO SITES

Our visual field normally consists of heterogeneous

elements that differ in shape, size, color, or orienta-
tion. To better comprehend the structure of a
visual field, we tend to organize its elements into
two opposing groups: positive elements, which are
perceived as figures and negative elements, which
provide a background for the figures.

Our perception and understanding of a composition

depends on how we interpret the visual interaction
between the positive and negative elements within
its field. On this page, for example, letters are seen
as dark figures against the white background of the
paper surface. Consequently, we are able to perceive
their organization into words, sentences, and
paragraphs. In the diagrams to the left, the letter
“a” is seen as a figure not only because we recognize
it as a letter in our alphabet but also because its
profile is distinct, its value contrasts with that of
its background, and its placement isolates it from
its context. As it grows in size relative to its field,
however, other elements within and around it begin to
compete for our attention as figures. At times, the
relationship between figures and their background is
so ambiguous that we visually switch their identities
Two Faces or a Vase?
back and forth almost simultaneously.

White-on-Black or Black-on-White?

In all cases, however, we should understand that

figures, the positive elements that attract our
attention, could not exist without a contrasting
background. Figures and their background, therefore,
are more than opposing elements. Together, they form
an inseparable reality—a unity of opposites—just
as the elements of form and space together form the
reality of architecture.

1 0 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 F O R M & S PA C E: T HE U N IT Y O F OP P OS I T E S

Plan Diagrams,Taj Mahal, Agra,

India, 1630–1653. Shah Jahan
built this white marble mausoleum
for his favorite wife, Muntaz Mahal.

A. Line defining the boundary B. The form of solid mass C. The form of the spatial void
between solid mass and rendered as a figure rendered as a figure
spatial void

Architectural form occurs at the juncture between mass and space. In executing and reading design drawings, we
should be concerned with both the form of the mass containing a volume of space as well as the form of the spatial
volume itself.

Fragment of a Map of Rome,

drawn by Giambattista Nolli in 1748

Depending on what we perceive to be positive elements, the figure-ground relationship of the forms of mass and space
can be inverted in different parts of this map of Rome. In portions of the map, buildings appear to be positive forms that
define street spaces. In other parts of the drawing, urban squares, courtyards, and major spaces within important
public buildings read as positive elements seen against the background of the surrounding building mass.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 0 3
FOR M & SPACE : THE UNITY O F O PPO SITES

The symbiotic relationship of the forms of mass and space in architecture can
be examined and found to exist at several different scales. At each level, we
should be concerned not only with the form of a building but also its impact on
the space around it. At an urban scale, we should carefully consider whether
the role of a building is to continue the existing fabric of a place, form a
backdrop for other buildings, or define a positive urban space, or whether it
A might be appropriate for it to stand free as a significant object in space.

At the scale of a building site, there are various strategies for relating the form
of a building to the space around it. A building can:

A. form a wall along an edge of its site and begin to define a positive
outdoor space;
B
B. merge its interior space with the private outdoor space of a walled site;

C. enclose a portion of its site as an outdoor room and shelter it from

undesirable climatic conditions;

D. surround and enclose a courtyard or atrium space within its volume—

an introverted scheme.

Building as an object in space

Buildings defining space

Monastery of St. Meletios on Mt. Kithairon, Greece, 9th century A.D.

1 0 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 F O R M & S PA C E: T HE U N IT Y O F OP P OS I T E S

E. stand as a distinct object in space and dominate its site through its
form and topographical positioning—an extroverted scheme;

F. stretch out and present a broad face to address a view, terminate an

axis, or define an edge of an urban space;

G. stand free within its site but extend its interior spaces to merge with
private exterior spaces;

H. stand as a positive form in a negative space.

Buildings Defining Space: Building as an Object in Space:

Piazza San Marco, Venice Boston City Hall, 1960, Kallmann, McKinnell & Knowles

F O RM & SPACE / 1 0 5
FOR M & SPACE : THE UNITY O F O PPO SITES

Building Embedded in the Landscape:

Eyüp Cultural Center, Istanbul, Turkey, 2013, EAA-Emre Arolat Architects

Building Dominating the Landscape:

Cooroy Art Temple, Cooroy Mountain, Australia, 2008, Paolo Denti JMA Architects

1 0 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 F O R M & S PA C E: T HE U N IT Y O F OP P OS I T E S

Building as Landscape:
Palafolls Public Library, Palafolls, Spain, 2009, Enric Miralles and Benedetta Tagliabue/Miralles Tagliabue EMBT

Landscape as Building:
Olympic Sculpture Park, Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, Washington, 2008, Weiss/Manfredi Architecture/Landscape/Urbanism

F O RM & SPACE / 1 0 7
FOR M & SPACE : THE UNITY O F O PPO SITES

At the scale of a building, we tend to read the configurations of

walls as the positive elements of a plan. The white space in between,
however, should not be seen simply as background for the walls, but
also as figures in the drawing that have shape and form.

Even at the scale of a room, articles of furnishings can either stand

as forms within a field of space or serve to define the form of a
spatial field.

1 0 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 F O R M & S PA C E: T HE U N IT Y O F OP P OS I T E S

Seinäjoki Theater, Finland,1968–1969,

Alvar Aalto

A B C

The form and enclosure of each space in a building either determines, or is A. Some spaces, such as offices, have specific but similar functions and can
determined by, the form of the spaces around it. In the Theater in Seinäjoki by be grouped into single, linear, or clustered forms.
Alvar Aalto, for example, we can distinguish several categories of spatial forms B. Some spaces, such as concert halls, have specific functional and technical
and analyze how they interact. Each category has an active or passive role in requirements, and require specific forms that will affect the forms of the
defining space. spaces around them.
C. Some spaces, such as lobbies, are flexible in nature and can therefore be
freely defined by the spaces or grouping of spaces around them.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 0 9
FOR M DE FIN IN G SPACE

Square in Giron, Colombia, South America

When we place a two-dimensional figure on a piece of paper, it influences the shape of the white space around it. In a
similar manner, any three-dimensional form naturally articulates the volume of space surrounding it and generates a
field of influence or territory which it claims as its own. The following section of this chapter looks at horizontal and
vertical elements of form and presents examples of how various configurations of these formal elements generate and
define specific types of space.

1 1 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 HO R IZO N TA L ELEMEN T S D EF I N I N G S PA C E

Base Plane
A horizontal plane laying as a figure on a
contrasting background defines a simple
field of space. This field can be visually
reinforced in the following ways.

Elevated Base Plane

A horizontal plane elevated above
the ground plane establishes vertical
surfaces along its edges that reinforce
the visual separation between its field
and the surrounding ground.

Depressed Base Plane

A horizontal plane depressed
into the ground plane utilizes the
vertical surfaces of the lowered
area to define a volume of space.

Overhead Plane
A horizontal plane located overhead
defines a volume of space between
itself and the ground plane.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 1 1
B A SE P L A N E

For a horizontal plane to be seen as a figure,

there must be a perceptible change in color, tone,
or texture between its surface and that of the
surrounding area.

The stronger the edge definition of a horizontal

plane is, the more distinct will be its field.

Although there is a continuous flow of space across

it, the field nevertheless generates a spatial zone or
realm within its boundaries.

The surface articulation of the ground or floor

plane is often used in architecture to define a zone
of space within a larger context. The examples on
the facing page illustrate how this type of spatial
definition can be used to differentiate between a
path of movement and places of rest, establish a
field from which the form of a building rises out of
the ground, or articulate a functional zone within a
one-room living environment.

1 1 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 BASE PLANE

Street in Woodstock, Oxfordshire, England Parterre de Broderie, Palace of Versailles, France, 17th century, André Le Nôtre

Katsura Imperial Villa, Kyoto, Japan, 17th century Interior of Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut, 1949, Philip Johnson

F O RM & SPACE / 1 1 3
E LE VATE D BA SE P L ANE

Elevating a portion of the base plane

creates a specific domain within a larger
spatial context. The changes in level that
occur along the edges of the elevated
plane define the boundaries of its field
and interrupt the flow of space across its
surface.

If the surface characteristics of the base

plane continues up and across the elevated
plane, then the field of the elevated plane
will appear to be very much a part of the
surrounding space. If, however, the edge
condition is articulated by a change in form,
color, or texture, then the field will become a
plateau that is separate and distinct from
its surroundings.

Fatehpur Sikri, Palace Complex of Akbar the

Great, Mogul Emperor of India, 1569–1574.
A special place is established by a platform in
an artificial lake surrounded by the emperor’s
living and sleeping quarters.

1 1 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 ELEVAT ED B A S E P L A N E

The degree to which spatial and visual

continuity is maintained between an
elevated space and its surroundings
depends on the scale of the level change.

1. The edge of the field is well-defined; 1

visual and spatial continuity is
maintained; physical access is easily
accommodated.

2. Visual continuity is maintained; 2

spatial continuity is interrupted;
physical access requires the use of
stairs or ramps.

3. Visual and spatial continuity is 3

interrupted; the field of the elevated
plane is isolated from the ground
or floor plane; the elevated plane is
transformed into a sheltering element
for the space below.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 1 5
E LE VATE D BA SE P L ANE

The Acropolis, the citadel of Athens,

5th century B.C.

Izumo Shrine, Shimane Prefecture, Japan,

A. D. 717 (last rebuilt in 1744)

Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, Rome, 509 B.C.

1 1 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 ELEVAT ED B A S E P L A N E

Elevating a portion of the ground plane establishes a platform or podium

that structurally and visually supports the form and mass of a building.
The elevated ground plane can be a preexisting site condition, or it can
be artificially constructed to deliberately raise a building above the
surrounding context or enhance its image in the landscape. The examples on
this and the preceding page illustrate how these techniques have been used
to venerate sacred and honorific buildings.

Pavilion of Supreme Harmony (Taihe Dian) in the Forbidden City, Beijing, 1627

Temple Mountain, Bakong Temple, A.D. 881, Hariharalaya, Cambodia

Valhalla, near Regensburg, Germany, Leon von Klenze, 1830–1842

F O RM & SPACE / 1 1 7
E LE VATE D BA SE P L ANE

Private courtyard of the Imperial Palace, the Forbidden City, Beijing,

China, 15th century

An elevated plane can define a transitional space between the interior of

a building and the outdoor environment. Combined with a roof plane, it
develops into the semiprivate realm of a porch or veranda.

Section

Farnsworth House, Plano, Illinois, 1950, Mies van der Rohe.

The Farnsworth House was constructed to rise above the flood plain of the Fox River.
This elevated floor plane, together with an overhead roof plane, defines a volume of
space that hovers delicately above the surface of its site.

1 1 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 ELEVAT ED B A S E P L A N E

High Altar in the Chapel at the Cistercian Monastery of La

Tourette, near Lyons, France, 1956–1959, Le Corbusier

A section of the floor plane can be elevated to establish a singular zone of

space within a larger room or hall. This raised space can serve as a retreat
from the activity around it or be a platform for viewing the surrounding
space. Within a religious structure, it can demarcate a sacred, holy, or
consecrated place.

East Harlem Preschool, New York City,

1970, Hammel, Green & Abrahamson

F O RM & SPACE / 1 1 9
D EP R E SSE D BA SE PLANE

Lowering a portion of the base plane

isolates a field of space from a larger
context. The vertical surfaces of the
depression establish the boundaries of
the field. These boundaries are not implied
as in the case of an elevated plane, but
visible edges that begin to form the walls
of the space.

The field of space can be further

articulated by contrasting the surface
treatment of the lowered area and that of
the surrounding base plane.

A contrast in form, geometry, or

orientation can also visually reinforce the
identity and independence of the sunken
field from its larger spatial context.

1 2 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 D EPR ES S ED B A S E P L A N E

The degree of spatial continuity between a

depressed field and the raised area surrounding
it depends on the scale of the level change.

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of the ground or floor plane and remain an
integral part of the surrounding space.

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weakens its visual relationship with the
surrounding space and strengthens its
definition as a distinct volume of space.

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level, the depressed field becomes a separate
and distinct room in itself.

Creating a stepped, terraced, or ramped

transition from one level to the next helps
promote continuity between a sunken
space and the area that rises around it.

Rock-cut churches of Lalibela, 13th century

Whereas the act of stepping up to an elevated

space might express the extroverted nature
or significance of the space, the lowering of a
space below its surroundings might allude to
its introverted nature or to its sheltering and
protective qualities.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 2 1
D EP R E SSE D BA SE PLANE

Theater at Epidauros, Greece, c. 350 B.C., Polycleitos

Depressed areas in the topography of a site can serve as stages for

outdoor arenas and amphitheaters. The natural change in level benefits
both the sightlines and the acoustical quality of these spaces.

Step well at Abhaneri, near Agra, India, 9th century

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 D EPR ES S ED B A S E P L A N E

Lower Plaza, Rockefeller Center, New York City, 1930, Wallace

K. Harrison & Max Abramovitz. Rockefeller Center’s lower plaza, an
outdoor cafe in the summertime and a skating rink in the winter, can be
viewed from the upper plaza while shops open onto it at the lower level.

Underground village near Loyang, China

The ground plane can be lowered to define sheltered outdoor

spaces for underground buildings. A sunken courtyard, while
protected from surface-level wind and noise by the mass
surrounding it, remains a source of air, light, and views for the
underground spaces opening onto it.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 2 3
D EP R E SSE D BA SE PLANE

In both of these examples, Alvar Aalto has defined a reading area

within a larger library space by dropping its floor plane below
the main level of the library. He then uses the vertical bounding
surfaces of the reading area for additional book storage.

Library, Wolfsburg Cultural Center, Essen, Germany, 1962, Alvar Aalto

Partial plan

Library in Rovaniemi, Finland, 1965–1968,

Alvar Aalto

Partial section through the main reading room

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 D EPR ES S ED B A S E P L A N E

House on the Massachusetts Coast, 1948, Hugh Stubbins

An area within a large room can be sunken to reduce the scale of the
room and define a more intimate space within it. A sunken area can
also serve as a transitional space between two floors of a building.

View of the lowered living level

F O RM & SPACE / 1 2 5
OVE R HE AD PL A N E

Similar to the manner in which a shade tree offers a

sense of enclosure beneath its umbrella structure,
an overhead plane defines a field of space between
itself and the ground plane. Since the edges of the
overhead plane establish the boundaries of this
field, its shape, size, and height above the ground
plane determines the formal qualities of the space.

While the previous manipulations of the ground

or floor plane defined fields of space whose upper
limits were established by their context, an
overhead plane has the ability to define a discrete
volume of space virtually by itself.

If vertical linear elements such as columns or posts

are used to support the overhead plane, they will
aid in visually establishing the limits of the defined
space without disrupting the flow of space through
the field.

Similarly, if the edges of the overhead plane are

turned downward, or if the base plane beneath it
is articulated by a change in level, the boundaries
of the defined volume of space will be visually
reinforced.

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 O V ER H E A D P L A N E

Wood Truss

Moving the roof of a house in Guinea

The major overhead element of a building is its roof plane. It not only Steel Joist
shelters the interior spaces of a building from sun, rain, and snow, but also
has a major impact on the overall form of a building and the shaping of its
spaces. The form of the roof plane, in turn, is determined by the material,
geometry, and proportions of its structural system and the manner in
which it transfers its loads across space to its supports.

Masonry Vault

Tensile Structure, National Garden Show, Cologne, Germany, 1957, Frei Otto and Peter Stromeyer

F O RM & SPACE / 1 2 7
OVE R HE AD PL A N E

Chinese painting illustrating the use of a pavilion structure to define a shaded resting place within an encampment.

Totsuka Country Club, Yokohama, Japan, Kenzo Tange, 1960–1961

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 O V ER H E A D P L A N E

Convention Hall for Chicago (Project), 1953, Mies van der Rohe

Hale County Animal Shelter, Greensboro, Alabama, 2008, Rural Studio, Auburn University

The roof plane can visually express how its pattern

of structural members resolves forces and transfers
loads to a system of supports.

Imagination Art Pavilion, Zeewolde, The Netherlands, 2000, René van Zuuk

F O RM & SPACE / 1 2 9
OVE R HE AD PL A N E

The roof plane can be the major space-defining element

of a building and visually organize a series of forms and
spaces beneath its sheltering canopy.

Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut, 1949, Philip Johnson

Peregrine Winery, Gibbston Valley, New Zealand, 2004, Architecture Workshop

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 O V ER H E A D P L A N E

Centre Le Corbusier, Zurich, 1963–1967, Le Corbusier

Jasper Place Branch Library, Edmonton, Canada, 2013, Hughes Condon Marier Architects + Dub Architects

F O RM & SPACE / 1 3 1
OVE R HE AD PL A N E

The ceiling plane of an interior space can reflect the form of the structural system supporting the overhead floor or roof plane. Since
it need not resist any weathering forces nor carry any major loads, the ceiling plane can also be detached from the floor or roof plane
and become a visually active element in a space.

Bandung Institute of Technology, Bandung,

Indonesia, 1920, Henri Maclaine Pont

As in the case of the base plane, the ceiling plane can be manipulated to define and articulate zones of space within a room. It can be
lowered or elevated to alter the scale of a space, define a path of movement through it, or allow natural light to enter it from above.

The form, color, texture, and pattern of the ceiling plane can be manipulated as well to improve the quality of light or sound within a
space or give it a directional quality or orientation.

1 3 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 O V ER H E A D P L A N E

Side Chapels, Cistercian Monastery of La Tourette,

near Lyons, France, 1956–1959, Le Corbusier

Well-defined negative areas or voids within an overhead plane, such

as for skylights, can be seen as positive shapes that establish the
presence of spatial fields below their openings.

Bibliothèque Nationale (Project), 1788, Étienne-Louis Boullée

Parish Center, Wolfsburg, Germany, 1960–1962, Alvar Aalto

F O RM & SPACE / 1 3 3
VE RT ICA L E L E M E N TS DEFINING SPACE

In the previous section of this chapter, horizontal planes defined fields of

space in which the vertical boundaries were implied rather than explicitly
described. The following section discusses the critical role vertical elements
of form play in firmly establishing the visual limits of a spatial field.

Vertical forms have a greater presence in our visual field than horizontal
planes and are therefore more instrumental in defining a discrete volume
of space and providing a sense of enclosure and privacy for those within it.
In addition, they serve to separate one space from another and establish a
common boundary between the interior and exterior environments.

Vertical elements of form also play important roles in the construction

of architectural forms and spaces. They serve as structural supports for
floor and roof planes. They provide shelter and protection from the climatic
elements and aid in controlling the flow of air, heat, and sound into and
through the interior spaces of a building.

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 V ERT IC A L ELEMEN T S D EF I N I N G S PA C E

Vertical Linear Elements

Vertical linear elements define the perpendicular edges
of a volume of space.

Single Vertical Plane

A single vertical plane articulates the space on which it fronts.

L-shaped Plane
An L-shaped configuration of vertical planes generates
a field of space from its corner outward along a
diagonal axis.

Parallel Planes
Two parallel vertical planes define a volume of space between
them that is oriented axially toward both open ends of the
configuration.

U-shaped Plane
A U-shaped configuration of vertical planes defines a volume
of space that is oriented primarily toward the open end of the
configuration.

Four Planes: Closure

Four vertical planes establish the boundaries of an introverted
space and influence the field of space around the enclosure.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 3 5
VE RT ICA L L IN E A R ELEMENTS

A vertical linear element, such as a column, obelisk,

or tower, establishes a point on the ground plane and
makes it visible in space. Standing upright and alone,
a slender linear element is nondirectional except for
the path that would lead us to its position in space.
Any number of horizontal axes can be made to pass
through it.

When located within a defined volume of space,

a column will generate a spatial field about itself
and interact with the spatial enclosure. A column
attached to a wall buttresses the plane and
articulates its surface. At the corner of a space, a
column punctuates the meeting of two wall planes.
Standing free within a space, a column defines zones
of space within the enclosure.

When centered in a space, a column will assert itself

as the center of the field and define equivalent
zones of space between itself and the surrounding
wall planes. When offset, the column will define
hierarchical zones of space differentiated by size,
form, and location.

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 V ERT IC A L LIN EA R E L E M E N T S

No volume of space can be established without the

definition of its edges and corners. Linear elements
serve this purpose in marking the limits of spaces
that require visual and spatial continuity with their
surroundings.

Two columns establish a transparent spatial membrane

by the visual tension between their shafts. Three or
more columns can be arranged to define the corners of
a volume of space. This space does not require a larger
spatial context for its definition, but relates freely to it.

The edges of the volume of space can be visually

reinforced by articulating its base plane and
establishing its upper limits with beams spanning
between the columns or with an overhead plane. A
repetitive series of column elements along its perimeter
would further strengthen the definition of the volume.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 3 7
VE RT ICA L L IN E A R ELEMENTS

Piazza del Campo, Siena, Italy

Vertical linear elements can terminate an axis, mark the center of an urban
space, or provide a focus for an urban space along its edge.

Shokin-Tei Pavilion, Katsura Imperial Villa, Kyoto,

Japan, 17th century. In the example above, the
tokobashira, often a tree trunk in natural form, is a
symbolic element that marks one edge of the tokonoma in a
Japanese tearoom.

Piazza of St. Peter, Rome, 1655–1667, Giovanni Bernini

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 V ERT IC A L LIN EAR E L E M E N T S

Taj Mahal, Tomb of Muntaz Mahal, wife of Shah Jahan, Agra, India, 1630–1653

A bosket or grove of trees defining a shady place in a garden or park Tomb of Jahangir, near Lahore

In these examples, various forms of minarets mark the corners of Tomb of Muntaz Mahal, Agra
a platform and establish a field of space—a three-dimensional
framework—for the Mogul mausoleum structures.

From an analysis of Islamic Indian Architecture by Andras Volwahsen Tomb of I'timad-ud-daula, Agra

F O RM & SPACE / 1 3 9
VE RT ICA L L IN E A R ELEMENTS

Palazzo Antonini, Udine, Italy, 1556,

Andrea Palladio

Tetrastyle atrium, House of the Silver Wedding, Pompeii,

2nd century B.C.

Four columns can establish the corners of a discrete volume of space During the Renaissance, Andrea Palladio incorporated the tetrastyle theme in
within a larger room or setting. Supporting a canopy, the columns form the vestibules and halls of a number of villas and palazzi. The four columns not
an aedicule, a diminutive pavilion that serves as a shrine or the symbolic only supported the vaulted ceiling and the floor above but also adjusted the
center of a space. dimensions of the rooms to Palladian proportions.

Traditional Roman houses typically were organized about an atrium open In the Sea Ranch condominium units, four posts along with a sunken floor and
to the sky and surrounded by a roof structure supported at the corners by an overhead plane define an intimate aedicular space within a larger room.
four columns. Vitruvius termed this a tetrastyle atrium.

Condominium Unit No. 5, Sea Ranch, California, 1966, MLTW

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 V ERT IC A L LIN EA R E L E M E N T S

Cloister and Salle des Chevaliers,

Mont St. Michel, France, 1203–1228

A regularly spaced series of columns or similar vertical elements form a colonnade. This archetypal
element in the vocabulary of architectural design effectively defines an edge of a spatial volume while
permitting visual and spatial continuity to exist between the space and its surroundings. A row of
columns can also engage a wall and become a pilastrade that supports the wall, articulates its surface,
and tempers the scale, rhythm, and proportioning of its bays.

A grid of columns within a large room or hall not only serves to support the floor or roof plane above. The
orderly rows of columns also punctuate the spatial volume, mark off modular zones within the spatial
field, and establish a measurable rhythm and scale that make the spatial dimensions comprehensible.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 4 1
VE RT ICA L L IN E A R ELEMENTS

In 1926, Le Corbusier stated what he believed to be the “Five Points

of the New Architecture.” His observations were to a great extent
the result of the development of reinforced concrete construction
that began in the late nineteenth century. This type of construction,
in particular the use of concrete columns to support floor and roof
slabs, afforded new possibilities for the definition and enclosure of
spaces within a building.

Concrete slabs could cantilever beyond their column supports and

enable the “free facade” of the building to be “light membranes”
of “screen walls and windows.” Within the building, a “free plan”
was possible since the enclosure and layout of spaces were not
determined or restricted by the pattern of heavy load-bearing walls.
Interior spaces could be defined with non-load-bearing partitions, and
their layout could respond freely to programmatic requirements.

Sketches for The Five Points of the New Architecture, 1926, Le Corbusier

On the facing page, two contrasting examples of the use of a column

grid are illustrated:

1. A column grid establishes a fixed, neutral field of space in which

interior spaces are freely formed and distributed.
2. A grid of columns or posts corresponds closely to the layout of the
interior spaces; there is a close fit between structure and space.

Dom-ino House Project, 1914, Le Corbusier

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 V ERT IC A L LIN EA R E L E M E N T S

1. Millowners’ Association Building,

Ahmedabad, India, 1954, Le Corbusier

Column-grid pattern 1st floor plan

2nd floor plan 3rd floor plan

2.Traditional Japanese Residence

Modular grid Post pattern Floor plan

F O RM & SPACE / 1 4 3
SI N GL E VE RTICA L PLANE

A single vertical plane, standing alone in space, has

visual qualities uniquely different from those of a
freestanding column. A round column has no preferred
direction except for its vertical axis. A square column
has two equivalent sets of faces and therefore two
identical axes. A rectangular column also has two
axes, but they differ in their effect. As the rectangular
column becomes more like a wall, it can appear to be
merely a fragment of an infinitely larger or longer plane,
slicing through and dividing a volume of space.

A vertical plane has frontal qualities. Its two surfaces

or faces front on and establish the edges of two
separate and distinct spatial fields.

These two faces of a plane can be equivalent and front

similar spaces. Or they can be differentiated in form,
color, or texture, in order to respond to or articulate
different spatial conditions. A vertical plane can
therefore have either two fronts or a front and a back.

The field of space on which a single vertical plane fronts

is not well-defined. The plane by itself can establish
only a single edge of the field. To define a three-
dimensional volume of space, the plane must interact
with other elements of form.

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 S IN G LE V ERT I C A L P L A N E

The height of a vertical plane relative to our

body height and eye level is the critical factor
that affects the ability of the plane to visually
describe space. When 2-feet high, a plane defines
the edge of a spatial field but provides little or
no sense of enclosure. When waist-high, it begins
to provide a sense of enclosure while allowing for
visual continuity with the adjoining space. When
it approaches our eye level in height, it begins
to separate one space from another. Above our
height, a plane interrupts the visual and spatial
continuity between two fields and provides a
strong sense of enclosure.

The surface color, texture, and pattern of a plane

affect our perception of its visual weight, scale,
and proportion.

When related to a defined volume of space, a

vertical plane can be the primary face of the
space and give it a specific orientation. It can
front the space and define a plane of entry into
it. It can be a freestanding element within a
space and divide the volume into two separate
but related areas.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 4 5
SI N GL E VE RTICA L PLANE

Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome, A.D. 203

A single vertical plane can define the principal facade of a

building fronting a public space, establish a gateway through
which one passes, as well as articulate spatial zones within a
St. Agostino, Rome, 1479–1483, Giacomo da Pietrasanta
larger volume.

Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut, 1949, Philip Johnson

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 S IN G LE V ERT I C A L P L A N E

German Pavilion (Barcelona Pavilion) at the International Exposition of 1929,

Barcelona, Mies van der Rohe

A composition of vertical planes cuts the continuous field of the

architectural volume, creating an open plan of spaces that merge with one
another. The partitions never form closed, geometrically static areas.

“A Garden-Wall Building”
Student Apartments, Selwyn College (Project), Cambridge, England,
1959, James Stirling and James Gowan

F O RM & SPACE / 1 4 7
L - SHA P E D CON FIG URATIO N O F PLANES

An L-shaped configuration of vertical planes

defines a field of space along a diagonal from its
corner outward. While this field is strongly defined
and enclosed at the corner of the configuration,
it dissipates rapidly as it moves away from the
corner. The introverted field at the interior corner
becomes extroverted along its outer edges.

While two edges of the field are clearly defined

by the two planes of the configuration, its
other edges remain ambiguous unless further
articulated by additional vertical elements,
manipulations of the base plane, or an overhead
plane.

If a void is introduced to one side of the corner of

the configuration, the definition of the field will
be weakened. The two planes will be isolated from
each other and one will appear to slide by and
visually dominate the other.

If neither plane extends to the corner, the field will

become more dynamic and organize itself along the
diagonal of the configuration.

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 L- S HAP E D P L A N E S

A building form can have an L-shaped configuration and be

subject to the following readings. One of the arms of the
configuration can be a linear form that incorporates the
corner within its boundaries while the other arm is seen
as an appendage to it. Or the corner can be articulated
as an independent element that joins two linear forms
together.

A building can have an L-shaped configuration to establish

a corner of its site, enclose a field of outdoor space to
which its interior spaces relate, or shelter a portion of
outdoor space from undesirable conditions around it.

L-shaped configurations of planes are stable and self-

supporting and can stand alone in space. Because they
are open-ended, they are flexible space-defining elements.
They can be used in combination with one another or with
other elements of form to define a rich variety of spaces.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 4 9
L - SHA P E D PL A N E S

Vegetation forming L-shaped windscreens, Shimane Prefecture, Japan

The sheltering aspect of an L-shaped configuration is expressed well in this example where Japanese farmers coaxed
pine trees to grow into tall, thick, L-shaped hedges to shield their houses and land from winter winds and snowstorms.

1 5 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 L- S HAP E D P L A N E S

Basic Housing Unit

Kingo Housing Estate near Elsinore, Denmark Site Plan

1958–1963, Jørn Utzon

A common theme found in examples of residential architecture is an The advantage of this type of layout is its provision of a private courtyard,
L-shaped configuration of rooms enclosing an outdoor living space. Typically, sheltered by the building form and to which interior spaces can be directly
one wing contains the communal living spaces while the other contains related. In the Kingo Housing estate, a fairly high density is achieved with this
private, individual spaces. The service and utility spaces usually occupy a type of unit, each with its own private outdoor space.
corner position or are strung along the backside of one of the wings.

Traditional House in Konya, Turkey Rosenbaum House, Florence, Alabama, 1939, Frank Lloyd Wright

F O RM & SPACE / 1 5 1
L - SHA P E D PL A N E S

Similar to the residential examples on the preceding page, these buildings use
their L-shaped forms as sheltering or enclosing elements. The outdoor space
enclosed by the architect's studio in Helsinki is used as an amphitheater
for lectures and social occasions. It is not a passive space whose form is
determined by the building that encloses it. Rather, it asserts its positive form
on the shape of its enclosure. The History Faculty Building at Cambridge uses
a seven-story, L-shaped block to functionally and symbolically enclose a large,
roof-lit library, which is the most important space in the building.

Architect’s Studio, Helsinki, 1955–1956, Alvar Aalto

History Faculty Building, Cambridge University, England, 1964–1967,

James Stirling

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 L- S HAP E D P L A N E S

Berlin Building Exposition House, 1931, Mies van der Rohe

Four-family housing units, Suntop Homes, Diagram, St. Mark’s Tower,

Ardmore, Pennsylvania, 1939, Frank Lloyd Wright New York City, 1929, Frank Lloyd Wright

In these examples, L-shaped walls separate the units of a quadruplex housing

organization and define zones within a building as well as spaces within a room.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 5 3
PA R A L L E L VE RTIC AL PLANES

A pair of parallel vertical planes defines a field of space

between them. The open ends of the field, established by
the vertical edges of the planes, give the space a strong
directional quality. Its primary orientation is along the
axis about which the planes are symmetrical. Since the
parallel planes do not meet to form corners and fully
enclose the field, the space is extroverted in nature.

The definition of the spatial field along the open

ends of the configuration can be visually reinforced
by manipulating the base plane or adding overhead
elements to the composition.

The spatial field can be expanded by extending the base

plane beyond the open ends of the configuration. This
expanded field can, in turn, be terminated by a vertical
plane whose width and height is equal to that of the
field.

If one of the parallel planes is differentiated from the

other by a change in form, color, or texture, a secondary
axis, perpendicular to the flow of the space, will be
established within the field. Openings in one or both of
the planes can also introduce secondary axes to the
field and modulate the directional quality of the space.

