The Original Rotronic Humidity Manual

All you never wanted to know about Humidity and didn’t want to ask!

Rotronic Instrument Corp

www.rotronic-usa.com
09/01/2005

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 1

General Technical Information .................................................. 6
Relative Humidity, Pressure and Temperature ........................................................ 6
Foreword 6
Ideal Gas Laws 6
Mole Fractions and Partial Pressure 8
Effect of a Change In Pressure 8
Real Gases 8
Vapor Pressure above a Liquid 9
Vapor Pressure Of Water 10
Vapor Pressure above Ice 11
Definitions of Humidity 11
Vapor Concentration (Absolute Humidity) 11
Specific Humidity 12
Mixing Ratio 12
Volume Mixing Ratio 13
Relative Humidity 13
Dew Point and Frost Point Temperature 13
Wet Bulb Temperature 14
Effect of Temperature and Total Pressure on Vapor Pressure 14
Effect of Temperature and Pressure on %RH 15
Examples 15
Relative Humidity Calibration 16
Are they all the same? Choosing the right humidity instrument ........................ 18
Principle of Operation 18
Classification of Errors 19
Linearity errors 19
Temperature errors 19
Hysteresis 20
Calibration errors 20
Long Term Stability 20
Choosing a Humidity Instrument 21
Wet Bulb / Dry Bulb - Description and Limitations................................................ 22
Summary 22
Problem Areas in the Wet- and Dry-Bulb Technique 22
Non-Observance of Basic Requirements 22
Interferences during Measurements 23
Poor Handling and Maintenance 23
Typical Accuracy of the Wet- and Dry-Bulb Technique 24
Operational Limitations of the Wet- and Dry-Bulb Technique 24
Technical Information for Rotronic products......................... 25
Water Activity Instruments: a comparison of two measuring techniques .......... 25
Water Activity Measuring Techniques 25
Speed of Measurement 25
Temperature Stability 25
Accuracy 26
Range of Measurement 27
Maintenance 27
Summary 28
Chemical resistance Rotronic Hygromer Humidity Sensors................................ 28
General 28
Uncritical chemicals 28
Critical chemicals 29

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 Application examples 30
Humidity measurement in sterilisation chamber (Ethylene oxide) 30
Humidity measurement in ozone chamber 30
Special applications 31
Humidity measurement in oil 31
Competitor Comparison 2004 .................................................. 32
HVAC transmitters wall mount................................................................................ 32
Competitor “A” 32
Competitor “B” 32
Competitor “C” 33
Competitor “D” 33
Competitor “E” 34
Rotronic 34
Competitor “F” 35
Competitor “G” 35
Humidity deviation at 1°C 36
Humidity deviation at 23°C 36
Humidity deviation at 40°C 37
Humidity deviation at 48°C 37
Temperature deviation at 50 %rh 38
Industrial transmitters with cable probes .............................................................. 39
Competitor “H” 39
Competitor “A” 39
Rotronic 40
Competitor “I” 40
Competitor “F” 41
Humidity deviation at -10°C 42
Humidity deviation at 23°C 43
Humidity deviation at 50°C 43
Humidity deviation at 70°C 44
Temperature deviation at 50 %rh 44
Humidity deviation from set point at 23°C after different stresses 45
Competitor “H” 45
Competitor “A” 45
Rotronic 46
Competitor “I” 46
Competitor “F” 47
HygroClip performance over a range of RH & T conditions................................. 48
Evaluation of Competitive Humidity Sensors ........................................................ 50
Long Term Performance of the HygroClip S and C-94 Sensor............................. 57
Application stories and tales ................................................... 64
Last Long and Prosper (A water activity tale) ....................................................... 64
Ingredients and Interactions 65
Factors Affecting Stability 66
Stimulating Storage Conditions 66
Speed it Up 67
Precautions and Possibilities 68
Paper & Climate........................................................................................................ 69
Introduction 69
Influence of Moisture Content on Paper 69
Influence of Equilibrium Relative Humidity on Paper 70
Static Electricity 70
Dust Problems in Presses 70

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 Dimensional Changes of Paper during Printing 70
Deformations of Paper Due to Humidity 71
Deformation of Paper due to Temperature 72
Curling of Paper Sheets 72
Drying Time of Printing Inks 72
Recommended Values of % ERH 72
Recommended Tolerance of % ERH 73
Summary 73
Oresund Bridge Maintenance Cost Slashed .......................................................... 74
Jens Olsens Worldwatch in Copenhagen .............................................................. 75
Renovation necessary 75
Munters dehumidifier ensures conditions 75
Munters leading dry air supplier 76
Cool Application for Rotronic Humidity Technology ............................................ 76
Abbey Library St. Gall.............................................................................................. 76
Rotronic Conquers the Jungfrauhoch.................................................................... 77
The Holy Shroud - The Wounds of the Passion..................................................... 77
Measuring Water Activity at the “Millennium Seed Bank” ................................... 78
The New Treasure Chamber in Cologne’s Cathedral ............................................ 79
Rotronic HygroLog-D: Dataloggers in Church-Organs........................................ 80
Now, what happens to an organ when the climate is wrong? 80
Application: Pyramid of Saqquara Egypt.............................................................. 81
A New Discovery 81
Need for preservation 82
Technology Assists 82
Rotronic Sensors on Kilimanjaro............................................................................ 82
Rotronic Measuring Equipment in Nuclear Research........................................... 83
Analysis of Drilling Mud in Canada ........................................................................ 84
HygoClip S – When Maximum Precision is required............................................. 85
What Does Humidity Have to Do with Deep Space Missions? ............................. 86
The European deep space antenna project in New Norcia (Western Australia) 86
Rotronic Sensors in the Brick Industry.................................................................. 87
Humidity Absorption from Munters with Rotronic Humidity Instruments .......... 88
Climate Surveillance in Vienna Palace Liechtenstein ........................................... 89
Use of the Palace over the course of centuries 89
Climate Control 89
Humidity Measurement On the Moving Paper Web............................................... 90
Web probe BFC-DIO 91
Production of Rotronic Humidity Measurement Equipment ................................ 91
Testing Seed Water Activity Values helps of the Brazilian Rainforest ................ 92
Engine Testing at SAAB .......................................................................................... 93
New Ventilated Radiation Shields Co-Developed with MeteoSwiss .................... 94
How Rotronic helps in the Production of fine cheese .......................................... 95
Protecting Rodin from Japan’s Climate and Earthquakes ................................... 96
How Humidity is used in Fuel Cell Research ......................................................... 97
Why the dew point is measured? 97
The Challenge of measurement in fuel cell testing 97
Which instrument is suitable? 97
Who are the customers? 98
HygroClip Probes and the Quality of Plastic Molding........................................... 98
Advantages from the customer’s point of view 99

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 Further applications for DAS-Systems: 99

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General Technical Information
_____________________________________________________________________

Relative Humidity, Pressure and Temperature

Foreword

This technical note reviews the basic laws of physics that govern relative humidity.

Within a temperature range of -50 to 150°C and at pressures not in excess of 1000 kPa,
water vapor practically behaves like an ideal gas. Examples are provided to illustrate
the influence of temperature and pressure on relative humidity and to show how to
convert relative humidity into dew point and absolute humidity.

This note is largely inspired from the textbook Chemistry by Theodore L. Brown and H.
Eugene LeMay, JR. (Prentice-Hall, 1977).

Ideal Gas Laws

By definition, an ideal gas follows the following laws:

Boyle's Law: this law states that at constant temperature, the product of the volume and
pressure of a given amount of gas is a constant.

P x V = constant

The value of the constant depends on how much gas is in the volume.

Charles's Law: this law states that at constant pressure, the volume of a given quantity
of gas is proportional to absolute temperature (°K).

V=qxT

where q is a proportionality constant that depends on the quantity of gas.

Charles's law can be stated in another form: at constant volume, the pressure of a given
quantity of gas is proportional to absolute temperature.

P=jxT

where j is a proportionality constant that depends on the particular sample of gas and its
volume.

note: to convert temperature in °C into absolute temperature in °K, add the constant
273.15.

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Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures: this law states that that the total pressure of a mixture
of gases is equal to the sum of the pressures that each gas would exert if it were
present alone.

Pt= P1+ P2+ P3+ ...

where P1, P2, etc., are the partial pressures of gases 1, 2, etc.

Avogadro's Hypothesis: this hypothesis states that equal volumes of gases at the same
temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of molecules. For instance, one liter
of any ideal gas at a temperature of 0°C and a pressure of 101.3 kPa, contains 2.688 x
1022 molecules.

note: the temperature of 0°C and pressure of 101.3 kPa is the standard temperature
and pressure condition or STP.

Volume of a Mole of Gas at STP:

A mole of any element is defined as the amount of that element that contains the same
number of molecules (or atoms in the case of a mono atomic element) as exactly 12 g
of 12C (Carbon 12).

It has been experimentally determined that the number of atoms in this quantity of 12C
is 6.022 x 1023. This number is called Avogadro's number.

As one liter of gas, at STP, contains 2.688 x 1022 molecules (or atoms in the case of a
mono atomic gas), it follows that a mole of gas (6.022 x 1023 molecules) occupies a
volume of
22.4 l, at STP.

Ideal Gas Law: this law states that the product of volume and pressure of a given
amount of gas is proportional to absolute temperature.

PxV=nxRxT

where n is the number of moles of gas and R the molar gas constant.

The constant R is equal to:

0.08206 atm x liter/°K x mole.

8.30928 Pa x m3/°K x mole

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Mole Fractions and Partial Pressure

The composition of one mole of a gas mixture can be expressed in terms of the mole
fractions of its components. The mole fraction of a particular component is defined as
the total number of moles of the component divided by the total number of moles of all
the components. From this definition, it follows that the sum of all mole fractions is equal
to one. Taking dry air near sea level as an example, the mole fractions of the three main
components are as follows:

Nitrogen : 0.78084
Oxygen : 0.20948
Carbon Dioxide : 0.00954

If Pt is the total pressure of a gas mixture and n1, n2, etc. the mole fractions of its
components, it follows that:

Pt= Pt x (n1+ n2 + ...) and

Pt= Pt x n1+ Pt x n2 + ...

where Pt x n1, Pt x n2, etc. are the partial pressures of components 1, 2, etc.

The above equation is another form of Dalton's law.

Effect of a Change In Pressure

Dalton's law states that the total pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the sum of the
partial pressures of its components. From this, it was derived that the partial pressure of
a component is equal to the product of the total pressure times the mole fraction of the
component.

Therefore, a change in the total pressure of a gas mixture, at constant composition,

results in the same change in the partial pressure of each component. For instance,
doubling the total pressure of a gas mixture results in doubling the partial pressure of
each component.

Real Gases

Real gases fail to obey the laws of ideal gases to greater or lesser degree. The van der
Waals equation corrects the equation established for ideal gases:

(P + an2/V2)(V - nb) = nRT

where a and b are constants that depend on the nature of the gas.
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From the van der Waals equation, it is apparent that a real gas tends to behave like an
ideal gas when the volume of gas is large.

The constant b of most common gases is less than. At STP, the number of moles n is
equal to one when the volume V equals 22.4 l. Therefore, most real gases behave
almost like ideal gases when placed in a large volume at moderate pressure
(1000 kPa or less).

Vapor Pressure above a Liquid

Molecules in a liquid are closer one to another than they are in a gas. Therefore,
intermolecular forces are stronger than in a gas. For a liquid to vaporize, the
intermolecular forces have to be overcome by the kinetic energy of the molecules.

If a liquid is placed in a closed container, the particles entering the vapor phase cannot
escape. In their random motion, many particles strike the liquid and are recaptured by
intermolecular forces. Thus two processes occur simultaneously: evaporation and
condensation.

The rate of evaporation increases as temperature increases. This is so because an

increase in temperature corresponds to an increase in the kinetic energy of molecules.
At the same time, the rate of condensation increases as the number of particles in the
vapor phase increases: more molecules strike the surface of the liquid. When these two
processes become equal, the number of particles and, therefore, the pressure in the
vapor phase, becomes stabilized.

The value of the equilibrium vapor pressure depends on the attractive forces between
particles of the liquid and on the temperature of the liquid. Vapor pressure above a
liquid increases with increasing temperature.

The presence of gases other than vapor above a liquid does not affect the kinetic
energy of molecules inside or outside the liquid and does not affect the magnitude of the
intermolecular forces in the liquid. Therefore, vapor pressure above a liquid does not
depend on the total pressure above the liquid.

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Vapor Pressure Of Water
The vapor pressure of water, or saturation vapor pressure, increases strongly with
increasing temperature:

Temperature Water Vapor

(°C) Pressure
(kPa)
0 0.61
10 1.23
20 2.34
30 4.24
40 7.37
50 12.33
60 19.92
70 31.18
80 47.34
90 70.11
100 101.33 = 1 atm

Vapor Pressure of Water Mixed with Another Substance

If water is mixed with a non volatile substance to form a non electrolyte solution, the
vapor pressure is proportional to the mole fraction of water in the solution (Raoult's law).
Because of the electrostatic attraction between ions, electrolyte solutions do not exactly
follow Raoult's law.

This can be explained as follows:

At a given temperature, the kinetic energy of all particles (molecules, ions) in the
solution is the same. Essentially the same number of particles are at the surface in both
the solution and pure water. However, in the case of the solution, only the water
molecules can escape from the solution. As these represent only a fraction of the total
number of particles present at the surface, vapor pressure is lowered.

The following table provides a few examples of saturated salt solutions (electrolyte
solutions) at a temperature of 25°C:

Solute Vapor pressure Pressure Ratio

(kPa) Solution/Pure Water
LiCL 0.358 11.3 %
MgCl 1.039 32.8 %
NaCl 2.387 75.3 %
KCl 2.673 84.3 %

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Vapor Pressure above Ice
When water freezes, the molecules assume a structure which permits the maximum
number of hydrogen-bonding interactions between molecules. Because this structure
has large hexagonal holes, ice is more open and less dense than liquid water. As
hydrogen-bonding is stronger in ice than in liquid water, it follows that the inter-
molecular attraction forces are the strongest in ice. For that reason, vapor pressure
above ice is less than the vapor pressure above liquid water.

Temp Vapor Pressure Vapor Pressure Ratio

(°C) Liquid (kPa) Ice (kPa) Ice/Liq.
0 0.611 0.611 1.00
-5 0.422 0.402 0.95
-10 0.287 0.260 0.91
-15 0.191 0.165 0.86
-20 0.126 0.103 0.82
-25 0.081 0.064 0.78
-30 0.049 0.037 0.75

Definitions of Humidity

Vapor Concentration (Absolute Humidity)

The vapor concentration or absolute humidity of a mixture of water vapor and dry air is
defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapor Mw to the volume V occupied by the
mixture.

Dv = Mw / V , expressed in grams/m3 or in grains/cu ft

The value of Dv can be derived as follows from the equation PV = nRT

Mw = nw x mw, where :

nw = number of moles of water vapor present in the volume V

mw = molecular mass of water

Dv = Mw / V = nw x mw / V = mw x p / RT , where:

mw = 18.016 gram
p = partial pressure of water vapor [Pa]
R = 8.31436 Pa x m3 / °K x mole
T = temperature of the gas mixture in °K
Dv = p / 0.4615 x T [g / m3]

1 gr (grain) = 0.0648 g (gram)

1 cu ft = 0.0283168 m3

Dv [gr / cu ft] = 0.437 x Dv [g / m3]

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Specific Humidity

Specific humidity is the ratio of the mass Mw of water vapor to the mass (Mw + Ma) of
moist air.

Q = Mw / (Mw + Ma)

Q = p mw / (p mw + (Pb – p) ma)

Q = 1000 p / (1.6078 Pb – 0.6078 p) [ g / kg]

1 gr (grain) = 0.0648 g (gram)

1 lb = 0.4535923 kg

Q [gr / lb] = 7 x Q [g / kg]

Mixing Ratio

The mixing ratio r of moist air is the ratio of the mass Mw of water vapor to the mass Ma
of dry air with which the water vapor is associated:

r = Mw / Ma

Mw = nw x mw = mw x p V / RT
Ma = na x ma = ma x pa V / RT = ma x (Pb – p) V / RT, where:

nw = number of moles of water vapor present in the volume V

na = number of moles of dry air present in the volume V
mw = 18.016 gram
ma = 28.966 gram
p = partial pressure of water vapor [Pa]
pa = partial pressure of dry air [Pa]
Pb = total or barometric pressure [Pa]
R = 8.31436 Pa x m3 / °K x mole
T = temperature of the gas mixture in °K
V = volume occupied by the air – water vapor mixture

r = mw p / ma (Pb – p)

r = 621.97 x p / (Pb – p) [g / kg]

1 gr (grain) = 0.0648 g (gram)

1 lb = 0.4535923 kg

r [gr / lb] = 7 x r [g / kg]

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Volume Mixing Ratio

The volume mixing ratio is the ratio of number of moles of water vapor nw to the number
of moles of dry air na with which the water vapor is associated. This usually expressed
in terms of parts per million:

PPMv = 106 x nw / na

nw = p V / RT
na = pa V / RT = ma x (Pb – p) V / RT, where:

p = partial pressure of water vapor [Pa]

pa = partial pressure of dry air [Pa]
Pb = total or barometric pressure [Pa]
R = 8.31436 Pa x m3 / °K x mole
T = temperature of the gas mixture in °K
V = volume occupied by the air – water vapor mixture

PPMv = 106 x p / (Pb – p)

Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is the ratio of two pressures: %RH = 100 x p/ps

where p is the actual partial pressure of the water vapor present in the ambient and ps
the saturation pressure of water at the temperature of the ambient.

Relative humidity sensors are usually calibrated at normal room temperature (well
above freezing). Consequently, it generally accepted that this type of sensor indicates
relative humidity with respect to water at all temperatures (including below freezing).

As already noted, ice produces a lower vapor pressure than liquid water. Therefore,
when ice is present, saturation occurs at a relative humidity of less than 100 %. For
instance, a humidity reading of 75 %RH at a temperature of -30°C, corresponds to
saturation above ice.

Dew Point and Frost Point Temperature

The dew point temperature of moist air at temperature T, pressure Pb and mixing ratio r
is the temperature to which the air must be cooled in order to be saturated with respect
to water (liquid).

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The frost point temperature of moist air at temperature T, pressure Pb and mixing ratio r
is the temperature to which the air must be cooled in order to be saturated with respect
to ice.

Wet Bulb Temperature

The wet bulb temperature of moist air at pressure Pb, temperature T and mixing ratio r is
the temperature which the air assumes when water is introduced gradually by
infinitesimal amounts at the current temperature and evaporated into the air by an
adiabatic process at constant pressure until saturation is reached.

Effect of Temperature and Total Pressure on Vapor Pressure

When considering the effect of temperature and pressure on the partial pressure of
vapor, it is essential to make a difference between the following situations:

• saturation (liquid or ice) vs no saturation (vapor only)

• closed container of fixed volume vs open space.

Saturation:

The partial pressure of vapor is equal to the saturation pressure and its value depends
only on temperature. There is no difference between the situation in an open
environment and that in a closed container.

