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Distinction Between Igneous, Sedimentary and

Metamorphic Rocks

Introduction
Rocks on the Earth may be composed of hundreds of possible minerals but
only 20 to 30 minerals are common in the majority of rocks. Minerals are made up of
combinations of nearly a hundred different elements, yet only eight elements make
up over 98% of the Earth's crust. Atoms represent the basic building blocks of the
elements and the next section of the chapter, Atoms and Elements, discusses how
atoms of different elements combine to form minerals. The same mineral found in
different parts of the world, will always look the same and will have a consistent
chemical composition. Minerals can be identified in rocks by a variety of features
including crystal form, cleavage, hardness, color, and luster.
Rocks are classified into three distinct groups - igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic - and each is discussed in a separate section. Each rock group is
further subdivided into subgroups that are defined by the mode of origin of the rocks.
Igneous rocks form when magma, molten rock, rises upward toward the surface
and are classified into two types on the basis of texture (grain size) and composition.
Metamorphic rocks form when changes in the composition and/or texture of a rock
occur as a result of increasing pressure or temperature but stop short of melting
minerals. Two groups of metamorphic rocks can be identified based upon the
presence or absence of a specific texture (foliation) in the rocks. Sedimentary
rocks, the most common rocks on the Earth's surface, are readily identified by the
presence of layers (beds). Although layering is sometimes present in igneous and
metamorphic rocks, it is much more common in sedimentary rocks.
Scientists were surprised to
learn that the first rock they analyzed,
nicknamed Barnacle Bill, contained
many of the same minerals that were
common on Earth. The rock
composition was similar to andesite, a
rock formed by volcanic activity.
Andesite on Mars was an unexpected
find as volcanoes are rare on the red
planet. The composition of other
samples (Fig. 1) confirmed the
Figure 1 Yogi, one of the rocks analyzed during the Mars
resemblance with other volcanic rocks Exploration
on Earth and scientists began to
rethink their view of Mars' origins.
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I. Rocks and Minerals

Rocks are made up of minerals. Rocks are generally composed of an
assemblage of minerals. For example, the andesite from Mars contains quartz,
feldspar, amphibole, and other minerals.
Rocks can be subdivided into three principal types: igneous rocks,
sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks.
Minerals can be divided into their constituent elements. Silicon and
oxygen are the most common constituents in most common minerals known as
silicates. Positive and negative charges of cations and anions must cancel out for
elements to combine to form minerals.
A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic solid, with a definite chemical
composition and uniform atomic structure, and is made up of elements. Minerals can
be identified on the basis of features such as cleavage, color, hardness, and luster.

II. Mineral Characteristics

Although there are thousands of minerals in Earth, there are only about 20
common minerals. The same mineral found in different parts of the world will always
look the same and will have a characteristic crystal form and a consistent chemical
formula. Minerals can be identified in rocks by a process of elimination. A variety of
features can be used to identify specific minerals. Some of the most common are
listed below.

Crystal Form
Minerals form crystals with specific shapes (Fig. 2) when they have been able to
grow without obstruction. Common shapes are prisms, pyramids, needles, cubes,
and sheets.

Figure 2 A range of crystal shapes including pyramid (calcite, left) and acicular (needle-like, tourmaline, right)
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Cleavage
Minerals break along specific planes of weakness
related to their atomic structure (Fig. 3).
Amphibole’s cleavage planes intersect at 120
degrees; pyroxene has a distinctive 90-degree
cleavage intersection. Quartz has no cleavage
planes but fractures irregularly.

Figure 3 Cleavage planes in amphibole intersect

at an angle of 120 degrees.

Moh’s Hardness Scale

Minerals are ranked from 1 to 10 based upon their relative hardness (Fig. 4). Harder
minerals can scratch softer minerals. Ten index minerals make up Moh's scale and
other minerals are ranked relative to these. For example, a mineral that could
scratch feldspar but not quartz would have a hardness of approximately 6.5.

Figure 4 Corundum ranks 9th on Moh's hardness scale

Color
Minerals come in a variety of colors (Fig. 5).
Examples of common dark-colored minerals (black,
dark brown, dark green) are amphibole, olivine,
pyroxene, biotite mica. Light-colored minerals (white,
pink, gray, translucent) are represented by quartz,
feldspar (orthoclase, plagioclase), muscovite mica,
gypsum, halite, calcite. However, we must be careful
in using color to identify minerals because some
minerals can be found in a wide range of colors.