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 PA R A L L E L P L A N E S

Various elements in architecture can be seen as

parallel planes that define a field of space:

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facing buildings
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The image of parallel vertical planes is often

associated with the bearing-wall structural
system, wherein a floor or roof structure spans
the spaces between two or more parallel load-
bearing walls.

Sets of parallel vertical planes can

be transformed into a wide variety of
configurations. Their spatial fields can be related
to one another either through the open ends of
their configurations or through openings in the
planes themselves.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 5 5
PA R A L L E L P L A N E S

Nave of the basilican church, St. Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna, Italy, 534–539 Champ de Mars, Paris

The directional quality and flow of the space defined by parallel planes
are naturally manifested in spaces used for circulation and movement,
such as the streets and boulevards of towns and cities. These linear
spaces can be defined by the facades of the buildings fronting them,
as well as by the more permeable planes established by colonnades,
arcades, or rows of trees.

Galleria Vittorio Emanuelle II, Milan, Italy, 1865–1877,

Giuseppe Mengoni

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 PA R A L L E L P L A N E S

House in Old Westbury, New York,

1969–1971, Richard Meier

Upper level

Middle level

Ground level

The flow of the space defined by parallel planes corresponds naturally to the paths of movement within a
building, along its corridors, halls, and galleries.

The parallel planes that define a circulation space can be solid and opaque to provide privacy for the spaces
along the circulation path. The planes can also be established by a row of columns so that the circulation path,
open on one or both of its sides, becomes part of the spaces through which it passes.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 5 7
PA R A L L E L P L A N E S

Sarabhai House, Ahmedabad, India, 1955, Le Corbusier

The parallel vertical planes of a bearing-wall structural system can be

the generating force behind the form and organization of a building. Their
repetitive pattern can be modified by varying their length or by introducing
voids within the planes to accommodate the dimensional requirements of
larger spaces. These voids can also define circulation paths and establish
visual relationships perpendicular to the wall planes.

The slots of space defined by parallel wall planes can also be modulated by
altering the spacing and configuration of the planes. Arnheim Pavilion, The Netherlands, 1966, Aldo van Eyck

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 PA R A L L E L P L A N E S

Structural walls Lean-to roof structure Overall form

Village Project, 1955,

James Stirling (Team X)

Sections illustrating the adaptability of the scheme to various site slopes

Structural bays

Parallel bearing walls are often used in multifamily Upper level

housing developments. They not only provide
structural support for the floors and roofs of each
housing unit, but also serve to isolate the units from
one another, curb the passage of sound, and check Entry level
the spread of fire. The pattern of parallel bearing
walls is particularly appropriate for rowhousing and
townhouse schemes where each unit is provided with
two orientations. Ground level

Siedlung Halen, near Bern, Switzerland, 1961, Atelier 5

F O RM & SPACE / 1 5 9
U - SHA P E D PL A N E S

A U-shaped configuration of vertical planes

defines a field of space that has an inward
focus as well as an outward orientation. At
the closed end of the configuration, the field
is well defined. Toward the open end of the
configuration, the field becomes extroverted in
nature.

The open end is the primary aspect of the

configuration by virtue of its uniqueness
relative to the other three planes. It allows
the field to have visual and spatial continuity
with the adjoining space. The extension of the
spatial field into the adjoining space can be
visually reinforced by continuing the base plane
beyond the open end of the configuration.

If the plane of the opening is further defined

with columns or overhead elements, the
definition of the original field will be reinforced
and continuity with the adjoining space will be
interrupted.

If the configuration of planes is rectangular and

oblong in form, the open end can be along its
narrow or wide side. In either case, the open end
will remain the primary face of the spatial field,
and the plane opposite the open end will be the
principal element among the three planes of the
configuration.

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 U - S HAP E D P L A N E S

If openings are introduced at the corners of the configuration,

secondary zones will be created within a multidirectional and
dynamic field.

If the field is entered through the open end of the configuration,

the rear plane, or a form placed in front of it, will terminate our view
of the space. If the field is entered through an opening in one of
the planes, the view of what lies beyond the open end will draw our
attention and terminate the sequence.

If the end of a long, narrow field is open, the space will encourage
movement and induce a progression or sequence of events. If the
field is square, or nearly square, the space will be static and have the
character of a place to be in, rather than a space to move through. If
the side of a long, narrow field is open, the space will be susceptible
to a subdivision into a number of zones.

U-shaped configurations of building forms and organizations have

the inherent ability to capture and define outdoor space. Their
composition can be seen to consist essentially of linear forms. The
corners of the configuration can be articulated as independent
elements or can be incorporated into the body of the linear forms.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 6 1
U - SHA P E D PL A N E S

Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome, c. 1544, Michelangelo

Ground level plan

Florey Building, Queen’s College, Oxford, 1966–1971, James Stirling

U-shaped configurations of building forms can serve to define an urban

space and terminate an axial condition. They can also focus on an important
or significant element within their fields. When an element is placed along
the open end of its field, it gives the field a point of focus as well as a
Sacred Precinct of Athena,Pergamon, Asia Minor, 4th century B.C. greater sense of closure.

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 U - S HA P E D P L A N E S

A U-shaped organization can define a forecourt for the approach to a Villa Trissino at Meledo, From The Four Books on Architecture, Andrea Palladio
building as well as form an entrance recessed within the building volume.

A U-shaped building form can also serve as a container and can organize
within its field a cluster of forms and spaces.

Plan

Convent for the Dominican Sisters

(project), Media, Pennsylvania, 1965–1968,
Louis Kahn. The cells form an enclave for a
village of community rooms.
Front elevation

F O RM & SPACE / 1 6 3
U - SHA P E D PL A N E S

Temple of Nemesis,
Rhamnus Temple “B,”
Selinus

Early Megaron Space Plans of Greek Temples Temple on the Ilissus,

Principal room or hall of an 5th–4th centuries B.C. Athens
early Anatolian or Aegean
house

U-shaped enclosures of interior space have a specific orientation toward The Hotel for Students at Otaniemi, Finland, by Alvar Aalto, demonstrates the
their open ends. These U-shaped enclosures can group themselves around use of U-shaped enclosures to define the basic unit of space in double-loaded
a central space to form an introverted organization. schemes for dormitories, apartments, and hotels. These units are extroverted.
They turn their back on the corridor and orient themselves to the exterior
environment.

Sketch of an Oval Church by Borromini, Genesis of San Carlo Alle Quattro Fontane Hurva Synagogue (project), Jerusalem, 1968, Louis Kahn

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 U - S HAP E D P L A N E S

A Niche in a Wall

U-shaped enclosures of space can range in scale from a niche University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, 1817–1826,
in the wall of a room, to a hotel or dormitory room, and on to Thomas Jefferson with Thornton and Latrobe
an arcaded outdoor space that organizes an entire complex
of buildings.

Hotel for Students at Otaniemi,

Finland, 1962–1966, Alvar Aalto

F O RM & SPACE / 1 6 5
FOU R P L A N E S: C L OSURE

Four vertical planes encompassing a field of space is

probably the most typical, and certainly the strongest,
type of spatial definition in architecture. Since the field
is completely enclosed, its space is naturally introverted.
To achieve visual dominance within a space or become
its primary face, one of the enclosing planes can be
differentiated from the others by its size, form, surface
articulation, or by the nature of the openings within it.

Well-defined, enclosed fields of space can be found in

architecture at various scales, from a large urban square,
to a courtyard or atrium space, to a single hall or room
within a building complex. The examples on this and the
following pages illustrate enclosed spatial fields in both
urban and building-scale situations.

Historically, four planes have often been used to define a

visual and spatial field for a sacred or significant building
that stands as an object within the enclosure. The
enclosing planes may be ramparts, walls, or fences that
isolate the field and exclude surrounding elements from
the precinct.

Sacred Enclosure, Ise Inner Shrine, Mie Prefecture, Japan, reconstructed every 20 years since A.D. 690.

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 F O U R PLA N E S : C L OS URE

In an urban context, a defined field of space can organize a

series of buildings along its perimeter. The enclosure may
consist of arcades or gallery spaces that promote the
inclusion of surrounding buildings into their domain and
activate the space they define.

Plan of the Agora at Priene and its surroundings, 4th century B.C.

Forum at Pompeii, 2nd century B.C. Ibrahim Rauza, Tomb of Sultan Ibrahim II, Bijapur, India, 1615, Malik Sandal

F O RM & SPACE / 1 6 7
FOU R PL A N E S: C L OSURE

House, Ur of the Chaldees, c. 2000 B.C.

The examples on these two pages illustrate the use of enclosed volumes
of space as ordering elements about which the spaces of a building can
be clustered and organized. These organizing spaces can generally be
characterized by their centrality, their clarity of definition, their regularity of
form, and their dominating size. They are manifested here in the atrium spaces
of houses, the arcaded cortile of an Italian palazzo, the enclosure of a Greek
House No. 33, Priene, 3rd century B.C. shrine, the courtyard of a Finnish town hall, and the cloister of a monastery.

Palazzo Farnese, Rome, 1515, Antonio da Sangallo the Younger

Traditional Chinese Patio House

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 F O U R PLA N E S : C L OS URE

Enclosure of the Shrine of Apollo Delphinios, Miletus, c. 2nd century B.C.

Town Hall, Säynätsalo, Finland, 1950–1952, Alvar Aalto Fontenay Abbey, Burgundy, France, c. 1139

F O RM & SPACE / 1 6 9
FOU R PL A N E S: E N CLO SURE

How the overhead or roof plane can dominate the form

of a building is illustrated on pages 129–131. In
contrast, other buildings can be seen to be dominated
by the form of their exterior, enclosing wall planes.
Exterior walls determine to a great extent the visual
character of a building, whether they have the weight
and opacity of load-bearing walls, the lightness and
transparency of nonbearing curtain walls supported
by a structural framework of columns and beams, or a
combination of both.

The transition from bearing-wall constructions to

frame structures have given rise to new forms that go
beyond the timeless elements of basic statics—the
columns, beams, and load-bearing walls of stable
constructions that are fixed in time and space. The
rational forms of rectilinear geometry and the rule
of the vertical have been revised, both statically and
optically, by the development of irregular structures
that rely on tension and friction rather than pressure.
We can see these new forms as they mimic topography,
orient themselves toward views, embrace sunlight, and
turn away from cold winds and stormy weather.
Willis, Faber & Dumas Headquarters, Ipswich, England, 1971–1975,
Foster + Partners

Seattle Public Library, Seattle, Washington, 2004, OMA

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 F O U R PLA N ES : E N C L OS URE

The evolution of materials and technology for separating the skin of a building from its
structure has also played a major role in the development of building forms.

Structural glass facades integrate structure and cladding to provide maximum

transparency in buildings. While their forms may vary, the translucent panels typically span
from floor to floor and are supported by structural systems that are exposed and distinct
from the building’s primary structure.

Many of the structural systems use trusses or trussed supports, which may slope inward
or outward, or follow a curved geometry in plan or section. Some use glass fines set
perpendicular to the glass facade to provide lateral support.

Gridshells are form-active structures that derive their strength from their double-curved
surface geometry. The system uses a network of in-plane prestressed cables to provide
stability and shear resistance to the thin shell grid. Vaulted, domed, and other double-
curved configurations can be used in vertical and overhead applications as well as to form
complete building enclosures.
Des Moines Public
Library, Des Moines,
Iowa, 2006, David
Chipperfield Architects

London City Hall, London, England, 1998–2003, Foster + Partners

F O RM & SPACE / 1 7 1
FOU R PL A N E S: E N CLO SURE

Diagrid structures refer to networks of intersecting members connected at

specially jointed nodes to create a diagonal grid across a building surface.
The diagonal members are capable of carrying both gravity and lateral loads
through triangulation, which results in a relatively uniform load distribution.
This exoskeletal framework allows for the possible reduction in the number of
internal supports, saving on space and building materials and providing for
greater flexibility in interior layouts. Also, because each diagonal can be viewed
as providing a continuous load path to the ground, the number of possible
load paths in case of a localized structural failure results in a high degree of
redundancy.

One Shelley Street, Sydney, Australia, 2009, Fitzpatrick + Partners.

This project uses a structural diagrid system positioned on the outside of
and very close to the glass facade to create a visually unique exterior.

TOD’s Omotesando Building, Tokyo, Japan, 2002–2004, Toyo Ito

and Associates. Unlike the geometric regularity of One Shelley Street’s
diagrid, the concrete diagrid used in TOD’s Omotesando Building is based
on a pattern of overlapping tree silhouettes that mimic the branch
structure of nearby elm trees. Similar to the growth pattern of trees, the
diagrid members get thinner and more numerous with a higher ratio of
openings as you move up higher in the building.

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 F O U R PLA N ES : E N C L OS URE

The various forms of diagram structures have been made possible

through digital technologies that help us to conceive of and make
visible complex three-dimensional constructions and compositions.
3D modeling and CAD software enable us to develop, describe, and
fabricate the components to realize these constructions. Many of
these creations would be difficult, if not impossible, to do by hand.
This is especially true of the calculations necessary to determine
the structural requirements for the individual members of a diagrid
system.

3D modeling and CAD software have not only the computational

capability to calculate the structural requirements for each member
but also the means with 3D printers to fabricate the components,
many of which are not identical for assembly on site.

Perimeter hoops resist the horizontal forces at each node level where
the diagonal columns intersect. As with dome structures, the hoops
in the upper region are in compression while those at the middle and
lower levels are subject to significant tensile forces. The hoops also
serve to transform the diagrid into a very stiff triangulated shell,
freeing the interior core from the need to resist lateral wind forces.

30 St. Mary Axe, London, UK, 2001–2003, Foster + Partners.

Informally known as The Gherkin and previously, the Swiss Re Building, this
skyscraper is an iconic symbol in London’s financial district. The shape of
the tower was partially influenced by the need to have a smooth flow of wind
around the building and minimize its impact on the local wind environment.
Across this curved surface the diagrid structure is formed by generating a
pattern of intersecting diagonals spiraling in two directions.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 7 3
OP EN IN G S IN SPA CE- DEFINING ELEMENTS

No spatial or visual continuity is possible with adjacent spaces

without openings in the enclosing planes of a spatial field. Doors
offer entry into a room and influence the patterns of movement
and use within it. Windows allow light to penetrate the space
and illuminate the surfaces of a room, offer views from the room
to the exterior, establish visual relationships between the room
and adjacent spaces, and provide for the natural ventilation of
the space. While these openings provide continuity with adjacent
spaces, they can, depending on their size, number, and location,
also begin to weaken the enclosure of the space.

The following section of this chapter focuses on enclosed spaces

at the scale of a room, where the nature of the openings within
the room’s enclosure is a major factor in determining the quality
of its space.

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 O PEN IN G S IN S PA C E- D EF INI N G E L E M E N T S

Centered Off-center Grouped Deep-set Skylight

Within Planes An opening can be located wholly within a wall or ceiling plane and be surrounded on all sides by the surface of the plane.

Along one edge Along two edges Turning a corner Grouped Skylight

At Corners An opening can be located along one edge or at a corner of a wall or ceiling plane. In either case, the opening will be at a corner of a space.

Vertical Horizontal Three-quarter opening Window-wall Skylight

Between Planes An opening can extend vertically between the floor and ceiling planes or horizontally between two wall planes. It can grow in size
to occupy an entire wall of a space.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 7 5
OP EN IN G S W ITHIN PLANES

An opening located wholly within a wall or ceiling

plane often appears as a bright figure on a
contrasting field or background. If centered within
the plane, the opening will appear stable and
visually organize the surface around it. Moving the
opening off-center will create a degree of visual
tension between the opening and the edges of the
plane toward which it is moved.

The shape of the opening, if similar to the shape

of the plane in which it is located, will create a
redundant compositional pattern. The shape or
orientation of the opening may contrast with the
enclosing plane to emphasize its individuality
as a figure. The singularity of the opening may
be visually reinforced with a heavy frame or
articulated trimwork.

Multiple openings may be clustered to form a

unified composition within a plane, or be staggered
or dispersed to create visual movement along the
surface of the plane.

As an opening within a plane increases in size,

it will at some point cease to be a figure within
an enclosing field and become instead a positive
element in itself, a transparent plane bounded by
a heavy frame.

Openings within planes naturally appear

brighter than their adjacent surfaces. If the
contrast in brightness along the edges of the
openings becomes excessive, the surfaces can be
illuminated by a second light source from within
the space, or a deep-set opening can be formed to
create illuminated surfaces between the opening
and the surrounding plane.

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 O PEN IN G S WIT H I N P L A N E S

Chapel space, Notre Dame Du Haut, Ronchamp, France, 1950–1955, Le Corbusier

F O RM & SPACE / 1 7 7
OP EN IN G S AT C OR NERS

Openings that are located at corners give a

space and the planes in which they are located a
diagonal orientation. This directional effect may be
desirable for compositional reasons, or the corner
opening may be established to capture a desirable
view or brighten a dark corner of a space.

A corner opening visually erodes the edges of the

plane in which it is located and articulates the
edge of the plane adjacent and perpendicular to
it. The larger the opening, the weaker will be the
definition of the corner. If the opening were to turn
the corner, the angle of the space would be implied
rather than real and the spatial field would extend
beyond its enclosing planes.

If openings are introduced between the enclosing

planes at all four corners of a space, the individual
identity of the planes will be reinforced and
diagonal or pinwheel patterns of space, use, and
movement will be encouraged.

The light that enters a space through a corner

opening washes the surface of the plane adjacent
and perpendicular to the opening. This illuminated
surface itself becomes a source of light and
enhances the brightness of the space. The level of
illumination can be enhanced further by turning
the corner with the opening or adding a skylight
above the opening.

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 O PEN IN G S AT C ORN E RS

Studio, Amédée Ozenfant House, Paris, 1922–1923, Le Corbusier

F O RM & SPACE / 1 7 9
OP EN IN G S BE TW E EN PLANES

A vertical opening that extends from the floor to

the ceiling plane of a space visually separates and
articulates the edges of the adjacent wall planes.

If located at a corner, the vertical opening will erode

the definition of the space and allow it to extend
beyond the corner to the adjacent space. It will also
allow incoming light to wash the surface of the wall
plane perpendicular to it and articulate the primacy of
that plane in the space. If allowed to turn the corner,
the vertical opening will further erode the definition of
the space, allow it to interlock with adjacent spaces,
and emphasize the individuality of the enclosing
planes.

A horizontal opening that extends across a wall

plane will separate it into a number of horizontal
layers. If the opening is not very deep, it will not erode
the integrity of the wall plane. If, however, its depth
increases to the point where it is greater than the
bands above and below it, then the opening will become
a positive element bounded at its top and bottom by
heavy frames.

Turning a corner with a horizontal opening reinforces

the horizontal layering of a space and broadens the
panoramic view from within the space. If the opening
continues around the space, it will visually lift the
ceiling plane from the wall planes, isolate it, and give it
a feeling of lightness.

Locating a linear skylight along the edge where a wall

and ceiling plane meet allows incoming light to wash
the surface of the wall, illuminate it, and enhance the
brightness of the space. The form of the skylight can
be manipulated to capture direct sunlight, indirect
daylight, or a combination of both.

1 8 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 O PEN IN G S BET W E E N P L A N E S

Living Room, Samuel Freeman House,

Los Angeles, California, 1924, Frank Lloyd Wright

Window-walls offer more expansive views and permit

a greater amount of daylight to penetrate a space
than any of the previous examples of openings. If
they are oriented to capture direct sunlight, sun-
shading devices may be necessary to reduce glare
and excessive heat gain within the space.

While a window-wall weakens the vertical boundaries

of a space, it creates the potential for visually
expanding the space beyond its physical boundaries.

Living Room, Villa Mairea, Noormarkku, Finland,

1938–1939, Alvar Aalto

Combining a window-wall with a large skylight

overhead creates a sun room or greenhouse space.
The boundaries between inside and outside, defined
by the linear members of a frame, become obscure
and tenuous.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 8 1
QU A L ITIE S OF AR CH ITECTURAL SPACE

The basic patterns of linear and planar elements that

define discrete volumes of space, and the varieties of
openings that serve to connect these spatial volumes
to one another and their context are presented
on pages 158–159 and 161. The qualities of an
architectural space, however, are much richer than
what the diagrams are able to portray. The spatial
qualities of form, proportion, scale, texture, light,
and sound ultimately depend on the properties of the
enclosure of a space. Our perception of these qualities
is often a response to the combined effects of the
properties encountered and is conditioned by culture,
prior experiences, and personal interest or inclination.

Properties of Enclosure Qualities of Space

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1 8 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 Q U A LIT IES O F A R C HIT EC T URA L S PA C E

Bay Window of the Living Room, Hill House, Helensburgh, Scotland, 1902–1903, Charles Rennie Mackintosh

Chapter 2 discusses the impact of shape, surface, and edges on our

perception of form. Chapter 6 presents the issues of dimensions,
proportion, and scale. While the first part of this chapter outlines
how basic configurations of linear and planar elements define volumes
of space, this concluding section describes how the size, shape, and
location of openings or voids within the enclosing forms of a space
influence the following qualities of a room:

t
Degree of enclosure . . .the form of the space

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F O RM & SPACE / 1 8 3
D EG R E E OF E N CL OS URE

The degree of enclosure of a space, as determined by the configuration of its defining

elements and the pattern of its openings, has a significant impact on our perception of
its form and orientation. From within a space, we see only the surface of a wall. It is this
thin layer of material that forms the vertical boundary of the space. The actual thickness
of a wall plane can be revealed only along the edges of door and window openings.

Openings lying wholly within the enclosing planes of a space do not weaken the edge
definition nor the sense of closure of the space. The form of the space remains intact
and perceptible.

Openings located along the edges of the enclosing planes of a space visually weaken the
corner boundaries of the volume. While these openings erode the overall form of a space,
they also promote its visual continuity and interaction with adjacent spaces.

Openings between the enclosing planes of a space visually isolate the planes and
articulate their individuality. As these openings increase in number and size, the space
loses its sense of enclosure, becomes more diffuse, and begins to merge with adjacent
spaces. The visual emphasis is on the enclosing planes rather than the volume of space
defined by the planes.

1 8 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 D EG R EE O F E N C L OS URE

Color Construction (Project for a Private House), Palazzo Garzadore (Project), Vincenza, Italy, 1570,
1922, Theo van Doesburg and Cornels van Eesteren Andrea Palladio

House, Berlin Building Exposition, 1931, Mies van der Rohe

F O RM & SPACE / 1 8 5
LIGHT

“Architecture is the masterly, correct and magnificent play of masses brought

together in light. Our eyes are made to see forms in light; light and shade reveal
these forms…”
Le Corbusier: Towards a New Architecture

Notre Dame Du Haut, Ronchamp, France, 1950–1955, Le Corbusier

The sun is the rich source of natural light for the illumination of
forms and spaces in architecture. While the sun’s radiation is
intense, the quality of its light, manifested in the form of direct
sunlight or diffuse daylight, varies with the time of day, from
season to season, and from place to place. As the luminous
energy of the sun is dispersed by clouds, haze, and precipitation,
it transmits the changing colors of the sky and the weather to
the forms and surfaces it illuminates.

1 8 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LIGHT

Fallingwater (Kaufmann House), near Ohiopyle, Pennsylvania ,1936–1937, Frank Lloyd Wright

Summer Solstice:
Equinox: Mar. 21 June 21
Penetrating a space through windows in a wall plane, or Sept. 21 12 Noon
through skylights in the overhead roof plane, the radiant Winter Solstice: 12 Noon
energy of the sun falls upon the surfaces within the room, Dec. 22
enlivens their colors, and reveals their textures. With the 12 Noon 2 PM
shifting patterns of light, shade, and shadows that it creates, 4 PM
the sun animates the space of the room, and articulates the
10 AM W
forms within it. By its intensity and dispersion within the
Sunset 6 PM
room, the luminous energy of the sun can clarify the form of
S
the space or distort it. The color and brilliance of sunlight can
create a festive atmosphere within the room or a more diffuse 8 AM
N
daylight can instill within it a somber mood. 6 AM

Since the intensity and direction of the light the sun radiates E Sunr
ise
is fairly predictable, its visual impact on the surfaces, forms,
and space of a room can be predicated on the size, location,
and orientation of windows and skylights within the enclosure.
Sun-Path Diagram for the Northern Hemisphere

F O RM & SPACE / 1 8 7
LIGHT

The size of a window or skylight controls the amount

of daylight a room receives. The size of an opening
in a wall or roof plane, however, is also regulated
by factors other than light, such as the materials
and construction of the wall or roof plane; code
requirements for ventilation; the desire for views and
visual privacy; the appropriate degree of enclosure for
the space; and the effect of openings on the exterior
form of a building. The location and orientation of a
window or skylight, therefore, can be more important
than its size in determining the quality of daylight a
room receives.

An opening can be oriented to receive direct sunlight

during certain portions of the day. Direct sunlight
provides a high degree of illumination that is especially
intense during midday hours. It creates sharp
patterns of light and dark on the surfaces of a room
and crisply articulates the forms within the space.
Possible detrimental effects of direct sunlight, such
as glare and excessive heat gain, can be controlled by
shading devices built into the form of the opening or
provided by the foliage of nearby trees or adjacent
structures.

An opening can also be oriented away from direct

sunlight and receive instead the diffuse, ambient
light from the sky vault overhead. The sky vault is a
beneficial source of daylight since it remains fairly
constant, even on cloudy days, and can help to soften
the harshness of direct sunlight and balance the light
level within a space.

1 8 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LIGHT

The location of an opening affects the manner in

which natural light enters a room and illuminates its
forms and surfaces. When located entirely within a
wall plane, an opening can appear as a bright spot of
light on a darker surface. This condition can induce
glare if an excessive degree of contrast exists
between the brightness of the opening and the
darker surface surrounding it. The uncomfortable
or debilitating glare caused by excessive brightness
ratios between adjacent surfaces or areas in a room
can be ameliorated by allowing daylight to enter the
space from at least two directions.

When an opening is located along the edge of a wall

or at the corner of a room, the daylight entering
through it will wash the surface of the wall adjacent
and perpendicular to the plane of the opening. This
illuminated surface itself becomes a source of light
and enhances the light level within the space.

Additional factors influence the quality of light

within a room. The shape and articulation of an
opening is reflected in the shadow pattern cast by
sunlight on the forms and surfaces of the room. The
color and texture of these forms and surfaces, in
turn, affect their reflectivity and the ambient light
level within the space.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 8 9
VI E W

Another quality of space that must be considered in establishing openings in

the enclosure of a room is its focus and orientation. While some rooms have an
internal focus, such as a fireplace, others have an outward orientation given
to them by a view to the outdoors or an adjacent space. Window and skylight
openings provide this view and establish a visual relationship between a room
and its surroundings. The size and location of these openings determine, of
course, the nature of the outlook as well as the degree of visual privacy for an
interior space.

1 9 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 VIEW

A small opening can reveal a close-up detail or frame a

view so that we see it as a painting on a wall.

A long, narrow opening, whether vertical or horizontal,

can not only separate two planes but also hint at what
lies beyond.

A group of windows can be sequenced to fragment a

scene and encourage movement within a space.

As an opening expands, it opens up a room to a broad

vista. The large scene can dominate a space or serve as
a backdrop for the activities within it.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 9 1
VI E W

Outlook: Horyu-Ji Temple, Nara, Japan, A.D. 607.

A window can be located such that a specific view can be seen
from only one position in a room.

Interior openings offer views from one space to another. An opening can be oriented
upward to offer a view of treetops and the sky.

A bay window can project a person into

a scene. If large enough, the projected
space can become an alcove able to be
occupied.

1 9 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 VIEW

Vista, based on a sketch by Le Corbusier for the design of the

Ministry of National Education and Public Health in Rio de Janeiro, 1936

An Internal Focus: Tokonoma, the spiritual center of a traditional

Japanese house
Views should not be limited to the
outdoors or adjacent spaces. Interior
design elements can also provide
subjects for visual attention.

F O RM & SPACE / 1 9 3
Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli, Italy, A.D. 118–125
4
Organization
“. . . A good house is a single thing, as well as a collection of many, and
to make it requires a conceptual leap from the individual components
to a vision of the whole. The choices … represent ways of assembling
the parts.
. . . the basic parts of a house can be put together to make more than
just basic parts: They can also make space, pattern, and outside
domains. They dramatize the most elementary act which architecture
has to perform. To make one plus one equal more than two, you must in
doing any one thing you think important (making rooms, putting them
together, or fitting them to the land) do something else that you think
important as well (make spaces to live, establish a meaningful pattern
inside, or claim other realms outside).”

Charles Moore, Gerald Allen, Donlyn Lyndon

The Place of Houses
1974
OR GA N IZ ATION OF FO RM & SPACE

The last chapter laid out how various configurations of form could be manipulated to define a solitary field or
volume of space, and how their patterns of solids and voids affected the visual qualities of the defined space.
Few buildings, however, consist of a solitary space. They are normally composed of a number of spaces which
are related to one another by function, proximity, or a path of movement. This chapter lays out for study and
discussion the basic ways the spaces of a building can be related to one another and organized into coherent
patterns of form and space.

Alhambra, Palace and Citadel of the Moorish kings,

Granada, Spain, 1248–1354

1 9 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S PAT IA L R EL AT I ON S H I P S

Two spaces may be related to each other in several fundamental ways.

Space within a Space

A space may be contained within the volume
of a larger space.

Interlocking Spaces
The field of a space may overlap the volume of
another space.

Adjacent Spaces
Two spaces may abut each other or share a
common border.

Spaces Linked by a Common Space

Two spaces may rely on an intermediary
space for their relationship.

O RGANIZATION / 1 9 7
SPA C E WITHIN A S PACE

A large space can envelop and contain a smaller space

within its volume. Visual and spatial continuity between
the two spaces can be easily accommodated, but
the smaller, contained space depends on the larger,
enveloping space for its relationship to the exterior
environment.

In this type of spatial relationship, the larger, enveloping

space serves as a three-dimensional field for the smaller
space contained within it. For this concept to be per-
ceived, a clear differentiation in size is necessary between
the two spaces. If the contained space were to increase
in size, the larger space would begin to lose its impact as
an enveloping form. If the contained space continued to
grow, the residual space around it would become too com-
pressed to serve as an enveloping space. It would become
instead merely a thin layer or skin around the contained
space. The original notion would be destroyed.

To endow itself with a higher attention-value, the

contained space may share the form of the enveloping
shape, but be oriented in a different manner. This would
create a secondary grid and a set of dynamic, residual
spaces within the larger space.

The contained space may also differ in form from the

enveloping space in order to strengthen its image as a
freestanding volume. This contrast in form may indicate
a functional difference between the two spaces or the
symbolic importance of the contained space.

1 9 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S PA C E WIT H I N A S PA C E

Moore House, Orinda, California, 1961, Charles Moore

Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut, 1949, Philip Johnson

O RGANIZATION / 1 9 9
I N T E RL OC KIN G SPACES

An interlocking spatial relationship results from the

overlapping of two spatial fields and the emergence of a
zone of shared space. When two spaces interlock their
volumes in this manner, each retains its identity and
definition as a space. But the resulting configuration
of the two interlocking spaces is subject to a number
of interpretations.

The interlocking portion of the two volumes can be

shared equally by each space.

The interlocking portion can merge with one of the

spaces and become an integral part of its volume.

The interlocking portion can develop its own integrity

as a space that serves to link the two original spaces.

2 0 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 IN T ER LO C K I N G S PA C E S

Plan for St. Peter (Second Version), Rome, 1506–1520, Pilgrimage Church, Vierzehnheiligen, Villa at Carthage, Tunisia, 1928,
Donato Bramante & Baldassare Peruzzi Germany, 1744–1772, Balthasar Neumann Le Corbusier

The one-story space flows into the larger volume

of which it is a part and to the outdoors.

O RGANIZATION / 2 0 1
A D J A C E N T SPA C E S

Adjacency is the most common type of spatial relation-

ship. It allows each space to be clearly defined and to
respond, each in its own way, to specific functional or
symbolic requirements. The degree of visual and spatial
continuity that occurs between two adjacent spaces
depends on the nature of the plane that both separates
and binds them together.

The separating plane may:

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degree of visual and spatial continuity between the two
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surface material or texture between the two spaces.
This and the preceding two cases can also be read as
single volumes of space which are divided into two
related zones.