No Saturation

Water vapor behaves almost like an ideal gas and the following equation applies
regarding the partial pressure of vapor:

pxV=nxRxT

a) In an open space: the volume V occupied by vapor is free to expand. Therefore, the
partial pressure p is not affected by temperature. The partial pressure p can vary only if
n varies (vapor is being added or removed) or if the total pressure varies (Dalton's law
of partial pressures). For instance, total pressure drops with increasing altitude and this
results in a decrease of the partial pressure of vapor.

b) In a closed container of fixed volume: vapor occupies the entire volume of the
container and this volume is constant. Therefore, the partial pressure p can vary only if
there is a change in absolute temperature (degrees K) or a change in the amount of
vapor. The partial pressure p does not vary with a change in total pressure.

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Effect of Temperature and Pressure on %RH

Saturation vapor pressure depends only on temperature. There is no effect of total

pressure and there is no difference between the situation in an open space and that in a
closed container.

From the above it follows that:

a) in an open space, at constant moisture level and temperature, %RH is directly

proportional to the total pressure. However, the value of %RH is limited to 100% as p
cannot be greater than ps.

b) in an open space, at constant moisture level and pressure, %RH decreases strongly
as temperature increases.

c) in a closed container of fixed volume, %RH decreases as temperature increases,

however not quite as strongly as in the situation of the open space.

Examples

a) Office Building: for practical purposes, an office building can be considered as an

open environment. A localized increase in temperature created by a heater or an office
machine, does not modify the value of the partial pressure of water vapor. Therefore,
the local vapor pressure is the same as elsewhere in the building. However, the
saturation vapor pressure is locally increased. Consequently, relative humidity in the
immediate vicinity of the heat source is lowered.

If we assume that elsewhere in the building temperature is 25°C and relative humidity
50 %, a localized increase of temperature to 30°C lowers relative humidity as follows:

ps at 25°C = 3.17 kPa

ps at 30°C = 4.24 kPa

p = 0.5 x 3.17 kPa = 1.585 kPa, corresponding to 50 %RH

Localized %RH = 100 x 1.585/4.24 = 37.4%

b) Dew on a Chilled Mirror: if the temperature of a mirror is lowered to precisely the

value that makes dew appear at the surface of the mirror, the value of the mirror
temperature is called dew point. Using the previous example, the dew point
corresponding to a condition of 50 %RH and 25°C can be found as follows:

ps at 25°C = 3.17 kPa

p = 0.5 x 3.17 kPa = 1.585 kPa, corresponding to 50 %RH

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If there is equilibrium between the dew on the mirror and the environment, it follows that
ps at the temperature of the chilled mirror must be equal to the vapor pressure p. Based
on a simple interpolation of the values of the saturation vapor tables, we find that a
value of ps of 1.585 kPa corresponds to a temperature of 13.8°C. This temperature is
the dew point.

This example shows that converting relative humidity into dew point and vice versa
requires the use of a thermometer and saturation vapor tables.

c) Compression in a closed Chamber

If the total pressure inside a closed chamber is increased from one to one and a half
atmospheres and temperature is maintained constant, the partial pressure of water
vapor is increased 1.5 times. Because temperature is maintained constant, the
saturation pressure ps is not changed. If we assume that we had a condition of 50 %RH
and 25°C before the compression, the condition after compression is 75 %RH and
25°C.

d) Injection of a dry Gas in a Closed Chamber

If, for instance, dry nitrogen is injected in a closed chamber where there is already air at
a condition of 50 %RH and temperature is maintained constant, total pressure in the
chamber increases. However, the partial water vapor pressure p remains constant
because the mole fraction of water vapor in the chamber decreases by an amount that
exactly balances the increase in total pressure (see Dalton's law). Because temperature
is maintained constant, the saturation vapor pressure ps is also unchanged. Therefore,
relative humidity stays at 50 % in spite of the fact that a dry gas was injected in the
chamber.

Relative Humidity Calibration

a) Method of Calibration

A frequent method of calibrating a relative humidity instrument is to place the humidity

sensor in a closed container. By putting a known solution of water and another
substance inside the container, a known humidity is established at equilibrium. This
humidity value is used to provide a reference against which the instrument can be
adjusted or calibrated.

b) Temperature Stability

Obtaining equilibrium conditions is one of the most critical requirements of the method.
This means that there should be no difference of temperature between the humidity
sensor, the solution and the head space above the solution. Unstable temperature

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during calibration will not permit this. A temperature stability of 0.02°C/min or better is
required during the calibration process for the method to be accurate.

c) Temperature of Calibration

The relative humidity values generated by the different solutions used to the purpose of
calibration, are affected by temperature. Therefore, a correction must be made for the
temperature of calibration. However, no correction is required for the effect of
temperature on the total pressure inside the calibration container.

The temperature of calibration may also be restricted by the design of the instrument.
For instance, an instrument that provides a compensation for the effect of temperature
on the humidity sensor does so by assuming that the temperature of calibration is
always the same. In that case, the manufacturer provides a recommendation as to the
range of calibration temperature that results in the best overall accuracy for the
instrument.

d) Altitude

Because vapor pressure above a solution is not affected by total pressure, no correction
is required for altitude.

e) Influence of Temperature Variations on Solutions

A saturated solution results of the dynamic equilibrium of two processes: formation of a

solution and crystallization. If a saturated salt solution is used for calibration, attention
must be paid to this equilibrium. Because solubility depends on temperature, a variation
in the temperature of a saturated solution can disturb the dynamic equilibrium process
in the solution. Time must be allowed for equilibrium when the temperature of a
saturated solution is changed. This time period is usually significantly longer than the
time required by the temperature of the solution to stabilize at a new value.

Non saturated solutions adapt faster to a change in temperature because they do not
require a dynamic equilibrium between a crystal and a liquid. This is convenient for use
in field calibrations where temperature is not precisely known ahead of time.

Most solutions release or absorb heat during their preparation. For that reason,
solutions should be prepared in advance.
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Are they all the same? Choosing the right humidity instrument

Selecting the right relative humidity instrument for a specific application can be
confusing, largely because most instruments on the market have specifications that are
almost identical. Consider, for example, the accuracy specification. Many instruments,
of all cost and quality levels, specify accuracy of ± 2.0% RH or even better, regardless
of the conditions to be measured. Is it possible that instruments that are so widely
different both in design and cost are all equally good? Is an accuracy of range of 1.0%
to 2.0% RH commonplace? What about the long term stability of the humidity
measurement? What role should it play into the decision process when selecting a RH
instrument?

This article will first look at the principle of operation of capacitive humidity sensors, and
then we will examine the source of errors in an RH measurement, and finally discuss
the steps necessary to select the correct instrument.

Principle of Operation

The capacitive humidity sensor consists of a hygroscopic dielectric material placed

between a pair of electrodes which forms a small capacitor. Most capacitive sensors
use a plastic or polymer as the dielectric material, with a typical dielectric constant
ranging from 2 to 15. When no moisture is present in the sensor, both this constant and
the sensor geometry determine the value of capacitance.

At normal room temperature, the dielectric constant of water vapor has a value of about
80, a value much larger than the constant of the sensor dielectric material. Therefore,
absorption of water vapor by the sensor results in an increase in sensor capacitance.
At equilibrium conditions, the amount of moisture present in a hygroscopic material
depends on both the ambient temperature and the ambient water vapor pressure. This
is true also for the hygroscopic dielectric material used on the sensor.

By definition, relative humidity is also a function of both the ambient temperature and
water vapor pressure. Therefore there is a relationship between relative humidity, the
amount of moisture present in the sensor, and sensor capacitance. This relationship is
the base of the operation of a capacitive humidity instrument.

In a capacitive instrument, as in practically every other type of instrument, humidity is

measured by a chain process as opposed to being measured directly. Instrument
performance is determined by all of the elements of the chain and not by the sensor
alone. The sensor and associated electronics cannot be considered separately. Any
factor that can disturb the chain process of measurement is bound to have an effect on
the instrument performance.

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Classification of Errors

For the purpose of analysis, errors of measurement can be divided into two broad
categories: Systematic and Random errors.

Systematic errors are predictable and repeatable, both in magnitude and sign. Errors
resulting from a nonlinearity of the instrument or from temperature effects fall into this
profile. Systematic errors are instrument specific.

Linearity errors

The typical response of a relative humidity sensor (between 0 and 100% RH) is non-
linear. Depending on the effectiveness of the correction made by the electronic circuits,
the instrument may have a linearity error. Assuming that both the sensor and
associated electronics have reproducible characteristics, the linearity error is a
systematic error.

Generally, the values recommended by the instrument manufacturer for calibration were
determined so as to minimize the linearity error. Calibrating at those values should
produce an even plus and minus distribution of the linearity error. Careless selection of
the calibration values can result in a different distribution of the linearity error and can
be detrimental to instrument accuracy.

Temperature errors

Temperature can have a major effect on several elements of the chain process of
measurement described earlier. In the specific case of a capacitive humidity
instrument, the following effects can produce a temperature error.

Sensor hygroscopic properties vary with temperature. A relative humidity instrument

relies on the assumption that the relationship between the amount of moisture present
in the sensor hygroscopic material and relative humidity is constant. However, in most
hygroscopic materials, this relationship varies with temperature. In addition, the
dielectric properties of the water molecule are affected by temperature. At 20°C, the
dielectric of water has a value of about 80. This constant increases by more that 8% at
0°C and decreases by 30% at 100°C.

Sensor dielectrics properties also vary with temperature. The dielectric constant of
most dielectric materials decreases as temperature increases. Fortunately, the effect of
temperature on the dielectric properties of most plastics is usually more limited than in
the case of water.

Any length of cable connecting the sensor to the electronic circuits has its own
capacitance and resistance. The electronic circuits can not discriminate between the
sensor and its connecting cable. Therefore, since the capacitance of the sensor and
the cable can vary with temperature, the humidity values reported by the electronics

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 19

must be compensated for the effects of temperature. Failure to do so can result in large
measurement errors, sometimes as large and 15% to 20% RH.

While systematic errors are predictable and repeatable, random errors are not fully
predictable because they are essentially dependant on factors external to the
instrument. For example, errors resulting from sensor hysteresis, as well as those
resulting from the calibration procedure are random errors. Usually, random errors are
estimated on the basis of statistical data, experience, and judgment.

Hysteresis

Hysteresis is the maximum difference that can be measured between corresponding

pairs of data, obtained by running an ascending and a descending sequence of humidity
conditions. Hysteresis determines the repeatability of a humidity instrument.

For any given instrument, the value of hysteresis depends on a number of things: the
total span of the humidity cycle used to measure hysteresis, exposure time of the
sensor to each humidity condition, temperature during the measurements, criteria used
to determine sensor equilibrium, and previous sensor history. Usually, sensor
hysteresis increases as the sensor is exposed to high humidity and high temperature
over longer periods of time.

Because of these points, it is not meaningful to state a sensor’s hysteresis values

without providing details on how the tests were performed. In actual measurement
practice, conditions are extremely diverse and hysteresis may or may not reach its
maximum value. Therefore, it is reasonable to consider hysteresis a random value that
can be neither fully predicted nor compensated. When the accuracy of an instrument is
specified, half the maximum value of hysteresis should be equally distributed as a
positive and a negative error. However, instrument repeatability should not be specified
at less than the full value of hysteresis.

Calibration errors

Calibration consists of adjusting the instrument output to the values provided by two or
more reference humidity conditions. The accuracy to which these conditions are known
is critical. The reference instruments used to provide known humidity and temperature
values for calibration have their own accuracy, repeatability, and hysteresis values
which must be taken into consideration when specifying final instrument accuracy. In
addition, no adjustment made during calibration can perfectly replicate the value seen
by the reference instruments. These errors must be considered and treated as random
errors in the calculation of instrument accuracy.

Long Term Stability

Another factor which is crucial, and in fact as important if not more so that instrument
accuracy, is the instrument’s ability to return the same values for RH for a given

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 20

humidity condition over a long period of time. This value, usually termed repeatability,
measures an instruments ability to maintain its calibration in spite of shifting
characteristics of the sensor and its associated electronics over long periods of time.
Generally one can split the problem of repeatability into two areas: the ability of the
sensor to maintain its response to a given humidity condition at a given temperature and
the stability of the electronics over time.

Long term stability plays a critical role in the frequency of calibration required for a
humidity instrument. In addition, the stability of the instrument also significantly affects
the value of the measurement data received from the instrument between calibration
cycles. Both of these points help determine the overall cost of choosing an instrument.

Choosing a Humidity Instrument

Given all of the difficulties of measuring humidity and the confusing claims of the
majority of suppliers of humidity instrumentation, how can a proper and accurate
instrument be chosen for a particular application? Since specifications for instruments
produce a large range of cost and quality for the same specifications, how can the user
find the correct instrument?

The most important point to understand is there no real physical standard for relative
humidity calibration. As a result, there has probably been more abuse in specifying
humidity instruments than any other type of instrument. This abuse leads to
specifications which are of limited value when comparing instruments from various
manufacturers. Therefore the user finds that he or she must dig deeper into the
specifications and claims of the instrument manufacturer. To achieve this goal, the end
user must carefully examine the supplier’s claims and support documentation in the
following areas: sensor linearity, temperature constants, calibration errors, long term
stability of sensor and electronics, and hysteresis.
______________________________________________________________________

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 21

Wet Bulb / Dry Bulb - Description and Limitations

Summary

Wet- and dry-bulb temperature measurement is a commonly used technique for

controlling relative humidity in environmental chambers. Actually, the wet- and dry-bulb
technique enjoys wide acceptance.

ASTM standard E 337-84 reviews in great detail the wet- and dry-bulb technique.
According to this standard, the accuracy which can generally be expected in the case of
a ventilated dry- and wet-bulb device is in the range of 2 to 5 %RH.

This kind of accuracy is acceptable in the case of environmental chambers where both
temperature stability and uniformity are specified to within 1 degree C. This is so
because an uncertainty of 1 degree C on temperature automatically results in an
uncertainty of 5 to 6 %RH at high humidity. However, some chambers which are
specified to within 0.3 - 0.5 degree C permit and require better humidity control.

Newer humidity measurement techniques such as the HYGROMER C-94 capacitive

humidity sensor have greater accuracy than that of the wet- and dry-bulb technique. Of
equal importance is the fact that the sensor offers superior control characteristics over a
wide range of temperatures and humidity. Unlike other capacitive sensors, the C-94
sensor performs accurately even at high humidity and temperature. The HYGROMER
C-80 sensor can survive conditions from -50 to +200 C and from 0 to 100 %RH.

Problem Areas in the Wet- and Dry-Bulb Technique

There is no question that the wet- and dry-bulb measurement technique has a sound
theoretical basis. The problem is that this technique is simple only in appearance. And,
it is so widely accepted that many users are not anymore critical or careful. This results
in a number of problems which are reviewed in the following paragraphs.

Non-Observance of Basic Requirements

In practice, there is a tendency to disregard some of the following requirements of the

wet- and dry-bulb technique:

• Water temperature: the theory of the wet- and dry-bulb technique assumes that
the temperature of the water used for the wet-bulb is equal to the temperature of
the environment to be measured.

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 22

 • Psychrometer Coefficient: the psychrometer coefficient is used to establish the
psychrometric chart that converts wet- and dry-bulb temperature readings into
relative humidity. This coefficient has to be determined for each specific design of
psychrometer and in particular for each design of the wet-bulb.

• Purity of water: psychrometric charts are established under the assumption that
pure water is being used for the wet-bulb.

• Barometric Pressure: psychrometric charts are usually valid at the "standard"

barometric pressure and require a correction at other pressures.

• Matching of the Thermometers: the wet- and dry-bulb thermometers should not
only be accurate, but they should also be matched so as to minimize the error on
the temperature depression readings (or temperature difference).

Interferences during Measurements

In an environmental chamber, errors of measurement can result of a poor choice in the

mounting location of the wet- and dry-bulb thermometers. This is the case when the
thermometers are installed too closely to a source of moisture (water supply for the wet-
bulb, steam injector, etc.). Errors may also occur when the thermometers are too close
to the walls of the chamber. it is important to mount the thermometers at a location
where conditions are fairly representative of the average conditions inside the chamber.

Poor Handling and Maintenance

Proper handling and frequent maintenance are major requirements of the wet- and dry-
bulb technique. Costly service calls frequently result of the following:

• Dirty Wick: the wick should never be directly be touched with fingers. A new wick
should be flooded with distilled water so as to wash away any contamination. In
an environmental chamber, the wick is continuously ventilated and tends to get
dirty after some time. From a maintenance standpoint, this is probably the most
bothering aspect of the dry- and wet-bulb technique.
• Wick Not Properly Pulled: the wick should sufficiently cover the wet-bulb
thermometer so as to minimize errors due to heat conduction along the stem of
the thermometer. The wick must also be in close contact with the surface of the
thermometer.

• Wick Not Really Wet: a wick which is too old or which has been left to dry out, may
not supply enough water. A properly wetted wick should have a glazed
appearance.

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 23

Typical Accuracy of the Wet- and Dry-Bulb Technique

Most of the problems mentioned above have a direct influence on the accuracy of the
wet- and dry-bulb technique. Specifically, most errors are on the wet-bulb temperature
and on the temperature depression measurement.

Considering only the uncertainties on temperature measurement and psychrometric

coefficient, ASTM Standard #E 337-84 indicates that the range of errors for ventilated
wet- and dry-bulb devices goes from 2 to 5 %RH:

An error of 2 %RH corresponds to an error of 0.1C on temperature depression and 0.2C

on dry-bulb temperature. An error of 5 %RH corresponds to an error of 0.3C on
temperature depression and 0.6C on dry-bulb temperature. The most important factor
appears to be the accuracy of temperature depression measurement.

Taking into account the many other potential sources of error, it can be assumed that
the effective accuracy of the wet- and dry-bulb devices installed in most environmental
chambers is not better than 3 to 6 %RH. The error tends to be the largest at low
humidity and at low temperatures. At these conditions, readings are usually too high.

Operational Limitations of the Wet- and Dry-Bulb Technique

In addition to limitations regarding accuracy, the wet- and dry-bulb technique has other
limitations which may be important in the case of environmental chambers:

• No measurement below the freezing point

• Adds water to the environment (a problem with chambers operating at low

humidity)

• Sluggish response and therefore, poor control characteristics. The wet-bulb

temperature reacts slowly to changes in humidity because of the mass of the
wet-bulb thermometer and wick. Slow reaction to changes in temperature is due
to the time required by the water supply to adapt.
• Requires a water supply and, therefore, can support the growth of micro-
organisms

• Cannot be easily calibrated and trouble-shot

______________________________________________________________________

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 24

Technical Information for Rotronic products
______________________________________________________________________

Water Activity Instruments: a comparison of two measuring

techniques

A point-by-point comparison shows that there is no real advantage of the chilled mirror
Aw meters over the lower priced instruments that use a relative humidity sensor.

Water Activity Measuring Techniques

Most laboratories measure water activity either with an instrument that uses a relative
humidity sensor or with an instrument that uses a chilled mirror.

Instruments based on a relative humidity sensor are typically less expensive than the
chilled mirror instruments. This raises the question of whether the chilled mirror Aw
meters have enough inherent advantages such as speed, accuracy and measuring
range to offset the disadvantage of both a higher price and higher maintenance
requirements.

Speed of Measurement

The measurement of water activity is an indirect measurement. All Aw instruments

measure the amount of water vapor in the air surrounding the product sample. The time
required for the water vapor in the product sample to equilibrate with the air in the
chamber varies significantly with the composition of the product and temperature
stability between the product sample and the air. Typically the full equilibrium time
requires 30 minutes or longer. Using a variety of methods to speed the measurement
most Aw instruments available on the market today provide a reading of Aw in
approximately 5 minutes.

