Overview of

Satellite Communications

Dick McClure
 Agenda

Background

History

Introduction to Satcom Technology

Ground System

Antennas

Satellite technology

Geosynchronous orbit

Antenna coverage patterns

2
COMMUNICATION SATELLITES

Uses

Example satellite systems

3
 Why Satellite Communications?

Satellite coverage spans great distances

A satellite can directly connect points
separated by 1000’s of miles

A satellite can broadcast to 1000’s of
homes/businesses/military installations
simultaneously

A satellite can be reached from ground
facilities that move

Satellites can connect to locations with
no infrastructure

Satellites adapt easily to changing
requirements
Some Common SATCOM Systems

The INTELSAT system

provides globe-spanning TV coverage

The Thuraya satellite-based phone system

covers all of Saudi Arabia and Egypt

DoD Military Communications Satellite System

Links field sites with Pentagon and US command centers

DirecTV, Echostar

Direct-to-home TV

XM Radio, Sirius

Satellite radio-to-car/home

Hughes VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) systems

Links GM car dealers, Walmart, Costco, J C Penney, etc. to
their accounting centers
Common Satellite Orbits

LEO (Low Earth Orbit)

Close to Earth

Photo satellites – 250 miles

Iridium – 490 miles

Polar Orbit

Provides coverage to polar regions (used by Russian
satellites)

GEO (Geosynchronous Earth Orbit)

Angular velocity of the satellite = angular velocity of earth
 satellite appears to be fixed in space

Most widely used since ground antennas need not move

Circular orbit

Altitude: 22,236 miles

Can’t “see” the poles
6
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

People

Early satellites

Evolution

7
 Historical Background:
People

Arthur C. Clarke

Highly successful science fiction author

First to define geosynchronous communications satellite concept

Published paper in Wireless World, October 1945

Suggested terrestrial point-to-point relays would be made obsolete by
satellites

Unsure about how satellites would be powered

John R. Pierce – Bell Telephone Laboratories

Directed seminal work in the ’50’s on communications satellites at Bell Labs

Harold C. Rosen - Hughes Aircraft Company

Led team that developed practical geosynchronous communications satellite

Key contribution: spin stabilization

Rotational inertia maintains pointing with small fuel requirement

First geosynchronous satellite: Syncom II – July 26, 1963

8
 Historical Background:
Early Communications Satellites

Echo – NASA

First communications satellite (passive)

100 foot diameter metallized balloon – 12.7 mil Mylar polyester film

Echo 1A launched August 12, 1960

Telstar – built entirely by Bell Telephone Laboratories; funded by AT&T

First active communications satellite

Launched July 10, 1962 by NASA

Low elliptical orbit (not geosynchronous)

Relay – built by RCA; funded by NASA

First NASA communications satellite; experimental

Launched December 16, 1962

First to use Traveling Wave Tube in its transponder

Relay TWT.gif

Syncom – built by Hughes; funded by NASA and DoD

First geosynchronous communications satellite; experimental

Launched July 26, 1963

Early Bird – built by Hughes; funded by Communications Satellite Corporation

First commercial geosynchronous communications satellite

Launched April 6, 1965

“Live via Early Bird”
9
Satcom Timeline

1950’s: Navy: D.C.Hawaii Teletype Link via the Moon

1957: Sputnik

1958: SCORE

1960: Project Westford a.k.a. “Project Needles”

1961: Echo

1962: Telstar (spinning satellite)

1962: Relay “

1963: Syncom “

1965: Early Bird/Intelsat I “

1974: Intelsat IV (spinning body, ‘de-spun’ antennas)
 INTRODUCTION TO
SATCOM TECHNOLOGY

11
Cellular-to-Satellite Comparison

User
User

Cell site
Ground Terminal

Central office
Satellite

Cell site
Ground Terminal

User
User
End-to-end Satcom Picture

P
h Phone
Long- Satellite
o
haul ground
system
n link station
e
Examples:
cellular, Examples:
cellular plus copper,
wired, wired fiber, LOS
microwave

Generic satellite components

Receive Frequency Transmit
Receiver Transmitter
antenna converter antenna

Receive and transmit Amplify weak

Amplify weak frequencies must be
signal; received signal
different to avoid
contribute little interference
noise of its own