2 0 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 A D JA CE N T S PA C E S

Pavilion Design, 17th century, Fischer von Erlach Upper Level

The spaces in these two buildings are individualistic in size,

shape, and form. The walls that enclose them adapt their forms
to accommodate the differences between adjacent spaces.

Main Level

Three spaces—the living, fireplace, and dining areas—are defined

by changes in floor level, ceiling height, and quality of light and view,
rather than by wall planes.

Lower Level

Chiswick House, London, England, 1729, Lord Burlington & William Kent Lawrence House, Sea Ranch, California, 1966, Moore-Turnbull/MLTW

O RGANIZATION / 2 0 3
SPA C ES L IN KE D BY A CO MMO N SPACE

Two spaces that are separated by distance can be

linked or related to each other by a third, intermediate,
space. The visual and spatial relationship between the
two spaces depends on the nature of the third space
with which they share a common bond.

The intermediate space can differ in form and

orientation from the two spaces to express its linking
function.

The two spaces, as well as the intermediate space,

can be equivalent in size and shape and form a linear
sequence of spaces.

The intermediate space can itself become linear in form

to link two spaces that are distant from each other,
or join a whole series of spaces that have no direct
relationship to one another.

The intermediate space can, if large enough, become

the dominant space in the relationship, and be capable
of organizing a number of spaces about itself.

The form of the intermediate space can be residual

in nature and be determined solely by the forms and
orientations of the two spaces being linked.

2 0 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S PA C ES LIN K ED BY A C O M M ON S PA C E

Palazzo Piccolomini, Pienza, Italy, c. 1460, Bernardo Rosselino

Caplin House, Venice, California, 1979, Frederick Fisher

One-Half House (Project), 1966, John Hejduk

O RGANIZATION / 2 0 5
SPAT I A L OR G A N IZ ATIO NS

Compositions of Nine Squares:

A Bauhaus Study

The following section lays out the basic ways we can arrange and organize The manner in which these spaces are arranged can clarify their
the spaces of a building. In a typical building program, there are usually relative importance and functional or symbolic role in the organization
requirements for various kinds of spaces. There may be requirements for spaces of a building. The decision as to what type of organization to use in a
that: specific situation will depend on:

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2 0 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S PAT IA L O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Each type of spatial organization is introduced by a section that discusses t
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Centralized Organization
A central, dominant space about which a number
of secondary spaces are grouped

Linear Organization
A linear sequence of repetitive spaces

Radial Organization
A central space from which linear organizations of space
extend in a radial manner

Clustered Organization
Spaces grouped by proximity or the sharing of a common
visual trait or relationship

Grid Organization
Spaces organized within the field of a structural grid
or other three-dimensional framework

O RGANIZATION / 2 0 7
C E NTR A L IZE D ORGANIZATIO NS

A centralized organization is a stable,

concentrated composition that consists
of a number of secondary spaces grouped
around a large, dominant, central space.

The central, unifying space of the

organization is generally regular in form
and large enough in size to gather a
number of secondary spaces about its
perimeter.

The secondary spaces of the organization

may be equivalent to one another in
function, form, and size, and create an
overall configuration that is geometrically
regular and symmetrical about two or
more axes.

Ideal Church by Leonardo da Vinci

The secondary spaces may differ from one

another in form or size in order to respond
to individual requirements of function,
express their relative importance, or
acknowledge their surroundings. This dif-
ferentiation among the secondary spaces
also allows the form of a centralized orga-
nization to respond to the environmental
conditions of its site.
San Lorenzo Maggiore, Milan,
Italy, c. A.D. 480

2 0 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C EN T R A LIZED O R G A N I Z AT I ON S

Since the form of a centralized organization is

inherently nondirectional, conditions of approach
and entry must be specified by the site and the
articulation of one of the secondary spaces as
an entrance or gateway.

The pattern of circulation and movement within

a centralized organization may be radial, loop, or
spiral in form. In almost every case, however, the
pattern will terminate in or around the central
space.

Centralized organizations whose forms are

relatively compact and geometrically regular can
be used to:

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or volume of space

The central organizing space may be either

an interior or an exterior space.

O RGANIZATION / 2 0 9
C E NTR A L IZE D ORGANIZATIO NS

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sketches of ideal church plans. c. 1490

2 1 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C EN T R A LIZED O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Centralized Plans, 1547, Sebastiano Serlio

St. Ivo della Sapienze, Rome, 1642–1650, Francesco Borromini

O RGANIZATION / 2 1 1
C E NTR A L IZE D ORGANIZATIO NS

Plan for St. Peter’s (First Version), Rome, c. 1503, Donato Bramante

Villa Farnese, Caprarola, 1547–1549, Giacomo da Vignola

2 1 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C EN T R A LIZED O R G A N I Z AT I ON S

Taj Mahal, Agra, India, 1632–1654

Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, India, 1565, Mirak Mirza Ghiyas

Villa Capra (The Rotunda), Vicenza, Italy, 1552–1567, Andrea Palladio

O RGANIZATION / 2 1 3
C E NTR A L IZE D ORGANIZATIO NS

The Pantheon, Rome, A.D. 120–124. Portico from temple of 25 B.C. Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul), A.D. 532–537,
Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus

2 1 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C EN T R A LIZED O R G A N I Z AT I ON S

San Lorenzo Maggiore, Milan, Italy, c. A.D. 480 SS. Sergio and Bacchus, Constantinople (Istanbul),
Turkey, A.D. 525–530

O RGANIZATION / 2 1 5
C E NTR A L IZE D ORGANIZATIO NS

Stockholm Public Library, 1920–1928, Gunnar Asplund Guggenheim Museum, New York City, 1943–1959, Frank Lloyd Wright

2 1 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C EN T R A LIZED O R G A N I Z AT I ON S

National Assembly Building, Capitol Complex at Dacca, Bangladesh, Greenhouse House, Salisbury, Connecticut, 1973–1975, John M. Johansen
begun 1962, Louis Kahn

O RGANIZATION / 2 1 7
L I N EA R ORG A N IZ ATIO NS

A linear organization consists essentially of a series

of spaces. These spaces can either be directly related
to one another or be linked through a separate and
distinct linear space.

A linear organization usually consists of repetitive

spaces which are alike in size, form, and function. It
may also consist of a single linear space that organizes
along its length a series of spaces that differ in size,
form, or function. In both cases, each space along the
sequence has an exterior exposure.

Spaces that are functionally or symbolically important

to the organization can occur anywhere along the
linear sequence and have their importance articulated
by their size and form. Their significance can also be
emphasized by their location:

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Because of their characteristic length, linear

organizations express a direction and signify move-
ment, extension, and growth. To limit their growth,
linear organizations can be terminated by a dominant
space or form, by an elaborate or articulated entrance,
or by merging with another building form or the
topography of its site.

2 1 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LIN EA R O R G A N I Z AT I ON S

The form of a linear organization is inherently flexible

and can respond readily to various conditions of its
site. It can adapt to changes in topography, maneuver
around a body of water or a stand of trees, or turn
to orient spaces to capture sunlight and views. It
can be straight, segmented, or curvilinear. It can run
horizontally across its site, diagonally up a slope, or
stand vertically as a tower.

The form of a linear organization can relate to other

forms in its context by:

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space

Curved and segmented forms of linear organizations

enclose a field of exterior space on their concave
sides and orient their spaces toward the center of
the field. On their concave sides, these forms appear
to front space and exclude it from their fields.

O RGANIZATION / 2 1 9
L I N EA R ORG A N IZ ATIO NS

Longhouse, a dwelling type of the member tribes of the Iroquois Confederacy in North America, c. 1600.

Terraced Housing Fronting a Village Street, Village Project, 1955, James Stirling (Team X)

2 2 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LIN EA R O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Residential Expansion, St. Andrews University, Scotland, 1964–1968, James Stirling

Linear Sequences of Spaces

Typical Apartment Floor, Unité d’Habitation, Marseilles, 1946–1952, Le Corbusier

Second Floor Plan, Main Building, Sheffield University (Project), England, 1953, James Stirling

O RGANIZATION / 2 2 1
L I N EA R ORG A N IZ ATIO NS

Lord Derby’s House, London, 1777

Robert Adam

Pearson House (Project), 1957,

Robert Venturi

Linear Sequences of Rooms…

Lloyd Lewis House, Libertyville, Illinois,

1940, Frank Lloyd Wright

2 2 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LIN EA R O R G A N I Z AT I ON S

Romano House, Kentfield, California, 1970, Esherick Homsey Dodge & Davis

Adapting to Function and Site

Marcus House (Project), Dallas, Texas, 1935, Frank Lloyd Wright

O RGANIZATION / 2 2 3
L I N EA R ORG A N IZ ATIO NS

Town Center for Castrop-Rauxel, Germany, (Competition Entry),

1965, Alvar Aalto

Introducing Hierarchy to Linear Sequences…

Interama, Project for an Inter-American Community, Florida,

1964–1967, Louis Kahn

2 2 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LIN EA R O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Bridge House (Project), Christopher Owen

and Expressing Movement

House 10 (Project), 1966, John Hejduk

O RGANIZATION / 2 2 5
L I N EA R ORG A N IZ ATIO NS

Scarborough College,
Westhill, Ontario, 1964,
John Andrews

Housing Development, Pavia, Italy, 1966, Alvar Aalto

Linear Organizations Adapting to Site…

2 2 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 LIN EA R O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Typical Upper-Floor Plan, Baker House, Massachusetts Institute of

Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1948, Alvar Aalto

Plan for the Circus (1754, John Wood, Sr.) and the Royal Crescent (1767–1775, John Wood) at Bath, England

and Shaping Exterior Space

O RGANIZATION / 2 2 7
R A D I A L OR G A N IZ ATIO NS

A radial organization of space combines elements of both

centralized and linear organizations. It consists of a dominant
central space from which a number of linear organizations
extend in a radial manner. Whereas a centralized organization
is an introverted scheme that focuses inward on its central
space, a radial organization is an extroverted plan that reaches
out to its context. With its linear arms, it can extend and
attach itself to specific elements or features of its site.

As with centralized organizations, the central space of a

radial organization is generally regular in form. The linear arms,
for which the central space is the hub, may be similar to one
another in form and length and maintain the regularity of the
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The radiating arms may also differ from one another in order to
respond to individual requirements of function and context.

A specific variation of a radial organization is the pinwheel

pattern wherein the linear arms of the organization extend
from the sides of a square or rectangular central space.
This arrangement results in a dynamic pattern that visually
suggests a rotational movement about the central space.

2 2 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 R A D IA L O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Moabit Prison, Berlin, 1869–1879, August Busse and Heinrich Herrmann

Hôtel Dieu (Hospital), 1774, Antoine Petit

Maison de Force (Prison), Ackerghem near Ghent, Belgium,

1772–1775, Malfaison and Kluchman

O RGANIZATION / 2 2 9
R A D I A L OR G A N IZ ATIO NS

Herbert F. Johnson House (Wingspread), Wind Point, Wisconsin, 1937, Frank Lloyd Wright

2 3 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 R A D IA L O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Kaufmann Desert House, Palm Springs, California, 1946, Richard Neutra

O RGANIZATION / 2 3 1
R A D I A L OR G A N IZ ATIO NS

Secretariat Building, UNESCO Headquarters, Place de Fontenoy,

Paris, 1953–1958, Marcel Breuer

Site Plan

Typical Unit Plan

Residential Expansion, St. Andrews University, Scotland, 1964–1968, James Stirling

2 3 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 R A D IA L O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain, 1991–1997, Frank Gehry

New Mummers Theater, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, 1970, John M. Johansen

Plan for Canberra, Australia, 1911, Walter Burley Griffin

O RGANIZATION / 2 3 3
C L U STE R E D ORG A NIZATIO NS

A clustered organization relies on physical

proximity to relate its spaces to one another.
It often consists of repetitive, cellular spaces
that have similar functions and share a common
visual trait such as shape or orientation. A
clustered organization can also accept within its
Repetitive spaces Sharing a common Organized by an axis composition spaces that are dissimilar in size,
shape form, and function, but related to one another
by proximity or a visual ordering device such as
symmetry or an axis. Because its pattern does
not originate from a rigid geometrical concept,
the form of a clustered organization is flexible
and can accept growth and change readily
without affecting its character.

Clustered spaces can be organized about a

Clustered about an entry Grouped along a path A loop path point of entry into a building or along the path
of movement through it. The spaces can also be
clustered about a large defined field or volume
of space. This pattern is similar to that of a
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compactness and geometrical regularity. The
spaces of a clustered organization can also be
contained within a defined field or volume of
space.
Centralized pattern Clustered pattern Contained within a space
Since there is no inherent place of importance
within the pattern of a clustered organization,
the significance of a space must be articulated
by its size, form, or orientation within the
pattern.

Symmetry or an axial condition can be used to

strengthen and unify portions of a clustered
Axial conditions Axial condition Symmetrical condition organization and help articulate the importance
of a space or group of spaces within the
organization.

2 3 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C LU S T ER ED O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Fatehpur Sikri, Palace Complex of Akbar the Great Mogul Emperor of India, 1569–1574

O RGANIZATION / 2 3 5
C LU STE R E D ORG A NIZATIO NS

Section

Spaces Organized by Geometry

Plan

Oblique view Yeni-Kaplica (Thermal Bath), Bursa,Turkey

Nuraghe at Palmavera, Sardinia, typical of the ancient stone

towers of the Nuraghic culture, 18th–16th century B.C.

Traditional Japanese House

2 3 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C LU S T ER ED O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Meeting House, Salk Institute of Biological

Studies (Project), La Jolla, California,
1959–1965, Louis Kahn

Spaces Organized Around a Dominant Space

Karuizawa House, Country Retreat,

1974, Kisho Kurokawa

Palace of King Minos, Knossos, Crete, c. 1500 B.C.

O RGANIZATION / 2 3 7
C L U STE R E D ORG A NIZATIO NS

Vadakkunnathan Temple, Trichur, India, 11th century

Rajarajeshwara Temple, Thanjavur, India, 11th century

House for Mrs. Robert Venturi, Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania, 1962–1964, Venturi and Short

Spaces Organized within a Spatial Field

2 3 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C LU S T ER ED O R G A N I Z AT I ON S

Soane House, London, England, 1812–1834, Sir John Soane

St. Carlo alle Quattro Fontane, Rome, 1633–1641,

Francesco Borromini

Bank of England, London, England, 1788–1833, Sir John Soane

Spaces Organized by Axial Symmetries

O RGANIZATION / 2 3 9
C L U STE R E D ORG A NIZATIO NS

Mercer’s Castle (Fonthill), Doylestown, Pennsylvania, 1908–1910,

Henry Mercer

Friedman House, Pleasantville, N.Y., 1950, Frank Lloyd Wright

Wyntoon, Country Estate for the Hearst Family in Northern California,1903, Bernard Maybeck Spaces Organized by Site Conditions

2 4 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C LU S T ER ED O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Fallingwater (Kaufmann House), near Ohiopyle, Pennsylvania ,1936–1937, Frank Lloyd Wright

Morris House (Project), Mount Kisco, New York,

1958, Louis Kahn

Spaces Organized by Geometric Pattern Gamble House, Pasadena, California, 1908, Greene & Greene

O RGANIZATION / 2 4 1
G R I D OR G A N IZ ATIO NS

A grid organization consists of forms and spaces

whose positions in space and relationships with
one another are regulated by a three-dimensional
grid pattern or field.

A grid is created by two, usually perpendicular,

sets of parallel lines that establish a regular
pattern of points at their intersections. Projected
into the third dimension, the grid pattern is
transformed into a set of repetitive, modular units
of space.

The organizing power of a grid results from the

regularity and continuity of its pattern that
pervades the elements it organizes. Its pattern
establishes a stable set or field of reference points
and lines in space with which the spaces of a grid
organization, although dissimilar in size, form, or
function, can share a common relationship.

2 4 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 G R ID O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

A grid is established in architecture most often by a

skeletal structural system of columns and beams. Within
the field of this grid, spaces can occur as isolated events
or as repetitions of the grid module. Regardless of their
disposition within the field, these spaces, if seen as positive
forms, will create a second set of negative spaces.

Since a three-dimensional grid consists of repetitive,

modular units of space, it can be subtracted from, added
to, or layered, and still maintain its identity as a grid with
the ability to organize spaces. These formal manipulations
can be used to adapt a grid form to its site, to define an
entrance or outdoor space, or to allow for its growth and
expansion.

To accommodate the specific dimensional requirements of

its spaces or to articulate zones of space for circulation or
service, a grid can be made irregular in one or two directions.
This dimensional transformation would create a hierarchical
set of modules differentiated by size, proportion, and
location.

A grid can also undergo other transformations. Portions of

the grid can slide to alter the visual and spatial continuity
across its field. A grid pattern can be interrupted to define
a major space or accommodate a natural feature of its site.
A portion of the grid can be dislocated and rotated about
a point in the basic pattern. Across its field, a grid can
transform its image from a pattern of points to lines, to
planes, and finally, to volumes.

O RGANIZATION / 2 4 3
G R I D OR G A N IZ ATIO NS

City of Priene, Turkey, founded 334 B.C. Plan of Dura-Europos, near Salhiyé, Syria, 4th century B.C.

Mosque of Tinmal, Morocco, 1153–1154

2 4 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 G R ID O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Crystal Palace, London, England, Great Exhibition of 1851, Sir Joseph Paxton

IIT Library Building (Project), Chicago, Illinois, 1942–1943, Mies van der Rohe Business Men’s Assurance Co. of America, Kansas City,
Missouri, 1963, SOM

O RGANIZATION / 2 4 5
G R I D OR G A N IZ ATIO NS

Hospital Project, Venice, 1964–1966, Le Corbusier

Centraal Beheer Office Building, Apeldoorn, The Netherlands, Adler House (Project), Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1954, Louis Kahn
1972, Herman Hertzberger with Lucas & Niemeyer

2 4 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 G R ID O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

4 3

Shodhan House, Ahmedabad, India, 1956, Le Corbusier

O RGANIZATION / 2 4 7
G R I D OR G A N IZ ATIO NS

Gandhi Ashram Museum, Ahmedabad, India, 1958–1963, Charles Correa

Snyderman House, Fort Wayne, Indiana, 1972, Michael Graves

Manabe Residence, Tezukayama, Osaka, Japan, 1976–1977, Tadao Ando

2 4 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 G R ID O R GA N I Z AT I ON S

Eric Boissonas House I, New Canaan, Connecticut, 1956, Philip Johnson

Kimball Art Museum, Forth Worth, Texas, 1967–1972, Louis Kahn

O RGANIZATION / 2 4 9
Abu Simbel, Great Temple of Rameses II, 1301–1235 B.C.
5
Circulation
“… we have been observing that the human body, which is our most
fundamental three-dimensional possession, has not itself been a central
concern in the understanding of architectural form; that architecture, to
the extent that it is considered an art, is characterized in its design stages
as an abstract visual art and not as a body-centered art … We believe
that the most essential and memorable sense of three-dimensionality
originates in the body experience and that this sense may constitute a
basis for understanding spatial feeling in our experience of buildings.

…The interplay between the world of our bodies and the world of our
dwelling places is always in flux. We make places that are an expression
of our haptic experiences even as these experiences are generated by the
places we have already created. Whether we are conscious or innocent of
this process, our bodies and our movement are in constant dialogue with
our buildings.”

Charles Moore and Robert Yudell

Body, Memory, and Architecture
1977
C I R C UL ATION : M OVEMENT TH RO UGH SPACE

The path of our movement can be conceived as the perceptual thread that links
the spaces of a building, or any series of interior or exterior spaces, together.

Since we move in Time

through a Sequence
of Spaces,
we experience a space in relation to where we’ve been and where we anticipate
going. This chapter presents the principal components of a building’s circulation
system as positive elements that affect our perception of the forms and
spaces of the building.

Skylighted Concourse, Olivetti Headquarters

(Project), Milton Keynes, England, 1971,
James Stirling & Michael Wilford

2 5 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C IR C U LAT ION E L E M E N T S

Approach

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CI RCULATION / 2 5 3
A P P R O ACH

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Prior to actually passing into the interior of a building, we approach its entrance along a path. This is
the first phase of the circulation system, during which we are prepared to see, experience, and use the
spaces within a building.

The approach to a building and its entrance may vary in duration from a few paces through a
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distinction between inside and outside.

2 5 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 A P P ROA C H

Frontal
A frontal approach leads directly to the entrance of a building
along a straight, axial path. The visual goal that terminates
the approach is clear; it may be the entire front facade of a
building or an elaborated entrance within the plane.

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front facade and form of a building. The path can be redirected
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emphasizes the three-dimensional form of a building as we
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viewed intermittently during the approach to clarify its
position or it may be hidden until the point of arrival.

CI RCULATION / 2 5 5
A P P R O ACH

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Portals and gateways have traditionally been

means of orienting us to the path beyond and
welcoming or guarding against our entry.

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2 5 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 A P P ROA C H

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CI RCULATION / 2 5 7
A P P R O ACH

Glass House
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1949, Philip Johnson

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2 5 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 A P P ROA C H

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CI RCULATION / 2 5 9
A P P R O ACH

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to the east end of the Parthenon.

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2 6 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R
 A P P ROA C H

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CI RCULATION / 2 6 1
E NTR AN C E

Entering a building, a room within a building,

or a defined field of exterior space, involves
the act of penetrating a vertical plane that
distinguishes one space from another and
separates ”here” from “there.”

The act of entering can be signified in more

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may be a passage through an implied plane
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spatial continuity between two spaces is
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to define and enclose a space or series of
spaces, an entrance is accommodated by an
opening in the plane of the wall. The form of
the opening, however, can range from a simple
hole in the wall to an elaborate, articulated
gateway.

Regardless of the form of the space being

entered or the form of its enclosure, the
entrance into the space is best signified
by establishing a real or implied plane
perpendicular to the path of the approach.

2 6 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 E N T RA N C E

Entrances may be grouped formally into the

following categories: flush, projected, and recessed.
A flush entrance maintains the continuity of the
surface of a wall and can be, if desired, deliberately
obscured. A projected entrance forms a transitional
space, announces its function to the approach, and
provides overhead shelter. A recessed entrance also
provides shelter and receives a portion of exterior
space into the realm of the building.

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contrast with the form of the space to reinforce its
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within the frontal plane of a building or be placed
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about its opening. The location of an entrance
relative to the form of the space being entered will
determine the configuration of the path and the
pattern of the activities within the space.

The notion of an entrance can be visually reinforced

by:
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decorative embellishment

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CI RCULATION / 2 6 3
E NTR AN C E

Piazza San Marco
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2 6 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 E N T RA N C E

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A curving drive leads to an entranceway for automobiles while the front door
to the interior of this residence is in an entry court beyond.

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building as a whole facing a public space and another at the
size of a person entering the church.

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The entrance colonnade is scaled to the public nature of the building.

CI RCULATION / 2 6 5
E NTR AN C E

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2 6 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 E N T RA N C E

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Elaborated openings within vertical planes mark the entrances to these two buildings.

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CI RCULATION / 2 6 7
E NTR AN C E

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2 6 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 E N T RA N C E

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CI RCULATION / 2 6 9
E NTR AN C E

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2 7 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 E N T RA N C E

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A projected entry space can reorient the principal axis of a
building organization to that of the exterior space it fronts.

Pavilion of Commerce

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E NTR AN C E

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2 7 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 E N T RA N C E

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CI RCULATION / 2 7 3
E NTR AN C E

Steps and ramps introduce a vertical dimension and add

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2 7 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 E N T RA N C E

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through which one passes in moving from one place to another.

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The main entrance frames a view to the garden and hills beyond.

CI RCULATION / 2 7 5
C ON F IG U R ATION OF TH E PATH

All paths of movement, whether of people, cars,

goods, or services, are linear in nature. And all paths
have a starting point, from which we are taken
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The contour of a path depends on our mode of
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freedom, and a car even less, in changing its pace
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greater volume of space than their bodily dimensions
and greater freedom of choice along a path.

The intersection or crossing of paths is always a

point of decision-making for the person approaching
it. The continuity and scale of each path at an
intersection can help us distinguish between major
routes leading to major spaces and secondary
paths leading to lesser spaces. When the paths at
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space should be provided to allow people to pause and
orient themselves. The form and scale of entrances
and paths should also convey the functional and
symbolic distinction between public promenades,
private halls, and service corridors.

The nature of the configuration of a path both

influences and is influenced by the organizational
pattern of the spaces it links. The configuration
of a path may reinforce a spatial organization by
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contrast with the form of the spatial organization
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able to map out in our minds the overall configuration
of the paths in a building, our orientation within the
building and our understanding of its spatial layout
will be made clear.

2 7 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C O N F IG U R AT IO N O F T H E PAT H

1. Linear
All paths are linear. A straight path, however, can be
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addition, it can be curvilinear or segmented, intersect
other paths, have branches, or form a loop.

2. Radial
A radial configuration has linear paths extending from or
terminating at a central, common point.

3. Spiral
A spiral configuration is a single, continuous path that
originates from a central point, revolves around it, and
becomes increasingly distant from it.

4. Grid
A grid configuration consists of two sets of parallel paths
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rectangular fields of space.

5. Network
A network configuration consists of paths that connect
established points in space.

6. Composite
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are centers of activity, entrances to rooms and halls,
and places for vertical circulation provided by stairways,
ramps, and elevators. These nodes punctuate the paths
of movement through a building and provide opportunities
for pause, rest, and reorientation. To avoid the creation of
a disorienting maze, a hierarchical order among the paths
and nodes of a building should be established by differ-
entiating their scale, form, length, and placement.

CI RCULATION / 2 7 7
C ON F IG U R ATION OF TH E PATH

Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut
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2 7 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C O N F IG U R AT IO N OF T H E PAT H

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Section

House in Old Westbury
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Linear Paths as Organizing Elements

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CI RCULATION / 2 7 9
C ON F IG U R ATION OF TH E PATH

Shodhan House
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Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts,

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2 8 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C O N F IG U R AT IO N OF T H E PAT H

Scarborough College
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Haystack Mountain School of Arts and Crafts,

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CI RCULATION / 2 8 1
C ON F IG U R ATION OF TH E PATH

Karlsruhe
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2 8 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C O N F IG U R AT IO N OF T H E PAT H

Eastern State Penitentiary
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University Art Museum, University of California–Berkeley, 1971,

Mario J. Ciampi and Associates

CI RCULATION / 2 8 3
C ON F IG U R ATION OF TH E PATH

Spiral Configurations

Museum of Endless Growth (Project),

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Museum of Western Art, Tokyo,

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Mezzanine Plan Roof Plan

2 8 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C O N F IG U R AT IO N OF T H E PAT H

Borobodur
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walls ornamented with reliefs illustrating the life of
Buddha and the principles of his teaching.

Guggenheim Museum
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CI RCULATION / 2 8 5
C ON F IG U R ATION OF TH E PATH

Grid Configurations Typical layout for a Roman Camp
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Hospital Project
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2 8 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C O N F IG U R AT IO N O F T H E PAT H

Jaipur
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Priene, founded 4th century B.C.

Plan of an Ideal City
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Manhattan
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CI RCULATION / 2 8 7
C O N F IG U RATION OF TH E PATH

Paris
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Network Configurations

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2 8 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C O N F IG U R AT IO N O F T H E PAT H

Yi Yuan (Garden of Contentment), Suzhou, China,

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Plan for Washington, D.C.

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CI RCULATION / 2 8 9
PATH–SPA C E RE L AT IO NSH IPS

Paths may be related to the spaces they link in the

following ways. They may:

Pass by Spaces
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the spaces.

Pass through Spaces

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along its edge.
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of rest and movement within it.

Terminate in a Space
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enter functionally or symbolically important spaces.

2 9 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PAT H– S PA C E R EL AT I ON S H I P S

Section

Plan

Mortuary Temple of Rameses III
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Stern House
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CI RCULATION / 2 9 1
PATH–SPA C E RE L AT IO NSH IPS

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Farnsworth House
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Palazzo Antonini
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2 9 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PAT H– S PA C E R EL AT I ON S H I P S

Neur Vahr Apartment Building
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Eric Boissonas House II
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CI RCULATION / 2 9 3
FOR M OF THE C IRCULATIO N SPACE

A vaulted staircase,
after a drawing by William R. Ware

Spaces for movement form an integral part of any building organization and occupy a significant The form of a circulation space varies according to
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how:
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however, should accommodate the movement of people as they promenade, pause, rest, or take in t
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are articulated;
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2 9 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 F O R M O F T HE C IR C U LAT I ON S PA C E

A circulation space may be:

Enclosed
forming a public galleria or private corridor that relates to
the spaces it links though entrances in a wall plane;
Open on One Side
forming a balcony or gallery that provides visual and
spatial continuity with the spaces it links;
Open on Both Sides
forming a colonnaded passageway that becomes a
physical extension of the space it passes through.

The width and height of a circulation space should be

proportionate with the type and amount of movement it
must handle. A distinction in scale should be established
between a public promenade, a more private hall, and a
service corridor.

A narrow, enclosed path naturally encourages forward

motion. To accommodate more traffic as well as to create
spaces for pausing, resting, or viewing, sections of a path
can be widened. The path can also be enlarged by merging
with the spaces it passes through.

Within a large space, a path can be random, without form

or definition, and be determined by the activities and
arrangement of furnishings within the space.

CI RCULATION / 2 9 5
FOR M OF THE C IRCULATIO N SPACE

Cloister, St. Maria della Pace
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2 9 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 F O R M O F T HE C IR C U LAT I ON S PA C E

Examples of various forms of spaces used for movement through a building.

A hall opening through a colonnade onto an interior

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exterior courtyard

Raised hall, Residence in Morris County
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CI RCULATION / 2 9 7
FOR M OF THE C IRCULATIO N SPACE

Stairs and stairways provide for our vertical movement between the
levels of a building or outdoor space. The slope of a stairway, determined
by the dimensions of its risers and treads, should be proportioned to
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physically tiring as well as psychologically forbidding, and can make
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fit our stride.

A stairway should be wide enough to comfortably accommodate our

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up or down the steps. The width of a stairway also provides a visual clue
to the public or private nature of the stairway. Wide, shallow steps can
serve as an invitation, while a narrow, steep stairway can lead to more
private places.

While the act of traversing up a stairway may convey privacy, aloofness,

or detachment, the process of going down can imply moving toward
secure, protected, or stable ground.

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and outlook from the stairway. Together with the pitch of a stair, the
locations of landings determine the rhythm and choreography of our
movements as we ascend or descend its steps.

2 9 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 F O R M O F T HE C IR C U LAT I ON S PA C E

Stairs, in accommodating a change in level, can reinforce the path

of movement, interrupt it, accommodate a change in its course, or
terminate it prior to entering a major space.

The configuration of a stairway determines the direction of our path

as we ascend or descend its steps. There are several basic ways
in which to configure the runs of a
stairway.

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CI RCULATION / 2 9 9
FOR M OF THE C IRCULATIO N SPACE

The space a stairway occupies can be great, but its form can be fitted into
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volumetric solid from which space has been carved out for movement as
well as rest.

The stairway can run along one of the edges of a room, wrap around the
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be extended into a series of platforms for seating or terraces for activity.

The path of a stair can rise between walls through a narrow shaft of space
to offer access to a private place or signify unapproachability.

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do treads that spill out at the bottom of a stairway.

3 0 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 F O R M O F T HE C IR C U LAT I ON S PA C E

A stairway can skirt an edge or wind

around the boundaries of a space.

A stairway can be expressed as a

sculptural form either attached to an
edge or freestanding within a space.

A stairway can be an organizing element and weave together

a series of spaces at different levels of a building or with an
outdoor space.

CI RCULATION / 3 0 1
FOR M OF THE C IRCULATIO N SPACE

Stairs are three-dimensional forms just as moving up or down a stairway

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exploited when we treat it as sculpture, freestanding within a space or
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elaborated stairway.