Temperature Stability

Temperature stability always matters during Aw measurements. A temperature

imbalance or the lack of temperature stability between the product sample and the
chamber air volume can change the partial pressure of water vapor generated by the
product sample. From this point of view all types of sensors, chilled mirror or relative
humidity, are equally affected by temperature instability. When temperature is not
stable, measurements take longer and/or are inaccurate. Therefore the product sample
should always be in equilibrium with the measurement chamber. Since the length of
time required to reach temperature equilibrium depends on the product sample and the
difference in initial temperature of the product sample, be sure the instrument provides
the capability to report temperature instability.

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 25

Accuracy

With a chilled mirror instrument, water activity must be computed using both the value of
dew point and the value of temperature. A relative humidity sensor measures the water
vapor directly and then compensates for any temperature variation from 25°C. The
accuracy of this computation or compensation depends on the error made on the
measurement of any of these parameters.

In the food industry, many water activity measurements deal with products in the range
of 0.800 to 1.000 Aw. At room temperature, a good relative humidity sensor can
measure a condition of 0.950 Aw with an accuracy of ± 0.01 Aw or better. In terms of
dew point, the equivalent accuracy is ± 0.175°C. The majority of reference chilled
mirror instruments on the market today are specified with a dew point accuracy of ±0.15
°C to ±0.2°C. Therefore at high Aw levels, instruments based on a RH sensor are as
accurate as even the best chilled mirror.

Depending both on the model and on the manufacturer, the vast majority of water
activity instruments are specified with an accuracy of ±0.01 aw to ±0.02 aw (±1.0 %RH
to ±2.0 %RH). As opposed to this, water activity instruments that use the combination of
a chilled mirror (dew point) and infrared thermometer are commonly specified with an
accuracy of ±0.003 aw (±0.3 %RH) in the range of 0.10 to 1.00 aw. At first sight, this
appears to make the chilled mirror based water activity instruments much more
accurate than the other kinds of instruments.

To understand how the accuracy of a chilled mirror instrument is determined it is

important to remember that water activity (Equilibrium Relative Humidity) has to be
computed from the value of dew point and temperature. During this process, errors
made on both parameters combine to affect the ending accuracy. Therefore, it is
important to consider the individual accuracies of temperature and dew point:

Generally, infrared thermometry is considered to be more limited in terms of accuracy

than a precision Pt 100 RTD temperature sensor. Even over the narrow temperature
range typical of water activity measurement, it is reasonable to consider that
temperature measurement with an infrared thermometer is no better than ±0.1°C. And
as stated above, top of the line reference grade chilled mirror instruments (dew point)
are typically specified with an accuracy of ±0.15 °C to ±0.2 °C.

How do these errors in temperature and dew point combine to affect Aw accuracies?

Water activity measurements in the range of 0.80 to 1.00 aw, at a temperature close to
25 °C, are fairly common. For these common conditions, combining a ±0.1 °C accuracy
on temperature with a ±0.15°C accuracy on dew point gives the following results:

a) Actual conditions: 0.800 aw (80.0 %RH), 25.0 °C and Td = 21.3 °C (dew point)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 26

Using the error on dew point and temperature the error band of aw can be calculated
with commonly available psychometric software. The calculation shows that the
accuracy range on dew point alone results in an error of ±0.007 aw. When this is
combined with the accuracy on temperature, the error on water activity becomes as
large as ±0.012 aw

b) Actual conditions: 0.950 aw (95.0 %RH), 25.0 °C and Td = 24.1 °C (dew point)

The accuracy on dew point alone results in an error of ±0.009 aw. When this is
combined with the accuracy on temperature, the error on water activity becomes as
large as ±0.014 aw

Water activity is not always as high as 0.80 aw ...0.95 aw. For example, pharmaceutical
applications frequently deal with values below 0.10 aw. When humidity is below 19%RH
(0.19 aw) at a temperature of 25 °C, water can condense on a chilled mirror either in the
form of liquid or in the form of ice.

At values below 0 °C dew point, the frost point (ice) is always higher than the dew point
(liquid). The difference between frost and dew point increases as the humidity
decreases. Good reference chilled mirror instruments are equipped with a microscope
to determine which form of condensation is present on the mirror. For example, at a
condition of 25 °C and 5.0 %RH, the frost point is -15.50 °C and the dew point is - 17.25
°C ( a difference of 1.75 °C). At a condition of 5.0 %RH (0.050 aw) and 25 °C,
confusing the dew point and the frost point would result in an error of 0.007aw to 0.008
aw. And these errors are additive to the errors caused by the temperature and dew
point measurement.

As can be seen from the examples above, the actual accuracy on water activity using a
chilled mirror instrument is at best ±0.015 aw. Essentially the same as those achieved
using a RH sensor based system.

Range of Measurement

The ability of chilled mirror instrument to measurement low humidity values depends
both on the power available to cool the mirror and on the evacuation of heat away from
the mirror. Typical chilled mirror Aw instruments are limited tin these two areas and
should not be used to measure products that are below 0.10 Aw. By contrast, a value
of 0.01 Aw can be measured without problems with a relative humidity sensor.

Maintenance

Many products contain volatile additives and some products are in the form of a fine
powder. Because the chilled mirror operates at condensation, there is the tendency to
trap airborne contaminants on the mirror. Since deposits on the mirror clearly affect
accuracy, frequent mirror cleaning is required. Good relative humidity sensors are
unaffected by the vast majority of contaminants typically seen in food and

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 27

pharmaceutical products. Due to this, calibration and maintenance requirements of an
RH based Aw system is significantly lower than a chilled mirror system.

Summary

Which water activity system is right for you? The majority of instruments on the market
today will provide equally accurate readings. When comparing RH sensor based
systems the most important consideration is the long term stability and repeatability of
the RH sensor. When comparing RH based systems with chilled mirror based systems
there is no accuracy advantage. Therefore, base your decision on all the factors
important to your use. Considerations such as instrument flexibility, ease of use,
maintenance requirements, cost, and system software all play an important role.
_____________________________________________________________________

Chemical resistance Rotronic Hygromer Humidity Sensors

General

Capacitive polymer humidity sensors react sensitive on the presence of chemicals in the
surrounding gas.
The amount of the influence depends on a lot of parameters:

- Type of chemical
- Concentration
- Length of the influence
- Amount of humidity and temperature
- Presence of other chemicals

By that it is in principle impossible to make predictions about the deviation and the
lifetime of the sensor. Normally it makes no sense to do specific tests in the laboratory,
because they require to much work.
It is most convenient to put test probes to the customer’s disposal.
Uncritical chemicals

Following gases have no influence on the sensor and the humidity measurement:

Argon Ar
Carbon dioxide CO2
Helium He
Hydrogen H2
Neon Ne
Nitrogen N2
Nitrous oxide (Laughing N2O
gas)
Oxygen O2

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 28

Following gases have no or little influence on the sensor and the humidity
measurement:

Butane C4H10
Ethane C2H6
Methane CH4
Natural gas
Propane C3H8

Critical chemicals
In the given concentrations the following gases have no or little influence on the sensor
and the humidity measurement. The shown data are only guide values. The resistance
of the sensor depends strongly from the temperature and humidity conditions and the
length of the pollutant influence.
Allowed fault caused from the pollutant: ± 2 %rh

Pollutant Formula Maximum Workplace Allowed

Concentration Concentration
Continuous Operation
ppm mg/m3 ppm mg/m3
Acetic acid CH3COOH 10 25 800 2000
Acetone CH3COCH3 1000 2400 3300 8000
Ammonia NH3 25 18 5500 4000
2-Butanone C2H5COCH3 200 590 3300 8000
(MEK)
Chlorine Cl2 0.5 1.5 0.7 2
Ethanol C2H5OH 1000 1900 3500 6000
Ethyl acetate CH3COOC2H 400 1400 4000 15000
5
Ethylene glycol HOCH2CH2O 100 260 1200 3000
H
Ethylene oxide C2H4O 3 3
Formaldehyde HCHO 1 1.2 2400 3000
Hydrochloric acid HCl 5 7 300 500
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 10 15 350 500
Isopropanol (CH3)2CHOH 400 980 4800 12000
Methanol CH3OH 200 260 3500 6000
Nitrogen oxides NOx 5 9 5 9
Ozone O3 0.1 0.2 0.5 1
Petrol 300 1200 150000
Sulfur dioxide SO2 5 13 5 13
Toluene C6H5CH3 100 380 1300 5000
Xylene C6H5(CH3)2 100 440 1300 5000

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 29

Application examples

Humidity measurement in sterilisation chamber (Ethylene oxide)

Customer application: Sterilisation of medical equipment

Sensor: C-94

Concentration Ethylene oxide: 15% by volume

Carbon dioxide 85% by volume

Pressure: 0.2 to 2.5 bar absolute

Temperature: app. 40°C

Humidity: app. 80 %rh

Application experience:

The sensors have a lifetime of app. 3 month. The chamber is in continuous operation.

Humidity measurement in ozone chamber

Sensor: C-94

Concentration Ozone: app. 500 ppm

Temperature: app. 23°C

Humidity: app. 50 %rh

Application experience:

The sensors have a lifetime of app. 1 month. at 500 ppm ozone.

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 30

Special applications

Humidity measurement in oil

Humidity measurement direct in oil is possible in principle. But the lifetime of the
sensors depends strongly from the used oil.

Measurements in oil are only possible with a special sensor and tests are inevitable.
If you have an inquiry for such an application, please contact your Rotronic
representative.
_____________________________________________________________________

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 31

Competitor Comparison 2004
HVAC transmitters wall mount
Competitor “A”
Model Product A serial no. P19980_00020
Output 4..20 mA = 0...100 %rh, 0...+50°C, 2-wire
Power 15...28 VDC
Packing cardboard box
Competitor "A" HVAC Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

1°C 23°C 40°C 48°C

8
6
Deviation from set point (%rh

4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Humidity (%rh)

Competitor “B”
Model Product A serial no. none
Output 4...20 mA = 0...100 %rh, 0...50°C, 3-wire
Power 24 V AC/DC
Packing plastic bag antistatic
Competitor "B" HVAC Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

1°C 23°C 40°C 48°C

6
Deviation from set point (%rh

4
2

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 32

Competitor “C”
Model Product A serial no. none
Output 4...20 mA = 0...100 %rh, -20...+140°F, 2-wire
Power 12...36 VDC
Packing cardboard box

Competitor "C" HVAC Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

1°C 23°C 40°C 48°C

6
Deviation from set point (%rh

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Humidity (%rh)

Competitor “D”
Model Product A serial no. 200305530
Output 4...20 mA = 0...100 %rh / 40...90°F, 2-wire
Power 15...30 VDC
Packing cardboard box

Competitor "D" HVAC Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

1°C 23°C 40°C 48°C

6
Deviation from set point (%rh

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 33

Competitor “E”
Model Product A serial no. 63572
Output 4..20 mA = 0...100 %rh, no temperature, 2-wire
Power 12...40 VDC
Packing cardboard box

Competitor "E" HVAC Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

1°C 23°C 40°C 48°C

6
Deviation from set point (%rh

4
2

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic
Model L13SHT2 serial no. 32621 010
Output 4...20 mA = 0...100 %rh / 0...50°C, 3-wire
Power 10…35 VDC / 24 VDC
Packing cardboard box

Rotronic HVAC Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

1°C 23°C 40°C 48°C

6
Deviation from set point (%rh)

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 34

Competitor “F”
Model Product A serial no. Z0810046
Output 4..20 mA = 0...100 %rh, -5...+55°C, 2-wire
Power 12...35 VDC
Packing cardboard box, pcb in plastic bag antistatic, silicagel bag

Competitor "F" HVAC Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

1°C 23°C 40°C 48°C

6
Deviation from set point (%rh

4
2

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Humidity (%rh)

Competitor “G”
Model Product A serial no. none
Output 4...20 mA = 0...100 %rh / 32...122°F, 2-wire
Power 12...24 VDC
Packing blister

Competitor "G" HVAC Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

1°C 23°C 40°C 48°C

6
Deviation from set point (%rh

4
2

-2

-4

-6

-8

-10

-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 35

Humidity deviation at 1°C

HVAC Transmitters: Humidity deviation from set point at 1°C

Competitor "A" Competitor "C" Competitor "B" Competitor "D"

Competitor "E" Rotronic Competitor "F" Competitor "G"

8
Deviation from set point (%rh)

6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Humidity (%rh)

Humidity deviation at 23°C

HVAC Transmitters: Humidity deviation from set point at 23°C

Competitor "A" Competitor "C" Competitor "B" Competitor "D"

Competitor "E" Rotronic Competitor "F" Competitor "G"

8
Deviation from set point (%rh)

6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 36

Humidity deviation at 40°C

HVAC Transmitters: Humidity deviation from set point at 40°C

Competitor "A" Competitor "C" Competitor "B" Competitor "D"

Competitor "E" Rotronic Competitor "F" Competitor "G"

8
Deviation from set point (%rh

6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Humidity (%rh)

Humidity deviation at 48°C

HVAC Transmitters: Humidity deviation from set point at 48°C

Competitor "A" Competitor "C" Competitor "B" Competitor "D"

Competitor "E" Rotronic Competitor "F" Competitor "G"

8
Deviation from set point (%rh

6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 37

Temperature deviation at 50 %rh

HVAC Transmitters: Temperature deviation from set point at 50 %rh

Competitor "A" Competitor "C" Competitor "B" Competitor "D"

Rotronic Competitor "F" Competitor "G"

2.5
Deviation from set point (°C

2
1.5
1.2
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
0 10 20 30 40 50

Temperature (°C)

- Competitor “E”: no temperature output

- Competitor “D”: temperature range only 40…90°F

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 38

Industrial transmitters with cable probes
Competitor “H”
Model Product A serial no. Z0930004
Output 4..20 mA = 0...100 %rh, temperature range -30...+140°C, no temperature output
Power 24 VAC
Packing cardboard box

Competitor "H" Industrial Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

-10°C 0°C 23°C 50°C 70°C

4
Deviation from set point (%rh)

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

Competitor “A”
Model Product A serial no. P20511
Output 4..20 mA = 0...100 %rh, -40...+180°C
Power 24 VDC
Packing cardboard box, calibration certificate, software

Competitor "A" Industrial Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

-10°C 0°C 23°C 50°C 70°C

2
Deviation from set point (%rh)

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

-7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 39

Rotronic
Model Hygroclip IC-1 serial no. 22112 003
Output digital 0…100 %rh, -50…+200°C
Power 9 VDC
Packing

Rotronic Industrial Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

-10°C 0°C 23°C 50°C 70°C

4
Deviation from set point (%rh)

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

Competitor “I”
Model Product A serial no 35001583/403
Output 4..20 mA = 0...100 %rh, -20...+180°C
Power 24 VDC
Packing cardboard box, calibration certificate

Competitor "I" Industrial Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

-10°C 0°C 23°C 50°C 70°C

4
Deviation from set point (%rh)

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 40

Competitor “F”
Model Product A serial no. Z0930004
Output 4..20 mA = 0...100 %rh, -20...+180°C
Power 24 VDC/AC
Packing cardboard box, detailed calibration certificate

Competitor "F" Industrial Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point

-10°C 0°C 23°C 50°C 70°C

4
Deviation from set point (%rh)

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 41

Humidity deviation at -10°C

Industrial Transmitters: Humidity deviation from set point at -10°C

Competitor "H" Competitor "A" Rotronic Competitor "I" Competitor "F"

4
Deviation from set point (%rh)

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

Humidity deviation at 0°C

Industrial Transmitters: Humidity deviation from set point at 0°C

Competitor "H" Competitor "A" Rotronic Competitor "I" Competitor "F"

2
Deviation from set point (%rh

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6

-7
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 42

Humidity deviation at 23°C

Industrial Transmitters: Humidity deviation from set point at 23°C

Competitor "H" Competitor "A" Rotronic Competitor "I" Competitor "F"

3
Deviation from set point (%rh

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5

-6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Humidity (%rh)

Humidity deviation at 50°C

Industrial Transmitters: Humidity deviation from set point at 50°C

Competitor "H" Competitor "A" Rotronic Competitor "I" Competitor "F"

4
Deviation from set point (%rh

-1

-2

-3

-4

-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 43

Humidity deviation at 70°C

Industrial Transmitters: Humidity deviation from set point at 70°C

Cometitor "H" Competitor "A" Rotronic Competitor "I" Competitor "F"

5
Deviation from set point (%rh

-1

-2

-3

-4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Humidity (%rh)

Temperature deviation at 50 %rh

Industrial Transmitters: Humidity deviation from set point at 50°C

Competitor "H" Competitor "A" Rotronic Competitor "I" Competitor "F"

5
Deviation from set point (%rh

3
2
1

0
-1
-2
-3

-4
-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 44

Humidity deviation from set point at 23°C after different stresses

Competitor “H”

Competitor "H"
Industrial Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point @ 23°C after different
stresses

10 %rh 35 %rh 50 %rh 80 %rh 95 %rh

6
Deviation from set point (%rh

5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
Start 1 h after 0.5 h 18 h after 0.5 h 1 h after 2 h 90°C 18 h after 2 h 1 h after 2 h
70°C 95 %rh 70°C 95 %rh 90 %rh 90°C 90 %rh 140°C 0.5 %rh

Competitor “A”
Competitor "A" Industrial Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point @ 23°C
after different stresses

10 %rh 35 %rh 50 %rh 80 %rh 95 %rh

3
Deviation from set point (%rh

1
0

-1

-2
-3
-4

-5

-6
-7
Start 1 h after 0.5 h 18 h after 0.5 h 1 h after 2 h 90°C 18 h after 2 h 1 h after 2 h
70°C 95 %rh 70°C 95 %rh 90 %rh 90°C 90 %rh 140°C 0.5 %rh

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 45

Rotronic

Rotronic Industrial Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point @ 23°C

after different stresses

10 %rh 35 %rh 50 %rh 80 %rh 95 %rh

4
Deviation from set point (%rh)

2
1

-1
-2

-3
-4

-5
Start 1 h after 0.5 h 18 h after 0.5 h 1 h after 2 h 90°C 18 h after 2 h 1 h after 2 h
70°C 95 %rh 70°C 95 %rh 90 %rh 90°C 90 %rh 140°C 0.5 %rh

Competitor “I”

Competitor "I" Industrial Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point @ 23°C
after different stresses

10 %rh 35 %rh 50 %rh 80 %rh 95 %rh

5
Deviation from set point (%rh)

4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Start 1 h after 0.5 h 18 h after 0.5 h 1 h after 2 h 90°C 18 h after 2 h 1 h after 2 h
70°C 95 %rh 70°C 95 %rh 90 %rh 90°C 90 %rh 140°C 0.5 %rh

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 46

Competitor “F”

Competitor "F" Industrial Transmitter: Humidity deviation from set point @ 23°C
after different stresses

10 %rh 35 %rh 50 %rh 80 %rh 95 %rh

8
Deviation from set point (%rh)

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
Start 1 h after 0.5 h 18 h after 0.5 h 1 h after 2 h 90°C 18 h after 2 h 1 h after 2 h
70°C 95 %rh 70°C 95 %rh 90 %rh 90°C 90 %rh 140°C 0.5 %rh