P
Satellite Long- h
Phone
ground haul o
system n
station link
e 13
Satellite Communications Terminology
1. Ground station (also “ground terminal”)

sends signals to/receives signals from a satellite
2. Modulator, demodulator (modulator + demodulator = modem)

Ground station component: modulator converts digital “1”s and “0”s to a radio
frequency signal (modulated carrier) that can be transmitted

Demodulator recovers digital “1”s and “0”s from the modullated carrier
3. Carrier frequency

The center frequency of a modulated carrier
4. Frequency band

The frequency range containing the carrier frequency

Satellite communications frequency bands are standardized

Within the US, the FCC defines frequency bands for satcom; coordinates specific
frequency assignments;

Outside the US, the International Telecommunications Union has the same role
5. Frequency conversion (up-conversion, down-conversion)

The process by which the carrier frequency is changed to accommodate
standards or hardware limitations
6. Up-link – the link from the ground terminal to the satellite
7. Down-link – the link from the satellite to the ground terminal

14
 Satellite Communications Process
1. Digital information from user arrives at a “ground station”.
2. Digital signal goes into a modulator, converting digital information into a
modulated carrier.
3. Carrier frequency is changed (up-converted) to place it in the desired
frequency range (up-link frequency band) for transmission to the satellite
4. Carrier is amplified
5. The ground station antenna radiates the carrier toward the satellite
6. The signal passes through earth’s atmosphere (~10 miles thick) and
continues on to satellite ~22,300 miles away
7. The satellite receives signal and changes (down-converts) the carrier
frequency to the down-link frequency band.
8. The satellite amplifies the carrier
9. Amplified carrier is re-radiated toward earth through the satellite antenna.
10. Received carrier is picked up by earth station antenna, amplified, and
changed to a frequency that the demodulator can process.
11. Demodulator recovers original digital information from carrier, though not
perfectly; errors are always present!

15
SATCOM GROUND TERMINALS

16
 Ground Terminal Transmitting Subsystem

RF signal summer:
f1 RF Collects signals on
Modulator 1 Signal multiple frequencies
Summer onto a single connector

f2
Modulator 2

Input Transmitter
Voice/ Antenna
f3
Data
Signals
Modulator 3
Σ Up-Converter

Antenna:
converts
conducted
energy into
radiated
energy;
focuses
and directs
fn signal
Modulator n Up-converter: raises signal emission
frequency to a range
where transmission and/or
filtering is realizable 17
Ground Terminal Receiving Subsystem
RF signal splitter: provides
multiple signals that can
RF
be individually processed Signal Demodulator 1
Splitter

Demodulator 2
Low-Noise
Antenna Amplifier

Down-
Converter ÷ Demodulator 3

Antenna:
Intercepts Down-converter:
signal emission drops signal
from space; frequency to a range
converts where desired
radiated energy processing (filtering,
into conducted demodulation) is
energy realizable Demodulator n

18
SATCOM ANTENNAS

19
Antenna Key Points

One antenna talks to only one satellite!

Antenna-satellite association must be unique
to avoid interference

Small antennas have advantage of
compactness, but

Communications design for ground terminals
with small antennas requires care to avoid
interference

20
 Earth Station Antenna Pointing
Geometry
Elevation angle – 0°to 90°
Elevation axis
High
elevation
Low elevation angle angle
Local horizontal
Local horizontal

North
North North
Az = 60° Az = 210°
Azimuth axis Az = 310°

Azimuth angle – 0°to 360°

21
 Antenna Geometry
Focus-fed Design
Advantage: simple design;
Disadvantage: distance to feed from electronics
Circular Parabolic Reflector (surface accuracy related to signal wavelength)

Signal Input/output

Feed (at focus of parabola)

Lines indicate ray-paths traversed by

radio-frequency energy passing to or from One antenna talks to
the antenna feed (similar to light rays) only one satellite!
22
 Antenna Geometry
Cassegrain Design
Advantage: feed can be close to electronics, minimizing losses;
Disadvantage: more expensive - requires subreflector

The parallel lines represent the

Circular Parabolic Main Reflector
signal direction near the antenna

Signal
Input/output
Circular Hyperbolic Subreflector

Feed (at
reflected
23
focus)
 Antenna Geometry
Offset-fed Design
Advantage: Easily adaptable to roof-top mounting for mobile (truck-
mounted) applications;
Disadvantage: distance to feed from electronics

Circular Parabolic Reflector Segment (half of a parabola)