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3 0 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 F O R M O F T HE C IR C U LAT I ON S PA C E

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CI RCULATION / 3 0 3
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6
Proportion & Scale
“…Within the Villa Foscari you are aware of the thickness of the walls
that separate the rooms, each of which has been given definitive and
precise form. At either end of the cross-arm of the central hall is a
square room measuring 16 x 16 feet. It lies between a larger and a
smaller rectangular room, the one 12 x 16, the other 16 x 24 feet, or
twice as large. The smaller has its longer wall, the larger its shorter,
in common with the square room. Palladio placed great emphasis on
these simple ratios: 3:4, 4:4, and 4:6, which are those found in musical
harmony. The width of the central hall is also based on 16. Its length
is less exact because the thickness of the walls must be added to the
simple dimensions of the rooms. The special effect of the hall in this
firmly interlocked composition is produced by its great height, the barrel-
vaulted ceiling towering high above the side rooms into the mezzanine.
But, you may ask, does the visitor actually experience these proportions?
The answer is yes—not the exact measurements but the fundamental
idea behind them. You receive an impression of a noble, firmly integrated
composition in which each room presents an ideal form within a greater
whole. You also feel the rooms are related in size. Nothing is trivial—all
is great and whole.”

Steen Eiler Rasmussen

Experiencing Architecture
1962
P R OP ORTION & SCALE

This chapter discusses the interrelated issues of proportion and scale. While
scale alludes to the size of something compared to a reference standard or
to the size of something else, proportion refers to the proper or harmonious
relation of one part to another or to the whole. This relationship may not only
be one of magnitude, but also of quantity or degree. While the designer usually
has a range of choices when determining the proportions of things, some are
given to us by the nature of materials, by how building elements respond to
forces, and by how things are made.

3 0 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 MAT ER IA L PR OP ORT I ON S

All building materials in architecture have distinct

properties of elasticity, hardness, and durability. And
they all have an ultimate strength beyond which they
cannot extend themselves without fracturing, breaking,
or collapsing. Since the stresses in a material resulting
from the force of gravity increase with size, all materials
also have rational dimensions beyond which they cannot
go. For example, a stone slab that is 4 inches thick and
8 feet long can be reasonably expected to support itself
as a bridge between two supports. But if its size were to
increase fourfold, to 16 inches thick and 32 feet long,
it would probably collapse under its own weight. Even a
strong material like steel has lengths beyond which it
cannot span without exceeding its ultimate strength.

All materials also have rational proportions that are

dictated by their inherent strengths and weaknesses.
Masonry units like brick, for example, are strong in
compression and depend on their mass for strength. Such
materials are therefore volumetric in form. Materials like
steel are strong in both compression and tension and can
therefore be formed into linear columns and beams as well
as planar sheet materials. Wood, being a flexible and fairly
elastic material, can be used as linear posts and beams,
planar boards, and as a volumetric element in log cabin
construction.

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 0 7

STR UC TU RA L P R OPO RTIO NS

In the construction of architecture, structural elements are called

upon to span spaces and transmit their loads through vertical
supports to the foundation system of a building. The size and
proportion of these elements are directly related to the structural
tasks they perform and can therefore be visual indicators of the size
and scale of the spaces they help enclose.

Beams, for example, transmit their loads horizontally across space

to their vertical supports. If the span or load of a beam were doubled,
its bending stresses would likewise double, possibly causing it to
collapse. But if its depth were doubled, its strength would increase
fourfold. Depth, therefore, is the critical dimension of a beam and its
depth-to-span ratio can be a useful indicator of its structural role.

In a similar manner, columns become thicker as their loads and

unsupported height increase. Together, beams and columns form a
skeletal structural framework that defines modules of space. By their
size and proportion, columns and beams articulate space and give it
scale and a hierarchical structure. This can be seen in the way joists
are supported by beams, which in turn are supported by girders. Each
element increases in depth as its load and span increase in size.

South gateway of the third fence of Naigu, Ise Inner Shrine,

Mie Prefecture, Japan, A.D. 690

3 0 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S T R U C T U R A L PR OP ORT I ON S

The proportions of other structural elements, such as

bearing walls, floor and roof slabs, vaults, and domes, also
give us visual clues to their role in a structural system as
well as the nature of their material. A masonry wall, being
strong in compression but relatively weak in bending, will be
thicker than a reinforced concrete wall doing the same work.
A steel column will be thinner than a wood post supporting
the same load. A 4 inch-thick reinforced concrete slab will
span farther than 4 inch wood decking.

As a structure depends less on the weight and stiffness

of a material and more on its geometry for stability, as in
the case of a membrane structure or a space frame, its
elements will get thinner and thinner until they lose their
ability to give a space scale and dimension.

Wood and Brick

Schwartz House, Two Rivers, Wisconsin, 1939, Frank Lloyd Wright

Membrane
Roof of Olympic Swimming Arena, Munich, Germany, 1972, Fred Otto

Steel
Crown Hall, Illinois Institute of Technology, Chicago, 1956, Mies van der Rohe

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 0 9

M A N UFA C TU RE D PRO PO RTIO NS

Many architectural elements are sized and proportioned

not only according to their structural properties
and function, but also by the process through which
they are manufactured. Because these elements are
mass-produced in factories, they have standard sizes
and proportions imposed on them by the individual
manufacturers or by industry standards.

Concrete block and common brick, for example, are

produced as modular building units. Although they differ
from each other in size, both are proportioned on a similar
basis. Plywood and other sheathing materials also are
manufactured as modular units with fixed proportions.
Steel sections have fixed proportions generally agreed
upon by the steel manufacturers and the American
Institute of Steel Construction. Windows and doors have
Standard Casement Window Units
proportions that are set by the individual manufacturers
of the units.

Since these and other materials must ultimately come

together and achieve a high degree of fit in the construc-
tion of a building, the standard sizes and proportions of
factory-produced elements affect the size, proportion,
and spacing of other materials as well. Standard door
and window units are sized and proportioned to fit into
modular masonry openings. Wood or metal studs and
joists are spaced to accept modular sheathing materials.

3 1 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PR O PO RT IO N I N G S Y S T E M S

Even considering the proportional constraints imposed on a

form by the nature of its material, its structural function, or
by the manufacturing process, the designer still has the abil-
ity to control the proportion of the forms and spaces within
and around a building. The decision to make a room square or 16 x 24
18 x 22
oblong in plan, intimate or lofty in scale, or to endow a build- 20 x 20
ing with an imposing, higher-than-usual facade, legitimately
falls to the designer. But on what basis are these decisions
made? 400 square feet 8 x 50

If a space 400 square feet in area were required, what A square space, having four equal faces, is static in nature. If its length expands and
dimensions—what ratios of width-to-length and length-to- dominates its width, it becomes more dynamic. While square and oblong spaces define places
height—should it have? Of course, the functioning of the for activity, linear spaces encourage movement and are susceptible to subdivision into a
space and the nature of the activities to be accommodated number of zones.
will influence its form and proportion.

A technical factor, such as its structure, might limit one

or more of its dimensions. Its context—the exterior
environment or an adjacent interior space—might pressure
its form. The decision might be to recall a space from
another time and place and to simulate its proportions.
Or the decision might be based finally on an aesthetic,
visual judgment of the “desirable” relationships among the
dimensions of the parts and the whole of a building.

Woodland Chapel,
Stockholm, Sweden, 1918–1920, Erik Gunnar Asplund

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 1 1

P R OP ORTION IN G S YSTEMS

In truth, our perception of the physical dimensions of

architecture, of proportion and scale, is imprecise. It is
distorted by the foreshortening of perspective and distance,
and by cultural biases, and is thus difficult to control and
predict in an objective and precise manner.

Small or slight differences in the dimensions of a form are

especially difficult to discern. While a square, by definition,
has four equal sides and four right angles, a rectangle can
appear to be exactly square, almost a square, or very much
unlike a square. It can appear to be long, short, stubby, or
squat, depending on our point of view. We use these terms to
give a form or figure a visual quality that is largely a result of
how we perceive its proportions. It is not, however, an exact
science.

If the precise dimensions and relationships of a design

that is regulated by a proportioning system cannot be
objectively perceived in a similar manner by everyone, why are
proportioning systems useful and of particular significance
in architectural design?

The intent of all theories of proportions is to create a

a
Ratio: sense of order and harmony among the elements in a
b
visual construction. According to Euclid, a ratio refers to
a c a b c d the quantitative comparison of two similar things, while
Proportion: = or = = = proportion refers to the equality of ratios. Underlying any
b d b c d e
proportioning system, therefore, is a characteristic ratio,
a permanent quality that is transmitted from one ratio
Proportion is the equality between two ratios in
to another. Thus, a proportioning system establishes a
which the first of the four terms divided by the
consistent set of visual relationships between the parts
second equals the third divided by the fourth.
of a building, as well as between the parts and the whole.
Although these relationships may not be immediately
perceived by the casual observer, the visual order they create
can be sensed, accepted, or even recognized through a series
of repetitive experiences. Over a period of time, we might
begin to see the whole in the part, and the part in the whole.

Whole Part

3 1 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 PR O PO RT IO N IN G S Y S T E M S

Proportioning systems go beyond the functional and technical Theories of Proportion:

determinants of architectural form and space to provide an
aesthetic rationale for their dimensions. They can visually unify t Golden Section
the multiplicity of elements in an architectural design by having
t Classical Orders
all of its parts belong to the same family of proportions. They
can provide a sense of order in, and heighten the continuity of, a t Renaissance Theories
sequence of spaces. They can establish relationships between the
exterior and interior elements of a building. t Modulor

A number of theories of “desirable” proportions have been developed t Ken

in the course of history. The notion of devising a system for design
t Anthropometry
and communicating its means is common to all periods. Although
the actual system varies from time to time, the principles involved t
Scale A fixed proportion used in determining
and their value to the designer remain the same. measurements and dimensions

1 √2 √3 √4 √5

Types of Proportion:
c–b c
Arithmetic = (e.g., 1, 2, 3)
b–a c
a
c–b c
c Geometric = (e.g., 1, 2, 4)
b–a b
b
c–b c
Harmonic = (e.g., 2, 3, 6)
b–a a
a b c

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 1 3

GOL D EN SE C TION

Mathematical systems of proportion originate from the Pythagorean

concept of “all is number” and the belief that certain numerical
relationships manifest the harmonic structure of the universe. One
of these relationships that has been in use ever since the days of
antiquity is the proportion known as the Golden Section. The Greeks
recognized the dominating role the Golden Section played in the
C b B a A C B A proportions of the human body. Believing that both humanity and the
shrines housing their deities should belong to a higher universal order,
The geometric construction of the Golden Section, first by extension, and then by division. they utilized these same proportions in their temple structures.
Renaissance architects also explored the Golden Section in their
A work. In more recent times, Le Corbusier based his Modulor system on
AB = a the Golden Section. Its use in architecture endures even today.

BC = b The Golden Section can be defined as the ratio between two sections
of a line, or the two dimensions of a plane figure, in which the lesser of
Ø = Golden Section
a the two is to the greater as the greater is to the sum of both. It can
Ø = b = b = 0.618 be expressed algebraically by the equation of two ratios:
a+b
C B
a
= b
b a+b
A
The Golden Section has some remarkable algebraic and geometric
properties that account for its existence in architecture as well as in
the structures of many living organisms. Any progression based on
the Golden Section is at once additive and geometrical.
B
Another progression that closely approximates the Golden Section
in whole numbers is the Fibonacci Series: 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13….
Each term again is the sum of the two preceding ones, and the ratio
between two consecutive terms tends to approximate the Golden
Section as the series progresses to infinity.

In the numerical progression: 1, Ø 1, Ø 2, Ø 3… Ø n, each term is the

sum of the two preceding ones.

3 1 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 G O LD E N S E C T I ON

A rectangle whose sides are proportioned according to

the Golden Section is known as a Golden Rectangle. If a
square is constructed on its smaller side, the remaining
portion of the original rectangle would be a smaller but
similar Golden Rectangle. This operation can be repeated
indefinitely to create a gradation of squares and Golden
Rectangles. During this transformation, each part remains
similar to all of the other parts, as well as to the whole.
The diagrams on this page illustrate this additive and
geometrical growth pattern of progressions based on the
Golden Section.

AB BC CD
= = …… = Ø
BC CD DE

AB + BC = CD
BC
.. + CD = DE
..
.. AB C E F G H
. D
etc.

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 1 5

G O L D EN SE C TION

The Parthenon, Athens, 447–432 B.C., Ictinus and Callicrates

D
These two graphic analyses illustrate the use of the Golden Section in
the proportioning of the facade of the Parthenon. It is interesting to
note that while both analyses begin by fitting the facade into a Golden
Rectangle, each analysis then varies from the other in its approach
to proving the existence of the Golden Section and its effect on the
dimensions and distribution of elements across the facade.
C B
AB = BD = AD = AE
BC AB BD AD

Ø Square Ø

Square Square
Ø

3 1 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 G O LDE N S E C T I ON

B
1 2 3 4 5

1
1
2 2 6

A 3
8 4
4 7
3
5 5

Tempietto, St. Pietro in Montorio, Rome, World Museum (Project), Geneva, 1929, Le Corbusier
1502–1510, Donato Bramante

Standard Gothic Plan and Section

After Moessel After F.M. Lund

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 1 7

R EG UL ATIN G L IN E S

Palazzo Farnese, Rome, 1515, Antonio da Sangallo the Younger

If the diagonals of two rectangles are either parallel or perpendicular to each

other, they indicate that the two rectangles have similar proportions. These
diagonals, as well as lines that indicate the common alignment of elements,
are called regulating lines. They were seen previously in the discussion of
the Golden Section, but they can also be used to control the proportion and
placement of elements in other proportioning systems as well. Le Corbusier, in
Towards a New Architecture, stated the following:

“A regulating line is an assurance against capriciousness; it is a means of

verification which can ratify all work created in fervour…. It confers on the
work the quality of rhythm. The regulating line brings in this tangible form of
mathematics which gives the reassuring perception of order. The choice of a
regulating line fixes the fundamental geometry of the work…. It is a means
The Pantheon, Rome, A.D. 120–124 to an end; it is not a recipe.”

3 1 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 R EG U L AT I N G L I N E S

2 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2

2 1 2 1 2
1/2
1 1/2
1 1/2
1 1/2
1/2

Villa Garches, Vaucresson, France, 1926–1927, Le Corbusier

In his essay, The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa, 1947, 2 1 2 1 2

Colin Rowe pointed out the similarity between
1 1/2

the spatial subdivision of a Palladian villa and the

structural grid of a villa by Le Corbusier. While both
villas shared a similar proportioning system and a
2

relationship to a higher mathematical order, Palladio’s

villa consisted of spaces with fixed shapes and
2

harmonic interrelationships. Le Corbusier’s villa was

composed of horizontal layers of free space defined by
the floor and roof slabs. The rooms varied in shape and
were asymmetrically arranged at each level.
Villa Foscari, Malcontenta, Italy, 1558, Andrea Palladio

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 1 9

C L A SSIC AL ORD E R S

Ionic Order, from the Temple on the Ilissus,

Athens, 449 B.C., Callicrates. After a drawing by
William R. Ware.

To the Greeks and Romans of classical antiquity, the Orders represented Because the sizes of columns varied according to the extent of a building,
in their proportioning of elements the perfect expression of beauty and the Orders were not based on a fixed unit of measurement. Rather, the
harmony. The basic unit of dimension was the diameter of the column. From intention was to ensure that all of the parts of any one building were
this module were derived the dimensions of the shaft, the capital, as well as proportionate and in harmony with one another.
the pedestal below and the entablature above, down to the smallest detail.
Intercolumniation—the system of spacing between columns—was also Vitruvius, in the time of Augustus, studied actual examples of the Orders
based on the diameter of the column. and presented his “ideal” proportions for each in his treatise, The Ten Books
on Architecture. Vignola recodified these rules for the Italian Renaissance
and his forms for the Orders are probably the best known today.

3 2 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C LA S S I C A L ORDE RS

Tuscan Doric Ionic Corinthian Composite

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 2 1

C L A SSIC AL ORD E R S

Tuscan

1 3/4 D
1/2 D
D

6 diameters
3/4 D
cornice
3/4 D

1/2 D
frieze
1/2 D
architrave
1/2 D

D
capital
1/2 D

2D

1D

The Classical Orders according to Vignola

1/2 D

cornice
3/4 D

1/2 D

3/4 D
frieze
3/4 D
7 diameters

1/2 D
architrave
1/2 D
capital
1/2 D
1/2 D

Doric

3 2 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 capital architrave frieze cornice
1/2 D 5/8 D 6/8 D 7/8 D
D

1/6 D
5/12 D
7/8 D

Corinthian
1/2 D 8 1/3 diameters 7/6 D 2 1/2 D 1/2 D 8 1/3 diameters 1/2 D 2 1/4 D

capital architrave frieze cornice

Ionic

7/6 D 3/4 D 3/4 D 1D D

6/9 D
5/12 D

1/4 D
1/9 D
1D

5/12 D

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 2 3

C LA S S I C A L ORDE RS
C L A SSICA L OR D E R S

1 1 1 1 2D 1
1 /2 1 21/4 1 3D 1
Pycnostyle Systyle Eustyle

1 3D 1 1 4D 1

Diastyle Araeostyle Classification of Temples according to their Intercolumniation

Vitruvius’ Rules for the Diameter, Height, and Spacing of Columns

10 D
91/2D 91/2D
81/2D 8D

11/2D 2D 21/4D 3D 4D

Pycnostyle Systyle Eustyle Diastyle Araeostyle

3 2 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C LA S S I C A L ORDE RS

centerline
3M 9P
18 3M 6P
3M 4P
16

3M 6P
14

4M 8P
2M
12

10

14 Modules
6

4 4M 8P 3M 4P 3M 4P 4M 8P
8M
2M 3M 6P

2M 9P
5M 9P

16M

Temple Front in the Tuscan Order

1M 1M 1M
2p

17M 2P
14M

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 2 5

R EN A ISSA N CE THE ORIES

St. Maria Novella, Florence, Italy.

Alberti designed the Renaissance facade (1456–1470)
to complete a Gothic church (1278–1350).

Pythagoras discovered that the consonances of the

Greek musical system could be expressed by the
simple numerical progression—1, 2, 3, 4—and
their ratios, 1:2, 1:3, 2:3, 3:4. This relationship led
the Greeks to believe they had found the key to the
mysterious harmony that pervaded the universe.
The Pythagorean creed was “Everything is arranged
according to numbers.” Plato later developed
Pythagoras’ aesthetics of numbers into an aesthetics
of proportion. He squared and cubed the simple
numerical progression to produce the double and triple
progressions, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 1, 3, 9, 27. For Plato,
these numbers and their ratios not only contained
the consonances of the Greek musical scale but also
expressed the harmonic structure of his universe.

The architects of the Renaissance, believing that their

buildings had to belong to a higher order, returned
to the Greek mathematical system of proportions.
Just as the Greeks conceived music to be geometry
translated into sound, Renaissance architects believed
that architecture was mathematics translated into
spatial units. Applying Pythagoras’ theory of means
Diagram by Francesco Giorgi, 1525, illustrating the series of interlocking ratios that results to the ratios of the intervals of the Greek musical
from applying Pythagoras’ theory of means to the intervals of the Greek musical scale. scale, they developed an unbroken progression of
ratios that formed the basis for the proportions of
their architecture. These series of ratios manifested
themselves not only in the dimensions of a room or a
facade, but also in the interlocking proportions of a
sequence of spaces or an entire plan.

3 2 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 R EN A IS S A N C E T H E ORI E S

Circle Square

Seven Ideal Plan Shapes for Rooms.

Andrea Palladio (1508–1580) was probably the most influential
architect of the Italian Renaissance. In The Four Books on Architecture,
first published in Venice in 1570, he followed in the footsteps of his
1:√2 3:4
predecessors, Alberti and Serlio, and proposed these seven “most
beautiful and proportionable manners of rooms.”

2:3 3:5 1:2

Determining the Heights of Rooms.

Palladio also proposed several methods for determining the height
of a room so that it would be in proper proportion to the room’s
width and length. The height of rooms with flat ceilings would 1.3
1 1 1
be equal to their width. The height of square rooms with vaulted
ceilings would be one-third greater than their width. For other
1
rooms, Palladio used Pythagoras’ theory of means to determine
their heights. Accordingly, there were three types of means:
arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic.

Arithmetic:
c – b c (e.g., 1, 2, 3…or 6, 9, 12)
=
b–a c
a
Geometric:
c–b c b
= (e.g., 1, 2, 4…or 4, 6, 9)
b–a b
c
Harmonic:
c–b c
= (e.g., 2, 3, 6…or 6, 8, 12)
b–a a

In each case, the height of a room is equal to the mean (b) between
the two extremes of the width (a) and length (c) of the room.

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 2 7

R EN A ISSA N CE THE ORIES

“Beauty will result from the form and correspondence of the whole,
with respect to the several parts, of the parts with regard to each
other, and of these again to the whole; that the structure may appear
an entire and complete body, wherein each member agrees with the
other, and all necessary to compose what you intend to form.”
—Andrea Palladio, The Four Books on Architecture, Book I, Chapter 1.

Villa Capra (The Rotunda), Vicenza, Italy, 1552–1567, Andrea Palladio

12 x 30, 6 x 15, 30 x 30

Palazzo Chiericati, Vicenza, Italy, 1550, Andrea Palladio

54 x 16 (18), 18 x 30, 18 x 18, 18 x 12

3 2 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 R EN A IS S A NC E T H E ORI E S

Villa Thiene, Cicogna, Italy, 1549, Andrea Palladio

18 x 36, 36 x 36, 36 x 18, 18 x 18, 18 x 12

Palazzo Iseppo Porto, Vicenza, Italy, 1552, Andrea Palladio

30 x 30, 20 x 30, 10 x 30, 45 x 45

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 2 9

M OD UL OR
226
140 86 Le Corbusier developed his proportioning system, the Modulor, to order “the
1 1 dimensions of that which contains and that which is contained.” He saw the
measuring tools of the Greeks, Egyptians, and other high civilizations as
being “infinitely rich and subtle because they formed part of the mathematics
of the human body, gracious, elegant, and firm, the source of that harmony
3
2 which moves us, beauty.” He therefore based his measuring tool, the Modulor,
on both mathematics (the aesthetic dimensions of the Golden Section and
the Fibonacci Series), and the proportions of the human body (functional
dimensions).
70 113 43
Le Corbusier began his study in 1942, and published The Modulor: A
183 43
Harmonious Measure to the Human Scale Universally Applicable to Architecture
and Mechanics in 1948. A second volume, Modulor II, was published in 1954.
226
43

183

140
70
70
226

113

113
113

113

86
The basic grid consists of three measures, 113, 70, and 43
centimeters, proportioned according to the Golden Section.

43 + 70 = 113
113 + 70 = 183
113 + 70 + 43 = 226 (2 x 113)

113, 183, and 226 define the space occupied by the human figure.
From 113 and 226, Le Corbusier developed the Red and Blue series,
diminishing scales of dimensions that were related to the stature of
the human figure.
226
16 + 27 + 27 + 27 16 + 27

183
16 + 27

140

113
27
27

86 86
70
16
27

43
27
16

3 3 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 M ODUL OR

2260

432
1829

863
678
1397

1130

534
432

863

698

330
1130

269

534

432
204

330
165

267
129

204
63 102

165
126
120 78

63 48 mm
39 30
24 18
15 11 Blue Series
9
6 Red Series

Le Corbusier saw the Modulor not merely as a series of numbers with

an inherent harmony, but as a system of measurements that could
govern lengths, surfaces, and volumes, and “maintain the human scale
everywhere.” It could “lend itself to an infinity of combinations; it ensures
unity with diversity . . . the miracle of numbers.”

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 3 1

M OD UL OR

2260

1397

863

534

330
204
126
78
48
30

126
204
330

534

863
30
48
78

2260
1397
The principal work of Le Corbusier that exemplified the use of the Modulor
was his Unité d’Habitation at Marseilles. It uses 15 measures of the
Modulor to bring human scale to a building that is 140 meters long, 24
meters wide, and 70 meters high.

Le Corbusier used these diagrams to illustrate the diversity of panel sizes

and surfaces that could be obtained with the proportions of the Modulor.

Facade Detail, Unité d’Habitation,

Firminy-Vert, France, 1965–1968, Le Corbusier

3 3 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 M ODUL OR

53
226
33
226
33
43 113

226
53

419 (366 + 53) 419

296
419

86

296
86

Plans and Section of Typical Apartment Unit,

Unité d’Habitation, Marseilles, 1946–1952, Le Corbusier

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 3 3

K EN

The traditional Japanese unit of measure, the shaku,

was originally imported from China. It is almost
equivalent to the English foot and divisible into
decimal units. Another unit of measure, the ken, was
introduced in the latter half of Japan’s Middle Ages.
Although it was originally used simply to designate
the interval between two columns and varied in
size, the ken was soon standardized for residential
architecture. Unlike the module of the Classical
Orders, which was based on the diameter of a column
and varied with the size of a building, the ken became
an absolute measurement.

The ken, however, was not only a measurement for the

construction of buildings. It evolved into an aesthetic
module that ordered the structure, materials, and
space of Japanese architecture.

Traditional Japanese House

2.4 Shaku

The tokonoma (picture recess) is a shallow,

slightly raised alcove for the display of a
5.8 Shaku

kakemono or flower arrangement. As the spiritual

center of a traditional Japanese house, the
tokonoma is located in its most formal room.
Elevation

1 Ken
1.3 Shaku

Partial Plan
0.5 Ken

Tokonoma
Shelving Recess

Study Place
1 Ken

0.5 Ken

Reception (Main Room) 0.5 Ken

3 3 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 KEN

Two methods of designing with the ken modular grid

developed that affected its dimension. In the Inaka-
ma method, the ken grid of 6 shaku determined the
center-to-center spacing of columns. Therefore, the 3-mat Room
standard tatami floor mat (3 x 6 shaku or 0.5 x 1
ken) varied slightly to allow for the thickness of the
columns.
4-mat Room
In the Kyo-ma method, the floor mat remained
constant (3.15 x 6.30 shaku) and the column
spacing (ken module) varied according to the size of
the room and ranged from 6.4 to 6.7 shaku.
41/2-mat Room
The size of a room is designated by the number of its
floor mats. The traditional floor mat was originally
proportioned to accommodate two persons sitting
or one person sleeping. As the ordering system of
the ken grid developed, however, the floor mat lost its
dependence on human dimensions and was subjected 6-mat Room
to the demands of the structural system and its
column spacing.

Because of their 1:2 modularity, the floor mats can

be arranged in a number of ways for any given room
size. And for each room size, a different ceiling height 8-mat Room
is established according to the following:

height of the ceiling (shaku), measured from the top

of the frieze board = number of mats x 0.3.

10-mat Room

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 3 5

K EN

In a typical Japanese residence, the ken grid

orders the structure as well as the additive,
space-to-space sequence of rooms. The
relatively small size of the module allows the
rectangular spaces to be freely arranged in
linear, staggered, or clustered patterns.

3 3 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 KEN

Elevations of a Traditional Japanese Residence

East Elevation

North Elevation

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 3 7

A N T HROP OM E TRY

Anthropometry refers to the measurement of the size and proportions of the

human body. While the architects of the Renaissance saw the proportions of
the human figure as a reaffirmation that certain mathematical ratios reflected
the harmony of their universe, anthropometric proportioning methods seek
not abstract or symbolic ratios, but functional ones. They are predicated
on the theory that forms and spaces in architecture are either containers
or extensions of the human body and should therefore be determined by its
dimensions.

The difficulty with anthropometric proportioning is the nature of the data

required for its use. For example, the dimensions given here in millimeters are
average measurements and are merely guidelines that should be modified to
satisfy specific user needs. Average dimensions must always be treated with
caution since variations from the norm will always exist due to the difference
between men and women, among various age and racial groups, even from one
individual to the next.
900
775

650 700
225
825

825
1710
900

1400
580

390
1200

220

740

480

650 840
720

3 3 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 A N T H ROP OM E T RY

The dimensions and proportions of the human body affect the

proportion of things we handle, the height and distance of things
we try to reach, and the dimensions of the furnishings we use for
sitting, working, eating, and sleeping. There is a difference between our
structural dimensions and those dimensional requirements that result
from how we reach for something on a shelf, sit down at a table, walk
down a set of stairs, or interact with other people. These are functional
dimensions and will vary according to the nature of the activity engaged
in and the social situation.

750
A special field that has developed from a concern with human factors

500
is ergonomics—the applied science that coordinates the design
of devices, systems, and environments with our physiological and
psychological capacities and requirements.
700
950

550

1580
1480
650
1330

1300
1200
625
390

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 3 9

A N T HROP OM E TRY

In addition to the elements that we use in a building, the dimensions of the

human body also affect the volume of space we require for movement, activity,
and rest. The fit between the form and dimensions of a space and our own body
dimensions can be a static one as when we sit in a chair, lean against a railing, or
nestle within an alcove space. There can also be a dynamic fit as when we enter
a building’s foyer, walk up a stairway, or move through the rooms and halls of a
building. A third type of fit is how a space accommodates our need to maintain
appropriate social distances and to have control over our personal space.

Public zone
Socia
lz 144"–300" (3658–7620 mm)
48"– one
144"
Per "–48

(121
son " (4
18

9 –36
58 m
al s 57

m)
pac –1
e 21
9m
m)

3 4 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 SCALE

While proportion pertains to an ordered set of mathematical

relationships among the dimensions of a form or space, scale
refers to how we perceive or judge the size of something in
relation to something else. In dealing with the issue of scale,
therefore, we are always comparing one thing to another.

The entity an object or space is being compared to may be

an accepted unit or standard of measurement. For example,
we can say that a table is, according to the U.S. Customary
System, 3 feet wide, 6 feet long, and 29 inches high. Using the
International Metric System, the same table would measure
914 mm wide, 1829 mm long, and 737 mm high. The physical
dimensions of the table have not changed, just the system
used to calculate its size.

In drawing, we use a scale to specify the ratio that determines

the relationship between an illustration to that which it
represents. For example, the scale of an architectural drawing
notes the size of a depicted building in comparison to the real
thing.

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 4 1

VI SU A L SC AL E

Of particular interest to designers is the notion of visual scale,

which refers not to the actual dimensions of things, but rather
to how small or large something appears to be in relation to its
normal size or to the size of other things in its context.

When we say something is small-scale or miniature, we usually

mean that thing appears to be smaller than its usual size.
Likewise, something that is large-scale is perceived as being
larger than what is normal or expected.

We speak of urban scale when we refer to the size of a project

in the context of a city, or neighborhood scale when we judge a
How large is this square?
building appropriate to its locale within a city, or street scale
when we note the relative sizes of elements fronting a roadway.

At the scale of a building, all elements, no matter how plain or

unimportant they may be, have a certain size. Its dimensions
may be predetermined by the manufacturer, or they may be
selected by the designer from a range of choices. Nevertheless,
we perceive the size of each element in relation to other parts
or to the whole of a composition.

Mechanical scale: the size or Visual scale: the size or

proportion of something relative proportion an element appears to
to an accepted standard of have relative to other elements of
measurement. known or assumed size.

For example, the size and proportion of windows in a building

facade are visually related to one another as well as to the
spaces between them and the overall dimensions of the facade.
If the windows are all of the same size and shape, they establish
a scale relative to the size of the facade.

If, however, one of the windows is larger than the others, it

would create another scale within the composition of the
facade. The jump in scale could indicate the size or significance
of the space behind the window, or it could alter our perception
of the size of the other windows or the overall dimensions of
the facade.

3 4 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 V I S UA L S C A L E

Many building elements have sizes and characteristics that are

familiar to us and which we use to gauge the sizes of other elements
around them. Such elements as residential window units and
doorways help give us an idea of how large a building is and how many
stories it has. Stairs and certain modular materials, such as brick
and concrete block, help us measure the scale of a space. Because
of their familiarity, these elements, if oversized, can also be used
to deliberately alter our perception of the size of a building form or
space.

Some buildings and spaces have two or more scales operating

simultaneously. The entrance portico of the library at the University
of Virginia, modeled after the Pantheon in Rome, is scaled to the
overall building form while the doorway and windows behind it are
scaled to the size of the spaces within the building.

University of Virginia, Charlottesville, 1817–1826,

Thomas Jefferson

The recessed entry portals of Reims Cathedral are scaled to the

dimensions of the facade and can be seen and recognized at a
distance as the entrances to the interior space of the church. As we
get closer, however, we see that the actual entrances are really simple
doors within the larger portals and are scaled to our dimensions, to
a human scale.

