Optical Distribution Networks (FTTH)

Digital Egypt Youth Training Program

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 Optical Fiber
Networks
Fundamentals

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2
Understanding of fiber technology and
network components

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 Content 01 Fiber Basics

Fiber Optic Transmission

02
Theory

03 Multimode and Single-mode

Fibers

05 Fiber Optic Connectors

06 Splicing

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4
 Multimode and Single-mode Fibers

• The physical plant “Fiber Design”

• Types of Fiber
• What is a mode?
• Propagation of light: single mode or multi mode
• Multimode fiber characteristics
• Multimode optical fiber types
• Single-mode fiber characteristics
• Mode Field Diameter “MFD”
• Effective Area
• Single-mode optical fiber types
• SM & MM Comparison

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5
 Why light?
light is incredibly fast. The speed of light in a vacuum is some 300,000 kilometers per
second, and just one-third slower, or about 200,000 kilometers per second, when travelling
through a fiber-optic cable.

There are some coax cables that perform better than this, but these coax transmission lines
need many more amplifiers than the optical fiber lines, making optical fiber technology the
fastest transmission solution for long distance lines.

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6
 Fiber Design :
An optical fiber is composed of a very thin glass rod, which is surrounded by a plastic protective coating
protects the glass of the cladding from moisture, dirt and damage. The total diameter of an optical fiber is
250 μm or 1/4th of a millimeter.

The glass rod contains two parts, the inner portion of the rod (or core)
and the surrounding layer (or cladding) which ensures light doesn’t escape from the core.

Light, which is injected into the core of the glass fiber, will follow the
physical path of that fiber due to the total internal reflection of the light
between the core and the cladding keeps the light inside the core.

Core
Cladding

Plastic
Coating

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 Types of Fiber
Fiber is classified into different types (multimode or singlemode) based on the way in which the light
ravels through it. The fiber type is closely related to the diameter of the core and cladding.

Optical Fiber

Multimode Singlemode

Step-Index Graded-Index

Figure. Types of glass fiber

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 Types of Fiber

Core Diameter Core Diameter

50 to 100 µm 8 to 12 µm

Cladding Diameter Cladding

125 to 140 µm Diameter 125 µm

Coating Diameter Coating Diameter

250 µm 250 µm

The composition of Multimode fiber The composition of Singlemode fiber

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 Types of Fiber :- Multimode Fiber
Multimode fiber, due to its large core, allows for the transmission of light using
different paths (multiple modes) along the link. For this reason, multimode fiber is
quite sensitive to modal dispersion.

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 Propagation of light: single mode or multi mode?
A ‘mode’ is the path a beam of light follows as it travels along an optical fiber.
Multi mode fiber allows light to travel along many different paths in the core of the fiber.
Single mode fiber, used in all long distance lines and FTTH deployments today, carries just one
mode.
In a single mode optical fiber, the signal travels straight down the middle. This makes it possible to
transport signals over distances of up to 100 km and still be useable.
Typical applications include telecom networks, campuses, TV cable or industrial estates.
Multi mode fiber has a larger core (typical diameter 50 um) compared to single mode fiber
(diameter approximately 9 um), which makes it less costly to make connections and allows the use
of VCSEL light sources, which can be significantly less expensive than lasers.
 However, although the cost of connection is lower than that of single-mode, the distance over
which data can be transmitted is much shorter. Multi mode is commonly found in short distance
audio/video transmission and broadcast applications, Local Area Networks and data centers.
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 Types of Fiber :- Multimode Fiber

The primary advantages of multimode fiber are:-

 the ease of coupling to light sources and to other fiber
 lower cost light sources (transmitters)
 simplified connectorization and splicing processes

 The primary disadvantages of multimode fiber are:-

 relatively high attenuation
 Low bandwidth limit the transmission of light over multimode fiber to short distances.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ERZZga26_Cw&list=PL358
5AC23FCCEBAAD&index=33

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 Types of Fiber :- Multimode Fiber
 Step-Index Multimode Fiber

 Step-index (SI) multimode fiber guides light rays through total reflection on the boundary between
the core and cladding.
 The refractive index is uniform in the core.
 With a minimum core diameter of 62.5 μm. Modes of Refractive Input Output
 A cladding diameter between 100 and 140 μm Propagation Index Profile Signal Signal