Signal Input/output

Feed (at focus of parabola)

24
 Antenna Geometry
Gregorian Design
Advantages: Compact; easily adaptable to roof-top mounting for mobile
(truck-mounted) applications; feed can be close to electronics
Disadvantages: distance to feed from electronics; expensive to
manufacture

Circular Parabolic Main Reflector Segment (half of a parabola)

Signal
Input/output

Circular Hyperbolic Subreflector

Feed (at
reflected
focus)
25
 Antenna Beamwidth: Two Views
Beamwidth: the angle off the axis of the beam where the emitted power is half
that at the on-axis peak of the beam. Beamwidth is expressed in degrees.

Contour indicates relative signal strength;

Beamwidth strongest on axis, weaker to the sides

Power = 1/2

Power = 1

Power = 1/2
Antenna
Location

Though not strictly accurate, it’s helpful to visualize the beam from an
antenna as a cone whose total angle equals the antenna beamwidth:
Power = 1/2 Beam width
Beam axis
26
Power = 1/2
 Antenna Size vs. Beamwidth

Antenna Smaller Antenna →

Beamwidth (smaller antenna)
Location • Wider beamwidth
• Lower gain
• Less precise pointing
requirement

Relative signal strength

Antenna Larger antenna →
Location Beamwidth (larger antenna) • Narrower beamwidth
• Higher gain
• More precise pointing
requirement

27
COMMUNICATIONS
SATELLITES

Types

Electronics

Orbits

Launch Sequence

28
 Types of Communications Satellites

“Bent-pipe” satellites (“repeater in the sky”)

What comes down = what goes up

Example satellites: US domestic, Intelsat, Panamsat

Processing satellites

What comes down may be (slightly) different from what has gone up

With demodulation
 Iridium
 Routing determined from message headers

Without demodulation
 Thuraya
 Spaceway
 WGS
 Up-loadable stored-program switching
 Digital signal processing used to route traffic of varying bandwidths
between/within beams

29
 Typical Satellite Receiver Section
RF Down to further down-
Signal Converter 1 conversion or processing
Splitter

Down
Converter 2

Antenna

÷ Down
Converter 3 RF signal splitter: provides
Low-Noise multiple signals that can
be individually processed
Antenna: Amplifier
Intercepts
signal Down-converter: drops
emission signal frequency to an
from earth; intermedate range where
converts desired processing
radiated (filtering, demodulation) is
Down
energy into realizable
conducted Converter n
energy
30
 Typical Satellite Transmitter Subsystem

Up-converter: raises signal

Up f1 RF
frequency to a range
Converter 1 Signal where transmission and/or
Summer filtering is realizable

f2 RF signal summer:
Up combines signals on
Converter 2 multiple frequencies into
Intermediate a common transmitter
frequency Antenna
from receiver
Up
f3
or signal
processing Converter 3 Σ
Transmitter Antenna:
converts
conducted
Transmitter:
energy into
High power;
radiated
moderate distortion;
energy;
moderate noise
focuses
Up fn and directs
signal
Converter n emission

31
Communications Satellite Components

Bus

Power System

Command and Telemetry System

Propulsion System

Communications Payload

Antennas

Receiver

Processor

Transmitter

32
Satellite Power System

Solar cells are power source

Solar cell array length: 5 – 100 feet

Primary power: up to 18,000 watts

Arrays fold to fit in booster “fairing”; unfurl
following launch

Batteries maintain constant power levels
during eclipse

Power is regulated for electronics

33
GEOSYNCHRONOUS ORBIT

34
 Geosynchronous Orbit Geometry
(View from the North Pole)

Key point: in geosynchronous orbit, satellite rotates at precisely the same angular
velocity as does the earth; from earth, satellite appears to remain motionless

Geosynchronous orbit altitude above earth: 22,236 statute miles

Earth radius: 3,963 statute miles

Angle subtended by earth from satellite: 17.2°

m i.
= 26,199
63
6 + 3,9
Earth radius: i us : 22,23
d
O rbit ra
3,963 miles (at the equator) Orbit track
North Pole

Orbit Altitude = 22,236 miles

17.2° Satellite rotation

Earth rotation
about center of
earth

35
 Geosynchronous Orbit Geometry
(View at the Equator)

Highest latitude at which satellite can be

seen = 81°

North Pole
(90°Latitude)
Satellite motion is into
the slide

81° 22,236 miles

Equator
(0°Latitude)