Reims Cathedral, 1211–1290

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 4 3

HU M AN SC AL E

Human scale in architecture is based on the dimensions and

proportions of the human body. It has already been mentioned in the
section on anthropometric proportioning that our dimensions vary from
individual to individual and should not be used as an absolute measuring
device. We can, however, gauge a space whose width is such that we can
reach out and touch its walls. Similarly, we can judge its height if we can
reach up and touch the ceiling plane overhead. Once we can no longer do
these things, we must rely on visual rather than tactile clues to give us
a sense of the scale of a space.

For these clues, we can use elements that have human meaning and
whose dimensions are related to the dimensions of our posture, pace,
reach, or grasp. Such elements as a table or chair, the risers and treads
of a stairway, the sill of a window, and the lintel over a doorway, not only
help us judge the size of a space but also give it a human scale.

While something that is monumental in scale makes us feel small in comparison,

a space that is intimate in scale describes an environment in which we feel
comfortable, in control, or important. Intimate settings of tables and lounge
chairs in a large hotel lobby tell us something about the expansiveness of the
space as well as define comfortable, human-scale areas within it. A stairway
leading up to a second-story balcony or loft can give us an idea of the vertical
dimension of a room as well as suggest a human presence. A window in a
blank wall conveys something about the space behind it and also leaves the
impression that it is inhabited.

3 4 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 H UM A N S C A L E

Of a room’s three dimensions, its height has

a greater effect on its scale than either its
width or length. While the walls of the room
provide enclosure, the height of the ceiling plane
overhead determines its qualities of shelter and
intimacy.

Raising the ceiling height of a 12 X 16-foot

room from 8 to 9 feet will be more noticeable
and affect its scale more than if its width were
increased to 13 feet or its length to 17 feet.
While the 12 X 16-foot room with a 9-foot
ceiling might feel comfortable to most people, a
50 X 50-foot space with the same ceiling height
would begin to feel oppressive.

In addition to the vertical dimension of a space,

other factors that affect its scale are:
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PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 4 5

A S C AL AR C OMPA RISO N

On these two pages are architectural structures from various

historic periods and places drawn to the same or similar scale.
Our perception of how big something or someplace is is always
relative to its context and to the size of what we are familar with,
such as the length of a Boeing 747 airliner.

Yingxian Timber Pagoda, China, 1056

Empire State Building, New York City, 1931,

Shreve, Lamb, and Harmon

Plan of Civic Center, Isfahan, Capital of Persia, 1628

Stonehenge, c. 1800 B.C. Shwezigon Pagoda, Pagan, near Nyangu, Burma, 1058 Temple of Amun at Karnak, Egypt, c. 1500–323 B.C.

Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon, USA, begun c. A.D. 920

Great Pyramid of Cheops at Giza, Egypt, c. 2500 B.C. Villa Farnese, Caprarola, Italy, 1559–1560, Giacomo Vignola

3 4 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 A S C A LA R COM PA RI S ON

St. Peter’s Basilica, 1607, Michelangelo Buonarroti

and Carlo Maderno

Baths of Caracalla, Rome, A.D. 212–216 Hagia Sophia, Istanbul, Turkey, A.D. 532–537

St. Pancras Station, London, England, 1863–1876, George Gilbert Scott

Mosque of Sultan Hasan, Cairo, Egypt, The Colosseum, Rome, A.D. 70–82
1356–1363

@6:?8


Legislative Assembly Building, Chandigarh, India, 1956–1959, Le Corbusier Angkor Wat, near Siem Reap, Cambodia, 802–1220

PRO PO RT I ON & SCALE / 3 4 7

Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, India, 1965, Louis Kahn
7
Principles
“…Nothing but confusion can result when order is considered a quality
that can equally well be accepted or abandoned, something that can be
forgone and replaced by something else. Order must be understood as
indispensable to the functioning of any organized system, whether its
function be physical or mental. Just as neither an engine nor an orchestra
nor a sports team can perform without the integrated cooperation of all
its parts, so a work of art or architecture cannot fulfill its function and
transmit its message unless it presents an ordered pattern. Order is
possible at any level of complexity: in statues as simple as those on Easter
Island or as intricate as those by Bernini, in a farmhouse and in a Borromini
church. But if there is not order, there is no way of telling what the work is
trying to say.”

Rudolf Arnheim
The Dynamics of Architectural Form
1977
OR D E RIN G PR IN C IPLES

While Chapter 4 employed a geometric basis for organizing the forms and
spaces of a building, this chapter discusses additional principles that can be
utilized to create order in an architectural composition. Order refers not simply
to geometric regularity, but rather to a condition in which each part of a whole
is properly disposed with reference to other parts and to its purpose so as to
produce a harmonious arrangement.

There exists a natural diversity and complexity in the program requirements

for buildings. The forms and spaces of any building should acknowledge the
hierarchy inherent in the functions they accommodate, the users they serve,
the purposes or meaning they convey, and the scope or context they address.
It is in recognition of this natural diversity, complexity, and hierarchy in the
programming, designing, and making of buildings that ordering principles are
discussed.

Order without diversity can result in monotony or boredom; diversity without

order can produce chaos. A sense of unity with variety is the ideal. The following
ordering principles are seen as visual devices that allow the varied and diverse
forms and spaces of a building to coexist perceptually and conceptually within
an ordered, unified, and harmonious whole.

Pergamon, Plan of Upper City, 2nd century B.C.

3 5 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 O R D ER IN G P RI N C I P L E S

Axis A line established by two points in space, about which forms and
spaces can be arranged in a symmetrical or balanced manner.

Symmetry The balanced distribution and arrangement of equivalent

forms and spaces on opposite sides of a dividing line or
plane, or about a center or axis.

Hierarchy The articulation of the importance or significance of a form

or space by its size, shape, or placement relative to the other
forms and spaces of the organization.

Rhythm A unifying movement characterized by a patterned

repetition or alternation of formal elements or motifs in
the same or a modified form.

Datum A line, plane, or volume that, by its continuity and

regularity, serves to gather, measure, and organize a
pattern of forms and spaces.

Transformation The principle that an architectural concept, structure, or

organization can be altered through a series of discrete
manipulations and permutations in response to a specific context
or set of conditions without a loss of identity or concept.

P RINCIP LES / 3 5 1
A XI S

The axis is perhaps the most elementary means of organizing

forms and spaces in architecture. It is a line established by two
points in space, about which forms and spaces can be arranged in
a regular or irregular manner. Although imaginary and not visible
except to the mind’s eye, an axis can be a powerful, dominating,
regulating device. Although it implies symmetry, it demands
balance. The specific disposition of elements about an axis will
determine whether the visual force of an axial organization is
subtle or overpowering, loosely structured or formal, picturesque
or monotonous.

This Florentine street flanked by the Uffizi Palace links the River Arno to the Piazza
della Signoria. See plan on pg. 354.

Since an axis is essentially a linear condition, it has qualities of

length and direction, and induces movement and promotes views
along its path.

For its definition, an axis must be terminated at both of its ends

by a significant form or space.

The notion of an axis can be reinforced by defining edges along its

length. These edges can be simply lines on the ground plane, or
vertical planes that define a linear space coincident with the axis.

An axis can also be established simply by a symmetrical

arrangement of forms and spaces.

3 5 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 AXIS

Villa Farnese, Caprarola, Italy, 1560, Giacomo Vignola

The terminating elements of an axis serve

to both send and receive its visual thrust.
These culminating elements can be any of the
following:

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elements or centralized building forms

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P RINCIP LES / 3 5 3
A XI S

Piazza della Signoria

Palazzo Vecchio

Uffizi Palace

The wings of the Uffizi Palace in Florence, Italy, (1560, Giorgio Teotihuacan, City of the Gods. Located near Mexico City, Teotihuacan
Vasari) frame an axial space that leads from the River Arno, through was the largest and most influential ritual center of Mesoamerica, founded
the Uffizi arch, to the Piazza della Signoria and the Palazzo c. 100 B.C. and flourishing until about A.D. 750. The site was dominated
Vecchio (1298–1314, Arnolfo di Cambio). CZ
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Pyramid of the Moon, from which the Avenue of the Dead runs south to the
citadel and market compound in the center of the city.

3 5 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 AXIS

Plan of Beijing
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south axis is the Forbidden City, a walled section within the
inner city, built in the 15th century and containing the Imperial
Palace and other buildings of the imperial government of China. It
was so named because it was formerly closed to the public.

P RINCIP LES / 3 5 5
A XI S

View from the Temple toward the Torii, a symbolic gateway in the sea.

Itsukushima Temple, Hiroshima Prefecture, Japan, 13th century Torii is a monumental, freestanding gateway on the approach to a Shinto
shrine, consisting of two pillars connected at the top by a horizontal
crosspiece and a lintel above it, usually curving upward.

Temple of Amun at Karnak, Egypt, c. 1500–323 B.C.

3 5 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 AXIS

Darwin D. Martin House and Estate, Buffalo, New York, 1904, Frank Lloyd Wright

Northern Palace at Masada, Israel, c. 30–20 B.C.

Axial conditions can persist across changes of topography and
despite subtle shifts in alignment.

P RINCIP LES / 3 5 7
A XI S

Chinese Courtyard House, Beijing, China

Hôtel de Matignon, Paris, 1721, Jean Courtonne

3 5 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 AXIS

Villa Madama, Rome, 1517, Raphael Sanzio

W.A. Glasner House, Glencoe, Illinois, 1905, Frank Lloyd Wright Imperial Forums of Trajan, Augustus, Caesar, and Nerva,
Rome, 1st century B.C. to 2nd century A.D.

P RINCIP LES / 3 5 9
SY M ME TRY

While an axial condition can exist without a symmetrical condition

being simultaneously present, a symmetrical condition cannot
exist without implying the existence of an axis or center about
which it is structured. An axis is established by two points; a
symmetrical condition requires the balanced arrangement of
equivalent patterns of form and space on opposite sides of a
dividing line or plane, or about a center or axis.

There are two fundamental types of symmetry:

1. Bilateral symmetry refers to the balanced arrangement of
similar or equivalent elements on opposite sides of a median
axis so that only one plane can divide the whole into essentially
identical halves.

2. Radial symmetry refers to the balanced arrangement of similar,

radiating elements such that the composition can be divided
into similar halves by passing a plane at any angle around a
centerpoint or along a central axis.

An architectural composition can utilize symmetry to organize

its forms and spaces in two ways. An entire building organization
can be made symmetrical. At some point, however, any totally
symmetrical arrangement must confront and resolve the
asymmetry of its site or context.

A symmetrical condition can occur in only a portion of the building

Plan of an Ideal Church, 1460, Hôtel de Beauvais, Paris, 1656, and organize an irregular pattern of forms and spaces about itself.
Antonio Filarete Antoine Le Pautre The latter case of local symmetry allows a building to respond to
exceptional conditions of its site or program. The symmetrical
condition itself can be reserved for significant or important
spaces within the organization.

3 6 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S Y M M E T RY

Radial Symmetry

Great Stupa at Sanchi, India, c. 100 B.C.

Bilateral Symmetry Ritual Complex at Fengchu, Shaanxi Province, China, c. 1100–1000 B.C.

P RINCIP LES / 3 6 1
SY M ME TRY

Mortuary Temple of Rameses III
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3 6 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S Y M M E T RY

Baths of Caracalla
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Nathaniel Russell House, Charleston, South Carolina, 1809

Palace of Diocletian, Spalato, Yugoslavia, c. A.D. 300

P RINCIP LES / 3 6 3
SY M ME TRY

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Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois, 1905–1907, Frank Lloyd Wright

Multiple symmetries, both major and minor, can add

complexity and hierarchy to a composition as well as
accommodate programmatic and contextual requirements.

3 6 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S Y M M E T RY

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Centrosoyus Building, Kirova Ulitsa, Moscow, 1929–1933, Le Corbusier

Husser House, Chicago, Illinois, 1899, Frank Lloyd Wright

P RINCIP LES / 3 6 5
SY M ME TRY

Palace of the Soviets (Competition), Le Corbusier, 1931

Church of Christ the Worker, Atlántida,

Uruguay, Eladio Dieste, 1958–1960

Robert W. Evans House, Chicago, Illinois, 1908, Frank Lloyd Wright

3 6 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S Y M M E T RY

A.E. Bingham House, Near Santa Barbara, California, 1916, Bernard Maybeck

Isaac Flagg House II, Berkeley, California, 1912, Bernard Maybeck

P RINCIP LES / 3 6 7
SY M ME TRY

Ca d’Oro, Venice, 1428–1430, Giovanni and Bartolomeo Buon Frank Lloyd Wright Studio,
Oak Park, Illinois, 1889

Palazzo Pietro Massimi, Rome, 1532–1536, Baldassare

Peruzzi. A symmetrical facade leading into an asymmetrical interior.

3 6 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 S Y M M E T RY

Entrance facade Garden facade

Main entry

Symmetry of building maintained

Villa Garches, Vaucresson, France, 1926–1927, Le Corbusier

Approach axis

P RINCIP LES / 3 6 9
HI E R A RCHY

The principle of hierarchy implies that in most if not all

architectural compositions, real differences exist among
their forms and spaces. These differences reflect the
degree of importance of these forms and spaces, as well as
the functional, formal, and symbolic roles they play in the
organization. The value system by which relative importance
is measured will of course depend on the specific situation,
the needs and desires of the users, and the decisions of the
designer. The values expressed may be individual or collective,
personal or cultural. In any case, the manner in which the
functional or symbolic differences among a building’s elements
are revealed is critical to the establishment of a visible,
hierarchical order among its forms and spaces.

After a sketch of an ideal church by Leonardo da Vinci

For a form or space to be articulated as being important or

significant to an organization, it must be made uniquely visible.
This visual emphasis can be achieved by endowing a form or
shape with:

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In each case, the hierarchically important form or space is given

meaning and significance by being an exception to the norm, an
anomaly within an otherwise regular pattern.

In an architectural composition, there can be more than a

single dominant element. Secondary points of emphasis that
have less attention value than the primary focal point create
visual accents. These distinctive but subordinate elements can
both accommodate variety and create visual interest, rhythm,
and tension in a composition. If carried too far, however, this
interest may be replaced by confusion. When everything is
emphasized, nothing is emphasized.

3 7 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 H I E RA RC H Y

Hierarchy by Size
A form or space may dominate an architectural composition by being
significantly different in size from all the other elements in the composition.
Normally, this dominance is made visible by the sheer size of an element. In
some cases, an element can dominate by being significantly smaller than
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Hierarchy by Shape
A form or space can be made visually dominant and thus important by
clearly differentiating its shape from that of the other elements in the
composition. A discernible contrast in shape is critical, whether the
differentiation is based on a change in geometry or regularity. Of course, it
is also important that the shape selected for the hierarchically significant
element be compatible with its functional use.

Hierarchy by Placement
A form or space may be strategically placed to call attention to itself
as being the most important element in a composition. Hierarchically
important locations for a form or space include:

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P RINCIP LES / 3 7 1
HI E R A RCHY

Plan for Savannah, Georgia, 1733, James Oglethorpe Plan of Savannah, after 1856

Villa Trissino at Meledo, From The Four Books on Architecture, Andrea Palladio

Plan of Montfazier, France,

a Medieval town founded in 1284

3 7 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 H I E RA RC H Y

Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet (China), 17th century

Heathcote (Hemingway House), Ilkley, Yorkshire, England, 1906, Sir Edwin Lutyens

View of Florence illustrating the dominance of the cathedral over the urban landscape

P RINCIP LES / 3 7 3
HI E R A RCHY

Lowell Walter House, Quasqueton, Iowa,1949,

Frank Lloyd Wright

Institute of Technology, Otaniemi, Finland, 1955–1964, Alvar Aalto

Hôtel Amelot, Paris, 1710–1713, Germain Boffrand

3 7 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 H I E RA RC H Y

Legislative Assembly Building, Chandigarh, Capitol Complex of Punjab, India, 1956–1959, Le Corbusier

P RINCIP LES / 3 7 5
HI E R A RCHY

Town Hall, Seinäjoki

"MWBS
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History Faculty Building, Cambridge University,

England, 1964–1967, James Stirling

Olivetti Training School, Haslemere, England, 1969–1972, James Stirling

3 7 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 H I E RA RC H Y

S.S. Sergius and Bacchus, Constantinople (Istanbul), A.D. 525–530

Plan of an Ideal Church, c. 1490, Leonardo da Vinci

Palace of Charles V, Granada, 1527–1568, Pedro Machuca First Unitarian Church, First Design, Rochester, New York,
1959, Louis Kahn

P RINCIP LES / 3 7 7
HI E R A RCHY

M9 (Memorial 9), Santiago, Chile, 2011, Gonzalo Mardones Viviani

Kauwi Interpretive Center, Lonsdale, Australia, 2012, Woodhead

3 7 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 H I E RA RC H Y

ESO (European Southern Observatory) Hotel, Cerro Paranal, Atacama Desert, Chile, 1999–2002, Auer + Weber Associates

Iglesia San Josemaría Escrivá, Alvaro Obregon, Mexico, 2009, Sordo Madaleno Arquitectos

P RINCIP LES / 3 7 9
D ATU M

Excerpt from Gavotte I, Sixth Cello Suite, by Johann Sebastian Bach

(1685–1750). Transcribed for classical guitar by Jerry Snyder.

A datum refers to a line, plane, or volume of reference to which other elements

in a composition can relate. It organizes a random pattern of elements through
its regularity, continuity, and constant presence. For example, the lines of a
musical staff serve as a datum in providing the visual basis for reading notes
and the relative pitches of their tones. The regularity of their spacing and their
continuity organizes, clarifies, and accentuates the differences between the
series of notes in a musical composition.

A preceding section illustrated the ability of an axis to organize a series

of elements along its length. In effect, the axis was serving as a datum.
A datum, however, need not be a straight line. It can also be planar or
volumetric in form.

To be an effective ordering device, a linear datum must have sufficient visual

continuity to cut through or bypass all of the elements being organized. If
planar or volumetric in form, a datum must have sufficient size, closure, and
regularity to be seen as a figure that can embrace or gather together the
elements being organized within its field.

3 8 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 DAT UM

Given a random organization of dissimilar elements, a datum can organize the elements in the following ways:

Line

A line can cut through or form a common edge for the pattern, while a grid of lines can form a neutral, unifying field for the pattern.

Plane

A plane can gather the pattern of elements beneath it or serve as an encompassing background for the elements and frame them in its field.

Volume

A volume can collect the pattern of elements within its boundaries or organize them along its perimeter.

P RINCIP LES / 3 8 1
D ATU M

Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar, India, 6th–7th century A.D.

Datum

Social Science Research Center, Berlin, Germany, 1981, James Stirling

Koshino House, Ashiya, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan, 1979–1984, Tadao Ando

3 8 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 DAT UM

West Precinct, Horyu-Ji Temple, Nara Prefecture, Japan, A.D. 607–746

Arcades unify the facades of houses that front the town square of Telo, Czechoslovakia.

P RINCIP LES / 3 8 3
D ATU M

Durbar Square, Patan, Nepal, renovated 17th century

Plan of Safavid Isfahan, Iran

3 8 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 DAT UM

Piazza San Marco, Venice

Plan of the Agora, Athens

P RINCIP LES / 3 8 5
D ATU M

Marin County Civic Center, San Rafael, California, 1957, Frank Lloyd Wright

DeVore House (Project), Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, 1954, Louis Kahn

3 8 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 DAT UM

Salvation Army Hostel, Paris, 1928–1933, Le Corbusier

Cultural Center (Competition Entry), Leverkusen,

Germany, 1962, Alvar Aalto

P RINCIP LES / 3 8 7
D ATU M

Town Plan of Timgad, a Roman colony in North Africa founded 100 B.C.

Plan of Miletus, 5th century B.C.

3 8 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 DAT UM

Structural Grid of Main Building, Jewish Community Center, Trenton, New Jersey, 1954–1959,
Louis Kahn

Museum at Ahmedabad, India, 1954–1957, Le Corbusier

P RINCIP LES / 3 8 9
D ATU M

Section

German Pavilion, Montreal World Exposition,

1966–1967, Rolf Gutbrod and Frei Otto

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3 9 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 DAT UM

North elevation

Centre Le Corbusier, Zurich, 1963–1967, Le Corbusier

P RINCIP LES / 3 9 1
D ATU M

Place Royale, Paris, France, 18th century

Plan of Huánuco, an Inca Town in central Peru

Plan of Peristyle Courtyard Houses on Delos, a Greek island in the Aegean

3 9 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 DAT UM

Plan of Civic Center, Isfahan, Capital of Persia, 1628

Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi, 1570, Mirak Mirza Ghiyas

P RINCIP LES / 3 9 3
D ATU M

Fire Temple at Sarvistan, Iran, 5th–8th century

Site plan of Shwezigon Pagoda, Bagan, Myanmar, 12th century

Villa Romana del Casale, Piazza Armerina, Sicily, Italy, early 4th century

3 9 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 DAT UM

Philip Exeter Academy Library, Exeter, New Hampshire, 1967–1972, Louis Kahn

Nuremberg Charterhouse, 1383

P RINCIP LES / 3 9 5
R H YTHM

Column Details, Notre Dame la Grande, Poitiers, France, 1130–1145

Rhythm refers to any movement characterized by a patterned recurrence of elements or motifs at

regular or irregular intervals. The movement may be of our eyes as we follow recurring elements in a
composition, or of our bodies as we advance through a sequence of spaces. In either case, rhythm
incorporates the fundamental notion of repetition as a device to organize forms and spaces in
architecture.

Almost all building types incorporate elements that are by their nature repetitive. Beams and columns
repeat themselves to form repetitive structural bays and modules of space. Windows and doors
repeatedly puncture the surfaces of a building to allow light, air, views, and people to enter the interior.
Spaces often recur to accommodate similar or repetitive functional requirements in the building
program. This section discusses the patterns of repetition that can be utilized to organize a series of
recurring elements, and the resultant visual rhythms these patterns create.

3 9 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 RE P E T I T I ON

We tend to group elements in a random composition according to:

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The principle of repetition utilizes both of these concepts of visual perception to order recurring
elements in a composition.

The simplest form of repetition is a linear pattern of redundant elements. Elements need not be perfectly identical,
however, to be grouped in a repetitive fashion. They may merely share a common trait or a common denominator,
allowing each element to be individually unique, yet belong to the same family.

t Size

t Shape

t Detail Characteristics

P RINCIP LES / 3 9 7
R EP ETITION

Distyle in Antis

Prostyle

Peripteral

Amphiprostyle
Dipteral

Reims Cathedral, England, 1211–1290

Pseudodipteral The Smitheum

Classification of Temples according to the arrangements of the colonnades.

From Book III, Chapter II of Vitruvius’ Ten Books on Architecture.

Structural patterns often incorporate the repetition of vertical supports

at regular or harmonious intervals which define modular bays or divisions
of space. Within such repetitive patterns, the importance of a space can
be emphasized by its size and placement.

Salisbury Cathedral, England, 1220–1260

3 9 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 RE P E T I T I ON

Jami Masjid, Gulbarga, India, 1367

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QMBO
Unité d’Habitation, Marseilles, 1946–1952, Le Corbusier

P RINCIP LES / 3 9 9
R EP ETITION

Rajarajeshwara Temple, Thanjavur, India, 11th century

Bakong Temple, near Siem Reap, Cambodia, c. A.D. 881

4 0 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 RE P E T I T I ON

Katsura Imperial Villa, Kyoto, Japan, 17th century

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"SNFOJBO
DIVSDIFT

P RINCIP LES / 4 0 1
R EP ETITION

Dilwara Jain Temples, Mt. Abu, India, 11th–16th centuries Germigny-des-Prés, France, A.D. 806–811, Oton Matsaetsi

As in music, a rhythmic pattern may be legato, continuous, and flowing, or staccato and abrupt in its pace or cadence.

Capitol Complex (Project), Islamabad, Pakistan, 1965, Louis Kahn

4 0 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 RE P E T I T I ON

Siedlung Halen, near Bern, Switzerland, 1961, Atelier 5

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Pompeii

P RINCIP LES / 4 0 3
R EP ETITION

Section through main prayer hall: Jami Masjid, Ahmedabad, India, 1423

Olympic Arena, Tokyo, Japan, 1961–1964, Kenzo Tange

Rhythmic patterns provide continuity and lead us to anticipate what comes next. Any break in Külliye of Beyazid II, Bursa, Turkey, 1398–1403
the pattern announces and emphasizes the importance of the interrupting element or interval.

4 0 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 RE P E T I T I ON

View of Spanish hill town of Mojácar

View of Villa Hermosa, Spain

P RINCIP LES / 4 0 5
R EP ETITION

Rhythm created by connecting points in space Contrasting rhythms

Horizontal and vertical rhythms

Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon, USA, 10th–13th centuries

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 RE P E T I T I ON

Himeji Castle, Himeji, Japan, begun 1577

Temple of the Inscriptions, Palenque, Mexico, c. A.D. 550

Abbey Church, Alpirsbach, Germany, c. 1000

P RINCIP LES / 4 0 7
R EP ETITION

Victorian Facades fronting a San Francisco street Multiple rhythms can be laid over one another in the facade of a building.

Studies of Internal Facade of a Basilica by Francesco Borromini

4 0 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 RE P E T I T I ON

Roq Housing Project
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More complex rhythmic patterns can be created by introducing points of emphasis or exceptional
intervals into a sequence. These accents or beats help differentiate between the major and minor
themes in a composition.

Bedford Park, London, 1875, Maurice Adams, E.W. Goodwin, E.J. May, Norman Shaw

P RINCIP LES / 4 0 9
R EP ETITION

Westendinhelmi Housing
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Social Housing, Louviers, France, 2006, Edouard Francois

4 1 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 RE P E T I T I ON

Residential Care Unit, Hokkaido, Japan, 2004, Sou Fujimoto

Rhythm is a natural outcome of the way we lay

out the repetitive units of housing complexes.

P RINCIP LES / 4 1 1
R EP ETITION

The radial segments of a nautilus shell spiral outward in a reverberating manner

from its center and maintain the shell’s organic unity through this pattern of
additive growth. Using the mathematical ratio of the Golden Section, a series
of rectangles can be generated to form a unified organization wherein each
rectangle is proportionate to the others as well as to the overall structure. In
each of these examples, the principle of reverberation creates a sense of order
among a group of elements which are similar in shape but hierarchically graded
in size.

Progressive, reverberating patterns of forms and spaces can be organized in the

following ways:
t
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4 1 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 RE P E T I T I ON

Hasan Pasha Han, Istanbul, 14th century House of the Faun, Pompeii, c. 2nd century B.C.

Jester House (Project), Palos Verdes, California, 1938, Frank Lloyd Wright

P RINCIP LES / 4 1 3
R EP ETITION

Plan and section: Central circular structures of the Guachimonton Complex, Teuchitlán, A.D. 300–800

Garden elevation
Art Gallery, Shiraz, Iran, 1970, Alvar Aalto

4 1 4 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 RE P E T I T I ON

St. Theodore (now Kilisse Mosque), Constantinople (Istanbul), c. 1100

Tjibaou Cultural Center, Nouméa, New Caledonia, 1991–1998, Renzo Piano

P RINCIP LES / 4 1 5
R EP ETITION

Sydney Opera House, Sydney, Australia, designed 1957, completed 1973, Jørn Utzon

Section

Plan

4 1 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 RE P E T I T I ON

Cultural Center, Wolfsburg, Germany, 1948–1962, Alvar Aalto

Plan

Church at Vuoksenniska, Finland, 1956, Alvar Aalto

P RINCIP LES / 4 1 7
TR A NSFOR MATION

The study of architecture, as with other disciplines, should legitimately

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plishments from which much can be learned and emulated. The principle of
transformation accepts this notion; this book, and all of the examples it
contains, is predicated on it.

The principle of transformation allows a designer to select a prototypical

architectural model whose formal structure and ordering of elements
might be appropriate and reasonable, and to transform it through a series
of discrete manipulations in order to respond to the specific conditions
and context of the design task at hand.

Design is a generative process of analysis and synthesis, of trial and error,

of trying out possibilities and seizing opportunities. In the process of
exploring an idea and probing its potential, it is essential that a designer
understand the fundamental nature and structure of the concept. If the
ordering system of a prototypical model is perceived and understood, then
the original design concept can, through a series of finite permutations, be
clarified, strengthened, and built upon, rather than destroyed.

Plan development of the North Indian Cella

4 1 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 T R A N S F ORM AT I ON

ace
Main Reading Rooms cant Sp
ifi
Sign
Control

Scheme for 3 libraries by Alvar Aalto

Offices and Support Spaces

Seinäjoki Public Library, Seinäjoki, Finland,

1963–1965

Rovaniemi City Library, Rovaniemi, Finland,

1963–1968

Library of Mount Angel, Benedictine College,

Mount Angel, Oregon, 1965–1970

P RINCIP LES / 4 1 9
TR A NSFOR MATION

Ward Willitts House, Highland Park,

Illinois, 1902

Transformation of a Cruciform Plan

Organization by Frank Lloyd Wright

Thomas Hardy House, Racine, Wisconsin, 1905

George Blossom House, Chicago, Illinois, 1882 Samuel Freeman House, Los Angeles,
California, 1924

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 T R A N S F ORM AT I ON

Villa Savoye, Poissy, France, 1928–1931

Museum of Western Art, Tokyo, 1957–1959

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Ramp-in-a-Square, by Le Corbusier

Millowners’ Association Building, Ahmedabad, India,

1954

Congress Hall (Project), Strasbourg, 1964

P RINCIP LES / 4 2 1
C ON CL U SION

Meaning in Architecture

This book, throughout its presentation of the elements of form

and space, has been concerned primarily with the visual aspects
of their physical reality in architecture. Points, moving through
space and defining lines, lines defining planes, planes defining
volumes of form and space. Beyond these visual functions,
these elements, by their relationships to one another and the
nature of their organization, also communicate notions of
domain and place, entry and path of movement, hierarchy and
order. These are presented as the literal, denotative meanings
of form and space in architecture.

As in language, however, architectural forms and spaces also

have connotative meanings: associative values and symbolic
content that are subject to personal and cultural interpreta
tion, which can change with time. The spires of a Gothic cathe
dral can stand for the realm, values, or goals of Christianity.
The Greek column can convey the notion of democracy, or, as in
America in the early 19th century, the presence of civilization
in a new world.

Although the study of connotative meanings, of semiotics and

symbology in architecture, is beyond the scope of this book,
it should be noted here that architecture, in combining form
and space into a single essence, not only facilitates purpose
but communicates meaning. The art of architecture makes our
existence not only visible but meaningful.

4 2 2 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FOR M , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 C ON C L US I ON

“You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with these materials you
build houses and palaces. That is construction. Ingenuity is at work.

“But suddenly, you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I

say: ‘This is beautiful.’ That is architecture. Art enters in.

“My house is practical. I thank you, as I might thank Railway engineers,

or the Telephone service. You have not touched my heart.

“But suppose that walls rise toward heaven in such a way that I am
moved. I perceive your intentions. Your mood has been gentle, brutal,
charming, or noble. The stones you have erected tell me so. You fix
me to the place and my eyes regard it. They behold something which
expresses a thought. A thought which reveals itself without wood
or sound, but solely by means of shapes which stand in a certain
relationship to one another. These shapes are such that they are
clearly revealed in light. The relationships between them have not
necessarily any reference to what is practical or descriptive. They
are a mathematical creation of our mind. They are the language
of Architecture. By the use of raw materials and starting from
conditions more or less utilitarian, you have established certain
relationships which have aroused my emotions. This is Architecture.”

