March 2021

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Hemodynamic Monitoring
Hemodynamic monitoring is a mainstay in the care of critically ill patients. It involves using invasive and
non-invasive methods to provide information about pump effectiveness, vascular capacity, blood
volume and tissue perfusion. The precise data obtained from hemodynamic monitoring helps to identify
the type and severity of shock (cardiogenic, hypovolemic, distributive, or obstructive). When paired with
clinical evaluation, hemodynamic monitoring is helpful in guiding the administration of fluids, in
selecting and titrating vasoactive drugs, and in deciding when mechanical support might be necessary to
treat refractory shock. It allows for evaluation of the effectiveness of treatment in real time.

The Cardiac Cycle & Key Definitions

A thorough understanding of the cardiac cycle and key definitions provide a foundation for the
interpretation of hemodynamics.

The Cardiac Cycle

Key Definitions
Definition Clinical Considerations
Cardiac output (CO) The volume of blood pumped Normal range is 4-8 L/minute.
through the heart per minute
(L/min) Calculation
CO = Stroke Volume (SV) X Heart Rate (HR)

Cardiac index (CI) CO adjusted for body surface Normal range is 2.8-4.2 L/min/m2.
area (BSA)
Calculation
CI = CO/BSA
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Stroke volume (SV) The volume of blood pumped Normal range is 60-90 mL.
out of the left ventricle (LV)
per heartbeat Calculation
SV = End-diastolic volume (EDV) – end-
systolic volume (ESV)

End diastolic Volume of blood in the right Normal is about 120 mL.
volume (EDV) ventricle (RV) or LV at the end
of diastole (filling)

End systolic volume Volume of blood in the RV or Normal is about 50 mL.

(ESV) LV at the end of
systole (contraction)

Preload The amount of ventricular Also known as the left

stretch at the end of ventricular end-diastolic
diastole pressure (LVEDP)

Afterload The amount of resistance the Also known as the systemic

heart must overcome to open vascular resistance (SVR)
the aortic valve and push the
blood volume out into the
systemic circulation

Contractility The ability of the heart to

contract and generate force

Central venous The blood pressure in the Used to assess preload and volume
pressure (CVP) vena cava and an estimate of status
right atrial pressure
Normal is 2-6 mm Hg.

Measuring Hemodynamics
Hemodynamic instability causes a mismatch between oxygen delivery and demand, leading to organ
failure. Hemodynamic instability can often be managed with regular clinical examination and monitoring
of vital signs (heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen saturation, and respiratory rate) and urine output.
However, when the patient does not improve or deteriorates further, invasive hemodynamic monitoring
is needed to guide fluid management and vasopressor/inotropic support.

Clinical Assessment
A clinical examination is the fastest and least invasive hemodynamic monitor available.
• A patient with inadequate global perfusion often presents with signs of organ dysfunction, such
as tachypnea, tachycardia, confusion, weak peripheral pulses, skin mottling, and oliguria.
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• Capillary refill time (CRT) can be rapidly tested and is the time required for blood flow (and
color) to return to the distal capillaries after the release of fingertip compression sufficient to
cause blanching of the skin (10 seconds of compression time). The upper limit of normal is 3
seconds in adults; a longer CRT indicates reduced capillary perfusion.

Non-invasive Monitoring
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
• Heart rate is an important determinant of cardiac output (CO = HR X SV).
• A 12-lead ECG confirms cardiac rhythm and provides baseline information on ST segments and T
waves.
• Continuous monitoring of heart rate, rhythm and ST segments allows early recognition of
hypovolemia and myocardial ischemia.
• Tachyarrhythmias are a common finding in certain shock states. Bradycardia and/or heart block
may indicate cardiogenic shock.

Blood pressure (BP)

• The definition of hypotension (low BP) is patient-specific and interpreted in the context of the
patient’s usual BP.
• Hypotension is a common feature of most shock states.
• Mean arterial blood pressure (MAP) is an approximation of organ perfusion pressure.
• Severely elevated BP, especially if acute, is associated with increased vascular resistance and
may be associated with inadequate tissue perfusion, for example hypertensive encephalopathy
or acute renal failure.

Pulse oximetry (SpO2)

• Continuous SpO2 monitoring enables rapid detection of even a small reduction in arterial oxygen
saturation, which is an integral part of oxygen delivery.
• The SpO2 signal is often inaccurate in the presence of altered skin perfusion. The inability to
measure SpO2 is itself an indicator of abnormal peripheral perfusion.

Echocardiography
• An echocardiogram provides visualization of the cardiac chambers, valves, pericardium, and
overall cardiac function.
• It allows for measurement of left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and estimates of SV and CO
based on measurement of LV outflow tract (LVOT), LVOT velocity and heart rate.