36
 Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit Apogee
(farthest distance from earth)

Launch Orbit
Sequence

1. Launch from
Cape Kennedy
les
6 mi
22,23
2. Satellite is launched
Into Parking Orbit

3. Rocket is fired
to boost satellite into Transfer Orbit Perigee
(closest distance to earth)
Transfer Orbit

4. Apogee Kick Motor

Is fired to place satellite in
Geosynchronous Orbit 37
FREQUENCIES FOR
SATELLITE
COMMUNICATIONS

38
 Frequency Usage

Key point: uplink and down link signals always on different

frequencies

Reason: interference control on ground and at satellite

Band and frequency assignments authorized by FCC (US

domestic) and ITU (International Telecommunications
Union; non-US)

frequencies used by US military/DoD outside US selected to meet
ITU recommendations

FCC and ITU promote regulations on ground terminals to control
interference between users

39
 Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum
with Satcom Band Designations
FM Radio Cellular
RF (>~100 kHz)
dc (100 Hz)
B’cast TV
Audio AM Radio Satellite

Hz
101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 1010 1011
1 kHz 1 MHz 1 GHz 100 GHz

X Rx X Tx
7.25 – 7.75 7.9 – 8.4

C Rx C Tx Ku Rx Ku Tx IR, visible light, UV

3.4 – 4.2 5.6 – 6.4 10.9 – 12.7 (~6 x 1014 Hz)
13.8 – 14.5
S
1 GHz 3 GHz 5 GHz 7 10 GHz 30 GHz 50 GHz 70 100 GHz
109 Hz 1010 Hz WGS: WGS: 1011 Hz
Ka Rx Ka Tx
Rx: receive 20.2 – 21.2 30.0 – 31.0 40
Tx: transmit
 Satcom Frequency Usage
INTELSAT, DirecTV
(Globalstar (Globalstar DirecTV uplink,
Receive) Transmit) INTELSAT downlink, others WGS
others
137 - 150 1.5 - 2.0 GHz 1.98- 2.5 GHz 3.9 6.3 11 14.5 17.3 20.2 20.2 31

VHF L S C Ku K Ka

300 3 30
MHz GHz GHz

VHF UHF SHF EHF

1GHz 2 GHz 4GHz 8GHz 12GHz 18GHz 27GHz 40GHz 75GHz

L S C X Ku Ka V W

110
GHz

30-31 GHz
Global Space-Ground
AF / FLT Positioning Link System DSCS MILSTAR,
Military (SGLS) WGS,
Air/Ground SATCOM System (GPS) WGS, GBS
Radios UFO L5: L2: L1: 1.761-1.842 GHz uplinks 7.25-7.75 GHz DSCS GBS
1.1764 1.2276 1.5754 2.200-2.290 GHz downlinks
138-144 225-400 20.2- 21.2 GHz
5 0 2 7.9-8.4 GHz

Crosslinks
MHz MHz GHz GHz GHz Unified S-

Milstar
Band (USB) MILSTAR
2.025-2.110 GHz uplinks
2.200-2.290 GHz downlinks 43-45 GHz 60
GHz

= Used as Uplink Band

= Used as Downlink Band 41
Adapted from chart published by ITAC
Frequency Domain Terminology

Baseband:

the signal that is received from the user(s) – may be digital or analog;

the input to the modulator;

the output from the demodulator

IF (Intermediate Frequency)

a (relatively) low frequency which the modulator emits or the
demodulator accepts; the frequency of the carrier from the modulator;

typical IF frequencies: 70 MHz, 140 MHz

RF (Radio Frequency)

a (relatively) high frequency at which a transmitter or receiver operates;

typical frequency ranges: X-band (7.25 – 7.75 GHz ground receive; 7.9
– 8.4 GHz ground transmit);

Ka-band: 30-31 GHz ground transmit; 20.2 – 21.2 GHz ground receive

Note: these definitions are only samples; all baseband signals don’t go into a modulator; IF
frequencies may be other than 70/140 MHz, etc.