Le Corbusier
Towards a New Architecture
1927

P RINCIP LES / 4 2 3
 A S ELEC T ED BIB L I OG RA P H Y

Aalto, Alvar. Complete Works. 2 volumes. Zurich: Les Editions d'Architecture Lyndon, Donlyn and Charles Moore. Chambers for a Memory Palace. Cambridge:
Artemis, 1963. The MIT Press, 1994.
Allen, Edward and Joseph Iano. The Architect's Studio Companion: Rules of Martienssen, Heather. The Shapes of Structure. London: Oxford University
Thumb for Preliminary Design, 5th ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley Press, 1976.
and Sons, 2011. Moore, Charles, Gerald Allen, and Donlyn Lyndon. The Place of Houses. New
Arnheim, Rudolf. Art and Visual Perception. Berkeley: University of California York: Holt, Rinehardt and Winston, 1974.
Press, 1965. Mumford, Lewis. The City in History. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc.,
Ashihara, Yoshinobu. Exterior Design in Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand 1961.
Reinhold Co., 1970. Norberg-Schulz, Christian. Meaning in Western Architecture. New York:
Bacon, Edmund. Design of Cities. New York: The Viking Press, 1974. Praeger Publishers, 1975.
Ching, Francis D. K. A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, 2nd ed. Hoboken, New Palladio, Andrea. The Four Books of Architecture. New York: Dover Publications,
Jersey: John Wiley and Sons, 2011. 1965.
Ching, Francis D. K., Barry Onouye, and Doug Zuberbuhler. Building Pevsner, Nikolaus. A History of Building Types. Princeton: Princeton University
Structures Illustrated, 2nd ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Press, 1976.
Sons, 2014. Pye, David. The Nature and Aesthetics of Design. New York: Van Nostrand
Ching, Francis D. K., Mark Jarzombek, and Vikramaditya Prakash. A Global Reinhold Co., 1978.
History of Architecture, 2nd ed. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley and Rapoport, Amos. House Form and Culture. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Sons, 2010. Hall, Inc., 1969.
Collins, George R., gen. ed. Planning and Cities Series. New York: George Rasmussen, Steen Eiler. Experiencing Architecture. Cambridge: The MIT Press,
Braziller, 1968. 1964.
Clark, Roger H. and Michael Pause. Precedents in Architecture. New York: Van —. Towns and Buildings. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1969.
Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1985. Rowe, Colin. The Mathematics of the Ideal Villa and Other Essays. Cambridge:
Engel, Heinrich. The Japanese House: A Tradition for Contemporary The MIT Press, 1976.
Architecture. Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle, Co., 1964. Rudofsky, Bernard. Architecture Without Architects. Garden City, N.Y.:
Fletcher, Sir Banister. A History of Architecture. 18th ed. Revised by J.C. Doubleday & Co., 1964.
Palmes. New York: Charles Schriber's Sons, 1975. Simonds, John Ormsbee. Landscape Architecture. New York: McGraw-Hill
Giedion, Siegfried. Space, Time and Architecture. 4th ed. Cambridge: Harvard Book Co., Inc., 1961.
University Press, 1963. Stierlin, Henry, gen. ed. Living Architecture Series. New York: Grosset &
Giurgola, Romaldo and Jarmini Mehta. Louis I. Kahn. Boulder: Westview Dunlap, 1966.
Press, 1975. Venturi, Robert. Complexity and Contradiction in Architecture. New York: The
Hall, Edward T. The Hidden Dimension. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday & Museum of Modern Art, 1966.
Company, Inc., 1966. Vitruvius. The Ten Books of Architecture. New York: Dover Publications, 1960.
Halprin, Lawrence. Cities. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 1972. von Meiss, Pierre. Elements of Architecture. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold
Hitchcock, Henry Russell. In the Nature of Materials. New York: Da Capo Co., 1990.
Press, 1975. Wilson, Forrest. Structure: The Essence of Architecture. New York: Van
Jencks, Charles. Modern Movements in Architecture. Garden City, N.Y.: Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1971.
Anchor Press, 1973. Wittkower, Rudolf. Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism. New York:
Laseau, Paul and James Tice. Frank Lloyd Wright: Between Principle and Form. W.W. Norton & Co., Inc., 1971.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1992. Wong, Wucius. Principles of Two-Dimensional Design. New York: Van Nostrand
Le Corbusier. Oeuvre Complete. 8 volumes. Zurich: Les Editions Reinhold Co., 1972.
d'Architecture, 1964–1970. Wright, Frank Lloyd. Writings and Buildings. New York: Meridian Books, 1960.
—. Towards a New Architecture. London: The Architectural Press, 1946. Zevi, Bruno. Architecture as Space. New York: Horizon Press, 1957.

BI BLIOGRAP H Y / 4 2 5
 G L OS S A RY

abacus The flat slab forming the top of a column capital, plain in the Doric style, arabesque A complex and ornate design that employs flowers, foliage, and
but molded or otherwise enriched in other styles. sometimes animal and geometric figures to produce an intricate pattern of
abbey A monastery under the supervision of an abbot, or a convent under the interlaced lines.
supervision of an abbess, belonging to the highest rank of such institutions. arbor A shady shelter of shrubs and branches or of latticework intertwined with
abutment The part of a structure that directly receives thrust or pressure, climbing vines and flowers.
such as a masonry mass receiving and supporting the thrust of part arcade A series of arches supported on piers or columns. Also, an arched, roofed
of an arch or vault; a heavy wall supporting the end of a bridge or span gallery or passageway with shops on one or both sides.
and sustaining the pressure of the abutting earth; a mass or structure arch A curved structure for spanning an opening, designed to support a vertical
resisting the pressure of water on a bridge or pier; or the anchorage for the load primarily by axial compression.
cables of a suspension bridge. architrave The lowermost division of a classical entablature, resting directly on
acanthus A Mediterranean plant whose large, toothed leaves became a common the column capitals and supporting the frieze.
motif in the ornamental program of Corinthian and composite capitals and arcuate Curved or arched like a bow: a term used in describing the arched
friezes. or vaulted structure of a Romanesque church or Gothic cathedral, as
accent A detail that is emphasized by contrasting with its surroundings. Also, a distinguished from the trabeated architecture of an Egyptian hypostyle hall
distinctive but subordinate pattern, motif, or color. or Greek Doric temple.
accouplement The placement of two columns or pilasters very close together. ashlar A squared building stone finely dressed on all faces adjacent to those of
acropolis The fortified high area or citadel of an ancient Greek city, esp. the other stones so as to permit very thin mortar joints.
citadel of Athens and site of the Parthenon. atrium Originally, the main or central inner hall of an ancient Roman house,
adobe Sun-dried brick made of clay and straw, commonly used in countries with open to the sky at the center and usually having a pool for the collection
little rainfall. of rainwater. Later, the forecourt of an early Christian church, flanked or
aedicule A canopied opening or niche flanked by two columns, piers, or pilasters surrounded by porticoes. Now, an open, skylit court around which a house or
supporting a gable, lintel, or entablature. building is built.
agora A marketplace or public square in an ancient Greek city, usually axis A central line that bisects a two-dimensional body or figure or about which
surrounded with public buildings and porticoes and commonly used as a a three-dimensional body or figure is symmetrical. Also, a straight line to
place for popular or political assembly. which elements in a composition are referred for measurement or symmetry.
aisle Any of the longitudinal divisions of a church, separated from the nave by a background The part of an image represented as being at the maximum distance
row of columns or piers. Also, a walkway between or along sections of seats from the frontal plane.
in a theater, auditorium, church, or other place of assembly. balance A state of equilibrium between contrasting, opposing, or interacting
alcazar A castle or fortress of the Spanish Moors. elements. Also, the pleasing or harmonious arrangement or proportion of
allée French term for a narrow passage between houses, or a broad walk planted parts or elements in a design or composition.
with trees. balcony An elevated platform projecting from the wall of a building and enclosed
amalaka The bulbous, ribbed stone finial of a sikhara in Indian architecture. by a railing or parapet.
ambulatory The covered walk of an atrium or cloister. Also, an aisle encircling baldachin An ornamental canopy of stone or marble permanently placed over the
the end of the choir or chancel of a church, originally used for processions. high altar in a church.
amphitheater An oval or round building with tiers of seats around a central baluster Any of a number of closely spaced supports for a railing. Also called
arena, as those used in ancient Rome for gladiatorial contests and banister.
spectacles. Also, a level area of oval or circular shape surrounded by rising baptistery A part of a church or a separate building in which the rite of baptism
ground. is administered.
anomaly A deviation from the normal or expected form, order, or arrangement. base The lowermost portion of a wall, column, pier, or other structure, usually
anthropology The science of human beings: specifically, the study of the origins, distinctively treated and considered as an architectural unit.
physical and cultural development, and environmental and social relations basilica A large oblong building used as a hall of justice and public meeting place
of humankind. in ancient Rome, typically having a high central space lit by a clerestory and
anthropometry The measurement and study of the size and proportions of the covered by timber trusses, and a raised dais in a semicircular apse for the
human body. tribunal. The Roman basilica served as a model for early Christian basilicas,
anthropomorphism A conception or representation resembling the human which were characterized by a long, rectangular plan, a high colonnaded
form or having human attributes. nave lit by a clerestory and covered by a timbered gable roof, two or four
apadana The grand columnar audience hall in a Persian palace. lower side aisles, a semicircular apse at the end, a narthex, and often other
apse A semicircular or polygonal projection of a building, usually vaulted and features, as an atrium, a bema, and small semicircular apses terminating
used esp. at the sanctuary or east end of a church. the aisles.

GLOSSARY / 4 2 7
G LOSSA RY

batter A backward slope of the face of a wall as it rises. chancel The space about the altar of a church for the clergy and choir, often
bay A major spatial division, usually one of a series, marked or partitioned off elevated above the nave and separated from it by a railing or screen.
by the principal vertical supports of a structure. Also, any of a number chapel A subordinate or private place of worship or prayer.
of principal compartments or divisions of a wall, roof, or other part of a chatri In Indian architecture, a roof-top kiosk or pavilion having a dome usually
building marked off by vertical or transverse supports. supported on four columns.
beam A rigid structural member designed to carry and transfer transverse chattri An umbrella-shaped finial symbolizing dignity, composed of a stone disk
loads across space to supporting elements. on a vertical pole.
bearing wall A wall capable of supporting an imposed load, as from a floor or church A building for public Christian worship.
roof of a building. clerestory A portion of an interior rising above adjacent rooftops and having
belvedere A building, or architectural feature of a building, designed and windows admitting daylight to the interior. Also, the uppermost section
situated to look out upon a pleasing scene. of a Gothic nave characterized by a series of large windows rising above
bema A transverse open space separating the nave and the apse of an early adjacent rooftops to admit daylight to the interior.
Christian church, developing into the transept of later cruciform churches. cloister A covered walk having an arcade or colonnade on one side opening onto
berm A bank of earth placed against one or more exterior walls of a building as a courtyard.
protection against extremes in temperature. colonnade A series of regularly spaced columns supporting an entablature and
blind Describing a recess in a wall having the appearance of a window (blind usually one side of a roof structure.
window) or door (blind door), inserted to complete a series of windows or to column A rigid, relatively slender structural member designed primarily to
provide symmetry of design. support compressive loads applied at the member ends. In classical
bosket A grove or thicket of trees in a garden or park. architecture, a cylindrical support consisting of a capital, shaft, and usually
brise-soleil A screen, usually of louvers, placed on the outside of a building to a base, either monolithic or built up of drums the full diameter of the shaft.
shield the windows from direct sunlight. computer graphics The field of computer science that studies methods
buttress An external support built to stabilize a structure by opposing its and techniques for creating, representing, and manipulating image data
outward thrusts, esp. a projecting support built into or against the outside by computer technology; the digital images so produced. Architectural
of a masonry wall. applications of computer graphics range from two-dimensional
campanile A bell tower, usually one near but not attached to the body of a architectural drawing to three-dimensional modeling and energy, lighting,
church. and acoustic simulations of building performance.
cantilever A beam or other rigid structural member extending beyond a fulcrum computer modeling The use of computer technology and mathematical
and supported by a balancing member or a downward force behind the algorithms to create abstract models of systems and processes
fulcrum. to simulate their behavior. For architectural applications, computer
capital The distinctively treated upper end of a column, pillar, or pier, crowning modeling software enables the creation and manipulation of virtual,
the shaft and taking the weight of the entablature or architrave. three-dimensional models of existing or proposed buildings and
caravansary An inn in the Near East for the overnight accommodation of environments for analysis, testing, and appraisal.
caravans, usually having a large courtyard enclosed by a solid wall and concrete An artificial, stonelike building material made by mixing cement and
entered through an imposing gateway. various mineral aggregates with sufficient water to cause the cement to
caryatid A sculptured female figure used as a column. set and bind the entire mass.
catenary The curve assumed by a perfectly flexible, uniform cable suspended contrast Opposition or juxtaposition of dissimilar elements in a work of
freely from two points not in the same vertical line. For a load that is art to intensify each element’s properties and produce a more dynamic
uniformly distributed in a horizontal projection, the curve approaches that expressiveness.
of a parabola. corbel To set bricks or stones in an overlapping arrangement so that each
cathedral The principal church of a diocese, containing the bishop’s throne course steps upward and outward from the vertical face of a wall.
called the cathedra. cornice The uppermost member of a classical entablature, consisting typically
ceiling The overhead interior surface or lining of a room, often concealing the of a cymatium, corona, and bed molding.
underside of the floor or roof above. corona The projecting, slablike member of a classical cornice, supported by the
cella The principal chamber or enclosed part of a classical temple, where the cult bed molding and crowned by the cymatium.
image was kept. Also called naos. corridor A narrow passageway or gallery connecting parts of a building, esp. one
cenotaph A monument erected in memory of a deceased person whose remains into which several rooms or apartments open.
are buried elsewhere. cortile A large or principal courtyard of an Italian palazzo.
chaitya A Buddhist shrine in India, usually carved out of solid rock on a hillside, court An area open to the sky and mostly or entirely surrounded by walls or
having the form of an aisled basilica with a stupa at one end. buildings.

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courtyard A court adjacent to or within a building, esp. one enclosed on all four engaged column A column built so as to be truly or seemingly bonded to the
sides. wall before which it stands.
cromlech A circular arrangement of megaliths enclosing a dolmen or burial entablature The horizontal section of a classical order that rests on the
mound. columns, usually composed of a cornice, frieze, and architrave.
cupola A light structure on a dome or roof, serving as a belfry, lantern, or entasis A slight convexity given to a column to correct an optical illusion of
belvedere. Also, a small dome covering a circular or polygonal area. concavity if the sides were straight.
curtain wall An exterior wall supported wholly by the structural frame of a envelope The physical shell of a building, consisting of the exterior walls,
building and carrying no loads other than its own weight and wind loads. windows, doors, and roof that protect and shelter interior spaces from the
cyma recta A projecting molding having the profile of a double curve with the exterior environment.
concave part projecting beyond the convex part. ergonomics An applied science concerned with the characteristics of people
cymatium The crowning member of a classical cornice, usually a cyma recta. that need to be considered in the design of devices and systems in order
dado The major part of a pedestal between the base and the cornice or cap. Also, that people and things will interact effectively and safely.
the lower portion of an interior wall when faced or treated differently from exedra A room or covered area open on one side and provided with seats,
the upper section, as with paneling or wallpaper. used as a meeting place in ancient Greece and Rome. Also, a large apsidal
datum Any level surface, line, or point used as a reference for the positioning or extension of the interior volume of a church, normally on the main axis.
arrangement of elements in a composition. facade The front of a building or any of its sides facing a public way or space,
diagrid Contraction for diagonal + grid: the exterior lattice-like framework esp. one distinguished by its architectural treatment.
of a building created by crisscrossing diagonal members and unifying the fascia One of the three horizontal bands making up the architrave in the Ionic
vertical-load-carrying function of columns and the lateral-load resistance of order. Also, any broad, flat, horizontal surface, as the outer edge of a
angled braces, while horizontal rings or belts serve to triangulate the frame, cornice or roof.
restrain it from buckling, and counter any outward expansion. field A region or expanse of space characterized by a particular property,
dian A palace hall in Chinese architecture, always on the median axis of the site feature, or activity.
plan and constructed on a raised platform faced with brick or stone. fenestration The design, proportioning, and disposition of windows and other
dolmen A prehistoric monument consisting of two or more large upright stones exterior openings of a building. Also, an ornamental motif having the form of
supporting a horizontal stone slab, found esp. in Britain and France and a blind arcade or arch, as in medieval cabinetwork.
usually regarded as a tomb. figure A shape or form, as determined by outlines or exterior surfaces. Also, a
dome A vaulted structure having a circular plan and usually the form of a portion combination of geometric elements disposed in a particular form or shape.
of a sphere, so constructed as to exert an equal thrust in all directions. figure-ground A property of perception in which there is a tendency to see
dormer A projecting structure built out from a sloping roof, usually housing a parts of a visual field as solid, well-defined objects standing out against a
vertical window or ventilating louver. less distinct background.
dougong A bracket system used in traditional Chinese construction to support finial A relatively small, usually foliated ornament terminating the peak of a
roof beams, project the eaves outward, and support the interior ceiling. The spire or pinnacle.
absence of a triangular tied frame in Chinese architecture made it necessary floor The level, base surface of a room or hall upon which one stands or walks.
to multiply the number of supports under the rafters. In order to reduce the Also, a continuous supporting surface extending horizontally throughout
number of pillars this would normally require, the area of support afforded a building, having a number of rooms and constituting one level in the
by each pillar was increased by the dougong. The main beams support the structure.
roof through intermediary queen posts and shorter upper beams, enabling flying buttress An inclined bar of masonry carried on a segmental arch and
the roof to be given a concave curve. This distinctive curve is believed to have transmitting an outward and downward thrust from a roof or vault to a
developed at the beginning of the Tang period, presumably to lighten the solid buttress that through its mass transforms the thrust into a vertical
visual weight of the roof and allow more daylight into the interior. one; a characteristic feature of Gothic construction.
eclecticism A tendency in architecture and the decorative arts to freely mix form The shape and structure of something as distinguished from its substance
various historical styles with the aim of combining the virtues of diverse or material. Also, the manner of arranging and coordinating the elements
sources, or of increasing allusive content, particularly during the second and parts of a composition so as to produce a coherent image; the formal
half of the 19th century in Europe and the United States. structure of a work of art.
emphasis Stress or prominence given to an element of a composition by means forum The public square or marketplace of an ancient Roman city, the center of
of contrast, anomaly, or counterpoint. judicial and business affairs, and a place of assembly for the people, usually
enfilade An axial arrangement of doorways connecting a series of rooms so including a basilica and a temple.
as to provide a vista down the entire length of the suite. Also, an axial fresco The art or technique of painting on a freshly spread, moist plaster
arrangement of mirrors on opposite sides of a room so as to give an effect of surface with pigments ground up in water or a limewater mixture.
an infinitely long vista.

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frieze The horizontal part of a classical entablature between the cornice and hypostyle hall A large hall having many columns in rows supporting a flat roof,
architrave, often decorated with sculpture in low relief. Also, a decorative and sometimes a clerestory: prevalent in ancient Egyptian and Achaemenid
band, as one along the top of an interior wall, immediately below the cornice, architecture.
or a sculptured one in a stringcourse on an outside wall. in antis Between antae, the rectangular piers or pilasters formed by thickening
gable The triangular portion of wall enclosing the end of a pitched roof from the end of a projecting wall.
cornice or eaves to ridge. intercolumniation A system for spacing columns in a colonnade based on the
galleria A spacious promenade, court, or indoor mall, usually having a vaulted space between two adjacent columns measured in diameters.
roof and lined with commercial establishments. interfenestration A space between two windows. Also, the art or process of
gallery A long, relatively narrow room or hall, esp. one for public use and having arranging the openings in a wall.
architectural importance through its scale or decorative treatment. Also, interstitial Forming an intervening space.
a roofed promenade, esp. one extending inside or outside along the exterior intrados The inner curve or surface of an arch forming the concave underside.
wall of a building. iwan A large vaulted hall serving as an entrance portal and opening onto
garbha-griha A “womb chamber,” the dark, innermost sanctuary of a Hindu a courtyard: prevalent in Parthian, Sassanian, and later in Islamic
temple, where the statue of the deity is placed. architecture. Also, ivan, liwan.
gestalt A unified configuration, pattern, or field of specific properties that jami masjid Friday mosque: A congregational mosque for public prayer, esp. on
cannot be derived from the summation of the component parts. Fridays.
Gestalt psychology The theory or doctrine that physiological or psychological joist Any of a series of small, parallel beams for supporting floors, ceilings, or
phenomena do not occur through the summation of individual elements, flat roofs.
as reflexes or sensations, but through gestalts functioning separately or Ka‘ba A small, cubical stone building in the courtyard of the Great Mosque at
interrelatedly. Mecca containing a sacred black stone and regarded by Muslims as the
Golden Section A proportion between the two dimensions of a plane figure or House of God, the objective of their pilgrimages, and the point toward which
the two divisions of a line, in which the ratio of the smaller to the larger is they turn in praying.
the same as the ratio of the larger to the whole: a ratio of approximately keystone The wedge-shaped, often embellished voussoir at the crown of an arch,
0.618 to 1.000. serving to lock the other voussoirs in place. Until the keystone is in place, no
gopura A monumental, usually ornate gateway tower to a Hindu temple true arch action is incurred.
enclosure, esp. in southern India. kondo Golden Hall: the sanctuary where the main image of worship is kept in
gridshell A form-active structure that derives its strength from its double- a Japanese Buddhist temple. The Jodo, Shinshu, and Nicheiren sects of
curved surface geometry; pioneered in the 1940s by Frei Otto. Buddhism use the term “hondo” for this sanctuary, the Shingon and Tendai
groin vault A compound vault formed by the perpendicular intersection of two sects use “chudo,” and the Zen sect uses “butsuden.”
vaults, forming arched diagonal arrises called groins. Also called cross vault. lacunar A ceiling, soffit, or vault decorated with a pattern of recessed panels.
ground The main surface or background in painting or decorative work. Also, the lantern A superstructure crowning a roof or dome having open or windowed
receding part of a visual field against which a figure is perceived. walls to let in light and air.
hall The large entrance room of a house or building, as a vestibule or lobby. Also, a linga A phallus, symbol of the god Siva in Hindu architecture.
large room or building for public gatherings or entertainment. lingdao The spirit way that led from the south gate to a royal tomb of the Tang
hacienda A large, landed estate for farming and ranching in North and South dynasty, lined with stone pillars and sculptured animal and human figures.
American areas once under Spanish influence. Also, the main house on such lintel A beam supporting the weight above a door or window opening.
an estate. loggia A colonnaded or arcaded space within the body of a building but open to
haiden The hall of worship of a Shinto shrine, usually in front of the honden. the air on one side, often at an upper story overlooking an open court. The
harmonic progression A sequence of numbers whose reciprocals form an loggia is an important feature of the architecture of the Italian palazzi.
arithmetic progression. madrasah A Muslim theological school arranged around a courtyard and
harmony The orderly, pleasing, or congruent arrangement of the elements or attached to a mosque, found from the 11th century on in Egypt, Anatolia,
parts in an artistic whole. and Persia.
hashira A sacred post in Shinto architecture, shaped by human hands. mandala A diagram of the cosmos, often used to guide the design of Indian
hierarchy A system of elements ranked, classified, and organized one above temple plans.
another, according to importance or significance. mandapa A large, porchlike hall leading to the sanctuary of a Hindu or Jain
hippodrome An arena or structure for equestrian and other spectacles. Also, temple and used for religious dancing and music.
an open-air stadium with an oval track for horse and chariot races in mass The physical volume or bulk of a solid body.
ancient Greece and Rome.

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massing A unified composition of two-dimensional shapes or three-dimensional necropolis A historic burial ground, esp. a large, elaborate one of an ancient city.
volumes, esp. one that has or gives the impression of weight, density, and niche An ornamental recess in a wall, often semicircular in plan and surmounted
bulk. by a half-dome, as for a statue or other decorative object.
mastaba An ancient Egyptian tomb made of mud brick, rectangular in plan with nuraghe Any of the large, round or triangular stone towers found in Sardinia and
a flat roof and sloping sides, from which a shaft leads to underground burial dating from the second millennium B.C. to the Roman conquest.
and offering chambers. obelisk A tall, four-sided shaft of stone that tapers as it rises to a pyramidal
mausoleum A large and stately tomb, esp. that in the form of a building for point, originating in ancient Egypt as a sacred symbol of the sun-god Ra
housing the tombs of many individuals, often of a single family. and usually standing in pairs astride temple entrances.
megalith A very large stone used as found or roughly dressed, esp. in ancient oculus A circular opening, esp. one at the crown of a dome.
construction work. order A condition of logical, harmonious, or comprehensible arrangement in
megaron A building or semi-independent unit of a building, typically having a which each element of a group is properly disposed with reference to other
rectangular principal chamber with a center hearth and a porch, often of elements and to its purpose. Also, an arrangement of columns supporting
columns in antis: traditional in Greece since Mycenaean times and believed an entablature, each column comprising a capital, shaft, and usually a base.
to be the ancestor of the Doric temple. oriel A bay window supported from below by corbels or brackets.
menhir A prehistoric monument consisting of an upright megalith, usually orthographic Pertaining to, involving, or composed of right angles.
standing alone but sometimes aligned with others. pagoda A Buddhist temple in the form of a square or polygonal tower with roofs
mezzanine A low or partial story between two main stories of a building, esp. projecting from each of its many stories, erected as a memorial or to hold
one that projects as a balcony and forms a composition with the story relics. From the stupa, the Indian prototype, the pagoda gradually changed
beneath it. in form to resemble the traditional multistoried watch tower as it spread
mihrab A niche or decorative panel in a mosque designating the qibla. with Buddhism to China and Japan. Pagodas were initially of timber, but
minaret A lofty, slender tower attached to a mosque, having stairs leading up from the 6th century on, were more frequently of brick or stone, possibly
to one or more projecting balconies from which the muezzin calls the Muslim due to Indian influence.
people to prayer. pailou A monumental gateway in Chinese architecture, having a trabeated form
mirador In Spanish architecture, an architectural feature affording a view of the of stone or wood construction with one, three, or five openings and often
surroundings, as a bay window, loggia, or roof pavilion. bold projecting roofs, erected as a memorial at the entrance to a palace,
model An example serving as a pattern for imitation or emulation in the creation tomb, or sacred place: related to the Indian toranas and the Japanese torii.
of something. Also, pailoo.
module A unit of measurement used for standardizing the dimensions of palazzo A large, imposing public building or private residence, esp. in Italy.
building materials or regulating the proportions of an architectural Palladian motif A window or doorway in the form of a round-headed archway
composition. flanked on either side by narrower compartments, the side compartments
monastery A place of residence for a community of persons living in seclusion being capped with entablatures on which the arch of the central
under religious vows, esp. monks. compartment rests.
monolith A single block of stone of considerable size, often in the form of an panopticon A building, as a prison, hospital, library, or the like, so arranged that
obelisk or column. all parts of the interior are visible from a single point.
mosque A Muslim building or place of public worship. pantheon A temple dedicated to all the gods of a people. Also, a public building
mullion A vertical member between the lights of a window or the panels in serving as the burial place of or containing the memorials to the famous
wainscoting. dead of a nation.
muqarnas A system of decoration in Islamic architecture, formed by the parapet A low, protective wall at the edge of a terrace, balcony, or roof, esp. that
intricate corbeling of brackets, squinches, and inverted pyramids; part of an exterior wall, fire wall, or party wall that rises above the roof.
sometimes wrought in stone but more often in plaster. Also called parterre An ornamental arrangement of flower beds of different shapes and
stalactite work. sizes.
mural A large picture painted on or applied directly to a wall or ceiling surface. parti Used by the French at the École des Beaux-Arts in the 19th century, the
naos See cella. design idea or sketch from which an architectural project will be developed.
narthex The portico before the nave of an early Christian or Byzantine church, Now, the basic scheme or concept for an architectural design, represented
appropriated to penitents. Also, an entrance hall or vestibule leading to the by a diagram.
nave of a church. passage grave A megalithic tomb of the Neolithic and early Bronze Ages found
nave The principal or central part of a church, extending from the narthex to the in the British Isles and Europe, consisting of a roofed burial chamber and
choir or chancel and usually flanked by aisles. narrow entrance passage, covered by a tumulus: believed to have been used
for successive family or clan burials spanning a number of generations.

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pavilion A light, usually open building used for shelter, concerts, or exhibits, as postern A private or side entrance, as one for pedestrians next to a porte-
in a park or fair. Also, a central or flanking projecting subdivision of a facade, cochère.
usually accented by more elaborate decoration or greater height and promenade An area used for a stroll or walk, esp. in a public place, as for
distinction of skyline. pleasure or display.
pedestal A construction upon which a column, statue, memorial shaft, or the proportion The comparative, proper, or harmonious relation of one part to
like, is elevated, usually consisting of a base, a dado, and a cornice or cap. another or to the whole with respect to magnitude, quantity, or degree.
pediment The low-pitched gable enclosed by the building’s horizontal and raking Also, the equality between two ratios in which the first of the four terms
cornices of a Greek or Roman temple. Also, a similar or derivative element divided by the second equals the third divided by the fourth.
used to surmount a major division of a facade or crown an opening. propylaeum A vestibule or gateway of architectural importance before a temple
pendentive A spherical triangle forming the transition from the circular plan of area or other enclosure. Often used in the plural, propylaea.
a dome to the polygonal plan of its supporting structure. propylon A freestanding gateway having the form of a pylon and preceding the
pergola A structure of parallel colonnades supporting an open roof of beams main gateway to an ancient Egyptian temple or sacred enclosure.
and crossing rafters or trelliswork, over which climbing plants are trained prototype An early and typical example that exhibits the essential features of
to grow. a class or group and on which later stages are based or judged.
peristyle A colonnade surrounding a building or a courtyard. Also, the courtyard proxemics The study of the symbolic and communicative role of the spatial
so enclosed. separation individuals maintain in various social and interpersonal
piano nobile The principal story of a large building, as a palace or villa, with situations, and how the nature and degree of this spatial arrangement
formal reception and dining rooms, usually one flight above the ground floor. relates to environmental and cultural factors.
piazza An open square or public place in a city or town, esp. in Italy. pylon A monumental gateway to an ancient Egyptian temple, consisting either
pier A vertical supporting structure, as a section of wall between two openings of a pair of tall truncated pyramids and a doorway between them or of one
or one supporting the end of an arch or lintel. Also, a cast-in-place concrete such masonry mass pierced with a doorway, often decorated with painted
foundation formed by boring with a large auger or excavating by hand a reliefs.
shaft in the earth to a suitable bearing stratum and filling the shaft with pyramid A massive masonry structure having a rectangular base and four
concrete. smooth, steeply sloping sides facing the cardinal points and meeting at
pilaster A shallow rectangular feature projecting from a wall, having a capital an apex, used in ancient Egypt as a tomb to contain the burial chamber
and a base and architecturally treated as a column. and the mummy of the pharaoh. The pyramid was usually part of a complex
pillar An upright, relatively slender shaft or structure, usually of brick or stone, of buildings within a walled enclosure, including mastabas for members
used as a building support or standing alone as a monument. of the royal family, an offering chapel, and a mortuary temple. A raised
piloti A column of steel or reinforced concrete supporting a building above an causeway led from the enclosure down to a valley temple on the Nile, where
open ground level, thereby leaving the space available for other uses. purification rites and mummification were performed. Also, a masonry mass
Platonic solid One of the five regular polyhedrons: tetrahedron, hexahedron, having a rectangular base and four stepped and sloping faces culminating in
octahedron, dodecahedron, or icosahedron. a single apex, used in ancient Egypt and pre-Columbian Central America as a
plaza A public square or open space in a city or town. tomb or a platform for a temple.
plinth The usually square slab beneath the base of a column, pier, or pedestal. qibla The direction toward which Muslims face to pray, esp. the Ka‘ba at Mecca.
Also, a continuous, usually projecting course of stones forming the base or Also, the wall in a mosque in which the mihrab is set, oriented to Mecca.
foundation of a wall. quoin An external solid angle of a wall, or one of the stones forming such an
podium A solid mass of masonry visible above ground level and serving as angle, usually differentiated from the adjoining surfaces by material,
the foundation of a building, esp. the platform forming the floor and texture, color, size, or projection.
substructure of a classical temple. rampart A broad embankment of earth raised as a fortification around a place
porch An exterior appendage to a building, forming a covered approach or and usually surmounted by a parapet.
vestibule to a doorway. rath A Hindu temple cut out of solid rock to resemble a chariot.
porte-cochère A porch roof projecting over a driveway at the entrance to a ratio Relation in magnitude, quantity, or degree between two or more similar
building and sheltering those getting in or out of vehicles. Also, a vehicular things.
passageway leading through a building or screen wall into an interior reentrant Reentering or pointing inward, as an interior angle of a polygon that
courtyard. is greater than 180°.
portico A porch or walkway having a roof supported by columns, often leading to regular Having all faces congruent regular polygons and all solid angles
the entrance of a building. congruent.
post A stiff vertical support, esp. a wooden column in timber framing. repetition The act or process of repeating formal elements or motifs in a
design.