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 47

HygroClip performance over a range of RH & T conditions
Reference - MBW - HygroClip S S/N HygroClip S S/N
Dew Point 12880047 Error 12880073 Error
Degree C % RH % RH Degree C %RH C° % RH Degree C %RH C°
19.97 9.90 10.00 19.90 0.10 -0.07 10.00 19.90 0.10 -0.07
20.10 29.80 29.90 19.90 0.10 -0.20 29.80 20.00 0.00 -0.10
20.10 49.70 50.10 19.90 0.40 -0.20 50.00 20.00 0.30 -0.10
20.00 79.40 80.10 19.90 0.70 -0.10 80.00 20.00 0.60 0.00
20.00 94.30 94.60 20.00 0.30 0.00 94.50 20.00 0.20 0.00

9.98 9.90 9.80 9.80 -0.10 -0.18 9.80 9.80 -0.10 -0.18
9.99 29.60 29.50 9.80 -0.10 -0.19 29.30 9.90 -0.30 -0.09
10.03 49.20 49.60 9.90 0.40 -0.13 49.40 10.00 0.20 -0.03
10.02 78.60 79.10 9.90 0.50 -0.12 79.00 10.00 0.40 -0.02
10.03 93.20 93.10 9.90 -0.10 -0.13 93.00 10.00 -0.20 -0.03

-0.04 9.90 9.50 -0.20 -0.40 -0.16 9.50 0.00 -0.40 0.04
0.00 29.30 29.00 -0.10 -0.30 -0.10 28.80 0.00 -0.50 0.00
0.00 48.60 48.80 -0.20 0.20 -0.20 48.60 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.01 77.60 77.80 -0.10 0.20 -0.11 77.60 0.00 0.00 -0.01
0.01 92.40 91.50 -0.10 -0.90 -0.11 91.30 0.00 -1.10 -0.01

-10.02 9.80 9.10 -10.30 -0.70 -0.28 9.00 -10.10 -0.80 -0.08
-9.95 28.50 28.30 -10.20 -0.20 -0.25 27.90 -10.10 -0.60 -0.15
-9.97 47.40 47.40 -10.20 0.00 -0.23 47.20 -10.00 -0.20 -0.03
-9.98 75.80 75.40 -10.20 -0.40 -0.22 74.90 -10.00 -0.90 -0.02

29.94 10.00 10.10 30.00 0.10 0.06 10.20 30.00 0.20 0.06
29.96 30.00 30.20 30.00 0.20 0.04 30.20 30.00 0.20 0.04
29.97 50.10 50.70 30.00 0.60 0.03 50.60 30.00 0.50 0.03
30.08 80.00 80.60 30.10 0.60 0.02 80.60 30.10 0.60 0.02
30.04 94.80 95.20 30.10 0.40 0.06 95.00 30.20 0.20 0.16

39.89 10.00 10.20 39.90 0.20 0.01 10.40 40.00 0.40 0.11
39.94 30.10 30.60 40.00 0.50 0.06 30.60 40.00 0.50 0.06
39.98 50.30 50.90 40.00 0.60 0.02 50.80 40.00 0.50 0.02
40.01 80.40 81.00 40.10 0.60 0.09 80.90 40.10 0.50 0.09
40.07 95.40 95.70 40.20 0.30 0.13 95.50 40.20 0.10 0.13

49.88 10.10 10.50 50.00 0.40 0.12 10.70 50.00 0.60 0.12
49.91 30.30 31.10 50.10 0.80 0.19 31.20 50.00 0.90 0.09
49.95 50.50 51.30 50.10 0.80 0.15 51.40 50.00 0.90 0.05
50.03 80.80 81.40 50.20 0.60 0.17 81.40 50.20 0.60 0.17
50.11 95.80 96.30 50.30 0.50 0.19 96.20 50.30 0.40 0.19

69.81 10.20 10.90 70.00 0.70 0.19 11.10 69.90 0.90 0.09
69.93 30.60 32.20 70.10 1.60 0.17 32.30 70.00 1.70 0.07
70.01 51.00 52.10 70.20 1.10 0.19 52.20 70.10 1.20 0.09
70.17 81.30 82.10 70.50 0.80 0.33 82.00 70.30 0.70 0.13
70.38 96.30 97.30 70.70 1.00 0.32 97.10 70.50 0.80 0.12

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 48

Reference - MBW - Dew HygroClip S S/N HygroClip S S/N
Point 13696012 Error 13696056 Error
Degree C % RH % RH Degree C %RH C° % RH Degree C %RH C°
20.06 10.00 9.90 20.10 -0.10 0.04 9.90 20.10 -0.10 0.04
20.08 30.00 30.10 20.10 0.10 0.02 30.10 20.10 0.10 0.02
20.09 50.00 50.30 20.10 0.30 0.01 50.40 20.10 0.40 0.01
20.11 79.90 80.40 20.10 0.50 -0.01 80.10 20.10 0.20 -0.01
20.14 94.70 95.00 20.20 0.30 0.06 95.00 20.20 0.30 0.06

10.17 10.00 9.90 10.10 -0.10 -0.07 10.00 10.10 0.00 -0.07
10.21 30.00 30.00 10.20 0.00 -0.01 30.00 10.20 0.00 -0.01
10.21 50.00 50.20 10.20 0.20 -0.01 50.40 10.20 0.40 -0.01
10.22 80.00 80.10 10.20 0.10 -0.02 80.30 10.20 0.30 -0.02
10.24 94.90 94.50 10.20 -0.40 -0.04 94.70 10.20 -0.20 -0.04

0.29 10.10 9.70 0.20 -0.40 -0.09 9.80 0.20 -0.30 -0.09
0.30 30.00 29.70 0.20 -0.30 -0.10 29.90 0.20 -0.10 -0.10
0.31 50.00 50.00 0.20 0.00 -0.11 50.30 0.20 0.30 -0.11
0.32 80.00 79.50 0.30 -0.50 -0.02 80.00 0.30 0.00 -0.02
0.33 95.00 93.70 0.20 -1.30 -0.13 94.20 0.20 -0.80 -0.13

-9.60 10.30 9.40 -9.70 -0.90 -0.10 9.50 -9.70 -0.80 -0.10
-9.57 30.20 29.80 -9.70 -0.40 -0.13 30.00 -9.70 -0.20 -0.13
-9.57 50.10 50.00 -9.70 -0.10 -0.13 50.30 -9.70 0.20 -0.13
-9.57 80.00 78.90 -9.60 -1.10 -0.03 79.50 -9.70 -0.50 -0.13

29.82 10.00 9.70 29.90 -0.30 0.08 9.70 29.90 -0.30 0.08
29.88 30.00 30.00 30.00 0.00 0.12 29.90 30.00 -0.10 0.12
29.91 50.00 50.20 30.00 0.20 0.09 50.00 30.00 0.00 0.09
29.96 80.00 80.40 30.10 0.40 0.14 80.20 30.10 0.20 0.14
30.00 94.80 95.20 30.10 0.40 0.10 95.00 30.10 0.20 0.10

39.70 10.00 9.60 39.90 -0.40 0.20 9.50 39.80 -0.50 0.10
39.76 30.00 29.90 40.00 -0.10 0.24 29.80 39.90 -0.20 0.14
39.79 50.00 50.00 40.00 0.00 0.21 49.80 39.90 -0.20 0.11
39.85 79.80 80.10 40.10 0.30 0.25 79.80 40.00 0.00 0.15
39.91 94.70 95.10 40.10 0.40 0.19 94.80 40.10 0.10 0.19

49.57 10.00 9.40 49.80 -0.60 0.23 9.30 49.70 -0.70 0.13
49.63 29.90 29.80 49.80 -0.10 0.17 29.60 49.80 -0.30 0.17
49.68 49.90 50.00 49.90 0.10 0.22 49.60 49.80 -0.30 0.12
49.76 79.80 80.00 50.00 0.20 0.24 79.50 50.00 -0.30 0.24
49.82 94.80 95.30 50.10 0.50 0.28 95.00 50.00 0.20 0.18

69.42 10.00 9.00 68.80 -1.00 -0.62 8.90 69.60 -1.10 0.18
69.47 29.90 29.90 69.80 0.00 0.33 29.50 69.60 -0.40 0.13
69.56 49.90 50.00 69.90 0.10 0.34 49.40 69.70 -0.50 0.14
69.71 79.80 79.90 70.10 0.10 0.39 79.10 69.90 -0.70 0.19
69.85 94.60 95.20 70.20 0.60 0.35 94.60 70.10 0.00 0.25

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 49

Evaluation of Competitive Humidity Sensors

ROTRONIC Hygromer C-94

ROTRONIC Hygromer DMS-100
Competitor “F” Product “A”
Competitor “F” Product “B”
Competitor “I” Product “A”
Competitor “A” Product “A”
Competitor “J” Product “A”

· Temperature Limits · Response Time · Reset Rate · Long Term Accuracy · Dew Point Stability

April 1998
Zürichsee-Labor
Engineering Office for Safety and Environment Bahnhofstrasse 5
CH-8820 Wädenswil - Switzerland
Phone / Fax: +41 - 1 - 780 83 30

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 50

NOTE
This report compares the performance of seven commercial humidity sensor systems
as they were available from key manufacturers in 1997.

Testing procedures were defined by ZURICHSEE - LABOR, an independent research

laboratory near Zurich, Switzerland. Results may differ from those published by the
manufacturers.

For questions regarding this study please contact: Zürichsee-Labor Engineering Office
for Safety and Environment Bahnhofstrasse 5 CH-8820 Wädenswil - Switzerland Phone
/ Fax: +41 - 1 - 780 83 30

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 51

TEMPERATURE LIMITS
Most humidity sensors have a defined temperature range where their function is
guaranteed within limits of accuracy. If a humidity sensor is used beyond its
temperature limits, it may display erroneous values or get permanently damaged.

In the following comparison, the sensor ROTRONIC Hygromer C-94 had the widest
temperature limits:

Temperature Range Comparison (ºF)

Rotronic C94

Competitor F/Product A

Competitor I/Product A

Competitor A/Product A

Rotronic DMS-100

Competitor F/Product B

Competitor J/Product A

-70 30 130 230 330

The temperature limits of a sensor device may determine the application areas of the
entire gauge consisting of sensor, probe and instrument. A wide temperature range is
advantageous also for accuracy within that range. All sensors tested had the highest
accuracy in the center of their temperature range. They were considerably less accurate
at their lower and upper temperature limits.

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 52

RESPONSE TIME
The response time of a humidity sensor is the time it takes to respond to a changing set
of humidity conditions, deviating from a standard 50% R.H.

In the comparison below, the sensor VAISALA Humicap 180 took 40 seconds to go
from 50% R.H. to 70% R.H. The response time for 90% R.H. was 55 seconds. Thus,
VAISALA Humicap 180 was the fastest of all evaluated sensors both, on the wet and on
the dry side.

• ROTRONIC Hygromer C.94 O Competitor “F” Product “A”

▲ ROTRONIC Hygrolyt DMS .100 ♦ Competitor “F” Product “B”
X Competitor “A” Product “A”
* Competitor “J” Product “A”
▼Competitor “I” Product “A”

A short response time is advantageous in process control, where it leads to higher

process linearity. In applications where large numbers of humidity measurements must
be run in sequence, short response times help save time and cost.

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 53

RESET RATE
The reset rate determines the time (in hours) a humidity sensor takes to reset to 50%
R.H. after it was exposed to 95% R.H. for 24 hours. A drawback of most polymeric
hygroscopic materials used as dielectrics in capacitive humidity sensors is, that they
retain humidity longer than desirable. Thus, polymeric sensors hesitate to reset, and
consequently indicate higher values than they should, for quite long periods of time.

In the comparison below, the sensor ROTRONIC Hygrolyt DMS-100 had the shortest
reset rate. It took ½ hours to reset to 50...51% R.H., a factor 20 faster than any other
sensor system.

• ROTRONIC Hygromer C.94 O Competitor “F” Product “A”

▲ ROTRONIC Hygrolyt DMS .100 ♦ Competitor “F” Product “B”
X Competitor “A” Product “A”
* Competitor “J” Product “A”
▼Competitor “I” Product “A”

A quick reset rate is a determining factor in rough climate, when humidity is high and
monitoring of fog, dew point, etc. must be done in short intervals. In non-meteo
applications such as food processing or water adsorption, the reset rate is a key factor
for process control.

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 54

LONG TERM ACCURACY
Long term accuracy differs, of course, from application to application. Under mild
conditions, all sensors may have adequate long term accuracy. This test studied the
performance under adverse conditions, running 3-hour cycles alternatingly as follows:
“high” cycle = +90 °C and 90% R.H. · “low” cycle = –20 °C and 5% R.H. After every 100
cycles, the deviation from the set point at 50% R.H. was recorded.
In the comparison below, the sensor ROTRONIC Hygromer C-94 had the highest long
term accuracy, i.e. deviated least from the set point at any given number of cycles:

• ROTRONIC Hygromer C.94 O Competitor “F” Product “A”

▲ ROTRONIC Hygrolyt DMS .100 ♦ Competitor “F” Product “B”
X Competitor “A” Product “A”
* Competitor “J” Product “A”
▼Competitor “I” Product “A”

Long term accuracy determines the reliability of humidity measurements under adverse
conditions. It is equally important if equipment is in remote locations, is difficult to
access or if service intervals are long.

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 55

DEW POINT STABILITY
All tested sensors disliked dew point conditions. Because of formation of water droplets
on the sensor surface, unreliable readings resulted. Sensors with small surface areas
were particularly sensitive.

In the comparison below, the sensor ROTRONIC C-94 had, relatively, the best dew
point stability:

• ROTRONIC Hygromer C.94 O Competitor “F” Product “A”

▲ ROTRONIC Hygrolyt DMS .100 ♦ Competitor “F” Product “B”
X Competitor “A” Product “A”
* Competitor “J” Product “A”
▼Competitor “I” Product “A”

The rate at which a humidity sensor recovers from dew conditions is an equally
important consideration in dew point stability. Some sensor electronics may get
permanently damaged (shorted) from dewing. The sensor devices per se do recover,
however, at rates similar to those shown under ‘reset rate’.

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 56

Long Term Performance of the HygroClip S and C-94 Sensor

1.1 Long term performance Hygroclip S

Long term performance Hygroclip S with sensor C-94

Conditions: about 23°C and 30 - 60 %RH

Hygroclip 1 Hygroclip 2

100
90
Humidity (%rh)

80
70
60
50
40
30
0 12 24 36 48 60
Month

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 57

 1.2 Long term performance Hygroclip S

Long term performance Sensor C-94 at 85°C 90 %rh

probe 1 probe 2

95
94
93
Humidity (%rh)

92
91
90
89
88
87
86
85
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (hours)

1.3 Long term performance Hygroclip S

Long term performance Sensor C-94 at 80°C 95 %rh

probe 1 probe 2

100
99
98
Humidity (%rh)

97
96
95
94
93
92
91
90
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Time (days)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 58

 2. Performance Hygroclip IC
Hygroclip IC-1 : Humidity deviation from set point -40°C

Probe 1 Probe 2 Probe 3 Probe 4

3
Deviation from set point (%rh)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

2.1 Performance Hygroclip IC

Hygroclip IC-1 : Humidity deviation from set point -30°C

Probe 1 Probe 2 Probe 3 Probe 4

3
Deviation from set point (%rh)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 59

 2.2 Performance Hygroclip IC

Hygroclip IC-1 : Humidity deviation from set point -20°C

Probe 1 Probe 2 Probe 3 Probe 4

3
Deviation from set point (%rh)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

2.3 Performance Hygroclip IC

Hygroclip IC-1 : Humidity deviation from set point -10°C

Probe 1 Probe 2 Probe 3 Probe 4

3
Deviation from set point (%rh)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 60

 2.4 Performance Hygroclip IC

Hygroclip IC-1 : Humidity deviation from set point 0°C

Probe 1 Probe 2 Probe 3 Probe 4

3
Deviation from set point (%rh)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

2.5 Performance Hygroclip IC

Hygroclip IC-1 : Humidity deviation from set point +23°C

Probe 1 Probe 2 Probe 3 Probe 4

3
Deviation from set point (%rh)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 61

 2.6 Performance Hygroclip IC

Hygroclip IC-1 : Humidity deviation from set point +50°C

Probe 1 Probe 2 Probe 3 Probe 4

3
Deviation from set point (%rh)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

2.7 Performance Hygroclip IC

Hygroclip IC-1 : Humidity deviation from set point +70°C

Probe 1 Probe 2 Probe 3 Probe 4

3
Deviation from set point (%rh)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 62

 2.8 Performance Hygroclip IC

Hygroclip IC-1 : Humidity deviation from set point +90°C

Probe 1 Probe 2 Probe 3 Probe 4

3
Deviation from set point (%rh)

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Humidity (%rh)

Rotronic Instrument Corp Page 63

Application stories and tales
______________________________________________________________________

Last Long and Prosper (A water activity tale)

By: B. Auerswald
Food Quality Magazine, March/April 2000
(Copyright Carpe Diem Communications, Inc. Reprinted with permission)

Consumer demands and the growth of widespread distribution channels are driving food
manufacturers to constantly devise ways to ensure product stability throughout
extended shelf lives. Temperature and humidity are the key factors that accelerate
physical and chemical changes in foods and thus bring about the end of shelf life.
Manufacturing companies and their ingredient suppliers are increasing their testing
regimens for these factors earlier in the product development cycle in order to anticipate
and ward off storage and distribution conditions that can comprise product.

In an industry where competition is so fierce that a new food product might not make it
to the store shelves, let alone into consumers’ homes, food scientist and product
developers have to carefully consider a number of attributes deemed desirable by the
consumer. These attributes must work in concert and not compromise the quality or
safety of the product. Further, virtually all organoleptic properties will change over time,
making stability and shelf-life testing one of the most important tests conducted by food
manufacturers. These companies need to ensure that when a product is consumed,
say even six months after its manufacture, it is as palatable as the day it was made.

The underlying concept of any effort to extend shelf life is preventing or delaying the
growth of spoilage microorganisms or the onset of chemical change. Along with
microbial activity, there are a wide range of food deterioration mechanisms, including
enzymatic changes, such as browning, pigment loss, vitamin degradation, chemical
changes due to packaging, and flavor and aroma changes. These can all contribute in
some way to making a product unappetizing to the consumer. Some of these can be
alleviated or slowed by techniques such as the addition of organic acids, the use of
advanced packaging materials or by modifying the environment inside the package.

Perhaps the two factors that have the most profound impact on product shelf life are
temperature and humidity. Higher temperatures and humidity are virtually always
harmful across the spectrum of food products. But it is often more than just a matter of
lowering temperatures or reducing humidity; the relationship between these two
conditions is interdependent and must be carefully controlled. For example, if a
product, say a chocolate covered pretzel, is kept in 90% relative humidity (RH), then it
will become stale. By the same token, if it is stored at 95°F, then the chocolate will
undoubtedly melt. When the two conditions work together, usually in the presence of
light, the result, oxidation, can complicate the situation even more.

“For oxidation to occur, you need three primary things: light, moisture and heat,” says
Julie Snarski, Manager of Application and Product Development for David Michael and
CO., a flavor manufacturer headquartered in Philadelphia. “If flavors start oxidizing,
we’re in trouble. Say you have an orange cookie that you place in a pouch and store in
a hot box. If the seal on the pouch is not right and the moisture is too high, and since
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you’ve already added the heat, you now have two things that cause oxidation. You’re
well on your way to a cookie that tastes like baby aspirin.”