42
 PHASED ARRAY
SATELLITE ANTENNA
CONCEPTS

43
Phased Array Concept:
Transmission with variable aiming
Wavefront is perpendicular to array
Amplifiers
when phase difference between
array elements is equal to zero

RF
Input Emitted
Em Beam
itte
dB
eam

PhasePhase
Shifters Radiating
Shifters
(values Elements
(Differences
are equal)
are equal)

Wavefront is at a slant to array when

phase difference between array elements
is equal and non-zero
44
 Phased Array Concept:
Two Signals; Two Beams

Amplifiers
RF
Signal
1

Beam 1
Phase
Shifters RF Signal 1
RF
Sign
al 2
Bea
m2
RF
Signal
Radiating
Note: Signals 1 2
Elements
and 2 must be
on different
frequencies
Phase
Shifters
45
 Phased Array Cartoon:
One array – four beams

Phased Array
Aperture
~49” ~42”
~32”

46
THE GROUND-TO-SATELLITE LINK

47
 Link Analysis

Goal: determine the conditions under which an adequate
signal-to-noise ratio is available

Link budget: an analysis of losses between transmitter
and receiver, and noise sources impacting the receiver

48
 Link Analysis

Uplink:

Carrier power: Pr = Pt + Gt - FSL - La + Gr

Pr : satellite received carrier power

Pt : ground transmitted power (into antenna)

Gt : ground transmit antenna gain

FSL: Free Space Loss

La : atmospheric losses

Gr : spacecraft receive antenna gain

Noise Power: Nr = kTrB + kTuB + Ni

Nr : satellite received noise power

Tr: receiver noise temperature

Tu: uplink noise (earth thermal noise, sky noise “seen” by antenna)

Ti : interference noise temperature

B: noise bandwidth

C/Nu = Pr – Nr
= Pt + Gt – FSL – La + Gr – (k Tr B +kTuB + kTiB) 49
= e.i.r.p.u – FSL – La + Gr – [k + 10 log(Tr sat +Tu + Ti) + B]
 Link Analysis

Downlink:

Carrier power: Pr = Pt + Gt - FSL - La + Gr

Pr : ground received carrier power

Pt : satellite transmitted power (into antenna)

Gt : satellite transmit antenna gain

FSL: Free Space Loss

La : atmospheric losses

Gr : ground receive antenna gain

Noise Power: Nr = kTrB + kTeB

Nr: ground receiver noise power

Tr: ground receiver noise temperature

Te: atmospheric noise (sky thermal noise)

B: noise bandwidth

C/Nd = Pr – Nr = Pt + Gt – FSL – La + Gr – (kTrB + kTeB)

= e.i.r.p.d – FSL – La + (Gr /Tr)es(1/kB) – kTeB
50
Sample 8 GHz Uplink Calculation
C/Nu = e.i.r.p.u – FSL – La + Gr sat – [k + 10 log(Tr sat +Tu + Ti) + B]
e.i.r.p.u = 10 log (6 watts) + (antenna gain of) 28.2 dB = 36 dBW
FSL = 201.7 dB
La = 0.5 dB
Gr sat = 34.1 dB
Tr sat = 512 K
Tu = 290 K
Ti = 60 K
k = -228.6 dBW/K-Hz
B = 100 kHz = 50 dB-Hz

C/Nu = 36 – 201.7 - 0.5 + 34.1 – [-228.6 + 10 log (512 + 290 + 60) + 50]
= 17.2 dB

51
 Rain

Introduces attenuation by absorption and scattering

Increases noise through absorption

At either 20 or 30 GHz, attenuations of more than 30 dB may occur 0.1% of
the time
• Techniques to counter
rain fade include
dropping bit rate and
changing to different
error-correction codes

52
Sample 8 GHz Downlink Calculation
C/Nd = e.i.r.p.d – FSL – La + (Gr /Tr)es(1/kB) – kTeB
e.i.r.p.d = RF power of 28 dBW + antenna gain of 33 dB = 61 dBW
BUT e.i.r.p.d is total for all eight beams, and is spread over ~1766 MHz
(though not equally)
10 log 1766 = 32.5 dB-MHz
Average e.i.r.p.d is 61 – 32.5 = 28.5 dBW/MHz (an approximate value)
FSL = 201.0 dB
La = 0.5 dB
Gr gnd = 24 dB
Tr gnd = 150 K
k = -228.6 dBW/K-Hz
B = 1 MHz = 60 dB-Hz

C/Nd = 28.5 – 201.0 - 0.5 + 54 – [-228.6 + 10 log (150) + 60]