 A numerical aperture between 0.2 and 0.5

 A fiber bandwidth of 20 MHz.km indicates that:
20 MHz for a distance 1 Km
10 MHz for a distance 2 Km
40 MHz for a distance 0.5Km , etc…

Light propagation though step-index multimode fiber

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 Types of Fiber :- Multimode Fiber
 Graded-Index Multimode Fiber
Modes of Refractive Input Output

 The core of graded-index (GI) multimode fiber Propagation Index Profile Signal
Signal

possesses a nonuniform refractive index,

decreasing gradually from the central axis to
the cladding.
 This index variation of the core forces the rays
of light to progress through the fiber in a
sinusoidal manner.
 With a minimum core diameter of 50 μm.
 Typical bandwidth-length product for graded- Light propagation through graded-index multimode fiber
index multimode fiber:
 160 MHz.km at 850 nm
 500 MHz.km at 1300 nm https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yKrwKxYzTzY&list=PL3585
AC23FCCEBAAD&index=15

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 Types of Multimode Fiber
 The ITU-T G.651 standard defines the characteristics of a 50/125 µm graded-index multimode optical fiber cable. The
increased demand for bandwidth in multimode applications, including Gigabit Ethernet (GigE) and 10 GigE, has resulted in
the definition of three different ISO categories.
Comparing the ISO categories of the ITU-T’s G.651 standard

Standards Characteristics Wavelengths Applications

G.651 Legacy graded-index 850 nm and 1300 nm Data communications

ISO/IEC 11801:2002 multimode fiber in access networks
(OM1)

G.651 Legacy graded-index 850 nm and 1300 nm Video and Data

SO/IEC 11801:2002 multimode fiber communications in
(OM2) access networks

G.651 Laser optimized; Optimized for 850 nm GigE and 10 GigE

ISO/IEC 11801:2002 graded-index transmission in local
(OM3) multimode fiber; area networks (up to
50/125 µm maximum 300 m)

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 Types of Fiber :- Single mode Fiber
 The typical dimensions of single mode fiber range from a core of 8 to 12 μm,The cladding of 125 μm.
 The refractive index of single mode fiber is typically 1.465.
 The small core size of single mode fiber generally requires more expensive light sources and
alignment systems to achieve efficient coupling.
 In addition, splicing and connectorization is also somewhat complicated.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hx10fwjVV90&list=PL358
5AC23FCCEBAAD&index=24 Figure. The composition of singlemode fiber

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 Types of Fiber :- Single mode Fiber
 The advantage of single mode fiber is its higher performance with respect to bandwidth
and attenuation.
 The reduced core diameter of single mode fiber limits the light to only one mode of
propagation, eliminating modal dispersion completely.
 With proper dispersion compensating components, a singlemode fiber can carry signal
of 10 Gbit/s, 40 Gbit/s and above over long distances.
 The system carrying capacity may be further increased by injecting multiple signals of
slightly differing wavelengths (wavelength division multiplexing) into one fiber.
 Nonetheless, for high performance systems or for systems that are more than a few
kilometers in length, singlemode fiber remains the best solution.
 Since the small core diameter of single mode fiber decreases the number of
propagation modes, only one ray of light propagates down the core at a time.

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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=enpxAjm2jAI&list=PL3585
Mode Field Diameter AC23FCCEBAAD&index=34

• The mode field diameter (MFD) of singlemode fiber can be expressed as the section of the fiber
where the majority of the light energy passes.
• The MFD is larger than the physical core diameter. That is, a fiber with a physical core of 8 µm can
yield a 9.5 µm MFD. This phenomenon occurs because some of the light energy also travels
through the cladding.

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 Types of Singlemode Fiber
 There are different types of single mode fiber, which are classified according to their attenuation
G.652: Characteristics of singlemode optical fiber and cable

range, chromatic dispersion (CD) values, and polarization mode dispersion (PMD) coefficients.
 The ITU-T has provided a set of standards in order to classify singlemode fiber.
Wavelength Coverage Applications
G.652.A 1310 nm and 1550 nm Supports applications such as those recommended in G.957 and G.691 up to STM-16, 10
regions O and C bands) Gb/s up to 40 km (Ethernet), and STM-256 for G.693.