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rhythm Movement characterized by a patterned repetition or alternation of stele An upright stone slab or pillar with a carved or inscribed surface, used as a
formal elements or motifs in the same or a modified form. monument or marker, or as a commemorative tablet in the face of a building.
roof The external upper covering of a building, including the frame for supporting stoa An ancient Greek portico, usually detached and of considerable length,
the roofing. used as a promenade or meeting place around public places.
room A portion of space within a building, separated by walls or partitions from story A complete horizontal division of a building, having a continuous or nearly
other similar spaces. continuous floor and comprising the space between two adjacent levels.
rustication Ashlar masonry having the visible faces of the dressed stones Also, the set of rooms on the same floor or level of a building.
raised or otherwise contrasted with the horizontal and usually the vertical stringcourse A horizontal course of brick or stone flush with or projecting
joints, which may be rabbeted, chamfered, or beveled. beyond the face of a building, often molded to mark a division in the wall.
sanctuary A sacred or holy place, esp. the most sacred part of a church in stupa A Buddhist memorial mound erected to enshrine a relic of Buddha
which the principal altar is placed, or an especially holy place in a temple. and to commemorate some event or mark a sacred spot. Modeled on a
scale A proportion determining the relationship of a representation to that funerary tumulus, it consists of an artificial dome-shaped mound raised
which it represents. Also, a certain proportionate size, extent, or degree, on a platform, surrounded by an outer ambulatory with a stone vedika and
usually judged in relation to some standard or point of reference. four toranas, and crowned by a chattri. The name for the stupa in Ceylon is
semiotics The study of signs and symbols as elements of communicative “dagoba,” and in Tibet and Nepal, “chorten.”
behavior. symbology The study of use of symbols.
shell structure A thin, rigid, curved surface structure formed to enclose a symbol Something that represents something else by association, resemblance,
volume. Applied loads develop compressive, tensile, and shear stresses or convention, esp. a material object used to represent something invisible
acting within the plane of the shell. The thinness of the shell, however, has or immaterial, deriving its meaning chiefly from the structure in which it
little bending resistance and is unsuitable for concentrated loads. appears.
shoro A structure from which the temple bell is hung, as one of a pair of small, symmetry The exact correspondence in size, form, and arrangement of parts
identical, symmetrically placed pavilions in a Japanese Buddhist temple. on opposite sides of a dividing line or plane, or about a center or axis.
shrine A building or other shelter, often of a stately or sumptuous character, Also, regularity of form or arrangement in terms of like, reciprocal, or
enclosing the remains or relics of a saint or other holy person and forming corresponding parts.
an object of religious veneration and pilgrimage. synagogue A building or place of assembly for Jewish worship and religious
sikhara A tower of a Hindu temple, usually tapered convexly and capped by an instruction.
amalaka. ta A pagoda in Chinese architecture.
sill The lowest horizontal member of a frame structure, resting on and anchored technology Applied science: the branch of knowledge that deals with the
to a foundation wall. Also, the horizontal member beneath a door or window creation and use of technical means and their interrelation with life, society,
opening. and the environment, drawing upon such subjects as industrial arts,
solarium A glass-enclosed porch, room, or gallery used for sunbathing or for engineering, applied science, and pure science.
therapeutic exposure to sunlight. tectonics The art and science of shaping, ornamenting, or assembling materials
solid A geometric figure having the three dimensions of length, breadth, and in building construction.
thickness. temenos In ancient Greece, a piece of ground specially reserved and enclosed as
space The three-dimensional field in which objects and events occur and have a sacred place.
relative position and direction, esp. a portion of that field set apart in a tensile structure A thin, flexible surface that carries loads primarily through
given instance or for a particular purpose. the development of tensile stresses.
spandrel The triangular-shaped, sometimes ornamented area between the terrace A raised level with a vertical or sloping front or sides faced with
extrados of two adjoining arches, or between the left or right extrados of an masonry, turf, or the like, esp. one of a series of levels rising above one
arch and the rectangular framework surrounding it. Also, a panel-like area in another.
a multistory frame building, between the sill of a window on one level and the tetrastyle Having four columns on one or each front.
head of a window immediately below. tholos A circular building in classical architecture.
spire A tall, acutely tapering pyramidal structure surmounting a steeple or threshold A place or point of entering or beginning.
tower. tokonoma Picture recess: a shallow, slightly raised alcove for the display of
stair One of a flight or series of steps for going from one level to another, as in a flower arrangement or a kakemono, a vertical hanging scroll containing
a building. either text or a painting. One side of the recess borders the outside wall
stalactite work See muquarna. of the room through which light enters, while the interior side adjoins the
steeple A tall ornamental structure, usually ending in a spire and surmounting tana, a recess with built-in shelving. As the spiritual center of a traditional
the tower of a church or other public building. Japanese house, the tokonoma is located in its most formal room.

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topography The physical configuration and features of a site, area, or region. vault An arched structure of stone, brick, or reinforced concrete, forming a
torana An elaborately carved, ceremonial gateway in Indian Buddhist and Hindu ceiling or roof over a hall, room, or other wholly or partially enclosed space.
architecture, having two or three lintels between two posts. Since it behaves as an arch extended in a third dimension, the longitudinal
torii A monumental, freestanding gateway on the approach to a Shinto shrine, supporting walls must be buttressed to counteract the thrusts of the
consisting of two pillars connected at the top by a horizontal crosspiece arching action.
and a lintel above it, usually curving upward. veranda A large, open porch, usually roofed and partly enclosed, as by a railing,
trabeate Of or pertaining to a system of construction employing beams or often extending across the front and sides of a house.
lintels. Also, trabeated. vestibule A small entrance hall between the outer door and the interior of a
transept The major transverse part of a cruciform church, crossing the house or building.
main axis at a right angle between the nave and choir. Also, either of the vihara A Buddhist monastery in Indian architecture often excavated from solid
projecting arms of this part, on either side of the central aisle of a church. rock, consisting of a central pillared chamber surrounded by a verandah onto
transformation The process of changing in form or structure through a series which open small sleeping cells. Adjacent to this cloister was a courtyard
of discrete permutations and manipulations in response to a specific containing the main stupa.
context or set of conditions without a loss of identity or concept. villa A country residence or estate.
trellis A frame supporting open latticework, used as a screen or a support for void An empty space contained within or bounded by mass.
growing vines or plants. volume The size or extent of a three-dimensional object or region of space,
trullo A circular stone shelter of the Apulia region of southern Italy, roofed measured in cubic units.
with conical constructions of corbeled dry masonry, usually whitewashed wainscot A facing of wood paneling, esp. when covering the lower portion of an
and painted with figures or symbols. Many trulli are over 1000 years old interior wall.
and still in use today, usually located among vineyards to serve as storage wall Any of various upright constructions presenting a continuous surface and
structures or as temporary living quarters during the harvest. serving to enclose, divide, or protect an area.
truss A structural frame based on the geometric rigidity of the triangle and wat A Buddhist monastery or temple in Thailand or Cambodia.
composed of linear members subject only to axial tension or compression. ziggurat A temple-tower in Sumerian and Assyrian architecture, built in
tumulus An artificial mound of earth or stone, esp. over an ancient grave. diminishing stages of mud brick with buttressed walls faced with burnt
tympanum The recessed triangular space enclosed by the horizontal and raking brick, culminating in a summit shrine or temple reached by a series of
cornices of a triangular pediment, often decorated with sculpture. Also, a ramps: thought to be of Sumerian origin, dating from the end of the 3rd
similar space between an arch and the horizontal head of a door or window millennium B.C.
below.
uniformity The state or quality of being identical, homogeneous, or regular.
unity The state or quality of being combined into one, as the ordering of
elements in an artistic work that constitutes a harmonious whole or
promotes a singleness of effect.

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 IN D EX O F B UI L DI N G S

A Bookstaver House, Westminster, Vermont, 281

Abbey Church at Alpirsbach, Germany, 407 Borobodur, Indonesia, 285
Abu Simbel, Great Temple of Rameses II, 250 Boston City Hall, Massachusetts, 105
The Acropolis, Athens, 116, 260 Brick House, New Canaan, Connecticut, 25
Administration Building, Johnson Wax Co., Racine, Bridge House (Project), 225
Wisconsin, 269 Buddhist Chaitya Hall at Karli, Maharashtra, India,
A.E. Bingham House, Santa Barbara, California, 31
367 Burroughs Adding Machine Company, Plymouth,
Agora at Priene, 167 Michigan, 67
Agora of Assos, Asia Minor, 68 Busan Cinema Center, South Korea, 53
Agora of Ephesus, Asia Minor, 41 Buseoksa Temple, Gyeongsangdo, Korea, 256
Agora (Athens) Plan, 385 Business Men’s Assurance Co. of America, Kansas
Alder House (Project), Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, City, Missouri, 245
246
Alhambra, Granada, Spain, 196, 260 C
Altes Museum, Berlin, 15 Ca d’Oro, Venice, 368
Amédée Ozenfant House, Paris, 179 Canberra, Australia, Plan for, 233
Angkor Wat, Cambodia, 347 Canterbury Cathedral, England, 278
Architectural Design Study, 91 Capitol Complex (Project), Islamabad, Pakistan,
Architecty Studio, Helsinki, 152 402
Arch of Septimius Severus, Rome, 146 Capitol Complex at Dacca, Bangladesh, 217
Arnheim Pavilion, The Netherlands, 158 Caplin House, Venice, California, 205
Art Gallery, Shiraz, Iran, 414 Carpenter Center for the Visual Arts, Harvard
University, Cambridge, Massachusetts,
B 258, 280
Bacardi Office Building, Santiago de Cuba, 21 Caryatid Porch, The Erechtheion, Athens, 11
Baker House, MIT, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Cary House, Mill Valley, California, 17
227 Catholic Church, Taos, New Mexico, 257
Bakong Temple, Cambodia, 400 CBS Building, New York, New York, 94
Bandung Institute of Technology, Indonesia, 132 Cenotaph for Sir Isaac Newton, 5
Banff Community Recreation Center, Alberta, Central Beheer Office Building, The Netherlands,
Canada, 45 246
Bank of England, London, 239 Centralized Plans, 211
Baptistery at Pisa, Italy, 5 Central Pavilion, Horyu-Ji Temple, Nara, Japan, 37
Barn in Ontario, Canada, 32 Centre Le Corbusier, Zurich, Switzerland, 131,
The Basilica, Vicenza, 15, 90 391
Bathhouse, Jewish Community Center, Trenton, Centrosoyus Building, Moscow, 365
New Jersey, 41 Champ de Mars, Paris, 156
Baths of Caracalla, Rome, 347, 363 Chancellery Building, French Embassy, Basilia,
Bay Window of the Living Room, Hill House, Brazil, 80
Scotland, 183 Chapel, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Bedford Park, London, England, 409 Cambridge, Massachusetts, 48
Beijing (China) city plan, 355 Chapel Space, Notre Dame Du Haut, Ronchamp,
Benacerraf House Addition, Princeton, New Jersey, France, 177
60 Chicago Convention Hall Project, 129
Berlin Building Exposition House, 153, 185 China Central Television Headquarters (CCTV),
Beth Sholom Synagogue, Elkins Park, Pennsylvania, Beijing, 53
64 Chinese Courtyard House, Beijing, 358
Bibliothèque Nationale Project, 133 Chinese Patio House, 168

IND EX / 4 3 5
I N D E X OF BU IL DINGS

Chiswick House, London, England, 203 Des Moines Public Library, Iowa, 171 Frank Lloyd Wright Studio, Oak Park, Illinois, 368
Church at Vuoksenniska, Imatra, Finland, 10, 25, DeVore House (Project), Montgomery County, French Embassy, Basilia, Brazil, 80
417 Pennsylvania, 386 Friedman House, Pleasantville, New York, 240
Church of Christ the Worker, Atlántida, Uruguay, Dilwara Jain Temples, Mt. Abu, India, 402 Fukuoka Sogo Bank, Study of the Saga Branch, 94
366 Diwan-i-Khas, Fatehpur Sikri, 49
Circus at Bath, England, 227 Doge’s Palace, Venice, 264 G
Cistercian Monastery of La Tourette, France, 119, Dogon Housing Cluster, Mali, 74 Gagarin House, Peru, Vermont, 272
133 Dolmen, 26 Galleria Vittorio Emanuelle II, Milan, 156
City of Justice, Barcelona, Spain, 52 Dom-ino House Project, 142 Gamble House, Pasadena, California, 241
Cloister and Salle des Chevaliers, Mont S. Michel, Doric Temple at Segasta, Sicily, 32 Gandhi Ashram Museum, Ahmedabad, India, 248
France, 141 Dr. Currutchet’s House, La Plata, Argentina, 264 Gavotte I, Sixth Cello Suite, 380
Cloister of Moissac Abbey, France, 16 Dura-Europos (Syria) city plan, 244 George Blossom House, Chicago, Illinois, 420
Cloister of S. Maria della Pace, Rome, 296 Durbar Square, Patan, Nepal, 384 German Pavilion, Montreal World Exposition, 390
Color Construction (Project for a Private House), German Pavilion (Barcelona Pavilion), International
185 E Exhibition of 1929, Barcelona, 147
The Colosseum, Rome, 347 Early Megaron Space, 164 Germigny-des-Prés, France, 402
Column of Marcus Aurelius, Piazza Colonna, Rome, East Building, National Gallery of Art, Washington, Ggantija temple complex, Malta, 75
10 D. C., 273 The Gherkin, London, United Kingdom, 173
Column of St. Theodore, Venice, 264 Eastern State Penitentiary, Philadelphia, Giron, Colombia square, 110
Commonwealth Promenade Apartments, Chicago, Pennsylvania, 283 Glass House, New Canaan, Connecticut, 113,
Illinois, 89 East Harlem Preschool, New York, New York, 119 130, 146, 258
Composition of Nine Squares, 206 Edwin Cheney House, Oak Park, Illinois, 261 G.N. Black House (Kragsyde), Manchester-by-the
Concert Hall Project, 24 Einstein Tower, Potsdam, Germany, 90 Sea, Massachusetts, 73
Condominium Unit No. 1, Sea Ranch, California, 17 Empire State Building, New York, New York, 346 Gorman Residence, Amagansett, New York, 59
Condominium Unit No. 5, Sea Ranch, California, Enclosure of the Shrine of Apollo Delphinios, Grand Staircase, Paris Opera House, 302
140 Miletus, 169 Great Pyramid of Cheops at Giza, Egypt, 40, 49,
Congress Hall (Project), Strasbourg, France, 421 The Erechtheion, Athens, 11 346
Conical Cenotaph Project, 48 Eric Boissonas House I, New Canaan, Connecticut, Great Stupa at Sanchi, India, 361
Convent for the Dominican Sisters, Project, Media, 249 Greek Temples, 164
Pennsylvania, 163 Eric Boissonas House II, Cap Benat, France, 293 Greenhouse House, Salisbury, Connecticut, 217
Convention Hall for Chicago Project, 129 ESO (European Southern Observatory) Hotel, Guachimonton complex at Teuchitlán, Mexico, 414
Coonley Playhouse, Riverside, Illinois, 51 Cerro Paranal, Atacama Desert, Chile, 379 Guggenheim Museum, Bilbao, Spain, 233
Cooroy Art Temple, Cooroy Mountain, Australia, Everson Museum, Syracuse, New York, 88 Guggenheim Museum, New York, New York, 216,
106 Eyüp Cultural Center, Istanbul, Turkey, 106 285
Cornell University Undergraduate Housing, Ithaca, Gunma Prefectural Museum of Fine Arts, Japan,
New York, 12 F 76
Country House in Brick Project, 23 Fallingwater (Kaufmann House), Pennsylvania, 27, Gwathmey Residence, Amagensett, New York,
Courtyard House Project, 51 187, 241, 261 55, 60
Crown Hall, School of Architecture and Urban Farnsworth House, Plano, Illinois, 118, 292
Design, Illinois Institute of Technology, Fatehpur Sikri, Palace Complex of Akbar the Great, H
Chicago, 13, 309 49, 114, 235 Habitat Israel, Jerusalem, 75
Cruciform Plan Organization, 420 Federation Square, Melbourne, Australia, 97 Habitat Montreal, Canada, 75
Crystal Palace, London, England, 245 Finnish Pavilion, New York World’s Fair, 1939, 24 Hadrian’s Villa, The Island Villa (Teatro Marittimo),
Cultural Center, Wolfsburg, Germany, 417 Fire Temple at Sarvistan, Iran, 394 Tivoli, 80, 194, 272
Cultural Center (Competition Entry), Leverkusen, First Unitarian Church, Rochester, New York, 95, Hagia Sophia, Constantinople (Istanbul), Turkey,
Germany, 387 377 214, 347
Florey Building, Queen’s College, Oxford, 162 Hale County Animal Shelter, Greensboro, Alabama,
D Fontenay Abbey, France, 169 129
Darwin D. Martin House and Estate, Buffalo, New Forbidden City, Beijing, 117, 118, 257 Hallway of Okusu Residence, Tokyo, Japan, 296
York, 357 Forum at Pompeii, 167 Hangar, Design I, 25

4 3 6 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FORM , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 IN D EX OF B UI L DI N G S

Hanselmann House, Fort Wayne, Indiana, 49 Ibrahim Rauza, Tomb of Sultan Ibrahim II, Bijapur, K
Hasan Pasha Han, Istanbul, Turkey, 413 India, 167 Karlsruhe, Germany, 282
Hattenbach Residence, Santa Monica, California, Ideal Church Plan (Da Vinci), 208, 210, 370, 377 Karuizawa House, Country Retreat, 237
77 Ideal Church Plan (Filarete), 360 Katsura Imperial Villa, Kyoto, Japan, 11, 51, 113,
Haystack Mountain School of Arts and Crafts, Ideal City Plan (Martini), 282, 287 138, 266, 401
Deer Isle, Maine, 281 Ideal City Plan (Scamozzi), 80 Kaufmann Desert House, Palm Springs, California,
Heathcote (Hemmingway House), England, 373 Ideal City Plan (Sforzinda), 39, 82 91, 231, 241
Henry Babson House, Riverside, Illinois, 69 Iglesia San Josemaría Escrivá, Alvaro Obregon, Kaufmann House (Fallingwater), Pennsylvania, 27,
Herbert F. Johnson House (Wingspread), Mexico, 379 187, 241, 261
Wisconsin, 230 Il Redentore, Venice, 55 Kauwi Interpretive Center, Lonsdale, Australia,
High Altar in the Chapel at the Cistercian Imagination Art Pavilion, Zeewolde, Netherlands, 378
Monastery of La Tourette, France, 119 129 Khasneh al Faroun, Petra, 59
High Court, Chandigarh, India, 269 Imperial Forums of Trajan, Rome, 359 Kimball Art Museum, Forth Worth, Texas, 249
Hill House, Scotland, 183 Imperial Palace, Beijing, China, 118 Kingo Housing Estate, Denmark, 151
Himeji Castle, Japan, 407 Imperial Palace, Kyoto, Japan, 21 Kneses Tifereth Israel Synagogue, Port Chester,
Hines House, Sea Ranch, California, 279 Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, New York, 270
History Faculty Building, Cambridge University, India, 348 Koshino House, Ashiya, Japan, 382
England, 152, 376 Institute of Technology, Otaniemi, Finland, 374 Kresge College, Santa Cruz Campus, University of
Hoffman House, East Hampton, New York, 93 Interama, Project for an Inter-American California, 259
Horyu-Ji Temple, Nara, Japan, 65, 192, 383 Community, Florida, 224 Külliye of Beyazid II, Bursa, Turkey, 404
Hospital Project, Venice, 246, 286 Internal Facade of a Basilica, 408
Hôtel Amelot, Paris, 374 International Exhibition of 1929, Barcelona, 147 L
Hôtel de Beauvais, Paris, 358 Isaac Flagg House II, Berkeley, California, 367 La Roche-Jeanneret Houses, Paris, 61
Hôtel de Matignon, Paris, 358 Ise Shrine, Japan, 166, 308 Lawrence House, Sea Ranch, California, 21, 203
Hôtel Dieu (Hospital), 229 Isfahan (Persia) Civic Center Plan, 346, 393 Legislative Assembly Building, Chandigarh, India,
Hotel for Students at Otaniemi, Finland, 164, Isfahan (Persia) Safavid Plan, 384 265, 347, 375
165 The Island Villa (Teatro Marittimo), Hadrian’s Villa, Library, Rovaniemi, Finland, 419
House, Berlin Building Exposition, 185 Tivoli, 80, 194, 272 Library, Seinäjoki, Finland, 419
House, Ur of the Chaldees, 168 Itsukushima Temple, Hiroshima, Japan, 356 Library, Wolfsburg Cultural Center, Germany, 124
House 10 (Project), 12, 225 ITT Library Building, Chicago, Illinois, 245 Library in Rovaniemi Plan, Finland, 124
House at Poissy, 61 Izumo Shrine, Japan, 88, 116 Library of Mount Angel, Benedictine College,
House at Stabio, Ticino, Switzerland, 59 Oregon, 419
House for Mrs. Robert Venturi, Chestnut Hill, J Lincoln Memorial, Washington, D. C., 7
Pennsylvania, 238, 268 Jaipur (India) city plan, 287 Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneshwar, India, 63
House III for Robert Miller, Lakeville, Connecticut, Jami Masjid, Gulbarga, India, 399 Lion’s Column, Venice, 264
83 Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad, India, 404 Living Room, Samuel Freeman House, Los Angles,
House in Old Westbury, New York, 157, 279, 303 Japanese Residence, 143 181
House No. 33, Priene, 168 Japanese traditional house, 193, 236, 292, Living Room, Villa Mjairea, Noormarkku, Finland,
House of the Faun, Pompeii, 413 334–337 181
House on the Massachusetts Coast, 125 Jasper Place Branch Library, Edmonton, Canada, Lloyd Lewis House, Libertyville, Illinois, 222
House Study, 73 131 London City Hall, England, 171
Housing Development, Pavia, 226 Jester House (Project), Palos Verdes, California, Longhouse (Iroquois Confederacy dwelling), 220
Huánuco (Inca Town) plan, 392 413 Lord Derby’s House, London, England, 222
Humayun’s Tomb, Delhi, India, 213, 393 Jewish Community Center, Trenton, New Jersey, Lowell Walter House, Iowa, 374
Hurva Synagogue (Project), Jerusalem, 164 41, 389
Husser House, Chicago, Illinois, 365 John Deere & Company Building, Moline, Illinois, 94 M
John F. Kennedy Memorial, Dallas, Texas, 268 M9 (Memorial 9), Santiago, Chile, 378
I Johnson Wax Co. Building, Racine, Wisconsin, 90, Machu Picchu, Peru, 20
IBM Research Center, La Guade, Var, France, 95 269 Maison de Force (Prison), Belgium, 229
The Mall, Washington, D. C., 7

IND EX / 4 3 7
I N D E X OF BU IL DINGS

Manabe Residence, Osaka, Japan, 248 Nathaniel Russell House, Charleston, South Palazzo Piccolomini, Pienza, 205
Manhattan (New York) city plan, 287 Carolina, 363 Palazzo Pietro Massimi, Rome, 368
Marcus House (Project), Dallas, Texas, 223 National Assembly Building, Capitol Complex at Palazzo Thiene, Vicenza, 31
Marin County Civic Center, San Rafael, California, Dacca, Bangladesh, 217 Palazzo Vecchio, Florence, 354
386 National Gallery of Art, Washington, D. C., 273 Palazzo Zuccari, Rome, 263
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Chapel, National Garden Show, Cologne, Germany, 127 The Pantheon, Rome, 101, 214, 270, 318
Cambridge, Massachusetts, 48 National Museum of Roman Art, Mérida, Spain, 83 Paris (France) city plan, 288
Maupertius Project, 48 Neur Vahr Apartment Building, Bremen, Germany, Parish Center Church, Germany, 123
Meeting House, Salk Institute of Biological 293 Parish Center Church Interior, Germany, 133
Studies (Project), California, 237 New Mummers Theater, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, Parterre de Broderie, Versailles, 113
Memorial 9 (M9), Santiago, Chile, 378 233 The Parthenon, Athens, 260, 316
Menhir, 10 Northern Palace at Masada, Israel, 357 Pavilion Design, 203
Mercer’s Castle (Fonthill), Doylestown, North Indian Cella, 418 Pavilion of Commerce, Prague, 271
Pennsylvania, 240 Notre Dame du Haut, Ronchamp, France, 29, 177, Pavilion of Supreme Harmony (Taihe Dian), Beijing,
Merchants’ National Bank, Grinnell, Iowa, 267 186, 254 117
Mile-high Illinois, Skyscraper Project, Chicago, Notre Dame la Grande, Poitiers, France, 396 Pavilion of the Academia, Hadrian’s Villa, Tivoli,
Illinois, 69 Nuraghe at Palmavera, Sardinia, 236 272
Miletus (Turkey) City Plan, 388 Nuremberg Charterhouse, 395 Pazzi Chapel, Florence, 270
Millowners’ Association Building, Ahmedabad, Pearl Mosque, Agra, India, 82
India, 143, 274, 421 O Pearson House (Project), 222
Ministry of National Education and Public Health, Obelisk of Luxor, Place de la Concorde, Paris, 10 Pensiero Della Chiesa S. Carlo, 57
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 193 O’Keefe Residence, Santa Fe, New Mexico, 17 Peregrine Winery, Gibbston Valley, New Zealand,
Moabit Prison, Berlin, 229 Okusu Residence, Tokyo, Japan, 296 130
Modern Art Museum, Caracas, Venezuela, 40 Olivetti Headquarters, Milton Keynes, England, Pergamon city plan, 350
Mojácar, Spain, 405 252 Peristyle Courtyard Houses on Delos, Plan of, 392
Monastery of St. Meletios, 104 Olivetti Training School, Haslemere, England, 376 Peyrissac Residence, Cherchell, Algeria, 23
Montfazier (France) city plan, 372 Olympic Arena, Tokyo, Japan, 404 Philharmonic Hall, Berlin, 51
Monticello, Virginia, 362 Olympic Sculpture Park, Seattle Art Museum, Philip Exeter Academy Library, Exeter, New
Mont St. Michel, France, 5, 141 Seattle, Washington, 107 Hampshire, 395
Moore House, Orinda, California, 199 Olympic Swimming Arena, Munich, Germany, 309 Piazza del Campidoglio, Rome, 5, 162
Morris Gift Shop, San Francisco, California, 267 Olympic Velodrome, Athens, Greece, 44 Piazza del Campo, Siena, 138
Morris House (Project), Mount Kisco, New York, One-half House (Project), 205 Piazza Maggiore, Sabbioneta, Italy, 31
241 One Shelly Street, Sydney, Australia, 172 Piazza of St. Peter, Rome, 138
Mortuary Temple of Queen Hatshepsut, Thebes, Oriental Theater, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, 271 Piazza San Marco, Venice, 22, 105, 264, 385
20, 278 O-torii, Toshogu Shrine, Japan, 264 Pilgrimage Church, Germany, 201
Mortuary Temple of Rameses III, Egypt, 291, 362 Place Royale, Paris, 392
Mosque of Sultan Hasan, Cairo, Egypt, 51, 347 P Plan for Canberra, Australia, 233
Mosque of Tinmal, Morocco, 244 Palace of Charles V, Granada, 377 Plan of Civic Center, Isfahan, Persia, 346
Murray House, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 81 Palace of Diocletian, Spalato, 363 Plan of Peristyle Courtyard Houses on Delos, 392
Museum, Ahmedabad, India, 389 Palace of King Minos, Crete, 237 Pompeii residential fabric, 403
Museum for North Rhine-Westphalia, Dusseldorf, Palace of the Soviets (Competition), 366 Pope House, Salisbury, Connecticut, 283
Germany, 81 Palacio Güell, Barcelona, Spain, 84 Potala Palace, Lhasa, Tibet, 373
Museum of Endless Growth (Project), Algeria, Palafolls Public Library, Palafolls, Spain, 107 Poteries du Don, Le Fel, France, 52
284 Palazzo Antonini, Udine, 140, 292 Priene (Turkey) city plan, 244, 287
Museum of Western Art, Tokyo, Japan, 284, 421 Palazzo Chiericati, Vicenza, 328 Propylaea, Athens, 259
Palazzo Farnese, Rome, 168, 318 Pueblo Bonito, Chaco Canyon, 346, 406
N Palazzo Garzadore (Project), Vincenza, 185 Pyramid of Cheops at Giza, 40, 49
Naigu, the inner shrine, Ise Shrine, Japan, 308 Palazzo Iseppo Porto, Vicenza, 329 Pyramids of Cheops, Chephren, and Mykerinos,
Nakagin Capsule Tower, Tokyo, Japan, 76 Palazzo Medici-Ricardo, Florence, 93 Giza, 49
Nalanda Mahavihara, Bihar, India, 382 Palazzo No. 52, 362

4 3 8 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FORM , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 IN D EX O F B UI L DI N G S