= 27.8 dB
53
WGS COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE

54
 WGS Close-up View
Solar panel; rotated about one axis to face the sun

Radiators: remove heat from internal spacecraft components

Deployed following launch

Star trackers: (keep specific stars in

view to precisely maintain satellite
antenna pointing)

X band receive phased array

Ka band transmit/receive
Area Coverage Antennas (2)

Ka band transmit/receive X band transmit phased array

Narrow Coverage Antennas (8)

55
Wideband Gapfiller Satellite

Based on Boeing 702
design

First 702 launch 1999

Used on Anik F, Panamsat
1R, Galaxy IIIC, Galaxy XI,
Spaceway 1/2/3, XM Radio
1/2/3

Modular payload bay

18 kW power available

56
 Satcom Technology Evolution

First satellites – single channel, low power (400 watts)

Evolution path:

more channels (48 now not uncommon)

higher power (WGS can provide up to 18,000 watts of primary power)

Frequency utilization:

Initial: satellites shared frequencies with terrestrial microwave long-haul
communications systems  interference problems

Now: terrestrial long-haul microwave largely extinct, replaced by fiber;
satellites generally use frequency bands set aside for satellite use only

Non-processing satellite

Signals received by satellite are returned to earth without modification
except for operating frequency

Processing satellite

Signals received by the satellite are switched to different destinations in
the satellite:

Examples:

Iridium: routes messages based on info in message headers

Thuraya/WGS: routes signals to different destinations based on the frequency
of the received signal 57
DIGITAL MODULATION

58
Digital Communications: Modems
(1)
Dial-up Phone Goes to ?? at the phone
Modem Line
company

“Modem” = MOdulator + DEModulator

Modem

Modulator Demodulator

Phone
Telephone Company
Line
to
Modulator Demodulator IP network

Demodulator Modulator from

IP network

59
Modems (1)
Dial-up Phone Goes to ?? at the phone
Modem Line
company

“Modem” = MOdulator + DEModulator

Modem

Modulator Demodulator

Phone
Telephone Company
Line
to
Modulator Demodulator IP network

Demodulator Modulator from

IP network

60
Modems (2)

Digital Analog
Input Output

Modulator
Bits

Data Modulated
Signals
1’s
Digital Analog
And Output Input
0’s
Demodulator

61
 Digital Modulation Fundamentals

What: Converts digital signals from ones and zeroes to a form that can be
transmitted

Why:

Binary digital signals from a computer are either of two voltages: 0 volts/+5
volts; +1 volt/-1 volt, etc.

voltages can only be transmitted over wires;

long-distance transmission requires putting signals in a different form

How: the 1’s and 0’s are used to change the state of another signal

Example:

To send a 0, send a tone at 1 kHz Called FSK: the digital data signals change
or “shift” the frequency of a tone

To send a 1, send a tone at 2 kHz

More common technique - phase shift keyed (PSK) modulation:

To send a 0, send a tone at 1 MHz (for example)

To send a 1, send a tone at 1 MHz that has been inverted by 180 degrees

This is termed “2-phase” or “bi-phase” keying (abbreviated as BPSK)

Other types: 4-phase PSK (also called quaternary phase shift keying or
QPSK), 8-phase PSK, 16-phase PSK

62
 Two-Phase Modulation

Time representation of two-phase modulation:

1.5
Sample Rules:
1.0
• To send a “one” use the blue
phase of the signal
0.5
• To send a “zero” use the
pink phase
Power

0.0 • The frequency (number of

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
cycles per second) is the
-0.5 same in either case; only the
phase of the signal changes
-1.0

-1.5

Time
63
 Digital Modulation
Phase Representation
BPSK:
0 1

QPSK:
01

00 11

10
8PSK:
011
001 101

000 111

10
64
Bit Rate

Bit rate = # of bits/second

Bit rate is a function of amount of information to be transmitted

Examples:

Voice: 2400 bits/sec to 64,000 bits/sec (64 kbits/sec)

Telconferencing: 384 kbits/sec

Full-motion video: 1.5-6 Mbits/sec

Satellite carrier bit rates: 2400 b/s – 20 Mb/s and up

65
Error Rate

Received digital signals always contain errors

Figure of merit is “bit error rate” (BER)

BER = fraction of received bits in error

Expressed as an exponential

1 x 10-10 (excellent)

1 x 10-8 (very good)

1 x 10-6 (good)