Figure 5 Brightly colored Azurite (blue) and

malachite (green).
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Luster
Characteristics of light reflected from mineral is luster (Fig.
6). Types of luster include earthy, silky, glassy, and
metallic.

Streak Figure 6 Metallic luster of galena.

Minerals will leave a mark when pulled across

an unglazed porcelain streak plate (Fig. 7).
The streak represents the mineral in
powdered form and is often constant even
when mineral color changes. This property is
most useful for metallic minerals that leave a
dark-colored streak.

Figure 7 Brown streak on white porcelain streak plate

from metallic iron mineral hematite.
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III. Igneous Rocks

Magma is a molten rock below Earth's surface. Volcanic (extrusive)
igneous rocks form when magma solidifies on Earth's surface. Plutonic (intrusive)
igneous rocks form when magma solidifies below the surface. Volcanic and plutonic
rocks can be identified on the basis of texture.
The composition of igneous rocks varies with silica content. Silica-rich rocks
contain the minerals quartz, feldspar, mica, and amphibole. Silica-poor rocks do not
contain quartz but feldspar, olivine, and pyroxene are relatively common.

Volcanic (extrusive) igneous rocks form when molten rock (magma) in

Earth’s interior rises to the surface through pipes or fractures in the crust. Volcanic
landforms are the most readily recognized representation of igneous rocks (Fig. 8).
Plutonic (intrusive) igneous rocks form when magma cools within Earth.
Igneous rocks that cool below Earth's surface are termed plutonic (or intrusive)
igneous rocks. The features they form are plutons (or intrusions). These features
remain hidden from sight until erosion removes the overlying rocks (Fig. 8). The
characteristics of the intrusions are largely controlled by the volume of magma
involved and the character of the surrounding rocks. Magma moving within Earth's
crust will often follow the path of least resistance such as fractures.

Figure 8 Left: Multiple plutons (intrusions - light rock) in the Black Canyon of the Gunnison river, Colorado. Right:
Sunset Crater, northern Arizona, a small volcano.

Magma and the Classification of Igneous Rocks

Igneous activity occurs when magma rises toward the surface through pipes and
fissures (fractures) in Earth’s crust. The three major types of magma (basalt
magma, andesite magma, and rhyolite magma) solidify to form volcanic rocks of
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the same name on the surface. Igneous rocks can be classified on the basis of
texture (volcanic vs. plutonic) and composition (basalt vs. andesite vs. rhyolite).
Plutonic rocks can be distinguished from volcanic rocks by texture (Fig. 9). Texture
is most readily apparent as grain size. Hot magmas (700-1,200oC) cool rapidly on
Earth's surface and more slowly below the surface. Individual mineral grains
(crystals) do not have much time to grow when magma cools rapidly. Consequently,
grain sizes in all volcanic rocks are small, too small to be seen with the naked eye.
In contrast, plutonic rocks cooled slowly under relatively warm conditions and the
mineral grains had sufficient time to grow large. Individual grains can be readily seen
in specimens of plutonic rocks (see close up of granite or gabbro). Plutonic rocks
equivalent to basalt, andesite, and rhyolite, are gabbro, diorite, and granite,
respectively. Keep in mind that the same minerals are present in both volcanic and
plutonic igneous rocks formed from the same magma.

Figure 9 Principal forms of igneous rocks

Magma that rises to the surface in stages may contain two discrete grain
sizes and this texture is termed a porphyry. Large grains form initially at depth but
are surrounded by a fine-grained matrix formed when the remainder of the magma
cools near the surface. Magma that cools very rapidly on the surface (e.g., in the
presence of water) forms a glassy textured rock, obsidian.

Silica Content Volcanic Rocks Plutonic Rocks

High Rhyolite Granite
Intermediate Andesite Diorite
Low Basalt Gabbro
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The composition of the magma can be determined by the assemblage of

minerals present in the rock (Figs. 9, 10). Light-colored igneous rocks are formed
from silica-rich magmas (rhyolite, granite) and contain abundant (~80%) white, pink,
or translucent minerals such as quartz and feldspar. In contrast, silica-poor rocks
(basalt, gabbro) are dominated by olivine, pyroxene, and biotite mica, all dark-

Figure 10 Minerals in light-colored silica-rich igneous rocks such as granite and rhyolite. From left to right, orthoclase feldspar,
plagioclase feldspar, muscovite mica, milky quartz.

colored minerals (black, brown, dark green). Rocks of intermediate composition lie
somewhere between the light and dark rocks depending upon the minerals present.