G.652.B 1310 nm, 1550 nm, and Supports some higher bit rate applications up to STM-64 in G.691 and G.692 and some
1625 nm regions (O and STM-256 applications in G.693 and G.959.1. Depending on the application, chromatic
C+L bands) dispersion accommodation may be necessary.
G.652.C From O to C bands Similar to G.652.A, but this standard allows for transmission in portions of an extended
wavelength range from 1360 nm to 1530 nm. Suitable for CWDM systems.

G.652.D Wide band coverage (from Similar to G.652.B, but this standard allows for transmission in portions of an extended
O to L bands) wavelength range from 1360 nm to 1530 nm. Suitable for CWDM systems.

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 Types of Singlemode Fiber
• Characteristics of dispersion shifted singlemode optical fiber and cable.

Characteristics Wavelength Coverage Applications

Zero chromatic dispersion
value at 1550 nm. Supports high bit rate
G.653.A Maximum attenuation of 1550 nm applications at 1550 nm
0.35 dB/km at 1550 nm. over long distances.
Max PMD = 0.5 ps/√km
Introduced in 2003 with a
low PMD coefficient, this
Same as G655.A, except:
G.653.B 1550 nm standard supports higher
Max PMD = 0.2 ps/√km
bit rate transmission
applications than G.653.

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 Types of Singlemode Fiber
• Characteristics of non-zero dispersion shifted singlemode optical fiber and cable
Characteristics Wavelength Applications
Coverage

G.655.A Maximum attenuation specified at C bands Supports DWDM transmission (G.692) applications in the C bands with down
1550 nm only. to 200 GHz channel spacing.
Lower CD value than G.655.B and
G.655.C. Max PMD = 0.5 ps/√km

G.655.B Maximum attenuation specified at 1550 nm and 1625 Supports DWDM transmission (G.692) applications in the C+L bands with
1550 nm and 1625 nm. nm regions (C+L down to 100 GHz channel spacing.
Higher CD value than G.655.A. Max bands)
PMD = 0.5 ps/√km

G.655.C Maximum attenuation specified at From O to C bands Similar to G.655.B, but this standard allows for transmission applications at
1550 nm and 1625 nm. high bit rates for STM-64/OC-192 (10 Gb/s) over longer distances. Also
Higher CD value than G.655.A. Max suitable for STM-256/OC-568 (40 Gb/s).
PMD = 0.2 G.655.A. Max PMD = 0.2
ps/√km

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 Types of Singlemode Fiber
• The recent G.656 standard (06/2004) is an extension of G.655, but it specifically addresses the
wider wavelength range for transmission over the S, C, and L bands.
• Characteristics of non-zero dispersion shifted fiber for wideband transport .

Wavelength
Characteristics Applications
Coverage
Maximum attenuation specified at 1460
nm, 1550 nm, and 1625 nm. Supports both CWDM and DWDM
G.656 Minimum CD value of 2 ps/nm.km between S, C, and L bands systems throughout the wavelength
1460 nm and 1625 nm. Max PMD = 0.2 range of 1460 nm and 1625 nm.
ps/√km

There are other types of fiber, such as polarization maintaining singlemode fiber and plastic fiber, which are
outside the scope of this document.

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 Review of Singlemode and Multimode Fiber

Multimode Singlemode

Cost of fiber Expensive Less expensive

Transmission equipment Basic and low cost (LED) More expensive (laser diode)
Attenuation High Low
Transmission wavelengths 850 nm to 1300 nm 1260 nm to 1640 nm
Use Larger core, easier to handle Connections more complex
Access/medium/long haul networks (>200
Distances Local networks (<2 km)
km)
Limited bandwidth (10 Gb/s over short Nearly infinite bandwidth (>1 Tb/s for
Bandwidth
distances) DWDM)

The fiber is more costly, but network Provides higher performance, but building
Conclusion
deployment is relatively inexpensive. the network is expensive

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 Fiber Optic Transmission Theory