Fluid responsiveness
• Fluid resuscitation is a critical component of the treatment of hemodynamically unstable
patients. Although rapid optimization of volume status has been shown to improve outcomes,
volume overload is associated with increased morbidity and mortality.
• A fluid challenge is necessary to determine whether fluid administration will benefit the patient.
• Fluid responsiveness is frequently defined as an increase in cardiac output (≥ 10% from baseline)
with a fluid challenge (250-500 mL administered over 10-15 minutes).
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• An alternative to a fluid challenge is to perform a ‘passive leg raise’ maneuver. This produces an
‘autotransfusion’ of blood from the venous compartments in the abdomen and lower limbs.
o Position the patient in the semi-recumbent position with the head and torso elevated at
45 degrees.
o Obtain a baseline blood pressure measurement.
o Lower the patient's upper body and head to the horizontal position and raise and hold
the legs at 45 degrees for one minute.
o Obtain subsequent blood pressure measurement.
o The expected response to this maneuver in those that are fluid responsive is a 10% or
greater increase in cardiac output (CO). Although not considered a validated measure,
we often use blood pressure as a surrogate marker of CO in evaluating response to the
PLR.
o Only patients who are fluid responsive after a fluid bolus or passive leg raise should
receive additional fluids.

Invasive Monitoring
Intra-arterial blood pressure
• Arterial cannulation (usually the radial artery) allows for accurate continuous blood pressure
measurement. Arterial line BP monitoring is the standard for care for patients on
vasopressor/inotrope infusions.
• Arterial lines facilitate frequent blood draws for blood gases or other lab studies.

Central venous pressure (CVP)

• The CVP is the blood pressure in vena cava/right atrium; normal range is 2-6 mm Hg.
• The CVP reflects right ventricular (RV) function and venous return to right side of heart.
• It is measured via a catheter positioned in the vena cava.

Pulmonary artery pressure (PAP)

• PAP is the blood pressure in pulmonary artery; normal systolic PAP range is systolic 15-30 mm
Hg and normal diastolic PAP 5-15 mm Hg.
• It may be measured during right heart catheterization or via introduction of a catheter into the
pulmonary artery (i.e., Swan Ganz Catheter).

Mixed venous oxygen saturation (SvO2)

• SvO2 reflects the balance between oxygen delivery and oxygen consumption (VO2).
• It depends on arterial blood saturation (SaO2), the balance between VO2 and CO, and
hemoglobin (Hgb) levels.
o Normal SvO2 is greater than or equal to 70% (drawn from a pulmonary artery catheter).
o Central venous oxygenation (ScvO2) is normally greater than or equal to 65% (drawn
from a central venous catheter).
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Novel Cardiac Output Monitoring Devices

The gold standard for cardiac output monitoring is using periodic measurements derived from a
pulmonary artery catheter (PAC). However, there are safety concerns with PACs (e.g., infection,
pneumothorax, pulmonary artery rupture) and evidence suggests that there is no mortality benefit.
Devices for minimally invasive cardiac output monitoring using arterial pressure tracings and pulse-
contour analysis or chest bioreactance have been developed. Esophageal doppler monitoring utilizes a
flexible trans-esophageal doppler ultrasound probe to estimate cardiac output and stroke volume.
These techniques perform better to monitor trends in cardiac output as opposed to providing absolute
cardiac output values.

References:

Bridges, E. (2017). Assessing Patients During Septic Shock Resuscitation. American Journal of Nursing, 117(10),
34-40. https://www.doi.org/10.1097/01.NAJ.0000525851.44945.70

Bridges, E. (2013). Using Functional Hemodynamic Indicators to Guide Fluid Therapy. American Journal of Nursing, 113(5),
42-50. https://www.doi.org/10.1097/01.NAJ.0000429754.15255.eb

Clement, R.P., Vos, J.J. & Scheeren, W.L. (2017). Minimally Invasive Cardiac Output Technologies in the ICU: Putting It All
Together. Current Opinion in Critical Care, 23(4), 302-309. https://www.doi.org/10.1097/MCC.0000000000000417

Kerstens, M.K., Wijnberge, M., Geerts, B. F., Vlaar, A.P., & Veelo, D.P. (2018). Non-invasive cardiac output monitoring
techniques in the ICU. Netherlands Journal of Critical Care, 26(3), 104-110.

Marino, P. (2014). The ICU Book, 4th edition. Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia.

Mikkelsen, M.E, Gaieski, D.F., & Johnson, N.J. (2020, September 28). Novel Tools for Hemodynamic Monitoring in Critically Ill
Patients with Shock. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/novel-tools-for-hemodynamic-monitoring-in-critically-
ill-patients- with-shock

Silvestry, F. (2020, July 15). Pulmonary Artery Catheterization: Interpretation of Hemodynamic Values and Waveforms in
Adults. UpToDate. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pulmonary-artery-catheterization-interpretation-of-
hemodynamic-values-and- waveforms-in-adults