Ingredients and Interactions

The product development team at David Michael is well aware of oxidation and other ill
effects humidity and temperature can cause, and they test for and guard against them
diligently, whether during prototype design or product development. While the company
does not manufacture flavors for retail sale, it does develop products for companies
using the flavors it manufactures.

“We act as the R&D lab for many of our clients, as is the case with many flavor
companies nowadays,” Snarski says. “At times we develop all of the prototypes and the
product, and other times our customers say, ‘This is our cookie and we need a filling.’”
An important specification for many of these companies is water activity (aw), which is
related to RH and is the ratio of the vapor pressure of water in equilibrium with a food to
the saturation vapor pressure of water at the same temperature. Aw describes the
degree to which the water is “bound” in the food and hence its availability to act as a
solvent and participate in chemical/biochemical reactions and growth of
microorganisms.

“The aw level that we are looking for really depends on the product we’re testing,”
Snarski says, “but we usually want levels in the lower end because of the nature of the
products we test, such as candies, baked foods, fillings, frostings. Protein bars and
snack foods.” For example, a company might approach David Michael with its line of
protein bars and ask them to develop bits for a new type of bar. The aw levels of the bit
and the bar must be tested. If there’s a coating, then test have to be done to see if it
adds moisture and that the unequal moisture levels do not balance out after shipment to
stores.

Aw testing is performed while the product is still on the small batch scale, usually less
than 30 lbs., to allow for formulation changes, if necessary, Snarski says. “We use the
information gathered from the aw testing to take a look at how we can manipulate the
formulas,” she says. “If the aw level is too high, we can use gum, starch, glycerin or
maybe just add a little sugars to bind the water, depending on the product. Sometimes
the aw readings will be part of the flavor spec we give to a client, since many times we
develop products for intermediate companies and they need the information for further
development or for use in the QC.”

In the lab, Snarski uses the AwQuick water activity meter, from Rotronic in Huntington,
NY which can measure liquids, solids and powders with an accuracy of ±0.02 aw (aw is
measured over the range 0.0 to 1.0). Price was the deciding factor for Snarski, through
turnaround time and simplicity of use were also considered when she began looking for
an aw meter about a year ago. “We chose Rotronic instrument because I was familiar
with their products and I knew it was easy to use,” she says. “Usually the analysis time
is about five minutes, which is important because our people handle 10 to 12 products a
month and they don’t have the time to wait for results.”

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Factors Affecting Stability

While moisture and humidity are recognized degradants to many types of foods and will
impair shelf life, temperature can have a more widespread and deleterious effect on
stability if not properly controlled. Observers say it is far more common for companies
to assess the effects of out-of-range temperatures on their products than the effects of
water activity. “Smaller companies tend not to test for aw unfortunately, usually because
it’s not understood very well,” says Theodore Labuza, PhD. Professor of Food Science
and Technology at the University of Minnesota, St. Paul. “This is especially so because
the concept of aw is not taught very well in most undergraduate courses and most small
companies do not have Ph.D working for them. The larger companies do a much better
job of understanding and testing for aw.

“In the near future there should be more people who understand aw and actually test for
it,” says Labuza, who has done extensive research on water activity and shelf-life
testing, and visits large food companies to update their employees on what is occurring
in the realm of water activity. “In the 1950’s the big concern with aw was microbes and
in the 1960’s it was the stability of dehydrated foods. In the 1980’s and 90’s many
people said that aw is still a very important principle and that combining gas
transmission with aw will create a more stable analysis.

The shelf life of any food is determined by a product’s least stable ingredient. During
shelf-life of any food is determined by a product’s least stable ingredient. During shelf-
life studies, this limiting attribute is sampled from the product and analyzed at set
intervals. This analysis yields a curve of functionality versus storage time, where the
potency or integrity of the component is shown to degrade over time. Such information
is used to set an end of life date for the product, or to allow product development
scientist to make appropriate adjustments of the target component(s) to stay within
specification up to the end of the product’s life.

Stimulating Storage Conditions

Excessive temperatures will accelerate a range of chemical and biochemical reactions

and thus bring on the end of shelf life. At David Michael, the effects of temperature are
analyzed in both real-time and accelerated conditions, using a large incubator for
accelerated storage, as well as a refrigerator for real-time studies. Typically, room
temperatures samples are placed in their packages and stored for set periods of time,
Snarski says. The timeframe for testing at David Michael depends on the customer
specifications or on the type of product. Usually, the company performs stability test for
six to 12 months, but has completed tests that lasted 18 months due to customer
specifications.

“One type of testing we do is what we call our ‘Texas warehouse test,’ where we
basically set up the test for the same conditions the product would encounter in that
type of climate: lots of heat and humidity,” Snarski says. “Since it often happens that a
product will be manufactured and shipped to all types of climates and conditions, it is
very important we test for extreme conditions because it affects the acceptability of the
product as well as the packaging.

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“Testing for temperature is definitely critical, but as with everything else, it depends on
the product,” she continues. “Take hard candy for example, if the candy has a low aw
as it should and is packaged well, temperature really doesn’t play a role. As long as
there is no humidity to make the candy stick together, the temperature won’t make it
melt – it’s already been cooked to about 300°F. But if you hold cookies or mayonnaise
at 150°F, you will definitely have issues with oxidation and even rancidity. That’s where
the Texas warehouse test comes in.”

Since temperature ranges are product specific the temperature range and the type of
testing performed is dependent on the sample, says Mike Grob, Lab Manager
Minnesota Valley Testing Laboratory in New Ulm, MN which performs shelf life testing
mostly on raw meats and perishable fruits and vegetables. “If you have a raw meat
product that is not brined or vacuum-packed and you store it at ambient temperature it
will have a very short life,” he says. “It’s almost unrealistic to test meat at ambient or
even accelerated temperatures because it goes rancid so fast. However, products like
fruits, vegetables and some cheeses can withstand these temperatures.

Speed it Up

While product stability is tested throughout the development process and extended with
the application of various processing techniques, product integrity is most subject to
compromise in the storage and distribution system. Food companies commonly use
elevated temperatures to conduct accelerated shelf life testing since it is generally the
least complicated type of test method available and can often relate to actual
temperature variations encountered during product distribution and storage.
Accelerated shelf life testing is also often driven by marketing departments which are
requiring product with extended shelf lives of a year or ore to be developed in shorter
time frames of perhaps only a few months. In order to meet the timetable, a means of
estimating the product’s end of shelf life must be utilized.

Generally, an initial step in shelf life testing is to identify potential modes of deterioration
in the product based on an assessment of the factors that will influence product stability,
such as product composition, packaging and environmental factors. Potential modes of
degradation might include chemical changes, physical separation, color or flavor
change, or nutrient loss. It is then important for the food technologist to select test
methods that can accurately measure the degradative changes so that useful data is
gathered.

Grob and his colleagues at MVTL conduct accelerated shelf life testing, in which
storage temperatures are raised so that aging processes are accelerated. For example,
storage at 30 to 33°C can give a two-to three-fold increase for many flavor changes; in
particular, while storage at 35 to 40°C can accelerate oil or water separation four-fold
and four to six weeks of storage at 55°C can cause pickle and sauce products to
become unstable. Storage defects in frozen projects can be accelerated by storage at
higher than normal temperatures, thus more rapid changes will occur at 18°C compared
to the normal long term storage temperature of below -25°C, and still faster changes will
occur at 10°C. Certain forms of deterioration, such as crystal growth and freezer burn,

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will also be accelerated if the storage temperature is made to fluctuate while the food
still remains frozen.

For both real time and accelerated testing, MVTL’s clients select the type of testing and
the interval the samples are tested at. “Usually, we will be contacted by a plant
manager, the head of the QC department or even a lab manager to perform the testing
for their company, depending on their needs, Grob says. “We provide them with the
dates, times-say one day, five days, two months-and temperatures we tested at, as well
as the results of aerobic plate count or coli form testes that we may have performed.
The results we present help our clients in a number of ways, including determining shelf
life dates for the product.

Precautions and Possibilities

Some note that many people conducting accelerated shelf life studies don’t fully utilize
the data they collect, or don’t collect the right kind of data. Different foods and their
chemical components will react differently when subjected to different storage
temperatures, so a universal acceleration factor cannot be used for all foods at any one
storage temperature. Also some reactions that would not normally occur at standard
distribution and storage conditions may be initiated at higher temperatures, resulting in
inaccurate predictions for the shelf life of the product.

One problem that can occur when dealing with shelf life is the tendency to project the
testing results and stability of one product onto another, especially when working with
accelerated testing. Nancy Tregunno, applied Research Scientist at the Guelph Food
technology Centre in Guelph, Ontario, has encountered this scenario. “One rule of
thumb for shelf stable products is a two to three times acceleration at 33°C,” she says.
“Sometimes companies know what their acceleration factor is for a product line because
of past verification studies. However, if significant changes are made to a formulation,
or a new product is being studied, testing may be required to determine a new
acceleration factor.” This requires storing the products at both ambient and abusive
conditions, and dividing real time shelf life by that obtained at high temperature/high
humidity to get an acceleration factor; that is 12 months real time divided by four months
accelerated equals three times acceleration factor.

If products are very similar in nature, perhaps only a few ingredients are changed that
do not affect the stability of the product, then it is likely that the acceleration factor of the
first product can be applied to the second one, Tregunno says. But if ingredient are
added that make it more complicated, then the product needs to be re-evaluated for the
acceleration factor.

At GFTC, which conducts contract research for food and packaging companies, shelf
life testing is performed for manufacturers of a range of products, such as beverages,
sauces and dressings, dry snack foods and condiments. High temperature and
humidity are used where appropriate, but often it is oxidation that is expected to limit a
product’s shelf life.

Another problem that can arise during shelf life testing, especially when working with
unrealistically high temperatures, is a change in chemical pathways, Tregunno says,
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whereby two compounds react to form another unexpected compound. To combat this,
GFTC often sues high oxygen levels instead of high temperature to perform testing,
especially when working with new packaging. “Often, our customers want to know what
the shelf life of an existing product will be in new packaging, for example, when
changing from glass to plastic which is increasingly common,” Tregunno says. “We put
the samples in a high-oxygen environment, usually around 85%. That gives us about
four times the acceleration factor. Comparing the samples to a control allows us to
identify a point in time when the sample will be considered different or unacceptable.”

Whether testing a product in real time or at high oxygen acceleration, the trend is
toward maintaining the safety stability and quality of product over longer periods of time,
often with reduced usage of preservatives. “The need to extend shelf lives without
using preservative definitely presents a challenge, but with the use of sound science,
safe an effective processes can be developed, “Tregunno says. “If oxidation is
occurring, we can add anti-oxidants and if necessary, we can add certain gums for
stability. When we are dealing with different considerations and stabilizers, and even
various conditions such as temperature, we work with different modifications of the
formulation or recipe. There is mostly a scientific basis when it comes to the formulation
of food, but there is definitely the element of art.”
______________________________________________________________________

Paper & Climate

Introduction

Modern machines for printing paper or cardboard, coating paper with aluminum and
other types of unique applications are both fast and sophisticated. They are also quite
sensitive, not only to the properties of the product to be transformed, but also to any
variation of some physical phenomena. One of the parameters long recognized as
influencing the properties of paper and cardboard has been moisture content.
Equilibrium Relative Humidity is, together with the relative humidity of storage and work
areas, responsible for any change which may occur in the moisture content of the
product.

A recent study has demonstrated in the importance of Equilibrium Relative Humidity

(%ERH), and some guidelines have been proposed. The narrow tolerances which are
recommended exceed the capabilities of conventional hygrometers. A new generation
of electronic hygrometers has been developed to meet these requirements.

Influence of Moisture Content on Paper

Moisture content influences a great number of physical properties of paper. The weight
per surface unit, thickness and volume increase with moisture content. Changes in
moisture content result in swelling or shrinking of paper fibers, while humidity cycles
result impermanent dimensional changes as internal tensions in paper are released.
Similarly, mechanical properties of paper, as well as printing properties, are influenced

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by the moisture content. Moisture content is therefore an importance production
parameter which is normally monitored and controlled directly on paper machines.

However, this production parameter has relatively little practical significance for paper
converting industries. As shown in the following paragraphs, many problems can be
avoided if paper has the correct % ERH and if humidity does not differ from the ambient
humidity. Moisture content must, of course, conform to the specified values; however,
moisture content cannot be used to define the climatic conditions necessary to insure
good conditions during paper printing.

Influence of Equilibrium Relative Humidity on Paper

Any difference which may exist between the %ERH of paper and the room relative
humidity (%RH), results in changes in the moisture content of paper. These changes
must be avoided or else problems will occur during the paper conversion or printing
process. It is difficult to eliminate any difference between the ambient % RH and the
%ERH, however, controls or limits can be established. A % ERH of 50% is ideal for
paper since any changes, say from 40-60% will have little effect on the moisture
content, (for cardboard converters 80% may be considered ideal). It has been
determined that a large difference between a nominal 50% in paper and ambient air will
cause a number of problems.

Static Electricity

From time to time, screen printers will experience difficulties due to static electricity
phenomena, such as paper sheets sticking together. This happens mostly when the air
is too dry and the paper is too dry. It has been found that when both the paper and air
are in the 40-45% range this problem seldom occurs.

Dust Problems in Presses

Dry paper, more than moist, tends to generate dust. Sever dust problems in offset
printing machines are due to the fact that the brittle fibers at the surface of the dry pager
are easily detached. The result is the appearance of a dust layer on intermediary rolls
causing poor printing.

Dimensional Changes of Paper during Printing

Vegetable fibers, which constitute the vase of paper absorb or desorbs water depending
on the ambient relative humidity value. This water exchange results I n a swelling or
shrinking of paper fibers, which affects the diameter of these fibers run parallel to the
running direction of the paper machine. Accordingly, dimensional changes which are
the results of moisture variations are more important along the axis that is perpendicular
to the running direction of the paper machine, than along the axis parallel to it. At
approximately 50% ERH a humidity change of 10% ERH results in a change of typically
0.1-0.2% in the length of the paper. Such a humidity difference gives a dimensional

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variation of 1 to 2mm on a 1x1 meter paper and therefore probabilities of poor,
inaccurate printing due to positioning problems are high.

Paper running through an offset press usually gains water as it is moistened in the
process. The change in the moisture content depends not only on the % ERH of the
paper (40-60%), but also on the ambient %RH. An institute which has made a study of
properties of paper and printing in Europe ran a test on two different offset presses and,
based on results, have determined that the difference between % RH should not be
more than 10%. Within this range the dimensional changes will remain at a constant
level because the moisture of the paper will not change by more than 1%.

The same indication has been observed when using other types of presses, such as in
screen printing, where the paper is not moistened and tends to lose water as it
experiences heat.

It must be pointed out that all difficulties experienced with poor paper positioning are not
entirely due to incorrect humidities.

Deformations of Paper Due to Humidity

Paper in stacks or rolls shows deformation if too much moisture is exchanged with the
surrounding air through the edges of the stack or roll. This is due to the uneven
distribution of this moisture as it is exchanged with the ambient air during storage or
transport. Water-vapor-tight packaging protects the paper and it should not be removed
without first checking % ERH of paper and % RH in the ambient environment.
Differences up to ±5% RH will not cause problems, while a difference of 8-10% RH now
becomes critical.

When difficulties are expected due to a large difference between $ ERH and % RH then
certain measures should be taken either to adjust the %RH to a correct value, as by air
conditioning, or to progressively condition the paper to the ambient RH. In the case of
paper stacks, individual sheets may be eventually conditioned by full exposure.

It has often been commented that the printer or paper converter does not have the time
to condition the paper to the room environments. The paper must come in and get out.
But, is this really the way? Paper stored at a mill or distributor is at a specific level, then
during transport it goes through different climatic changes. When the printer gets the
paper he assumes it is exactly as it was when leaving the paper mill. With the quality
control procedures of the mill, very careful attention is paid to the correct moisture
content of the paper that is ordered. In many mills the %ERH is also carefully
monitored before the protective wrapping is placed on the roll or stack. However, it is
not possible to have final control until it reaches the printer. For this reason, many mills
will have their technical service people go out to the printer and try to assist him in
determining where the problem exists, i.e., paper, room, storage area, etc. Many
technical reps also have a sword probe or similar unit which allows them to test the
paper and the room for differences in humidities. Obviously, if it is a condition to be
checked by the technical a representative, it also is a point which must be considered
by the printer.
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Deformation of Paper due to Temperature

Temperature exerts a minimal influence on paper; however, any large temperature

difference between the paper an the ambient air will have almost the same results as a
humidity difference. This is due to the fact the % RH in the air layer in the immediate
surroundings of the paper stack or roll is modified by the paper temperature. Assuming
an ambient air of approximately 50% RH, a temperature difference of ±1°C will result in
a humidity variation of ±3% RH. Thus, it can be seen that when temperature
differences approach 3-4°C, problems can occur.

Once again we have the differentiation of moisture content and % ERH. The
temperature will have little effect on the moisture content, even at values which are
20°C, yet the humidity changes at lower values and problems occur. Perhaps the
printer or paper converter doe not take this into consideration either.

Large temperature differences between paper and storage or work areas easily occur in
winter or summer due to transportation of the product. Without air conditioning, the
temperature variation between storage and work areas may be 10-20°C on a summer
day. A stack or roll of paper can adapt to this variation, but very slowly. At 45% RH, a
difference of 5°C between the paper and air creates a % RH of 60%, thus exceeding the
recommendations of 10% without even getting to the press!

Paper should be kept in its vapor-tight packaging as long as a temperature difference

exists. An equilibrium time of 24 hours for each 10°C temperature difference and cubic
meter of paper is recommended.

Curling of Paper Sheets

Paper fibers does not all run exactly in the same direction across the thickness of a
sheet of paper. Very large moisture variations will result in unequal dimensional
changes on both sides of the paper sheet, therefore curling occurs. This is more
prominent problem with coated stock, since both sides of the paper are not similar.
When working with such paper, minimal effects can occur with humidity variations of
less than 10% RH.

Drying Time of Printing Inks

High values of %ERH as well as low temperatures result I n long drying times after
printing. Experiments on offset presses have shown that a % ERH of 60% and a
temperature of 20°C are practical limits for acceptable drying times.

Recommended Values of % ERH

There is no optimum value of %ERH which would be valid for all paper and cardboard
converts and printers. The printing industry normally requires % ERH in the range of
50-60%, while cardboard converters require an ERH of about 80% which allows them to
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form their product easier. The packaging industry, on the other hand, will require
another value of ERH.

Since paper and cardboard mills cannot deliver their products at an exact ERH, a
compromise must be established. A nominal value of 52% ERH for paper and 80%
ERH for cardboard seem to be the general rule to live with.

Recommended Tolerance of % ERH

Again we have to make a compromise. Here a ±6°RH seems to be accepted by mill

and user. Also this value is recommended by the European institute previously
mentioned.

Summary

FOGRA (The German Research Institute for Printing and Reproduction Techniques),
from which most of these figures and facts have been obtained, has done testes on
many machines and instruments. Based on these tests their recommendations have
been developed.

Now that the numbers have been established, how do the printer and paper converter
put them to use? Obviously, suitable instruments must be made available to perform
these measurements and at the same time not cost larger amounts of investment. The
unit must be easily handled and should provide quick measurements so that the user
will not be waiting for hours to determine suitability of the roll or stack.

The old fashioned saber probe was too difficult to handle, required calibration often and was also very
slow in response. Modern technology has created a new probe which is inexpensive, light in weight,
provides quick and accurate readings and is simple to use.
_____________________________________________________________________

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Automotive Test Chamber Features Rotronic-Transmitters
Issue: 1/2000

Performance surpasses expectation!