• Transmission Principles
• Velocity
• Propagation Principle
• Bandwidth
• Refraction
• Total internal reflection
• Numerical aperture
• Loss and attenuation
• Optical Dispersion
• Modal Dispersion
• Chromatic Dispersion
• Polarization Mode Dispersion
25

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 Transmission Principles:-

 Velocity:-
 The velocity at which light travels through a transmission medium is determined by the refractive
index of the transmission medium.
 The refractive index (n) is a unitless number, which represents the ratio of the velocity of light in a
vacuum to the velocity of light in the transmission medium.
n= c/v

Figure. Comparing the speed of light through different transmission mediums

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 Transmission Principles:-
 Velocity:-
Where n is the refractive index of the transmission medium, c is the speed of light in a vacuum, and v is the
speed of light in the transmission medium.
Typical values of n for glass (i.e. optical fiber) are between 1.45 and 1.55.
As a rule of thumb, the higher the refractive index, the slower the speed in the transmission medium.
Typical manufacturer’s values for Index of Refraction are:
Corning LEAF
• n=1.468 @1550 nm
• n=1.469 @1625 nm
OFS TrueWave Reach
• n=1.471 @1310 nm
• n=1.470 @1550 nm

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 Transmission Principles:-

 Propagation Principle:-

 Light rays enter the fiber at different angles and do not follow the same paths.
 Light rays entering the center of the fiber core at a very low angle will take a
relatively direct path through the center of the fiber.
 Light rays entering the fiber core at a high angle of incidence or near the outer
edge of the fiber core will take a less direct, longer path through the fiber and will
traverse the fiber more slowly.
 Each path, resulting from a given angle of incidence and a given entry point, will
give rise to a mode. As the modes travel along the fiber, each of them is
attenuated to some degree.

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 Transmission Principles:-
 Bandwidth:-
 Bandwidth is defined as the width of the frequency range that can be transmitted by an
optical fiber.
 The bandwidth determines the maximum transmitted information capacity of a channel,
which can be carried along the fiber over a given distance.

In multimode fiber, bandwidth is mainly limited by

modal dispersion; whereas there is almost no
limitation for bandwidth in single mode fiber.

Figure.Typical bandwidths for different types of fiber

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 Fiber Optic Transmission Theory
Light Propagation :-

The propagation of a ray of light in optical fiber follows Snell-Descartes’ law. A portion of the
light is guided through the optical fiber when injected into the fiber’s full acceptance cone.

 Refraction:-
Refraction is the bending of a ray of light at an interface between two dissimilar
transmission media. If α > α0, then the ray is fully refracted and is not captured by the
core. n1 sin αi = n2 sin αr
α
α0 n
2

αi
n
1

αr
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U5AP9_z
T7-I&list=PL3585AC23FCCEBAAD&index=26
Refraction of light

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 Fiber Optic Transmission Theory https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x0AakpO3O3k&list=PL3585AC
23FCCEBAAD&index=40

 Numerical aperture:-

A ray of light enters a fiber at a small angle α. The capability (maximum acceptable value) of
the fiber cable to receive light through its core is determined by its numerical aperture (NA).

Where αn is the maximum angle of acceptance (that is, the limit between reflection and
refraction), n1 is the core refractive index, and n2 is the cladding refractive index. Core Cladding

Full Acceptance Cone

The full acceptance cone is

n1
defined as 2αn.
α0 n2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wh9knsYSodI&list=PL3585AC23FCCEBAAD&
index=5
The injection of light into a fiber

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National Telecommunication Institute ‫المعهد القومي لالتصاالت‬
 Fiber Optic Transmission Theory
 Reflection:-
Reflection is the abrupt change in direction of a light ray at an interface between two
dissimilar transmission media. In this case, the light ray returns to the media from
which it originated. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cCMZg0Ak3dk&list=PL3
If a < α0, then the ray is reflected and remains in the core. 585AC23FCCEBAAD&index=27

α
α0 n
2

αi αr
n
1

Reflection of light

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 Transmission in an optical communication system:-
There are two main factors that can affect light transmission:-

 Attenuation:
As the light signal traverses the fiber, it will lose optical power due to absorption, scattering, and
other radiation losses. At some point, the power level may become too weak for the receiver to
distinguish between the optical signal and the background noise.