Q Schwartz House, Two Rivers, Wisconsin, 309 St. Philibert, Tournus, France, 16
Qian Men, 257 Seattle Art Museum Olympic Sculpture Park, St. Pierre, Virminy-Vert, France, 57
Queen’s College, Cambridge, England, 68 Seattle, Washington, 107 St. Pietro in Montorio, Rome, 65, 317
Seattle Public Library, Seattle, Washington, 170 St. Theodore (now Kilisse Mosque), Constantinople
R Secretariat Building, UNESCO Headquarters, (Istanbul), Turkey, 415
Rajarajeshwara Temple, India, 238, 400 Paris, 71, 232 St. Vitale, Ravenna, 271
Ramp-in-a-Square, 421 Seinäjoki Theater, Finland, 109 Step well at Abhaneri, India, 122
Red Fort, Pearl Mosque, Agra, India, 82 Selim Mosque, Edirne, Turkey, 10 Stern House, Woodbridge, Connecticut, 291
Reims Cathedral, France, 343, 398 Selwyn College, Cambridge, England, 147 Stoa of Attalus, 15
Residence in Morris County, New Jersey, 297 Sforzinda, Ideal City Plan of, 39, 82 Stockholm Public Library, 216
Residential Care Unit, Hokkaido, Japan, 411 Sheffield University, England, 221 Stonehenge, England, 346
Restaurant Los Manantiales, Xochimilco, Mexico, Shodhan House, Ahmedabad, India, 26, 60, 247, Student Apartments, Selwyn College, Cambridge,
43 280 147
Ritual Complex at Fengchu, China, 361 Shokin-Tei Pavilion, Katsura Imperial Villa, Kyoto, Studio, Amédée Ozenfant House, Paris, 179
Robert W. Evans House, Chicago, Illinois, 366 138 Suleymaniye Mosque, Constantinople (Istanbul),
Robie House, Chicago, Illinois, 26 Shrine of Apollo Delphinios, Miletus, 169 Turkey, 37
Rock-cut churches of Lalibela, 121 Shwezigon Pagoda, Bagan, Myanmar, 346, 394 Suntop Homes, Pennsylvania, 153
Rockefeller Center Lower Plaza, New York, New Side Chapels in the Cistercian Monastery of La Swiss Re Building, London, United Kingdom, 173
York, 123 Tourette, France, 133 Sydney Opera House, Australia, 416
Rock of Naqsh-i-Rustam, Iran, 266 Siedlung Halen, Bern, Switzerland, 159, 403
Roman Camp, 286 Sketch of an Oval Church by Borromini, 164 T
Romano House, Kentfield, California, 223 Skylighted Concourse, Olivetti Headquarters, Taj Mahal, Agra, India, 103, 139, 213
Roman Theater, 39 Milton Keynes, England, 252 Taliesin West, Scottsdale, Arizona, 83, 274
Rome (Italy) city plan, 288 Skyscraper by the Sea, Project for Algiers, 71 Taos Pueblo, New Mexico, 74
Rome (Italy) map, 103 The Smitheum, 398 Teatro Marittimo (The Island Villa), Hadrian’s Villa,
Roq Housing Project, Cap-Martin, France, 409 Snyderman House, Fort Wayne, Indiana, 248 Tivoli, 80
Rosenbaum House, 151 Soane House, London, England, 239 Tempietto, S. Pietro in Montorio, Rome, 65, 317
Rowhouses in Galena, Illinois, 274 Social Housing, Louviers, France, 410 Temple B, Selinus, 164
Royal Crescent at Bath, England, 227 Social Science Research Center, Berlin, Germany, Temple Mountain at Bakong Temple, Cambodia,
Runcorn New Town Housing, England, 67 382 117
Spanish Steps (Scala de Spagna), Rome, 20 Temple of Amun at Karnak, Egypt, 346, 356
S SS. Sergio and Bacchus, Constantinople Temple of Athena Polias, Priene, 16
The Sacred Enclosure, Ise Shrine, Japan, 166 (Istanbul), Turkey, 215, 377 Temple of Horus at Edfu, 268
Sacred Precinct of Athena, Pergamon, 162 St. Agostino, Rome, 146 Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, Rome, 116
Salginatobel Bridge, Switzerland, 11 St. Andrea, Mantua, 273 Temple of Kailasnath at Allora, India, 100
Salisbury Cathedral, England, 398 St. Andrea del Quirinale, Rome, 272 Temple of Nemesis, Rhamnus, 164
Salk Institute of Biological Studies (Project), St. Andrew’s Beach House, Victoria, Australia, 97 Temple of the Inscriptions, Mexico, 407
California, 237 St. Andrews University, Scotland, 221, 232 Temple on the Ilissus, Athens, 164, 320
Salvation Army Hostel, Paris, 387 St. Apollinare in Classe, Ravenna, 156 Tenerife Concert Hall, Canary Islands, Spain, 45
Samuel Freeman House, Los Angeles, California, St. Carlo alle Quattro Fontana, Rome, 239 Tensile Structure, National Garden Show, Cologne,
181, 420 St. Giorgio Maggiore, Venice, 265 127
San Lorenzo Maggiore, Milan, 208, 215 St. Ivo della Sapienze, Rome, 211 Teotihuacan, City of the Gods, Mexico, 354
Santa Barbara Courthouse, California, 275 St. Maria della Pace, Rome, 296 Tetrastyle Atrium, House of the Silver Wedding,
Sarabhai House, India, 158 St. Maria Della Salute, Venice, 64 Pompeii, 140
Savannah (Georgia) city plan, 372 St. Maria Novella, Florence, 22, 326 Theater at Epidauros, Greece, 122
Scala de Spagna (Spanish Steps), Rome, 20 St. Mark’s Tower Diagram, 153 Third Floor Plan, Centrosoyus Building, Moscow,
Scamozzi’s Library, Venice, 264 St. Mark’s Tower Project, New York, New York, 82 365
Scarborough College, Westhill, Ontario, 226, 281 St. Pancras Station, London, England, 347 30 St. Mary Axe, London, United Kingdom, 173
Scheme for 3 libraries, 419 St. Peter’s (plan), Rome, 201, 212 Tholos of Polycleitos, Epidauros, Greece, 5
Schröder House, Utrecht, 27 St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome, 201, 212 Thomas Hardy House, Racine, Wisconsin, 420

IND EX / 4 3 9
I N D E X OF BU IL DINGS

Timgad (Roman colony) town plan, 388 Villa Foscari, 319

Tjibaou Cultural Center, Nouméa, New Caledonia, Villa Garches, Vaucresson, France, 32, 37, 61,
415 257, 319, 369
TOD’s Omotesando Building, Tokyo, Japan, 172 Village Project, 159, 220
Tokonoma (spiritual center), 193 Villa Hermosa, Spain, 405
Tomb of Emperor Wan Li, China, 275 Villa Hutheesing (Project), Ahmedabad, India, 261
Tomb of I’timad-ud-daula, Agra, 139 Villa Madama, Rome, 359
Tomb of Jahangir, Lahore, 139 Villa Mjairea, Noormarkku, Finland, 181
Tomb of Muntaz Mahal, 103, 139 Villa Romana del Casale, Piazza Armerina, Sicily,
Torii (gateway), 356 394
Torii, Ise Shrine, Japan, 7
Toshogu Shrine, Japan, 264, 278 Villa Savoye, Poissy, France, xii, 421
Totsuka Country Club, Japan, 128 Villa Thiene, Cicogna, Italy, 329
Town Center for Castrop-Rauxel, Germany, 224 Villa Trissino at Meledo, 163, 372
Town Hall at Säynätso, Finland, 13, 169, 258, Vincent Street Flats, London, England, 93
376 Vitruvian man, 304
Trulli Village, Alberobello, Italy, 74 Von Sternberg House, Los Angeles, California, 265

U W
Uffizi Palace, Florence, 22, 352, 354 W.A. Glasner House, Glencoe, Illinois, 359
Underground village near Loyang, China, 123 Walt Disney Concert Hall, Los Angeles, California,
UNESCO Headquarters, Paris, 71, 232 44
Unité d’Habitation, Firminy-Vert, France, 55, 332 Ward Willitts House, Highland Park, Illinois, 420
Unité d’Habitation, Marseilles, France, 221, 332, Washington D.C. city plan, 289
333, 399 Washington Monument, Washington, D. C., 7
United States Capitol Building, Washington, D.C., Westendinhelmi Housing, Espoo, Finland, 410
7 West Precinct, Horyu-Ji Temple, Nara, Japan, 383
Unity Temple, Oak Park, Illinois, 364 Willis, Faber & Dumas Headquarters, Ipswich,
University Art Museum, University of California- England, 170
Berkeley, 283 Wingspread (Herbert F. Johnson House),
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, 165, 343 Wisconsin, 230
Wolfsburg Cultural Center Library, Germany, 124
V Woodland Chapel, Stockholm, Sweden, 311
Vacation House, Sea Ranch, California, 73 Woodstock, England street, 113
Vadakkunnathan Temple, India, 238 World Museum (Project), Geneva, Switzerland,
Valhalla, Regensburg, Germany, 117 317
Vegetation Forming L-shaped Windscreens, Japan, Wyntoon, California, 240
150
Victorian faces, 408 Y
Vigo Sundt House, Madison, Wisconsin, 40 Yahara Boat Club Project, Madison, Wisconsin, 57
Villa Aldobrandini, Italy, 12 Yeni-Kaplica (Thermal Bath), Bursa, Turkey, 236
Villa at Carthage, Tunisia, 201 Yingxian Timber Pagoda, China, 346
Villa Barbaro, Maser, Italy, 256 Yi Yuan (Garden of Contentment), China, 289
Villa Capra (The Rotunda), Vecenza, 64, 213, 328 Yume-Dono, Eastern precinct of Horyu-Ji Temple,
Villa Farnese, Caprarola, 212, 346, 353 Nara, Japan, 65

4 4 0 / A R C HIT EC T UR E: FORM , S PA C E , & O R D E R

 IN D EX O F DE S I G N E RS

A Della Porta, Giacomo, 12 Hejduk, John, 12, 205, 225

Aalto, Alvar, 13, 24, 25, 109, 124, 152, 164, Denti, Paolo, 106 Herrmann, Heinrich, 229
165, 169, 181, 224, 226, 227, 258, 293, Design Development Drawings, 83 Hoesli, Bernhard, 83
374, 376, 387, 414, 417 Dick and Bauer, 271 Hughes Condon Marier Architects, 131
Abramovitz, Max, 123 Dieste, Eladio, 366
Adam, Robert, 222 Diotisalvi, 5 I
Adams, Maurice, 409 Dub Architects, 131 Isidorus of Miletus, 214
Alberti, Leon Battista, 22, 273, 326 Isozaki, Arata, 76, 94
Ando, Tadao, 248, 296, 382 E
Andrews, John, 226, 281 EAA-Emre Arolat Architects, 106 J
Anthemius of Tralles, 214 Eero Saarinen and Associates, 48, 94 Jefferson, Thomas, 165, 343, 362
Architecture Workshop, 130 Eisenman, Peter, 83 JMA Architects, 106
Asplund, Gunnar, 216, 311 Erlach, Fischer von, 203 Johansen, John M., 217, 233, 283
Atelier 5, 403 Esherick, Joseph, 17 Johnson, Philip, 25, 113, 130, 146, 249, 258,
Auer + Weber Associates, 379 Esherick Homsey Dodge & Davis, 223 268, 270, 293

B F K
Bach, Johann Sebastian, 380 Filarete, Antonio, 39, 82, 360 Kahler, Heine, 272
Barnes, Edward Larrabee, 281 Fisher, Frederick, 205 Kahn, Albert, 67
Bates Smart, Architects, 97 Fitzpatrick + Partners, 172 Kahn, Louis, 41, 95, 163, 164, 217, 224, 237,
Bauhaus Study, 206 Foster, Norman, 170, 173 241, 246, 249, 348, 377, 386, 389, 395,
Bernini, Giovanni, 138, 272 Foster + Partners, 170, 171, 173 402
Boffrand, Germain, 374 Francois, Edouard, 410 Kallmann, McKinnell & Knowles, 105
Borromini, Francesco, 57, 211, 239, 275, 408 Frank O. Gehry & Partners, 44 Kappe, Raymond, 77
Botta, Mario, 59 Fujimoto, Sou, 411 Kent, William, 203
Boullée, Étienne-Louis, 5, 48 Klenze, Leon von, 117
Boyle, Richard (Lord Burlington), 203 G Koolhaas, Rem, 53
Bramante, Donato, 65, 201, 212, 317 Garnier, Charles, 302 Kotera, Jan, 271
Breuer, Marcel, 71, 95, 232 Gaudi, Antonio, 84 Kurokawa, Kisho, 76, 237
Brunelleschi, Filippo, 270 GEC Architecture, 45
Buon, Bartolomeo, 368 Gehry, Frank O., 44, 233 L
Buon, Giovanni, 368 Ghiyas, Mirak Mirza, 393 LAB Architecture Studio, 97
Buonarroti, Michelangelo, 5, 347 Giorgi, Francesco, 326 Lacombe-De Florinier, 52
Burlington, Lord (Richard Boyle), 203 Gluck, Peter L., 281 Latrobe, Benjamin Henry, 165
Busse, August, 229 Goodwin, E. W., 409 Le Corbusier, xii, 23, 26, 29, 30, 37, 55, 57, 60,
Gowan, James, 73, 147 61, 71, 80, 119, 131, 133, 142, 158, 177,
C Graves, Michael, 49, 60, 248 186, 193, 201, 221, 246, 247, 254, 257,
Calatrava, Santiago, 44, 45 Greene & Greene, 241 258, 261, 264, 265, 269, 274, 280, 284,
Cambio, Arnolfo di, 354 Gutbrod, Rolf, 390 286, 317, 319, 332, 333, 347, 365, 366,
Candela, Felix, 43 Gwathmey, Charles, 55, 60 369, 375, 387, 389, 391, 409, 421
Ciampi, Mario J., 283 Gwathmey Siegel & Associates, 55, 60 Ledoux, Claude-Nicolas, 48
COOP Himmelb(l)au, 53 L’Enfant, Pierre, 289
Correa, Charles, 248 H Le Nôtre, André, 113
Courtonne, Jean, 358 Hammel, Green & Abrahamson, 119 Le Pautre, Antoine, 360
Harrison, Wallace K., 123 Longhena, Baldassare, 64
D Haviland, John, 283 Lucas & Niemeyer, 246
David Chipperfield Architects, 52, 171 Hawksmoor, Nicholas, 68 Lutyens, Edwin, 93, 373

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I N D E X OF DE SIG N ERS

M P Stirling, James, 67, 73, 81, 147, 152, 159, 162,

Machuca, Pedro, 377 Palladio, Andrea, 15, 31, 55, 64, 89, 140, 163, 220, 221, 232, 252, 376, 382
Macintosh, Charles Rennie, 183 213, 256, 265, 292, 319, 327, 328, 329, Stromeyer, Peter, 127
Maderno, Carlo, 347 362, 372 Stubbins, Hugh, 125
Maillart, Robert, 11 Paxton, Joseph, 245 Sullivan, Louis, 69, 267
Malfaison and Kluchman, 229 Peabody & Stearns, 73
Matsaetsi, Oton, 402 Pei, I. M., 88, 273 T
May, E. J., 409 Peruzzi, Baldassare, 201, 368 Tagliabue, Benedetta, 107
Maybeck, Bernard, 240, 367 Petit, Antoine, 229 Tange, Kenzo, 128, 404
Meier, Richard, 12, 93, 157, 279, 303 Pietrasanta, Giacomo da, 146 Thornton, John T., 165
Mengoni, Giuseppe, 156 Polycleitos, 122 Toyo Ito and Associates, 172
Mercer, Henry, 240 Pont, Henri Maclaine, 132
Michelangelo, 162 Prix, Wolf D., 53 U
Michelozzi, 93 Pythius, 16 Utzon, Jørn, 151, 415, 416
Mies van der Rohe, 13, 21, 23, 24, 51, 89, 118,
129, 147, 153, 185, 245, 292, 309 R V
Miralles, Enric, 107 Rietveld, Gerrit Thomas, 27 Van Doesburg, Theo, 91, 185
Miralles Tagliabue EMBT, 107 Rosselino, Bernardo, 205 Van Doesburg and Van Esteren, 91
MLTW, 17, 140, 297 Rural Studio, Auburn University, 129 Van Eesteren, Cornels, 91, 185
MLTW/Moore, 73 Van Eyck, Aldo, 158
MLTW/Moore-Turnbull, 21, 81, 203, 259, 272, S van Zuuk, René, 129
279. See also Moore-Turnbull/MLTW Saarinen, Eero, 48, 94 Vasari, Giorgio, 22, 354
Mnesicles, 11 Safdie, Moshe, 75 Venturi, Robert, 222
Moneo, Rafel, 83 Sanctis, Francesco de, 20 Venturi and Short, 238, 268
Moore, Charles, 199, 291 Sandal, Malik, 167 Vignola, Giacomo da, 212, 322, 346, 353
Moore-Turnbull, 21, 259, 272 Sangallo the Younger, Antonio da, 168, 318 Vinci, Leonardo da, 208, 210, 304, 370, 377
Moore-Turnbull/MLTW, 203 Sanzio, Raphael, 359 Vitruvius, 39, 324
Mooser, William, 275 Scamozzi, Vincenzo, 80, 265 Viviani, Gonzalo Mardones, 378
Scharoun, Hans, 51
N Scheeren, Ole, 53 W
Nervi, Pier Luigi, 25 Schinkel, Karl Friedrich, 15 Ware, William R., 294, 320
Neski, Barbara, 59 Scott, George Gilbert, 347 Weiss/Manfredi Architecture/Landscape/Urbanism,
Neski, Julian, 59 Sean Godsell Architects, 97 107
Neumann, Balthasar, 201 Senmut, 20, 278 Wilford, Michael, 81, 252
Neutra, Richard, 91, 231, 265 Serlio, Sebastiano, 211 Wood, John, Jr., 227
Niemeyer, Oscar, 40 Shaw, Norman, 409 Wood, John, Sr., 227
Nolli, Giambattista, 103 Shreve, Lamb and Harmon, 346 Woodhead, 378
Norri, Marja–Ritta, 410 Shukhov, Vladimir, 43 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 26, 27, 40, 51, 57, 64, 69,
Sinan, Mimar, 37 82, 83, 151, 153, 181, 216, 222, 223,
O Sitte, Camillo, 259 230, 240, 241, 261, 267, 269, 274, 285,
Oglethrope, James, 372 Snyder, Jerry, 380 309, 357, 359, 364, 365, 366, 368, 374,
OMA, 53, 170 Soane, John, 239 386, 413, 420
Otto, Frei, 127, 309, 390 SOM, 245
Owen, Christopher, 225 Sordo Madaleno Arquitectos, 379 Z
Specchi, Alessandro, 20 Zuccari, Federico, 263

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 IN D EX O F S U B J E C T M AT T E R

A brick, 307, 309, 310, 343

acoustics, 122, 132, 134, 159 building material, 307
additive form, 61–63 building scale, 108. See also proportion; scale
additive transformation, 54, 55 building site. see site
adjacent spaces, 197, 202–203
Alberti, Leon Battista, 14, 327 C
allée, 155 CAD software, 173
Allen, Gerald, 195 car, 276
American Institute of Steel Construction, 310 carved ground plane, 20
amphiprostyle, 398 ceiling plane, 19, 24, 25, 29, 180
amphitheater, 122, 152 centered entrance, 263
anthropometry, 313, 338–340 centered opening, 175
approach, 254–261. See also entrance centralized form, 63, 64–65
araeostyle, 324 centralized forms, 7
arbor, 155 centralized organization, 207, 208–217
arcade, 156, 167, 168, 383 China, 334
architectural principles, 349–421 circle, 5, 38, 39, 327
architectural systems and orders, x–xiii circle and square, 78–81
arenas, 122 circular stair, 299
arithmetic proportion, 313, 314, 327 circulation, 156, 157, 161, 209, 251–303.
Armenian church typology, 401 See also approach; entrance; movement; path
Arnheim, Rudolf, 349 configuration
articulation of form, 84–85 circulation elements, 253
art nouveau, 267 circulation space, 253, 294–303
asymmetrical curved surface, 44 circulation system, xiii
asymmetrical forms, 50 classical orders, 313, 320–325
atrium space, 168 climatic elements, 134
axial symmetry, 239 cloister, 168
axis, 6–7, 41, 46, 50, 56, 144, 154, 162, 351, clustered form, 63, 72–75
352–359, 380 clustered organization, 207, 234–241
colonnade, 15, 141, 155, 156, 297
B color, 92, 93, 112, 114, 132, 145, 187, 189
background, 102 column, 5, 10, 14, 15, 136–137, 140–141,
Bacon, Edmund N., 33 144, 157, 160, 202, 308, 320–325, 335,
barrel vault, 44 398
base plane, 19, 111, 112–113 columnar elements, 7
bay window, 183, 192 column grid, 141–143
beam, 308 column spacing, 324, 335
bearing wall, 23, 155, 158–159, 170, 309. See composite order, 321
also load transfer composite path, 277
bearing-wall constructions, 170 computer aided design software, 173
bending stress, 308 concepts, xi
bermed ground plane, 20 concrete block, 310, 343
bicycle, 276 concrete slab, 309
bilateral symmetry, 360, 361 concrete wall, 309
boundaries, 134, 149 cone, 47

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I N D E X OF SU BJE CT MATTER

configuration of path, 253, 276–289 E French doors, 297

contained space, 198 edges and corners, 86, 137. See also corner(s) frontal approach, 255
context, x, xi, xiii edge definition, 112, 114, 115, 126, 137, 148, function, xi
continuity, 115, 266 154, 184
contrast, 102, 120 edge opening, 175 G
Corinthian order, 321, 323 edge-to-edge contact, 62 galleries, 253
corner(s), 86–91, 137, 148–149, 161. See elevated base plane, 111, 114–119 gallery space, 167
also edges and corners elevated floor plane, 118, 119 gateway, 7, 256
corner openings, 175, 178–179, 180, 184 elevated ground plane, 20, 21, 117 geometric proportion, 313, 327. See also
corridors, 253 elevation, 29 proportion
courtyard, 123, 151, 168 elevation and section, 29 geometry, 38, 43, 58, 76, 78–79, 120, 171,
cube, 47, 54–55, 56 enclosed circulation space, 295 209, 236–237, 326, 350
cubic composition, 61 enclosed spatial field, 166–173 Gestalt psychology, 38
cubic volumes, 77 enclosure, x, 134, 181–182, 184–185 glare, 189
cumulative composition, 61 enclosure system, xii golden rectangle, 315
curved surface, 43–45, 171 entablature, 15 golden section, 313, 314–317, 318, 330, 412
cylinder, 5, 42, 46 entrance, 163, 209, 253, 262–275. See also gravity, 9, 21, 307
Approach Greece (ancient), 320–325, 326
D equilibrium, 9 Greek musical system, 326
datum, 351, 380–395 ergonomics, 339 Greek shrine, 168
daylight, 186–189. See also light eustyle, 324 Greek temple, 164
deep-set opening, 175 exoskeletal framework, 172 greenhouse space, 181
degree of enclosure, 184–185 exterior wall plane, 22 grid form, 63, 76–77, 335–336
density, 21 exterior walls, 170 grid of columns, 141–143
depressed base plane, 111, 120–125 eye level, 145 grid organization, 207, 242–249
depth-to-span ratio, 308 grid path, 277, 286–287
de Stijl school, 27 F gridshell structures, 43, 171
detail characteristic, 397 facades, 408 ground plane, 9, 19, 20, 21, 123
diagrid structures, 172 face-to-face contact, 62 grouped opening, 175
diastyle, 324 Fibonacci Series, 330 grove, 139
digital modeling, 44, 173 figure, 36, 102, 103
dimension. see proportion; scale figure-ground relationship, 102, 103 H
dimensional transformation, 54, 55, 56–57 fire protection, 159 halls, 253
dipteral, 398 flooring material, 21 harmonic proportion, 313, 326, 327. See also
distyle in Antis, 398 floor plane, 19, 21, 23, 24, 29, 118, 119, 124, proportion
diversity, 350 125 heating, 134
dome, 44, 171, 309 floor slab, 309 hedges, 155
dominant space, 237–238 flush entrance, 263 height, 145, 327, 345
door unit, 310 forecourt, 163 hierarchy, 224–225, 351, 370–379
doorway, 24, 343 form, xi, 28, 30–31, 33–91, 103, 132 horizon, 9
Doric order, 321, 322 formal collisions of geometry, 78–83 horizontal elements, 111–133
dosket, 139 form and space, xi, 99–194 horizontal line, 9
double-curved surface geometry, 171 four planes: closure, 135, 166–169 horizontal opening, 175, 180
four planes: enclosure, 170–173 horizontal plane, 27
frame structures, 170 housing complex layouts, 411

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 IN D EX O F S U BJ E C T M AT T E R

human form, 9, 251, 344 linear sequences of rooms, 222–223 O

human scale, 276, 298, 314, 330, 338–340, linear sequences of spaces, 221–222 obelisk, 5, 10, 136
343, 344–345. See also proportion; scale line to plane, 14 oblique approach, 255
hyperbolic paraboloid, 42 load distribution, 172 oblique line, 9
load paths, 172 off-center entrance, 263
I load transfer, 129, 308. See also bearing wall off-center opening, 175, 176
Inaka-ma method, 335 Louis Phillipe (king of France), 10 off-center point, 4
intercolumniation, 324 Louis XIV (king of France), 288 open circulation space, 295
interior design elements, 193 L-shaped plane, 23, 58, 135, 148–153 openings, 182–185, 190–193. See also
interior openings, 192 L-shaped stair, 299 doorway; light; skylight; windows; specific
interior wall plane, 24, 155 Lucca, Italy, 259 types of windows
interlocking spaces, 197, 200–201 Lyndon, Donlyn, 195 openings at corners, 178–179, 189
interlocking volume, 62 openings between planes, 180–181
intermediate space, 204 M openings in space-defining elements, 174–175
International Metric System, 341 Mahal, Muntaz, 103, 139 openings within planes, 176–177, 189
intersection, 276 manufactured proportion, 310 opposites, unity of, 102–109
Ionic order, 320, 321 map of Rome, 103 optical patterns, 92
irregular forms, 50–53 marquee, 271 ordering principles, 350–351
Italian palazzo, 168 masonry, 307 organization, 195–249
masonry vault, 127 organization of form and space, 196, 276
J masonry wall, 309 orientation, 35
Jahan (Shah), 103, 139 mass, 18–19 orthographic plans, 29
Japan, 334 material proportion, 307 outdoor space, 161
Japanese farmers, 150 mathematical proportion, 313, 314, 326, 330 overhead plane, 19, 111, 126–133
joist, 127 mausoleum structure, 139
meaning, 422–423 P
K measurement units, 334, 341 Palladian villa, 319
Kampen, Holland, 68 mechanical scale, 342 paraboloid, 42
ken (measurement unit), 313, 334–337 membrane structure, 309 parallel lines, 14
Klee, Paul, 1 minarets, 139 parallel planes, 135, 154–159
Kyo-ma method, 335 Modena, Italy, 259 path configuration, 253, 276–289
modular building unit, 310 path-space relationship, 253, 290–293
L modular proportion, 313 pattern, 18, 92, 93, 95, 129, 132, 145. See also
landings, 298, 300 Modulor system, 314, 330–333 grid organization; repetition; rhythm
landscapes, 107–108 Mogul mausoleum structure, 139 pavilion structure, 128
Lao-tzu, 99 Mohamed Ali (viceroy of Egypt), 10 pedestrians, 276
Le Corbusier, 46, 314, 318, 330–332, 423 monastery, 168 perception, xi, 92, 102, 312
length, 8–9 Moore, Charles, 195, 251 pergola, 17, 155
light, 132, 176, 178, 186–189. See also movement, x, 225–226, 252. See also circulation peripteral, 398
openings; skylight; windows; specific types of multiple openings, 176 perpendicular axis, 6
windows perpendicular space zones, 23
line, 1, 3, 8–9, 380, 381 N Perugia, Italy, 259
linear elements, 10–13, 15–17 natural light. see daylight pilasters, 14
linear form, 5, 63, 66–69 Nefertiti (queen of Egypt), 36 placement, 371
linear organization, 207, 218–227 network path, 277, 288–289 plan and section, 29
linear path, 277, 279–281 niche, 165 planar elements, 20–27
non-load bearing walls, 170

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I N D E X OF SU BJE CT MATTER

plane, 1, 3, 14, 15–17, 18–19, 92, 111–133, rectangle, 41, 58, 160, 315, 318 skeletal structure, 243
175, 381 rectangular column, 144 skylight, 133, 175, 180, 181, 187
plane of entry, 7 regular form, 50–53 solid mass, 103
plane to volume, 42 regulating line, 318–319 solids, primary, 46–49
Plato, 326 Renaissance theories of proportion, 313, 314, sound. see acoustics
plywood, 310 326–329 space, x, 18–19, 23, 24, 28, 29, 182–183,
point, 1, 3, 4. See also two points repetition, 9, 14, 397–417 252
point elements, 5 residential architecture, 151, 153 space and form, 99–194
polyhedron, 47, 54 rhythm, 351, 396, 411. See also repetition space-path relationship, 290–293
porch, 271 Rome (ancient), 320–325 spaces linked by a common space, 197, 204–
portal, 256 Rome, map of, 103 205
portico, 271 roof plane, 19, 23, 29, 127–133 space-time, x
position, 35 roof slab, 309 space within a space, 197, 198–199
primary elements, 1–32 room(s), 24, 253 spatial continuity, 115, 121, 198
primary shapes, 38 room height, 327, 345 spatial field, 154–155, 160, 162, 166
primary solids, 46–49 room scale, 108 spatial field organization, 238
principles, 349–421 room shape and size, 327–329, 335, 345 spatial organizations, 206–249
privacy, 134, 157, 190 rotated grid, 78, 82–83 spatial relationships, 197–205
program, x rotation, 41 spatial systems, xii
progression, 412 rotational surface, 42 spatial tension, 62
projected entrance, 263, 271 round column, 144 spatial void, 103, 148
promenade, 155 Rowe, Colin, 319 spatial volume, 103
proportion, 145, 305–340. See also scale; ruled surface, 42 sphere, 5, 46, 56
specific proportion systems spiral approach, 255
proportioning systems, 311–340 S spiral path, 277, 284–285
prostyle, 398 saddle surface, 43 spiral repetition, 412
pseudodipteral, 398 Salzburg, Austria, 259 spiral stair, 299
psychology, 38 scalar comparison, 346–347 square, 38, 41, 76, 161, 316, 327
pycnostyle, 324 scale, 92, 104, 108, 115, 121, 145, 165, 176, square and circle, 78–81
pyramid, 47, 56 265, 276, 298, 306, 312, 341–347. See square column, 144
Pythagoras, 326, 327 also human scale; proportion square grid, 76
section, 29 stability, 9, 40, 50, 149
Q semiotics, 422–423 staircase, 294, 302
qualities of architectural space, 182–183 Serlio, Sebastiano, 327 stairs, 115, 280, 298–303, 343
shaku (measurement unit), 334, 335 stairway, 253, 298–303, 344
R shape, 18, 19, 36–37, 371, 397 steel, 307, 309, 310
radial form, 63, 70–71 sheathing material, 310 steel joist, 127
radial organization, 207, 228–233 shell structures, 43 stepped floor plane, 21
radial path, 277, 282–283 Siena, Italy, 259 stepped ground plane, 20, 121
radial symmetry, 360, 361 sightlines, 122 steps, 274
ramp, 115, 258, 274, 280 single vertical plane, 135, 144–147 stone, 307
ramped ground plane, 121 site, 20, 104–109, 122, 151, 223–224 straight-run stair, 299
Rasmussen, Steen Eiler, 305 site adaptation, 223–224, 226–227, 240 Strasbourg, France, 259
ratio, 326 site slope, 159 street space, 155
rational forms, 170 Sixtus V (pope of Rome), 288 structural glass facades, 171
recessed entrance, 263, 273 size, 92, 176, 191, 327–329, 371, 397 structural members, 129, 132, 134, 155

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structural proportion, 308–309 T-shaped plane, 23 windows, 24, 187–189, 190–193, 342, 343,
structural system, xii Tuscan order, 321, 322, 325 344, 345. See also openings; skylight
structure, x two-dimensional form, 42, 110 window unit, 310
subtractive form, 58–61 two points, 6–7, 12. See also point window-wall opening, 175, 181
subtractive transformation, 54, 55 windscreens, 150
sunlight. see daylight U wood, 307, 309
sun-path diagram, 187 unity of opposites, 102–109 wood truss, 127
sunroom, 181 urban scale, 104, 342
surface, 42 urban space, 22, 31, 162, 167, 259 Y
surface articulation, 92–97, 112, 166 U.S. Customary System, 341 Yarbus, Alfred L., 36
surface color, 18, 19 U-shaped plane, 135, 160–165 Yudell, Robert, 251
symbolism, 422–423 U-shaped stair, 299
symmetrical curved surface, 44
symmetrical forms, 50 V
symmetry, 6, 12, 351, 360–369 vault, 127, 171, 309
systyle, 324 vaulted staircase, 294
ventilation, 134
T Venturi, Robert, xiii
technics, xi vernacular architecture, 74–75
technology, x Verona, Italy, 259
temple classification, 398 vertical elements, 134–173
temples, 164 vertical line, 9, 10
tensile structure, 127 vertical linear elements, 10, 135, 136–143
terraced floor plane, 21 vertical opening, 175, 180
terraced ground plane, 20, 121 vertical plane, 27, 144–147
texture, 18, 19, 21, 92, 93, 112, 114, 132, vertical slab, 55
145, 189 view, 190–193
The Smitheum, 398 Vignola, Giacomo da, 320
thickness, 9 Villa Foscari (subject), 305
3D printing, 173 visual continuity, 115
three-dimensional form, 42, 110, 251 visual field, 102
three-dimensional grid, 243 visual inertia, 35
three-dimensional space, 12 visual scale, 342–343
three-dimensional volume, 18–19, 28, 144 visual tension, 4
3/4 opening, 175 visual weight, 145
tokonoma (picture recess), 334 Vitruvius, 320, 398
tone, 112 void. see spatial void
topography, 20, 122, 155 volume, 3, 17, 18, 28–29, 137, 145, 381
tower, 5, 10, 136 volumetric elements, 30–31
transformation, 54–55, 351, 418–421 Volwahsen, Andras, 139
translational surface, 42
trees, 139, 155, 156 W
trees, mimicking, 172 wall, 14, 155, 158. See also bearing wall
trellises, 17 wall plane, 19, 22, 23, 24, 29
triangle, 38, 40 weather protection, 134
truss, 127, 171 wheel, 99

IND EX / 4 4 7