IV. Sedimentary Rocks

Sedimentary rocks characteristically form as a series of layers of different
composition and thickness (Fig. 11). The layers, called beds, can be readily
identified in nature on the basis of different colors or resistance to erosion, both
properties that are linked to the composition of the rocks.

Figure 11 A variety of horizontal beds of sedimentary rocks exposed at Dead Horse Point,
Utah, (top left); along U.S. 14, Bighorn Mountains, Wyoming (top right); in Rainbow
Canyon, Bighorn Basin, near Lovell, Wyoming (bottom left); and near Dubois, Wyoming
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Sedimentary rocks can be divided into three fundamental types:

 Clastic sedimentary rocks composed of sediments, rock and mineral

fragments formed when rocks disintegrate at or near Earth's surface.
 Chemical sedimentary rocks precipitated from a solution (e.g., seawater) as
a result of changing physical conditions (e.g., evaporation).
 Biochemical sedimentary rocks formed by the actions of living organisms or
composed of the remains of dead organisms.

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

The basic building blocks of clastic sedimentary rocks are sediments, rock and
mineral fragments formed when rocks disintegrate on the earth's surface. Clastic
sedimentary rocks are formed in three steps that require the generation,
transportation, and deposition of sediments.
Weathering: Rocks physically disintegrate into smaller pieces and the constituent
minerals may undergo decomposition to form alternate minerals. The process of
disintegration and decomposition is termed weathering and is influenced by the
original rock type and climatic conditions. Weathered material forms sediments that
are classified by increasing grain size as mud, silt, sand, and gravel.
Erosion: Sediment is removed (transported) from its place of origin by running water,
winds, and/or glaciers. A muddy river (Fig. 12) is an indication that the river is
carrying a large load of sediment. Clastic sediments are divided into coarse grain-
size particles (Fig. 12; gravel, includes pebbles, cobbles and boulders), medium
grain-size (sand), fine grain-size (silt), or very fine sediment (clay). The process of
erosion shapes the landscape and contributes to the formation of many of the
distinctive landforms of a region (valleys, canyons, mountains).
Deposition: Clastic sediments are deposited when the velocity of the transporting
medium drops. For example, rivers dump much of their sediment where they enter
the relatively quiet waters of an ocean or lake; the landform that is created is a delta.
This material may be redistributed along the coastline to form beaches. Winds in
deserts may shape sand into dunes.

Figure 12 Left: Slow-flowing muddy stream, transports fine-grained sediment. Center: Fast-flowing stream in Wyoming
Right: Pebbles and boulders deposited in stream channel. The largest boulder is 0.4 meters across.
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Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

Chemical sedimentary rocks are precipitated from a solution as a result of
changing physical conditions. The most common solution is seawater. These
minerals are dissolved from rocks on the continents and transported to the oceans in
solution in streams. Vast shallow tropical oceans were the source for the bulk of the
chemical sedimentary rocks that are present at the surface across North America
today.
Rock salt forms as a result of changing physical conditions (increasing
temperature). Minerals dissolved in seawater are precipitated when the water
evaporates to form rocks such as gypsum and rock salt (halite). Evaporation typically
occurred in restricted basins in arid climates. Thick salt deposits are interpreted to
indicate that there must have been a constant supply of additional seawater to
ensure the steady deposition of salts. These rock types are collectively termed
evaporites.

Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks

Biochemical sedimentary rocks involve the actions of living organisms that
cause minerals to be precipitated from a solution or are composed of the remains of
dead organisms.