 Dispersion:
As the light signal traverses the fiber, the light pulses will spread or broaden and will limit the
information carrying capacity at very high bit rates or for transmission over very long distances.

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 Light Transmission
• Light transmission in optical fiber uses three basic elements: a transmitter, a receiver, and a
transmission medium by which the signal is passed from one to the other.
• The use of optical fiber introduces attenuation and dispersion into the system.
• Attenuation tends to increase the power requirements of the transmitter in order to meet the
power requirements of the receiver.

Dispersion, on the other hand, limits the bandwidth of the data that can be transmitted over the fiber.

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 Light Transmission:-Attenuation
• Attenuation As the light signal traverses the fiber, it decreases in power level. The decrease in
power level is expressed in dB or as a rate of loss per unit distance (dB/km)

The attenuation is the weakening of a signal as it travels down the length of a communication link.

Example: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yzHhgdRw2Gk&list=PL358
• A communication link of 1 km length. 5AC23FCCEBAAD&index=17
• The input power is 1mW.
• Half the power (50%) is lost along the 1 km link
• Therefore only half the power (0,5 mW) is available at the end of the link

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 Fiber Spectral Attenuation

• The attenuation that is caused by glass itself can be influenced only to a certain degree within the
manufacturing process.

• The two main loss mechanisms of light transmission in optical fiber are light absorption and scattering.

Light Absorption
• Light is absorbed in the fiber material as its energy is converted to heat due to molecular resonance and
wavelength impurities. For example, hydrogen and hydroxide resonance occurs at approximately

1244 nm and 1383 nm.

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 Light Absorption https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=w9BFjZ8ebMk&list=PL358
5AC23FCCEBAAD&index=41

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uKKR0OuAQM0&list=PL35
85AC23FCCEBAAD&index=55

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 Light Absorption

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 Fiber Spectral Attenuation
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xGTKquHWc_c&lis
t=PL3585AC23FCCEBAAD&index=29
Rayleigh Scattering
• Scattering, primarily Rayleigh scattering, also contributes to attenuation. Scattering causes dispersion
of the the light energy in all directions, with some of the light escaping the fiber core.
• A small portion of this light energy is returned down the core and is termed backscattering.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XlzxbGO3Vto&list=PL3585
AC23FCCEBAAD&index=18
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 Rayleigh Scattering
• Foreign atoms or molecules that are situated in the silica glass of the core behave differently than fused silica molecules
when interacting with a light beam.
• A light beam that hits such an atom or molecule can be scattered in a random direction.
• In most cases this results in a loss of energy, as the light beam most likely does not hit the core cladding interface with a
sufficient angle of incidence.
• Both the impurities in the fused silica and the dopant atoms that are necessary to increase the refractive index of the core,
are responsible for scattering.
• The scattering effects would therefore also occur in an otherwise completely pure Fiber given the necessary dopant atoms.
• It is also interesting to note that a small portion of the rays is back scattered to the core-cladding interface with a
sufficiently large angle of incidence. It can therefore propagate backwards along the Fiber and, if not completely
attenuated, re-radiate to the beginning of the Fiber.

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 Rayleigh Scattering

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Spectral Attenuation Curve
• Attenuation depends on the fiber type and the wavelength.
• If the absorption spectrum of a fiber is plotted against the wavelength of the laser, certain characteristics of
the fiber can be identified.
• The following graph illustrates the relationship between the wavelength of the injected light and the total
fiber attenuation.

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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_aCQyNTzM2E&list=PL3585AC23FCCEBAAD&index=35

Link Loss Mechanisms https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f8GK8SWTBkY&list=PL3585AC23FCCEBAAD&index=37

• For a fiber optic span, the effects of passive components and connection losses must be added to
the inherent attenuation of the fiber in order to obtain the total signal attenuation. This
attenuation (or loss), for a given wavelength, is defined as the ratio between the input power and
the output power of the fiber being measured. It is generally expressed in decibels (dB).

