The Importance of Cell Division

• The ability to grow and reproduce are two fundamental

qualities of life.

• During cell division, one cell becomes two new cells.

– Accomplishes growth and reproduction
– Reproduction occurs as binary fission in prokaryotes.
– Growth and some reproduction occurs as mitosis in
eukaryotes.
– Reproduction often involves meiosis in eukaryotes.

• All cell division is preceded by DNA replication.

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 Uses of Binary Fission and Mitosis
• In single-celled organisms
– Mitosis and binary fission are
means of asexual reproduction.

• In multi-cellular organisms
Mitosis:
– Causes growth by increasing
the number of cells
– Replaces lost cells
– Repairs injuries

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The Cell Cycle
Eukaryotic cells
– Pass through different
stages between the
time they are “born”
and the time they
divide again
– A continuous process
– Includes interphase
and mitosis.

(Resting phase)

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 Interphase-G1

• The three phases of interphase

• G1 Phase
• The cell gathers nutrients, carries out its regular
metabolic roles, and performs its normal function.
• Cells grow
• Commits to divide
• Some cells never divide; they stay in G1, called Go..
• Prepares for DNA replications

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 Interphase-S
• S Phase
– DNA replication occurs.
– When S phase is complete
• The identical copies are
connected together.
• Each is called a sister
chromatid.
–Connected at the
centromere
 Interphase-G2

• G2 Phase

– Final preparations are made for mitosis.

– Proteins are made that will move and separate
the sister chromatids.
– Centrioles are duplicated
– Repairs errors (if any) of duplicated DNA

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 Mitosis
• The two events of cell division

– Mitosis
• Separating the chromosome copies into two new nuclei
• Occurs in four phases that are continuous with one
another

– Cytokinesis
• Dividing the cytoplasm into two new cells that will house
the new nuclei

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 Prophase
• The thin, tangled
chromatin gradually coils
and thickens.
– Becomes visible as
separate chromosomes,
each with two sister
chromatids
• Nucleus disassembles.
• Nucleolus is no longer
visible.
• Spindles made of
microtubules start to
appear from centrioles in
animal cells 9-9
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 Late Prophase
• Spindle fibers extend completely
across the cell and attach to
chromosomes at their
centromeres.
– Spindles are made of
microtubules. In animals,
they are formed from the
centrioles.
– Asters (a radial array of
microtubules towards the plasma
membrane)form only in animal
cells.
– Spindles move chromosomes
around. 9-10
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 Metaphase

• The spindle fibers move the

chromosomes so that they are
all arranged at the middle of
the cell, called the equatorial
plate
 Anaphase
• Sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles.
– Once the sister chromatids are separated, they are
known as daughter chromosomes.
 kinetochore

• What moves the sister chromatids

to opposite poles?
The poles begin to move farther
apart.
The kinetochore (proteins
attached at the centromere) pulls
the sister chromatid along the
spindle fiber.
 Telophase

• Spindle fibers disassemble.

• Nuclear membranes form around the two new sets of chromosomes
• Chromatin uncoils.
• Nucleolus reforms.
• Cells begin cytokinesis.
 Cytokinesis
-Separates the two new nuclei into new cells
-Roughly divides the cytoplasm and its contents in half

Animal cells
Membrane forms a cleavage furrow
Cell pinches into two
Plant cells
Cell plate is formed.
A new cell wall is built, separating the nuclei 9-15
 Genes Regulate the Cell Cycle

• Cells use several proteins to function as checkpoints.

• Two classes of genes that code for checkpoint proteins
– Proto-oncogenes
• Code for proteins that encourage cell division
– Tumor-suppressor genes
• Code for proteins that discourage cell division

• The balance of these two types of proteins tells the cell

whether or not to proceed with cell division.

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 p53, a Tumor-suppressor Gene
• Near the end of G1, the p53 protein identifies if the cell’s DNA is
damaged.
– If the DNA is healthy, the p53 allows the cell to divide.
– If the DNA is damaged, p53 activates other proteins that will
repair the DNA.
• If the damage is too severe, p53 will trigger the events of
apoptosis (cell suicide).

• Mutations in the p53 gene

– Lead to cells that will proceed through the cell cycle with
damaged DNA
– Lead to an accumulation of mutations
• If the mutations occur in proto-oncogenes or tumor-
suppressor genes, then cancer will result.
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p53, a Tumor-suppressor Gene

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 Cancer
• Cancer is caused by a failure
to control cell division.
– Leads to cells that divide
too frequently
– These cell masses are
tumors that can interfere
with normal body
functions.
Benign tumors are cell masses that do not fragment and spread

Malignant tumors are cell masses that fragment, spread and

invade other tissues. This process is called metastasis.

p53 is mutated in 40% of all cancers. Leads to other mutations

that result in cancer 9-19
 Causes of Cancer:

• Mutagens are agents that damage DNA.

• Carcinogens are mutagens that cause mutations
that lead to cancer.
– Cigarette smoke has been linked directly to p53
mutations

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 Treatment Strategies ̶ Surgery

• Surgical removal

– Once tumors are identified they can be surgically

removed.
– Skin cancers and breast cancers are frequently
treated this way.
– If the cancer is spread diffusely, surgery is not an
option.

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 Treatment Options ̶ Chemotherapy and
Radiation Therapy
• Chemotherapy
– Some drugs will target rapidly dividing cells.
– Normal cells that divide rapidly will suffer as well.
• Weakens the immune system
• Causes hair loss

• Radiation therapy
– Uses x-rays or gamma rays directed at the tumor to kill
the cancerous cells
– Whole-body radiation is used to treat leukemia.
• Can lead to radiation sickness
– Nausea, hair loss, etc.