1 x 10-4 (marginal)

66
Error Rate Improvement

Two tasks:

Error detection

Error correction

Basic principal of Forward Error Coding (FEC)

Add bits at transmitter

Bit state computed from data bit states

At receiver:

For each bit, compute states that should have been received

Identify location of bits in error and flip

FEC very effective (10-3 error rate before decoding 10-8 error rate after decoding)

Encoding techniques

Convolutional encoding (streaming technique)

Block coding (one block of bits at a time)

Decoding techniques

Used with convolutional encoding

Viterbi

Trellis

Turbo product codes

Used with block encoding

Reed-Solomon

67
Frequency Conversion

Signal frequency may be raised (up-conversion) or lowered (down-
conversion) through the use of a mixer and a fixed-frequency source

Information (modulation) on the signal is preserved through the mixing
operation

Down-conversion Up-conversion

8,000 MHz 7,000 MHz 1,000 MHz 8,000 MHz

Signal Signal Signal Signal

1,000 MHz 7,000 MHz

Local Oscillator (LO) Local Oscillator (LO)

68
Filters

Provide a means of selecting or rejecting a specific group of
frequencies from a larger group

Sample uses:

Select one signal from a group for processing

Reject off-frequency signals that would otherwise interfere

Restrict signals to the frequency range at which certain equipment
works

Example:

Down-conversion
7,000 MHz
8,000 MHz and 7,000 MHz
Signal 9,000 MHz signals Filter signal

1,000 MHz
Local Oscillator (LO)

69
Filters

Provide a means of selecting or rejecting a
specific group of frequencies from a larger
group

Sample uses:

Select one signal from a group for processing

Reject off-frequency signals that would
otherwise interfere

Restrict signals to the frequency range at
which certain equipment works

70
Digital Communications Components
Digital Modulator Channel Demodulator
• Converts digital signal into phase- • Medium through which signal • Converts received modulated
or phase- and amplitude- passes on its way from modulator to carrier containing channel
modulated carrier demodulator impairments into digital signal
• Common modulation schemes: • Common channel impairments: • Demodulator tasks
• BPSK • Thermal noise • Demodulation
• QPSK • Impulse noise •Coherent demodulation
• OQPSK • Non-linear amplitude response • Hard decision
• 8PSK • Non-linear phase response • Soft decision
• 16PSK • Non-linear frequency response •Differential demodulation
• 16QAM • De-interleaving
• Error control: • FEC decoding
• Forward-error correcting • Data decoding
coding (“FEC”)
•Convolutional
•Block
•Turbo (special case of
block coding)
• Interleaving
• Data encoding:
• Direct
• Differential

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 The Frequency Domain

Notes on a piano have fixed frequencies

A 1 MHz signal has a fixed frequency

Viewing a 1 MHz signal in a display that shows frequency vs. amplitude, it would appear like this:

1.2

1.2 1

0.8
1
0.6

0.8 0.4
Power

0.2
0.6
0
985,000 990,000 995,000 1,000,000 1,005,000 1,010,000 1,015,000

0.4

1.2

0.2
1

0 0.8

985,000 990,000 995,000 1,000,000 1,005,000 1,010,000 1,015,000

0.6

Signal has a frequency of 0.4

1,000,000 cycles per Frequency

0.2
second, or 1 Megahertz
(1 MHz) 0
985,000 990,000 995,000 1,000,000 1,005,000 1,010,000 1,015,000
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 Digital Modulation

Frequency-domain representation of a modulated signal

1.2 • Center of the signal is still at

1,000,000 cycles per second
1 (1 Megahertz)
• Note, however, that there is
0.8
some “grass” growing beside
the carrier. These are termed
Power

0.6
“sidebands” and show what
0.4 happens to an unmodulated
signal (carrier) when
0.2 modulation is added
• “Carrier” – a signal that
0
985,000 990,000 995,000 1,000,000 1,005,000 1,010,000 1,015,000
carries information

Frequency
73
Carrier Bandwidth

The extent of frequency required to support a carrier

Bandwidth increases with bit rate

Bandwidth required to support a particular bit rate is a
function of information rate and modulation technique

Example for an information rate of 1000 bits/second:

Using BPSK, bandwidth ≈ 1000 Hz

Using QPSK, bandwidth ≈ 500 Hz

Using 8PSK, bandwidth ≈ 250 Hz

74