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ff10EXdY95I&list=PL3585A
C23FCCEBAAD&index=19

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 Dispersion
• Another factor that affects the signal during transmission is dispersion.
• Dispersion is defined as the spreading of a light pulse as it travels down a fibre
• Dispersion reduces the effective bandwidth available for transmission.
• Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that a system can carry such that each pulse
of light is distinguishable by the receiver.

• There are three main types of dispersion:

 Modal dispersion.
 Chromatic dispersion.
 Polarization mode dispersion.

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 Dispersion - Effect on Signal
Affects quality of the transmission-Bandwidth
Optic fibre
1 0 1 1 1 1

electrical input transmitted received optical electrical output signal

signal optical signal
signal
Signal spreads and overlaps as it
travels through the fibre. (with dispersion)

This effect increases with shortening 1 0 1 1 1 1

distances between adjacent pulses. Transmitted Recieved
i.e. with increasing transmission rate. logical
information
logical
information

Dispersion can cause bit error

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 Modal Dispersion
Modal dispersion only occurs in multi-mode fibers because more than one mode travels through the Fiber.

The light pulse travels through different paths (modes) in

multi-mode fibers.
Each ball in the animation, represents one mode.
All modes belong to the same pulse.

For a homogenous refractive index in the core (step index),

the speed of propagation of the different modes is the
same and, therefore, the longer their paths, the later they
reach the end of the Fiber.

It has to be mentioned that, modes of increasingly higher

order travels mostly in increasingly outer regions of the
core, i.e. the higher the mode the longer the path it
follows.

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 Modal Dispersion
• Modal dispersion typically occurs with multimode fiber.
• When a very short light pulse is injected into the fiber within the numerical aperture, all of the energy does
not reach the end of the fiber at the same time.
• Different modes of oscillation carry the energy down the fiber using paths of differing lengths.
• For example, multimode fiber with a 50 µm core may have several hundred modes.

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 Multi-Mode (Graded-Index)

If now we can make the modes travelling in the outer part of the core faster than those
in the center, we can compensate the modal dispersion.
This is why most multi-mode fibers have a graded index profile decreasing from the
center of the core to the core-cladding boundary.

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 Material dispersion
• All light sources (including lasers) are not perfectly monochromatic but rather have a
spectral range of wavelengths close to it

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 Group velocity and Phase Velocity
• If I have a set of longitudinal waves traveling together, I have two speeds
• The speed of the group of waves = a group velocity
• One-wave velocity or phase velocity
• Difference of these two speeds causes dispersion

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51
 waveguide dispersion
• It occurs in single-mode
• As a result that the diameter of the core is very small, approximately 8 micrometers,
sometimes a part of the light ray passes through the cladding, and because the cladding
has a smaller refractive index than the core, light travels through it at a faster speed than
the core.

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52
 Chromatic Dispersion
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SAEQND4NyoM&list=PL35
85AC23FCCEBAAD&index=50

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National Telecommunication Institute ‫المعهد القومي لالتصاالت‬
 Polarization Mode Dispersion
The reason for this is usually due to defects in the fiber industry
as the cross section of the core is not perfectly circular.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DKCHYUxXYXo&list=PL358
5AC23FCCEBAAD&index=10

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National Telecommunication Institute ‫المعهد القومي لالتصاالت‬
18 January ‫التشويه‬ ‫المعهد القومي لألتصاالت‬Dispersion
56
 Key benefits of fiber optics
Very high bandwidth – transport huge volumes of data
 Low latency – delays in data transport unnoticeable
 Minimal attenuation
 Small and lightweight – easy to ship and install
 Immune to electromagnetic interference
 Minimal security risk (difficult to ‘tap off’ light without being noticed)

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 Summary
• Light signal travels in the core of the fiber.
• This is possible because the cladding IOR is less than the core IOR
• (ncore >ncladding)
• The light rays travel in paths called modes.
• Two types of fibre:
• Multimode
• Single-mode
• Optical signal loss (attenuation) is measured in dB (deciBel)
• Attenuation in fiber caused by:
• Intrinsic Characteristics: Absorption. Scattering
• External Characteristics: Macro/Micro- bends
• An optical pulse spreads as it travels through a fiber. Called Dispersion.
• Sources/Transmitters used in Fibre Systems
• LEDs
• VCSELs
• Lasers
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 Section Break
We will back again…..

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