Clive Hurley Environmental Engineering is one of the world’s leading manufacturers of

environmental test chambers. A recent installation at the UK’s leading independent
automotive development center, LTC, featured a Rotronic I-2000 industrial humidity and
temperature transmitter.

Traditionally, Clive Hurley’s has employed wet an dry bulb psychometric for humidity
Measurement duties, due to the wide operating range of LTC chamber, a Rotronic I-
2000 transmitter was installed.

Andrew Hurley Director commented: Obviously above 100°C and below 0°C, wet and
dry bulb humidity measurement is not practical, and our customer needed to know the
humidity value over the chambers full working range. The Rotronic I-2000 offered the
widest available temperature range so it naturally became our preferred choice. Once
installed, we were really impressed with the accuracy stability and response times it
provided.

The LTC test chamber is designed to cope with vehicles up to the size of a truck tractor
unit, with internal dimensions of 3.3 x 4.3 x 6.3 length and a load capacity of 8 tons!
The temperature range is –40…+120°C, with a humidity capability of up to 99% RH
over the temperature range of 10…70°C. In addition, full solar capabilities are
incorporated so that an extensive range of real world conditions can be reproduced.
One company who has already made use of the LTC chamber is sports car
manufacturer TVR.

The Rotronic I-2000 transmitters are available in a wide range of configurations to suit
almost any application. Maximum measurement ranges for the I-2000 are 0…100% RH
and 50…+200°C, with operational exposure to –75°C not affecting the sensors. The
probe of the I-2000 can be seen at the top/rear of the chamber.

Oresund Bridge Maintenance Cost Slashed

Issue: 1/2000

Rotronic humidity instruments have slashed corrosion protection costs on one of

Europe’s largest civil engineering projects.

The Oresund Bridge will physically link Denmark and Sweden for the first time. Most of
the major construction is not complete including the weight bearing support structure,
comprising steel girders, which feature a new corrosion protection system being
monitored by Rotronic humidity instruments.

With an internal volume of over 120,000 cubic meters cost effective corrosion protection
was critical within the hollow girders and so nine Munters air dryers have been installed
to keep relative humidity below a level where corrosion of the steel can occur. The

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dryers are controlled by a series of Rotronic MP400 probes, whose wide operating
range and excellent long-term stability are essential to the correct operation of the
system.

Stig Fristad, Project Leader at Munters says “Experience from a similar project on the
Hogakusten Bridge in Sweden showed that over several years the cost of traditional
corrosion protection schemes. The accuracy and stability of the Rotronic sensors is an
important factor in keeping humidity levels, and therefore energy consumption under
control.

There are in total 18 MP400 installed in this application, 16 are used for the control of
the air dryers, 2 are used purely for monitoring purposes, the measurement data can be
viewed by both the Danish and Swedish authorities.

Jens Olsens Worldwatch in Copenhagen

Issue: 1/2000

Jens Olsens Worldwatch on Copenhagen’s city hall is known by most Danish people
and internationally as a unique astrological monumental clock. The clock consists of
15,448 parts in 12 mechanisms. Apart from the time around the world, the clock shows
the time of each sun rise and sun set, the year, the weekday, the date, the month, the
sun & moon rotations, and the planets movements.

Renovation necessary

Jens Olsens Worldwatch was started in 1955 and was functional until 1995, when the
clock was disassembled. It was stated that the mechanisms had become inaccurate
and renovations were necessary. The display case that held the clock partially protects
the works against dirt and environmental conditions. But it was obvious that this
protection was inadequate. Several of the mechanisms were affected by corrosion,
which prevented correctly operation. After two years of intense work the APS finished
the renovations in 1997.

Munters dehumidifier ensures conditions

It was examined how you could best protect this valuable work from the airs destructive
effects. Since the main problem was corrosion caused by high humidity, the choice was
dry air preservation by the means of an absorption dehumidifier from Munters. A
dehumidifier type ML 180 was built in with the rooms ventilation system to ensure the air
condition in the showcase is kept constant. The showcase receives a constant 25 m³/h
volume of air at 18°C and a relative humidity of 40% RH. The dehumidifier is controlled
with the ventilation system through a CTS system. To prevent air from the outside from
entering the showcase an elevated pressure is maintained in the showcase. The
showcase is equipped with Rotronic humidity and temperature sensors in each side of
the clock box. By keeping the relative humidity at only 40% RH corrosion is prevented.
The clocks stable operation after the renovation is expected to continue for many years
since the delicate mechanism is no longer affected by the surrounding air.
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Munters leading dry air supplier

Munters is a leading international supplier of dry air solutions. They have delivered
dehumidifier systems for many similar conservation purposes and are a well known
name within and among others and museums around the world. Many storage rooms,
depots, and warehouses are today equipped with Munters absorption dehumidifiers.
Even at low temperatures it ensures good and dry storage conditions for valuable items.
Munters in addition supplies to the process industry where production environments are
dependent on a constant and low humidity year around.

Cool Application for Rotronic Humidity Technology

Issue: 2/2000

The CTS Company is concerned with the design, manufacture and the distribution of
high quality devices and systems for environmental simulation, as well as refrigeration
and air conditioning. Under the management of three partners with many years of
experience in environmental simulation and climate technology, CTS employs around
50 staff and continues to expand, and now operates world wide with a reputation for
high quality products.

The CTS climatic C-20-200/S provides very high accuracy over a wide temperature
range and uses a Rotronic I-2000 Industrial Humidity and Temperature transmitter,
which has an operational range of 0 to 100%rh and –50 to +200°C.

The systems optimized CTS control unit, combined with precise measurements
provided by the I-2000 facilitates a very large performance range which also does not
stop at the simulation of polar climate. Previously that was a problem says Dipl. Ing
Helmut Maute, sales director in the range below the freezing point many measuring
methods are completely useless, or very inaccurate. Our customers include, amongst
others, well known manufacturers in the automobile industry, where reliable and exact
measured values offer the entire range are especially indispensable. With the Rotronic
industrial transmitter I-2000 we have found a product matching our high demands for
measurement accuracy and long term stability. The I-2000 perfectly covers the working
range of our climatic cabinets and has additional reserves. The climatic cabinet C-
20/200/S has a temperature range of –20°C to +120°C and a humidity range of 10% to
98% RH. Thus all of the world’s climate zones are fully covered taking account of the
seasons and can also be simulated over long periods.

Abbey Library St. Gall

Issue: 2/2000

The Abbey Library of St. Gall is the oldest library in Switzerland and one of the oldest
and most important monastic libraries in the world. Constant humidity and temperature
conditions are essential for the storage of books. Thanks to its reliability and its easy
application the Abbey Library St Gall uses the HygroLog data logger of Rotronic.
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Hygrolog memorizes humidity and temperature values in the wanted interval, the dates
are downloaded easily on the PC with a RS32 interface.

Its unique collection of books reveals the development of European culture and
documents the cultural achievements of the monastery of St. Gall from the eight-century
to the dissolution of the abbey in 1805.

Numerous works, fundamental to the history of European thought, have been

transcribed in these manuscripts and are well preserved in the manuscript room. The
Abbey Library along with the entire abbey precinct of St. Gall was included in the
UNESCO list of global cultural heritage site in 1983. At the core of collection is the
largely indigenous corpus of Carolingian and Ottonian manuscripts from the eight to the
eleventh centuries.

Today the Abbey Library is part of the Catholic Administration of the State of St. Gallen.
A modern scholars library, specializing in the medieval period, it is also one of the
leading museums in Switzerland. Every year some 100,000 visitors from all over the
world view the exhibition in the renowned baroque hall; considered one of the most
beautiful library rooms in the world.

Rotronic Conquers the Jungfrauhoch

Issue: 2/2000

The Jungfrauhoch in Switzerland is one of the most popular and attractive excursion
destinations and Alpine vantage points. At the beginning of the 20th Century, the
Jungfraubahn project – a railway between the famous Wengernalp and the
Jungfrauhoch at 3454 m (11’333 ft) above sea level, was finished an officially opened to
the public. Thus it became possible to install a scientific laboratory, where since 1931
astronomers, astrophysicists, geologist, meteorologists, hydrologists and physicians
work under the high alpine conditions in very clean air. Avalanche research general
weather information and as well as other data have been collected here. There’s even
a solar laboratory.

Instruments for measuring relative humidity and temperature must be able to withstand
the harshest imaginable environmental conditions: direct sun and high UV radiation in
the daytime, fierce and bitter cold at night and during winter, thunderstorms, blizzards
and heavy snow, and last but not least very high wind speeds.

The reliability of the Rotronic sensors installed on Jungfrauhoch is assured: with the
exception of occasional calibration (recommended once a year) there is almost no
maintenance required.

The Holy Shroud - The Wounds of the Passion

Issue: 2/2000

A century ago the Shroud generated excitement when it was photographed in 1898 for
the first time by Secondo Pia. The negative of that photograph revealed in detail and
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with even greater clarity than the positive image all the wounds that the shroud
preserved. How was the image of the Shroud formed? Science has not yet come up
with any plausible explanations.

Since 1998 the Shroud has laid horizontally on a sliding support inside a ballistic steel
shrine with safety glass. Inside the shrine the inert atmosphere (Argon with 0.5%
oxygen) prevents the generation of anaerobic organisms. What is important is that the
flax fibers are kept under the same conditions, which they have been for centuries. The
humidity and temperature is measured with the I-1000 device by Rotronic. Humidity
values are controlled between 50…60% RH at 20°C.

The man whose image appears on the Shroud was crucified in the same way as Jesus
and details of the wounds which appear on the Shroud correspond to those described in
the Gospels. The Shroud is an image to be looked at and contemplated.

For believers it is an “Icon of the Passion” as defined by Pope Paul VI. The wounds of
the Passion of Jesus are the reason for so much interest in the shroud, and explained
its veneration since ancient times.

A Difficult Piece

The Shroud is a linen sheet, 4.36 meters long by 1.10 meters wide. Two dark parallel
lines with the white triangles, burn marks (from the Chambery fire in 1532) and the
imprint of an image of the front and back of a man who died from crucifixion are clearly
visible.

The Public Shroud

The shroud is shown only on special occasions. From 12th to 22nd October 2000, the
Shroud can be seen in Turin. It is the longest exhibition time for the shroud in history,
and only the sixth time it has been displayed in the last 100 years.

Measuring Water Activity at the “Millennium Seed Bank”

By: Chris Birch
1/2001

The Royal Botanic Gardens are using a range of Rotronic Instruments to monitor the
free or available moisture (water activity) of seeds stored at the Millennium Seed Bank,
Wakehurst Place in the South of England.

Sponsored by the Millennium Commission, ORagne PLC and the Wellcome trust, the
Millennium Seed Bank is an important conservation and research facility storing live
seeds in suspended animation for possibly thousands of years, acting as a safe
depository for the world’s wild plant species. Due to the ever increasing spread of
humanity, the focus is being directed toward those wild plants most in need of
conservation, mainly in tropical dry lands. The seed bank hopes to preserve around
25,000 plant species by the year 2010.

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Scientific information obtained from the many rare seeds will be registered on a
comprehensive data base, which will be made available to universities, agricultural
bodies and organizations in the developing world, thus publishing the contents of the
seed bank.

For this ambitious project to be successful the seeds have to remain viable, they are
required to germinate after the significant periods of storage involved. Seeds are
collected in collaboration with Kew’s overseas partners. The seeds are rapidly shipped
back to the Seed Bank, where they are separated from their seed casing and dried to
15% Equilibrium Relative Humidity (ERH). They are then frozen and placed in air tight
containers for storage at -20°C. Because of the very low temperature and moisture
contents the seeds ability to germinate is suspended. To ensure that seed remain in
this state, the artificial environment is monitored very carefully, and a sample of each
seed is taken periodically and tested for germination, confirming they are still alive. By
caring for the seed in this way, their life span is increased dramatically they are
expected to survive for hundreds and some times thousands of years!

Rotronic Instruments provide an exact measure of the Equilibrium Relative Humidity of

the seeds before and during storage they have a high accuracy of ±1.5%rh, ±0.3°C at
23°C. They are specially designed to be fast and easy to use, and with a very low drift
specification all Rotronic Instruments remain accurate over long periods of time.

Keith Manger, the Laboratory Manager for Kew’s Seed Conservation Department said,
“The seed bank routinely uses a range of Rotronic Instruments for research and general
seed sample measurement. We have worked closely with Rotronic to develop our
measurement technique”.

Products used include the AWVC measurement head with BT-RS and the new
HygroLab display unit.

The New Treasure Chamber in Cologne’s Cathedral

By: Roland Scheurich
1/2001

After six years of planning and construction, a new treasure chamber” exhibition in
Cologne cathedral sacristy opened in autumn 2000. The exhibition area now extends
onto three levels and stretches over 500 square meters. Just entering this unique
historical area with a view of the original Roman town wall is well worth a visit.

The treasures belonging to the church include shrines, relics, and many types of
accessories used in holy service such as chalices, monstrance’s, crosses, censers,
bowls for chrism and many more. Examples of the crosier, chest crosses, and other
insignia of the Archbishop of Cologne, as well as chasubles, are also included in the
cathedral’s treasures. Discoveries from the Franconian graves and examples of the
cathedral’s high quality sculptures from the middle ages are shown for the first time in
the new exhibition.

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The concept of the exhibition was developed by the directors of the cathedral’s building
archives Dr. Rolf Lauer and Dr. Leonie Becks in cooperation with the exhibitions
organizer Ingrid Bussenius.

In order for the valuable displays to be sufficiently protected, the Kieler Company “Glas
+ Spiegel Schulz” has been entrusted with the design and manufacture of high quality
and technically complex display cases. For humidity and temperature measurement,
the HygroClip from Rotronic was selected. Its compact construction interchangeable
service concept, modular design, combined with high accuracy and excellent long-term
stability made it the natural choice. The religious and historical importance of the
treasures meant that only high quality products are specified for use in the exhibition.

The objects are superbly presented through non-reflective glass and the display cases
feature customer lighting by specialist designer Daniel Zerlang-Roesch. The costs for
the construction of the treasure chamber amounted to around 15 million German Marks,
not including the costs for building renovations.

Rotronic HygroLog-D: Dataloggers in Church-Organs

By: Peter Muller
2/2001

The protection of cultural-assets is a much discussed topic. The influences of various

environmental pollutants damage irreplaceable cultural possessions. Humidity is
certainly one of the factors which can damage the old precisions objects irreversibly.
Obviously, it is of great importance to avoid such damages. However the responsible
people often just simply don’t know the climate conditions of their premises. Rotronic
data loggers help to obtain the data needed to preserve these ancient treasures.

Within the area of preserving church organs, the Swiss Company Christoph Metzler
Orgelbau, also known as “The Flying Registers” has been doing pioneer work since
1995. Christoph Metzler is an organ builder in the 4th generation. This company is
located in Dietikon, a suburb of Zurich, and it works together with 5 partner companies
of the “IG Orgel” all over Europe as well as in the US. It is their common aim to
preserve old organs and to restore damaged ones. The goal here is to preserve the
instruments in their original condition as far as possible. Unfortunately as time passes
by many organs are altered and partly reconstructed; some of them over and over
again. Says Chritoph Metzler: “With every change, an organ loses some of its
character.” The changes were usually made when the spirit of the times changed often
also with the change of an organist. Many organs had to be replaced due to failed
reconstructions.

Now, what happens to an organ when the climate is wrong?

If the moisture content becomes too high, the wood starts to swell; if it’s too low, it
shrinks. These actions may easily destroy the glued junctions and in extreme cases
even lead to the ripping of the wood itself. If the wood swells, the organ is no longer
easy to play. The reaction time of the various components is not correct anymore; the

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organ does not sound good. Obviously this effect results in a loss of value, and it
seems rather logical, that many alterations and reconstructions of old instruments have
been done for that reason.

So the goal is to prevent the instruments from being damaged or even destroyed.
Obviously, it is much easier to prevent than to repair. The humidity should always be in
a range of 50…60%RH. Using the HygroLog data logger the conditions are easily
recorded.

Since the beginning of 2001, Christoph Metzler has used Rotronic HygroLog D data
logger, which is placed inside the organ and records the climate data autonomously for
long periods of time. This data give information on the reasons of eventual damages.
However, even if there are no damages yet, the data give us information on the climate;
thus showing whether or not the premises should be heated or just ventilated or air
conditioned. Once the data is known, it is also easy to determine, whether or not a
claim for warranty is justified. And of course, this is a simple task for a data logger of
Rotronic.

Application: Pyramid of Saqquara Egypt

By: Irmina Sibilska, President B&L International
Issue: 2/2001

The Great Pyramid at Saqquara, on a desert plateau some 30 km south of Cairo is the
site where the Egyptians first tried to put into practice on a massive scale their attempt
to defeat time and death by building tombs and temples in stone. It is here the
Egyptians built the world’s first pyramid, part of an extensive funerary complex for the
Pharaoh Zoser. The Step Pyramid, (a stairway to heaven for the departing Pharaoh),
some 62m high, is central to the complex and was constructed 4500 years ago. It is
older than the more famous pyramids at Gizeh and the Sphinx, and had already been
standing for over a thousand years when Tutankhamen came to the throne around
1500BC.

A New Discovery

Archaeologists have been excavating the site for over 150 years. But up until 1987 no
one has explored the desert area on the complex’s western side as archeologists
believed there was little to be found there. However, an archaeological mission, led by
Professor Karol Mysliwiec, working on behalf of the Centre of Mediterranean
Archaeology at Warsaw University discovered burials spanning nearly 4,000 years, one
of which was the well preserved and colorful tomb of a powerful Egyptian politician, a
previously obscure vizier name Fefi.

A Vizier was the right hand man of the pharaoh. Fefi seems to have been a colorful
character that lived in the 24th century BC. The tomb’s walls inscriptions portray him
cavorting with woman known as “The One Who Loves Life”. His five wives apparently
were stuck at home. He lived late in the reign of King Teti, first ruler of the Sixth
Dynasty, a time of turbulence. Fefi controlled much of the nation’s financial and

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administrative affairs. The 1987 excavation found deep shafts hewn in the rock, many
mummies and a wall running parallel to the pyramid, which seemed to be part of a
monumental tomb. The team returned to Egypt in 1996, as part of a joint Polish
Egyptian expedition with the Supreme Council for Egyptian Antiquities.

It unearthed the courtyard of the tomb, discovering a leveled rock surface covered with
a thick layer of mud. When this mud-brick rubble was finally removed, the team found
colorful relief’s decorating the entrance to a funerary chapel showing the tomb’s owner
in the company of a lady.

Need for preservation

The extremely fragile structure of the local limestone causes salts to concentrate on the
paintings. This poses challenge to conservators from the National Museums in Warsaw
and Krakow. Conservation will take years of hard work. The work depends greatly on
climate conditions inside the tomb. Of particular importance is monitoring changes in
humidity conditions over time, between successive archaeological digs. To achieve this
accurate and stable data acquisition equipment was need to collect as much
temperature and humidity data as possible.

Technology Assists

In desert conditions humidity and temperature can vary widely over a 24 hr period,
including excursions to high humidity and high temperature the worst type of
environment for electronic instrumentation. The product of choice for this demanding
application is the Rotronic HygroLog, supplied through Rotronic’s Polish distributor –
B&L International Warsaw.