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 Uses of Meiosis

• Sexual reproduction involves the donation of

genetic information from two parents.
– Each parent can only donate half of the genome.

• Meiosis occurs prior to sexual reproduction.

– Generates gametes (egg and sperm) with half of a
genome
– The egg and sperm then join during fertilization to
make a unique offspring with a full complement of
genetic information.

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 Cell Division and Sexual Reproduction
• Somatic cells have two sets of chromosomes.
– Diploid
• Gametes have one set of chromosomes.
– Haploid
• Meiosis makes haploid gametes.
– Eggs are made in ovaries (animals) and pistils (plants).
– Sperm are made in testes (animals) and anthers
(plants).
– When egg and sperm join during fertilization, the
zygote receives half of its chromosomes from the egg
and half from the sperm.

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 A Pair of Homologous Chromosomes
Homologous chromosomes
• Have the same order of genes along their DNA
• Are the same size; have the centromere in the same location
• One chromosome in the pair came from mom; the other came
from dad.

9-25
 Meiosis

9-26
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 Meiosis-Gamete Production

• Involves two cell divisions

– Produces four haploid cells
– Meiosis I is the first division.
• Preceded by DNA replication
• Reduction division
– Chromosome number reduced from diploid to haploid
– Meiosis II is the second division.

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Synapsis
-Homologous chromosomes become
closely associated or paired up in
prophase I of meiosis.

-Synapsis brings non-sister

chromatids in close proximity, where
they can physically exchange their
parts.
 Crossing-over
-Takes place in non-sister chromatids.
-Each chromosome arm has one or a few crossovers per meiosis,
irrespective of it’s size.
-Human chromosomes typically have two or three crossover points.
-Cross over generates non-identical sister chromatids

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 Chiasmata

-The X-shaped structure at crossing over called Chiasma (plural:

Chiasmata)
-The presence of a Chiasma indicates two non-sister chromatids have
exchanged their parts.
 Meiosis I: Prophase I
• Prophase I
– Synapsis occurs
 Homologous chromosomes move toward one another
and associate with one another.
 While associated homologs experience crossing over
-Homologs trade equivalent sections of DNA.
-Mixes up the genes that are passed to the next generation

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 Meiosis I: Metaphase I

• Metaphase I:
– The synapsed pairs of
homologous
chromosomes are
moved into position at
the equatorial plate.

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 Meiosis I: Anaphase I

• Homologous pairs separate.

– Homologs move to opposite poles.
• Sister chromatids do not separate at this point.
– This process is called segregation.

• Results in reduction of chromosome

number from diploid to haploid.
 Meiosis I: Telophase I

• Chromatin uncoils.
• Nuclear membrane reforms.
• Nucleoli reappear.
• Cytokinesis divides the two
haploid nuclei into two daughter
cells.
– Each chromosome still contains
two sister chromatids.

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 Meiosis I
Prophase I Metaphase I Anaphase I Telophase I

Non-identical
sister chromatids
 Meiosis II: Prophase II

• Similar to prophase
in mitosis
• Nuclear membrane
is disassembled.
• Spindle begins to
form.

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 Meiosis II: Metaphase II

• Similar to metaphase
in mitosis
• Chromosomes are
lined up at the
equatorial plate.

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 Meiosis II: Anaphase II

• Centromeres divide.
• Sister chromatids
separate.
– Now called daughter
chromosomes

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 Meiosis II: Telophase II

• Similar to telophase
and cytokinesis in mitosis

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 Meiosis II

Prophase II Metaphase II Anaphase II Telophase II

 Genetic Diversity ̶
The Advantage of Sexual reproduction

• Five factors create genetic diversity by

creating new alleles, or new combinations of
alleles.
– Mutation
– Crossing-over
– Segregation
– Independent assortment
– Fertilization

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 Mutations

• Mutations are changes in the nucleotide

sequence of DNA.
• This creates new alleles.
• New alleles lead to new forms of proteins.
• Increases genetic diversity
• Examples: Generation of mutated allele in
hemoglobin in sickle cell anemia, difference
in ABO gene for blood typing etc.

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 Crossing-over

• The exchange of equivalent portions of DNA

between homologous chromosomes

• Occurs during prophase I when chromosomes are

synapsed

• Allows new combinations of genetic information to

occur

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 The Results of Crossing-over
Diabetes Normal insulin

Dark skin color Light skin color

Diabetes Normal Diabetes Normal

Dark skin insulin Light skin insulin
Dark skin Light skin
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 Segregation
Mother (Non Diabetic) Father (Non Diabetic)
Diabetes Normal insulin
Diabetes Normal insulin (non-
(non- Functional
Functional Insulin)
Insulin)

Non-Functional Normal insulin Non-Functional Normal insulin

Insulin Insulin

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Offspring would be Diabetic Offspring would be Normal
 Segregation
• Alleles on homologous chromosomes separate during
anaphase I.

-Consider a person who has two alleles for insulin; one normal
and one diabetic.
• Half of its gametes would get the gene for functional insulin.
• Half of its gametes would get the gene for nonfunctional
insulin.

• If these gametes were used during fertilization, and were

joined with similar gametes, some of the offspring would
not be able to make functional insulin; they are genetically
different from both the parents.
 Independent Assortment

• The segregation of homologous chromosomes in one pair

is independent of how other homologous pairs segregate.

• Consider two pairs of chromosomes.

– Given the two ways these pairs can line up on the
equatorial plate,
• There are four possible combinations of
chromosomes in gametes.

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Independent Assortment

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 Fertilization

• Due to the large number of possible gametes resulting

from independent assortment, segregation, mutation and
crossing-over,
– A large number of different offspring can be generated
from two parents.
• Since gametes join randomly
– The combinations of alleles is nearly infinite.

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