Relative proportion of sedimentary rock types:

Clastic sedimentary rocks: 86% | Chemical and biochemical sedimentary rocks: 14%

Limestone forms when living marine

organisms precipitate minerals from seawater to
build their skeletons. The actions of organisms
in seawater change the composition of the
water resulting in the precipitation of the mineral
calcite (calcium carbonate), the principal
ingredient in limestone. Massive limestone
coral reefs around the world were built up
because of the actions of the coral organisms
Figure 13 Coral reef in clear, shallow water, Bahamas.
(Fig. 14). The skeletons of some
microorganisms collect on the sea floor to form
deposits of chalk, a type of limestone. The
shells of larger organisms may be broken down
and sorted by wave action to form a clastic form
of limestone known as coquina (Fig. 13).
Additional disintegration may form sand- or
Figure 14 Closeup of coquina limestone, note shell
fragments
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mud-size particles that become lithified into medium- to fine-grained limestones,

respectively.
Some biochemical rocks are composed of the
remains of dead organisms. The most common
example is coal (Fig. 15), the compacted remains of
dead plants that grew in a tropical swamp environment.
These rocks are sometimes termed organic
sedimentary rocks.

Figure 15 Massive coal seam in Tertiary

rocks of the Powder River basin,
northern Wyoming. The seam is up to
200 feet (60 meters) thick in places
Metamorphic Rocks (note large coal hauling truck for scale).

Metamorphism represents the changes in the composition and/or texture of a rock

that occurs in solid rocks as a result of increasing pressure and/or temperature.
The chemical reactions associated with metamorphism are practically inactive below
approximately 200-degree Celsius. Depending upon their composition, most
minerals will melt at temperatures ranging from 600-1,000-degree Celsius. When
melting occurs the rock is no longer in the solid state. Consequently, the temperature
"window" for metamorphism is from 200 to 1,000-degree Celsius.
There are two types of metamorphism: contact metamorphism and regional
metamorphism.

Contact Metamorphism
Contact metamorphism occurs when rocks undergo
metamorphism because they come in contact with a
heat source (usually a magma body). Essentially the
rocks are getting cooked. A comparable change occurs
in roasting meat or baking bread - the initial
composition does not change but the texture of the
material does. Rocks do not conduct heat well (they
are good insulators) so the zone of contact
metamorphism is usually relatively narrow and occurs
in the rock (country rock) immediately surrounding the
heat source.
Marble is an example of a rock that may be formed by
contact metamorphism. Marble (Fig. 16) forms when
Figure 16 Two examples of rocks that
limestone is heated to high temperatures. Both marble may form as a result of contact
metamorphism of limestone (top,
marble) or sandstone (bottom,
quartzite.)
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and limestone may have the same composition but marble typically has larger
grains.

Regional Metamorphism
Regional metamorphism occurs when rocks undergo increased temperatures and
pressures and is typically associated with the formation of mountain belts. In these
areas’ rocks may be buried to great depths (10-20 km).
The additional pressure causes tabular
minerals (e.g., mica) in the rock to grow
parallel to each other and perpendicular to
the direction of pressure (stress), generating
a mineral alignment termed foliation (Fig. 17)
Increased temperatures and/or pressures
generate more intense grades of
metamorphism. Foliated metamorphic rocks
in order of increasing metamorphic grade Figure 17 Tabular or sheetlike minerals grow
perpendicular to the direction of pressure to form a
(low to high temperature) are slate, phyllite foliation.
(Fig. 18), schist, and/or gneiss. (Fig. 19)
Not all rocks that undergo regional
metamorphism will form a foliation. Rocks
that lack tabular minerals such as mica
will not generate the parallel alignment of
minerals necessary to create a foliation.
Sandstone, composed mainly of quartz
grains, will be converted to quartzite (Fig.
16) by regional metamorphism; limestone
may form marble. Neither metamorphic
rock contains a foliation. Figure 18 Foliation in a phyllite from New Mexico; the
foliation is the series of surfaces that are inclined from the
top right to the bottom left.

Figure 19 Granite (above) and gneiss (below) are composed

of similar minerals. Note the irregular horizontal foliation in
the gneiss defined by light and dark minerals.
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Assessment
1. What are the three (3) fundamental types of sedimentary rocks?
2. What is the difference between volcanic and plutonic igneous rocks?
3. What type of sedimentary rocks comprises the largest proportion of this
rocks?
4. In metamorphism, when do chemical reactions become practically inactive?

References:
www.kean.edu/~csmart/Observing
http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~rcheel/teaching
http://epsc.wustl.edu/seismology/michael/eps130/lectures/