HygroLog is a self contained modular logger featuring the interchangeable HygroClip

sensor module. When calibration or maintenance of the measurement hardware is
required the site personnel can simply fit a pre-calibrated new module within seconds.
Continuous collection of valuable climatic data is therefore guaranteed and the
conservation team is able to precisely record the conditions to which the reliefs are
exposed. From this data decisions can be made as to how the paintings need to be
treated to prevent further deterioration, and therefore preserve this priceless record of
the past for future generations.

Rotronic Sensors on Kilimanjaro

By: Gary Moliver
Issue: 2/2001

The first European sighting of Kilimanjaro occurred 62 years after the ascent of Mon
Blanc yet reports of snow and ice high on the mountain were viewed for many years as
an apparition. We now know that the massive equatorial volcano in Tanzania, with a
summit elevation of 5895 m (19,341 ft) supported ~20 km² of glaciers until late in the

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19th century. By last year, the ice-covered area that Johannes Rebmann described as
“dazzling whiteness” in 1848 had decreased by ~90%, to 2.2km².

Today researchers are actively investigating the meteorological conditions of

Kilimanjaro to better understand the relationship between the mountain’s climate and
the demise of its beautiful tropical glaciers. An automated weather station was
established near the summit in February 2000, employing Rotronic MP101A probes to
measure humidity and temperature. Data are stored on-site and transmitted via Argos
telemetry to the University of Massachusetts. Rotronic probes continue to provide
accurate measurements despite severe conditions including perpetually sub-freezing
temperature and solar radiation often in excess of 1200 W m-2.

Further details on the weather station and Kilimanjaro climate research are available at:
www.gejo.umass.edu/climate/kibo.html

Rotronic Measuring Equipment in Nuclear Research

By: Carl Welinder
Issue: 1/2002

Radioactive waste from nuclear power stations needs to be stored for 100,000 years
before radiation levels reach that of naturally occurring Uranium. After 1000 years the
direct radiation will have declines to a harmless level. According to Thomas Karlsson at
SKB (Swedish Nuclear Fuel and Waste Management) Time is the most critical factor in
our project to develop a storage method for highly radioactive waste.

The Adpo Hard Rock Laboratory is a center for research on the storage of nuclear
waste. Its construction began in 1991 with a shaft 480m down into the hard rock
outside Oskarshamn on the east coast of Sweden. At this depth, 8m x 1.75m diameter
holes were drilled into the solid rock each contains one canister (4.83m x 1.05m
diameter, 27 tons). Instead of waste, a 1800 W heater is installed inside the canister to
increase the temperature in order to stimulate the presence of nuclear waste.

The waste itself is very non-reactive and is unlikely to contaminate ground water, but a
series of additional barriers is used to prevent leakage. First level of encapsulation
consists of cast iron, which is then enclosed within a 5cm thick copper container.
Filling the gap between the metal canister and the hard rock is a layer of clay.

To explain the thinking behind the method, it is necessary to consider evidence from
historic natural occurrences (man-made radioactive waste has only been produced in
the last 60 years). Two billion years ago in West Africa nuclear reactions occurred
underground and produced several tons of radioactive waste. Investigations have
shown that radioactive isotopes permeated only a short distance through the rock
structure, which shows that certain rock can be a good containment material.

One factor of high interest is the clay’s ability to absorb water from the surrounding rock.
When clay absorbs water it expands, which in this application causes an increase in
pressure around the canister. The fully saturated clay seals the canister from oxygen
that might cause corrosion. The research required a measurement of the moisture level
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present within the clay between the hard rock and the canister. By recommendation
from international researchers Rotronic sensors were specified as being accurate in
long cable high pressure and high temperature applications. In addition custom filters
and seals were designed. In September 2001 measurement started.

So far, the Swedish nuclear power industry has produced 5000 tons of highly
radioactive waste. According to a plebiscite, the nuclear power plants in Sweden will all
be shut down and 4000 canisters with two tons of waste each will need to be buried and
sealed, with completion by 2050. In case a future generation would like to recover the
waste and reuse it a concurrent project is running to test canister retrieval methods. For
each kWh of energy produced in the 12 Swedish nuclear power plants, 0.001-0.002
Euro is allocated to pay for the future storage of radioactive waste. This fund is also
financing the research at SKB, as well as other projects in Germany, United Kingdom,
Finland, France, Japan, and Spain who also run their own projects at Aspo Hard Rock
Laboratory. For instance Spanish scientists are monitoring possible movements of the
canisters as the clay expands.

The picture below is taken at a depth of 480m, and shows from left to right, Carl
Welinder from Rotronic’s distributor in Sweden Swema, electronic engineers Thomas
Karlsson from SKB and Sten Johansson from site electrical contractor JL Elektronik. In
the middle- Rotronic’s cabinet for electronics of the 95m cable, 10 bar pressure resistant
humidity and temperature probes. At the top, drilled holes for the sensor cables are
shown, these lead to a clay and rock filled tunnel. In the tunnel, holes for canisters are
drilled in the tunnel floor. Inside the clay around each canister the Rotronic humidity
and temperature probes are installed.

Analysis of Drilling Mud in Canada

By: Gary Moliver
Issue: 1/2002

Newpark Drilling Fluids (Canada) a division of Newpark Resources (USA) is a company

operating within North America that supplies water and oil based fluids to the
hydrocarbon drilling industry.

Most of the chemicals they use in water and oil based fluids are designed to carry out
different functions in the course of drilling a well. Some of these tasks include: hole
cleaning, i.e. lifting the rock and dirt from the drill bit (bottom of the well) to the surface
to the surface, penetration through and protection of the rock formations being drilled,
providing strength to the rock walls of the hole being drilled, drill string cooling,
lubrication, corrosion resistance and buoyancy. Sub-surface pressures are also
controlled.

In September 2001 Newpark introduced a new oil-based invert called New-100. An

invert is best described as a stable salad dressing; it is water and oil emulsified together
in different ratios.

(An oil-based invert has a higher percentage of oil (>50%, typically 90%) (external
phase), with the water (internal phase) emulsified within the oil) Oil Inverts are used
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primarily to add additional protection to water sensitive rock formations but the water
within the invert has to be modified with salts such as calcium chloride to further reduce
the activity of the water phase. The New-100 invert (which can’t be titrated) replaces
the calcium with a water-soluble liquid. This has two major effects, first it reduces the
amount of water in the whole fluid system and secondly it replaces the salt with an
environmentally friendly liquid. New-100 is 100% biodegradable and non-
bioaccumulative (i.e. no salt build up in drilling wastes disposed of at approved sites).

So how does Rotronic fit into this? The water sensitive shale’s (rock) can vary in
different parts of the world; but within North America, the aw ranges from 0.7 – 0.8 The
internal phase of an invert is adjusted to be slightly less than the aw of the rock to
prevent water from flowing from the drilling fluid into the rock resulting in borehole
stability problems. With the activity less than the surrounding shale’s water flows from
the rock to the drilling mud. This has the effect of increasing the water content of the
drilling fluid.

If drilling with a calcium chloride invert an increase in water concentration was

countered with additions of calcium chloride to maintain the desired salt concentration
and water activity. With a New-100 internal phase, an increase in water concentration
cannot be easily measured by titration of the internal phase. Newpark knows that the
concentration is falling but how to quantify it? We solved this problem using the
Rotronic water activity system. An increase in water content should increase the aw of
the entire invert. After preparing a number of inverts with different aw internal phases, a
correlation were made between the whole mud aw and the amount of water added.

After five months and more than a dozen New –100 well drilled in Western Canada, the
Rotronic water activity analyzer has proven to be an invaluable tool for this type of
application.

HygoClip S – When Maximum Precision is required

By: Christophe Thubert
Issue: 1/2002

The Danube International Company world leader in the cleaning of industrial clothing
has been recognized since its innovative technology in the area of cleaning,
decontamination, drying and pressing of the most diverse textiles. Both hotels and
clinics – Danube’s main target groups – have to fulfill the most stringent hygiene and
safety requirements.

The technology in the machines manufactured and exported by Danube must therefore
offer the utmost reliability. Several years ago, in the course of the continuous
development of its range of products, the Danube International Company applied for a
patent for the fully automated dry pressing of textiles. The Cloth is transported by a
roller of variable length that is heated to about 100°C over long periods. The first
competitive sensor to be tried out soon produced bad results, showed effects on
saturation and had to be exchanged frequently. Then the Hygroclip S from Rotronic was
tested over a period of nine months – with success!

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The HygroClip S in combination with an MOK-02-XX cable ensures reliable humidity
measurement, even in long term operation. The sensor’s resistance to saturation, its
longevity, and the long-term stable precision of its measurements has contributed
significantly to this success. The exchangeability that the MOK technology permits is
much valued by users with regard to the ease of machine maintenance. In addition to
that, each HygroClip S is calibrated and supplied with temperature compensation, which
has the advantage that it can be exchanged without alternations having to be made to
the machine controls.

At present offered as a optional extra for the new Danube series of automatic pressing
machines, the HygroClip S and MOK-02-XX components should eventually come to be
installed in all the units of the series.

What Does Humidity Have to Do with Deep Space Missions?

Issue: 1/2003

The European deep space antenna project in New Norcia (Western

Australia)

The European Space Agency operates and maintains a network of ground stations,
which consists of several stations using 15m antennas in the short wave band for
telemetry, command and tracking in support of spacecraft operations. A 35m Deep
Space Ground Station at New Norcia (Western Australia) now augments this network,
and was ready for operational use as of autumn 2002.

The facilities also features 3 Rotronic HygroFlex 2 temperature and humidity

transmitters which transmit climatic humidity and temperature data via an RS 232
interface directly to the European Space Operations Centre (ESOC) in Darmstadt
(Germany) Sensors are mounted within Rotronic VHTS2 ventilated radiation shields on
a collapsible aerial mast, with the HygroFlex transmitters installed in an enclosure
underneath, and are powered by a solar panel and battery. The weather data is used to
improve the directional accuracy required for deep space missions especially in the X-
Band (ca.8Ghz). Directional errors caused by, for example, weather dependent
atmospheric refraction that can be corrected by the so-called refraction model. The
refraction index is a function of temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure and
antenna elevation. The antenna is calibrated using stars as signal sources and
positional references, provided there is no wind load on the mechanical structure. Wind
speed information is used to disable the correction process when certain speed is
exceeded.

The New Norcia antenna is one of the largest in the world used for Telemetry, Tracking
and Command (TT&C) applications and represents the jewel in the network of ground
stations operated by the ESOC. This exceptional antenna is required for high
performance communications with deep space and high elliptical orbit missions, in
particular for the European Space Agencies (ESA) science missions Rosetta and Mars
express. Reliable long distance communications between the New Norcia ground
station and the Rosetta spacecraft are essential to acquire scientific data collected by

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the instruments on board the spacecraft. It also allows the operations centre to
remotely control the spacecraft and its instruments over distances of up to 900 million
kilometers away from Earth, more than six times the distance from Earth to the sun. As
with all other ESA ground stations the New Norcia antenna will be remotely controlled
and operated from ESOC at Darmstadt.

The ESA is planning to enlarge the network by a second antenna of the same size in
Europe. This represents a further step in the enhancement of the European Deep
Space network in the Ka band, and is core to the future of the Aurora project.

Rotronic Sensors in the Brick Industry

By: Rainer Hofmann
1/2003

The history of brick manufactures can be traced back to at least the 3rd millennium BC.
We know that the ancient Egyptians also used bricks when building the Temples of
Karnak, and the Romans were prolific in their use. Today the brick industry has to deal
with the challenge of manufacturing a quality brick in immense quantities. This means
that the manufacturing process is becoming more and more automated, and that better
and better process control is required. In parallel, reduction in energy consumption is a
high priority. Before the bricks are fired, they are placed in a drying chamber for about
44 hours where the moisture is extracted.

The company Olfry has been producing bricks and tiles in all their possible forms for
around the last one hundred years. For the last 15 years they have been using Rotronic
humidity and temperature transmitters to control the drying process. The benefits of
humidity control are clear; bricks which are fired with too much moisture within their
structure crack or explode. If the brick is over dried, unnecessary amounts of energy is
expended. The exact measurement of humidity in the brick and tile industry has often
created a problem: As the brick enter the drying chambers with a very high moisture
content, condensations often forms on the surfaces of the drying chamber, and more
significantly, on the measurement probe. This causes corrosion of metals including the
connections of the humidity and temperature sensors. Depending on the levels of
condensation formed, and the control strategy, the life of the sensors could be anything
from a few weeks to a few years. When sensors fail, they of course have to be replaced
and this could prove costly for the customer. Perhaps more significantly incorrect
measurements cause failures of the process control leading to higher scrap rates and
less profit for the brick manufacturer. It is clear that other solutions have been sought,
but at that time there was simply no alternative.
Solution: By working closely with the company Olfry, Rotronic has made a start in
tackling the problem. Whenever the relative humidity is above 85%RH, the sensors are
heated. As soon as the humidity falls below this threshold, the heating is switched off
and the measurement is performed in the usual way. Thanks to this technology, the
condensation of water vapor is avoided and the life time of the sensors has been
multiplied.
The new probes have been in use for the last two years. According to the acting deputy
manager Mr. Viefhues “they have functioned correctly for the past two years without

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causing us any problems. This has led to us replacing the existing probes with the new
type. It has completely solved our problems”.
Ask for Rotronic support and consultation for your high-humidity application.

Humidity Absorption from Munters with Rotronic Humidity

Instruments
By: Joseph Farcher
1/2003

Munters is a company renowned throughout the world for air dehumidifying systems.
The new Munters Ice Dry system for cold rooms and refrigerated storage has been
tested and on sales in the USA and England. It is now available across Europe. It
dehumidified the air that penetrates into cold areas, especially through open doors and
conveyor belt openings. The dry air eliminates the risk of accidents caused by slippery
ice, and significantly reduces the need for deicing. This system will also improve
working conditions in a cool room; dry floors, less humidity in the air and the elimination
of icing improves safety and profitability. Munters cooperates with Rotronic in many
countries. For example the bridge over the Oresund between Sweden and Denmark
was furnished with dehumidifying systems from Munters. The humidity measuring
instruments were naturally from Rotronic. Munters (Switzerland) AG puts Rotronic
transmitters before all others. Josef Facher, project manager of Munters (Switzerland)
AG explains: We use Rotronic instruments for all process-controlled installations
because they have a superior standard of quality. The humidity sensors are extremely
long lasting and accurate. The instruments of the M3 series are capable to calculate
psychometric parameters. But what is especially important is the interchangeability of
the probes which has reduced our service cost immensely. A Rotronic Hygroclip sensor
can be exchanged in seconds. Also the transmitter doesn’t need to be switched off. A
diagnosis or system validation by computer is no problem with the new M series devices
thanks to a service interface. It means that there is no downtime. And of course the
competitive prices of Rotronic instruments are a convincing argument.

The build of the ice in cold rooms and refrigerated warehouses is a well established
problem. The humidity in the air condenses and forms ice on countless surfaces for
example on the floor. Every time more humid air enters the room the pockets of ice get
larger so that after a certain period of time the room must be defrosted.

The humidity measuring instruments from Rotronic M series are used to control the
dehumidifier and make it possible to obtain precise control within narrow margins, and
therefore contribute significantly to energy optimization. They can, depending on the
application, provide measurement of relative humidity, or psychometric calculations plus
the temperature.

The life cycle of machines and facilities is increased when there is less humidity
servicing intervals are reduced because of the lower levels of corrosion. Manual
cleaning becomes a thing of the past. The advantage of this system will become
especially clear in summer and autumn. With Ice Dry the build up of ice almost
completely fails to appear even in summer. The necessity to defrost the plant becomes

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less and less frequent and cold rooms can be kept dry with the new Ice Dry system from
Munters.

Rotronic instruments contribute through their high level of precision and the possibility of
performing psychometric calculations to a plant which optimizes energy use and
operates at a favorable cost. The dry air prevents the growth of mold and other micro-
organism, which is clearly important in cold rooms especially where groceries and other
perishable products are stored.

Climate Surveillance in Vienna Palace Liechtenstein

Ernest Aringer
1/2003

The construction of Liechtenstein Palace was completed in 1705. Many famous artists
worked on this impressive building designed to be the summer residence of Prince
Johann Adam Andreas of Liechtenstein (1657-1712). The art loving prince insisted on
the magnificent furnishing of his summer property and commissioned some of the most
respected artists of his time.

Use of the Palace over the course of centuries

In the 18th Century the garden palace was used as the summer residence of the
Liechtenstein family and to celebrate various festivals. At the beginning of the 19th
century Prince Johann Josef of Liechtenstein (1760-1836) decided to concentrate the
family’s extensive art collection from various palaces and castles at the Liechtenstein
Palace. It remained there until 1944 and 1948 when it was moved to Vaduz as a result
of the war. The building, including the ceiling works were subject to a basic restoration
in 1978/79.

The collection of the Prince of Liechtenstein will return to the Danube metropolis in the
early 2004. One of the largest collections of Rubens, important works of Van Dyck,
Lucas Cranach and Rafael are just as wonderful as those of Rembrandt, van Ruysdael
and Hamilton.

Climate Control

It is clear that all of these works of art are extremely valuable and correspondingly must
be protected conserved and stored correctly. Control of the climate surrounding the
various works is the most important factor. Of course the climate of the exhibition
rooms was considered in the course of the renovation. Because the palace is a
protected building, conventional air conditioning with ventilation ducts could not be
used. Fan coils, which are mounted behind the wood of the sills, were chosen. To
control the relative humidity of the exhibition rooms, over 50 Rotronic transmitters of the
FH series were installed. Thanks to these, the aesthetic demands of the architecture
can be fulfilled. The transmitters have been mounted next to the hidden fan coils. The
HygroClip S probes were sunk into the wall by special flanges so that only the probe
tips are visible. The connecting cables run under the plaster to the measuring sensor.
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An important factor in the purchasing decision was the simple interchangeability of the
HygroClip sensor, which is of great importance for such applications. Since the
installation is concealed, it is especially important that the probes can be easily replaced
without particular expense. A welcome side effect is that service costs are also reduced
in this way. Rotronic has miniature sensors for use in museums of 4mm and 5mm
diameter respectively which can be installed practically anywhere and are virtually
invisible.

Humidity Measurement On the Moving Paper Web

By: Roland Scheurich
1/2003

Bayropa Jung GmbH, situated in Wertingen, Germany celebrated its 25th anniversary in
the year 2000. The paper tiger as Bayropa are also known not only have extensive
printing experience, but also possesses state of the art roll-offset printing machinery
with paper-widths up to 100cm, and DIN A4 production lines for pre-printed laser paper
with a throughput of 6600 sheets per minute. Of course, Bayropa is also using state of
the art technology for their humidity measurement.

Humidity is a very important parameter in the paper and printing industry. Humidity
influences the characteristics of a printing process, especially in high volume laser
printers. When the paper humidity is not correct, the paper tends to curl, and hence is
unacceptable to customers.

Problem: Statistical data alone is not enough to maintain high quality. Paper
manufacturers only provide average humidity values for paper webs of more than 10m
in width. Therefore, single paper rolls may be well out of tolerance. This is the result of
the paper production process, which delivers paper webs of 10 m width that are cut into
smaller webs only at the end of the manufacturing process.

The solution is online measurement of equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) and

temperature on the web running at 500m per minute. It serves to detect and reject rolls
that are out of tolerance.

The online measurement at Bayropa Jung is achieved with one Rotronic BFC-DIO web
probe at the machine, with the measurement data managed with HygroFlex
transmitters. On-line measurement offers the following advantages:

• Uninterrupted measurement of ERH and temperature on the moving web, and

hence the possibility to control the process.
• Avoidance of finish problems by customers
• Simple logging of the measurement values with validated Rotronic HW3 windows
software
• Alarm function when exceeding threshold values

A consistent and defined humidity is of great importance when paper is being printed in
order to achieve good printing results.
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The measurement principle grants a practical and low priced measurement of
equilibrium humidity and temperature on the moving paper web.

Web probe BFC-DIO

The web probe BFC-DIO is installed directly under or above the moving web, but
without direct contact. The humidity and temperature of the paper creates a
microclimate in the confined space in and around the measurement chamber that is
directly measured. With this simple and well-priced instrument, paper quality can be
monitored without interruption, and important conclusions can be made in order to
increase the productivity and profitability.

Production of Rotronic Humidity Measurement Equipment

By: Leonhard Low
1/2003

Rotronic Ag has continuously been developing humidity and temperature instruments

for over 30 years. Initially we produced measurement products for a demanding
customer base almost exclusively hand. During the early 1980’s we introduced Surface
Mount Device (SMD) Technology at a very early stage in its development as a
manufacturing technique. Today nearly every modern electronic product is produced
this way. As our volumes increased, more and more new production facilities and
methods were introduced.

In 1995 the decision was taken to develop one of the worlds first humidity specific ASIC
(Application Specific Integrated Circuit) because the market demanded exchangeable
probes, which could only be realized by this technique.

It was essential that the core Rotronic philosophies of quality and precision should not
be in any way sacrificed. While our core products are produced in high volumes to
provide short lead times, we are also able to offer new or customized solutions with a
short development and production cycle while maintaining our commitment to ISO 9000
quality procedures. This core Rotronic competencies are only possible because of our
team of dependable and motivated employees who thanks to their commitment and job
satisfaction produce one of the worlds most respected humidity product ranges.

Rotronic manufactures more than 4000 different products. To compete with these
challenges the workplace has been continuously adapted to meet the current
requirements. Employees receive ongoing training. Each assembly workplace is
equipped with a flat screen monitor, which is used to display all necessary production
documentation such as designs procedures specifications and images. With a fully
integrated sales order and production processing system and optimized stock control
and logistics we are able to satisfy all our customer needs from bulk OEM transmitter
supplies through to a one-off custom humidity transmitter.

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The most fundamental part of the Rotronic product is the humidity sensor. Pioneering
work over 30 years ago with the development of electrolytic Q sensor produced one of
the world’s first electronic humidity instruments. In 1980 came the development of a
humidity sensor which could be cost effectively produced and proved to be capable of
measurement over the range 0…100%rh and 50…+200° C. The Hygromer® C80
developed into the C94, and today the Hygromer sensor range still provides the widest
direct operating range in the world. We are able to produce a range of Hygromer
sensor derivatives to satisfy specific application or market needs. These include market
leading solutions for drying, water activity ERH meteorology and climate control.

Rotronic also offers traceable humidity standards at reasonable prices. They consist of
unsaturated salt solutions which are very easy to handle and offer best possible
uncertainty of a portable calibration system thanks to their traceability to national
standards. More than 100,000 standards in a wide range of values from 0 to 95%rh are
produced and sold every year. For the factory adjustment of our products, we use
dynamic humidity generators developed in-house. They provide a fast efficient and
traceable calibration reference over the whole humidity measurement range. We have
been an accredited SCS calibration laboratory for relative humidity since 1995;
according to the new ISO/IEC 17025 norm since 2002.

Testing Seed Water Activity Values helps of the Brazilian Rainforest

By: Niek Jan Bink,
Issue: 1/2004

Jose Marcio Faria from Brazil is doing a PhD in the Netherlands on storage protocols for
seed drying. In this research water activity plays a major role. His supervisor, Dr. Henk
Hilhorst, saw the water activity measurement system of Rotronic for the first time with
colleagues in the USA. There he became convinced of the capabilities of the Rotronic
HygroLab system. He insisted on having one himself, and now they are using it
enthusiastically in this project on desiccation sensitivity in legume seeds. Both Dr.
Hilhorst and Jose are very satisfied with the Rotronic system. Jose hopes to finish his
dissertation next year.

Riparian forests are those that grow along side rivers, and they are tightly associated
with water helping in the maintenance of water quality and quantity (Figure 1). In Brazil,
these forests belong to the most threatened ecosystems, mainly because of agriculture,
grazing and flooding due to formation of lakes for hydroelectric power generation. In a
world where the decreased of water supply is of great concern, the importance of the
ecological restoration of such kind of forest becomes even more evident. In Brazil,
several programs of reforestation with native species have been carried out, attempting
to diminish the problem, and seeds are, in practice, the basis of these programs. Thus
the importance of storing in seed banks for use in the future to restore these damaged
or destroyed environments is obvious.

One of the main tree species used in ecological restoration of riparian forests in south
eastern Brazil is Inga vera (Leguminosae), whose seedlings can withstand up to 3
months of total submersion. Its seeds (Figure 2) are shed with high moisture content
(MC) around 60% (fresh weight basis) and they are recalcitrant, i.e. they die if dried to
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MCs low enough to allow storage. Fresh Inga vera seeds attain 100% of germination,
but upon desiccation they quickly lose viability. If MC drops to 30% they cannot
germinate anymore (Faria et al., 2002). Intolerance to desiccations is a serious problem
with regard to the long term storage of seeds of this species, as well as other
recalcitrant species.

The main objective of this study is to better understand what causes the death of the
seeds during drying. This is the first step towards the development of storage protocols
for seeds of this species and other recalcitrant seeds.

Traditionally, most of the work on seed desiccation deals with water in seed by
assessing only MC, but as shown by Vertucci and Roos (1990) and others water activity
(aw) of seeds provides a much better measure of their physiological level since it relates
to the energy status of the water i.e. the availability of the water to participate in
chemical and physical processes. Thus in these studies aw is measured as it is a much
more relevant parameter than MC to assess when desiccation damages start to appear.
Another advantage of working with aw is the possibility of comparing different species,
since a number of physiological processes that are relevant to desiccation tolerance or
damage have been shown to occur within a narrow range of aw values (Sun 2002).
Moreover, determining the aw in single seeds or populations is essentially non-
destructive. This is a great advantage when dealing with rare species of which only
small numbers of seeds are available.

Engine Testing at SAAB

By: Martin Slatis
1/2004

Saab Automobile Powertrain AB is a part of Fiat-GM Powertrain, working on the

development and testing of the highly advanced engines used within the Saab range.
At its engine test facility in Trollhattan, Sweden Rotronic HygroFlex Industrial
transmitters are used to measure the test conditions.

Engine Power Test

Engines are mounted in test cells where the power output is measured. Engine power
is influenced by environmental conditions, so to make sure that the power output is
correctly stated, the dew point and temperature of the engine’s inlet air is measured.
Testing is supervised by an external accredited company such as TNO in the
Netherlands, or AVL from Austria.

Emissions Testing

Car exhaust emissions must be tested to according to different test cycles for different
markets. Examples include the FTP75 (FTP-Federal Test Procedure) for the US
market, and EUDC (Extra Urban Driving Cycle) for the European market. Cars are run
on a dynamometer simulating highway conditions, and the environment is controlled to
maintain air temperatures of 20…30°C and dew points of 10…15°C using humidification

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systems. Humidity measurement transmitters are part of the control system which
maintains the correct throughout the testing cycles.

Rotronic Transmitters

Saab recently selected Rotronic HygroFlex transmitters with HygroCLip IM-1 probes to
replace another manufacturer’s equipment.

The HygroFlex was chosen because of Rotronic reputation for measurement accuracy
and long term stability in industrial applications. Another advantage of this instrument is
the interchangeable probe which could be calibrated in Saab’s calibration facility where
a Thunder Scientific two-pressure generator is used. This means that the probes can
be quickly and easily removed and calibrated whenever required and to meet validation
requirements.

As the test specifications define the humidity in units of dew point, the HygroFlex
HTM32D unit was specified. This unit has three analogue outputs which can be freely
configured to give %RH, dew point and temperature signals simultaneously.

New Ventilated Radiation Shields Co-Developed with MeteoSwiss

By: Leonhard Low
1/2004

The measurement of climatic humidity and temperature for environmental research,

weather forecasting and pollution control is essential. Improvements in the precision
and reliability of measurement data will continue to be demanded, especially as our
knowledge of the climate and our need to forecast its behavior continues to grow.

Rotronic meteorological probes have been one of the mainstays of climatic humidity
measurement for over 20 years in all applications their precision and long-term stability
are well respected. Of course it is the case that in some circumstances even the best
equipment doesn’t always provide the results that the user needs and in these
situations it is essential that further development work is carried out to improve the
product. An example of this is the recent development of a new series of ventilated
radiation shields to improve measurement performance in some of the harshest
conditions.

The new RS ventilated shield has been developed in close cooperation with the Swiss
National Meteorological Service (Meteoswiss). It is a highly advanced product,
designed to minimize the influence of thermal radiation on humidity and temperature
measurements, while maximizing protection from the very worst weather conditions,
including horizontally driving wind and rain. The performance of the RS shield in
combination with the latest Rotronic meteorological probes is such that in comparative
test, measurement performance was practically identical to chilled mirror condensation
hygrometers which are used by many National Meteorological Organizations as a
reference.

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Ventilation of measurement sensors is not a new concept, but it is worth mentioning
why this may be useful feature. At high %RH values or saturation, measurement
becomes difficult. Small changes or differences in temperature can cause large
changes in actual or measured relative humidity. The thermal mass of the humidity
probe and its mounting hardware is quite large, and as a result its response to
temperature change is slow and condensation may form as a result. This doesn’t
present a problem for Rotronic probes, as they recover well from periods of saturation,
but for a period of time, maximum %RH values may be measured by the probe and the
data recorded incorrect. In situations where the condensation takes many hours to
evaporate, this can mean incorrect measurements are given for a significant period of
time. By actively ventilating the measurement sensors, the measurement part of the
installation will return to actual %RH more rapidly.

Ventilation can also be useful where ambient temperatures are higher. The effects of
solar gain are minimized by careful shield design and specialist paints, but in
combination with active ventilation; measurement performance can certainly be superior
to naturally ventilated designs.

The new shields are detailed in our new catalog together with the full range of
compatible Meteorological probes.

How Rotronic helps in the Production of fine cheese

By: Thomas Ryan
1/2004

The Courlaoux Cheese Dairy has been part of the Unicopa group since 1996. Unicopa
is a large organization with over 5000 employees active in a diverse range of high
quality food activities such as poultry, pork butcheries, saltings, as well as dairy
products such as cheese from the Jura Courlaoux. Under the management of
Messieurs Bouchet and Duchaux, the plant managers/directors, the Jura Courlaoux
transforms 17 million liters of milk into 1600 tons of cheese! The final product is 90%
Comte and the remainder Emmental, sold under the Rippoz brand.

Milk is skimmed on arrival, and then stands for 32 minutes while curds form before
being heated to 55°C in 30 minutes. The curd is then extracted, and over the next 24
hours is pressed and formed into the familiar shape. The cheese is put in pre-maturing
cellars for two months, and then another two to six further week in maturing cellars
before being put into final storage.

The conditions during the maturing process play an essential role in the quality and
weight of the cheese. The pre-maturing cellars are controlled to 92/93 % RH at 10/12
°C. It is imperative that the cheese remain within an environment of 85…95% RH to
ensure optimal maturation, so control systems using Rotronic humidity and temperature
transmitters are used.

For many years the factory has used Rotronic FT transmitters, and recently these have
been upgraded to the latest M2 series with HygroClip-S interchangeable probes. Their
improved performance provides a better measurement accuracy of ±0.3°C, and an
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improved IP65 enclosure gives better protection to the electronics in extreme
conditions.

Of even more benefit in this application is the flexibility of maintenance options that the
M2 series provides. Interchangeable probes and digital technology allow the Jura
Courlaoux to carry out a more rigorous maintenance schedule to achieve best possible
measurement results, but without increased costs. A HygroPalm 3 handheld instrument
is used to carry out calibration checks, and when necessary used to make adjustments
at one or multiple points of temperature and humidity.

The HygroPalm 3 handheld instrument/calibrator is also used by M.Duchaux to spot

check the absolute humidity. This information allows him to make sure that the
conditions in each area are comparable. The combination of M2 series and the
HygroPalm gives M. Duchaux the tools to ensure that humidity control can have the
best possible impact on the quality of the cheese.

Protecting Rodin from Japan’s Climate and Earthquakes

By: Masaru Kawanishi
1/2004

The National Museum of Western Art (www.nmwa.go.jp) in Tokyo has recently installed
a number of Rotronic HygroClip IC05 mini probes for use in the conservation of the
Rodins statues Adam and Eve.

Masaru Kawanishi, Of Rotronic’s distributor in Japan, Shinyei Kaisha worked closely

with the staff of the museum to provide a measurement solution which would integrate
with very specialized measurement and protection technology to preserve the Rodin
statues. To further complicate the application, the statues were also mounted onto a
seismic isolator to protect them from the frequent earthquakes in the region. The
complexity of this mounting platform meant that the humidity probes used needed to be
of the highest quality and smallest dimension. The 5mm diameter probe and cable of
the HygroClip IC05 was therefore ideal.

The picture shows staff from the NMWA installing the HygroClip IC05 probes into the
base of one of the Rodin statues. They are connected to HygroFlex transmitters which
take the digital measurement information that is output from the probe, and convert it to
an analogue signal for NWMA monitoring requirements.

The NWMA curator commented – The HygroClip IC05 works very well, especially
during the summer months when humidity can be very high. Its very small size means it
can fit into the limited space inside the statues without a problem. Humidity is very
important to the conservation of works of art, especially paintings, and in the future I
want to use the HygroClip IC05 to measure between the canvas and backboard.

The HygroClip IC05 is one of a range of different probe types that are available to
connect to the HygroFlex. The digital electronics retain the probe calibration data so
they can be interchanged without loss of measurement performance.

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How Humidity is used in Fuel Cell Research
By: S. Ikawa
1/2005

A fuel cell is a power generating device using materials such as natural gas, methanol,
petroleum, coal, gas or biomass.

Since the fuel cell is based on the reverse reaction of electrolysis of water, it does not
require the combustion of fuel like typical thermal power generation methods.
Therefore, it has attracted considerable attention as a high efficiency power generator
with low environmental impact. In addition, since heat is produced by the chemical
reaction, the fuel cell can supply both electricity ad heat simultaneously. Fuel cells are
intended not only for large scale power plants, but also as a power source for homes,
office buildings hospitals, cars and buses etc. The power output can be from tens to
tens of thousands of kW.

Why the dew point is measured?

A fuel cell requires high temperature and high dew point values for efficient power
generation. When testing fuel cells, monitoring of temperature and dew point is
required to determine the best atmosphere for power generation. Usually, dew point is
measured at the inlet and outlet of hydrogen rich gas and air circuits. Measurements
are generally performed at four points on each testing machine.

The Challenge of measurement in fuel cell testing

Fuel cell testing machines are operated between 80…150°C and 90…100% relative
humidity. The dew point can reach almost 90°C! The atmosphere is demanding for
humidity sensors. During testing, the humidity sensors are exposed to extreme
conditions, where condensation may easily occur.

Additionally, the sensors must withstand pressure. Fuel cell testing machines supply
minute molecular gases like hydrogen. Therefore, it is very important that the probes
are pressure tight. The leakage of hydrogen will result in pressure changes, which in
turn affect the test results of the fuel cells.

Which instrument is suitable?

As mentioned above, the atmosphere of the fuel cell testing machine sometimes
reaches 150°C. The product of choice is a HygroFlex 3 transmitter with an analog
output of the calculated dew point signal to the control system of the fuel cell testing
equipment. The recommended probe is a customized HygroClip IE-X/M screw-in
pressure probe with an operating range of -50…200°C. This probe can withstand both
high temperature and pressure up to 50 bar. To ensure that the application is
successfully measured, it is recommended that the probe is heated to prevent
condensation. In case condensation occurs, a special filter has been designed to allow

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the condensate to flow away. The high tolerance of Rotronic hygromer series to high
humidity, high temperature and saturation conditions, means that it is one of the
available methods for measurement in this application.

Who are the customers?

Around the world, car manufacturers, electric power, gas, fuel companies and
universities are rushing into the development of fuel cells. Many manufacturers of
testing machinery are approaching the fuel cell developers with different testing designs
and a variety of measurement requirements. One of Rotronic strengths is our flexibility
to customize products exactly to the customer’s needs and in this complex and
demanding application, we are often specified as the product of choice.

HygroClip Probes and the Quality of Plastic Molding

By: Ernst Aringer
1/2005

For maximum output and reliable quality, injection molding machinery must be
constantly cooled. If condensation occurs on the surface of the cooled molds, this
affects the quality of both product and molds.

Eisbaer Trockentechnik GmbH in Goetzis (Austria) operates in the building drying and
plant construction sector of the plastics industry. They are specialists in air drying
systems that are used with injection molding machines, and for film cooling in extrusion
plants. The common requirement of these machines is their constant need for very dry
air to maintain high standards of quality and productivity. In order to avoid condensation
on the molds, the dry air of the DAs-devices (Dry Sir System) is blown into the portioned
tool section of the machines in exactly the right volume. To ensure that condensation
does not occur, temperature and humidity in the tooling section are constantly
measured. This allows adjustment of the dryer performance and optimizes energy
consumption.

The second point of humidity measurement is at the process of air outlet of the dryer
system. It provides for permanent control of dryer performance which brings additional
benefit for the customer in terms of simplified support and maintenance.

The interaction of these two measurements guarantees condensation free tools with
minimal energy consumption, and ensures continuously high surface quality of the
products with maximum productivity. In combination with a customized version of an
M23 duct mount transmitter, the Rotronic HygroClip probes are mounted directly in the
output duct of the DAS system and into the tool section of the injection molding
machine. The interchangeability of the probes ensures practically uninterrupted
operation even during maintenance, whilst the probe key features of accuracy and
stability helps to ensure consistent air quality.

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Advantages from the customer’s point of view

The competitiveness in the plastics industry, and especially in the PET industry, is
determined by the so called cycle time. This describes the time elapsing from closing
the tools, injection of liquid plastic, cooling down and hardening of the molded part,
opening of the tools and ejection of the part. The major part of the cycle time is usually
taken by cooling and hardening of the molded part. It is therefore obvious that the
industry tries to reduce this time to a minimum. Reducing the cycle time can be
achieved by cooling the tools (usually with water). In extreme cases the cooling can be
close to nearly freezing, and this results in condensation of the humidity from the
surrounding air on the tools (by corrosion) and product’s surface by water marks.

The Eisbar DAS-System help prevent this by drying the supply air. Due to a slight
overpressure in the tool section, humid ambient air cannot reach the tools section. In
short, injection molding is possible with the best possible capacity and quality anywhere
in the world, regardless of the actual ambient conditions thanks to Eisbar systems and
Rotronic probes.

Further applications for DAS-Systems:

• Drying of plastic granulate

• Drying of material such as fertilizers
• Food drying in silos, of sweets, dry vegetables
• Corrosion prevention in power stations, military facilities, water works, etc.

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