Gas as insulating media

• Ionization Processes
• Breakdown Mechanics of Townsend
• Breakdown In electronegative Gases
• Streamer Theory of Breakdown in Gases
• Paschen’s Law
• Breakdown In Non-Uniform Fields And Corona Discharge
• Post-Breakdown Phenomena and Applications
• Practical considerations In Using Gases and
• Gas Mixtures for Insulation Purpose
Vacuum Insulations

CHAPTER 2.
ELECTRICAL BREAKDOWN IN GASES
AND VACUUM

1
 Gas as Insulating Media

❖ almost a perfect insulator

❖ In high voltage, the gas can become a conductor and

breakdown occurs.

❖ The simplest and the most commonly found dielectrics

❖ The ideal gas has only of neutral molecules does not

at all conduct electric current.
❖ In actual gases, because of external influences a small
quantity of ions and electrons which impart the gas a
definite conductivity
❖ When the applied voltage is low, small current flow
between the electrodes and insulation retains its
electrical properties

❖ If the applied voltages are large, the current flowing

through the insulation increase very sharply, and
an electrical breakdown occurs

❖ Breakdown Voltage : The maximum voltage applied

to the insulation at the moment of breakdown,

3
 Ionization Processes

• The process of liberating an electron from gas molecule

with the simultaneous production of positive ion

• ionization is divided two types:

a). Non-sustaining discharge and
b). Self-sustaining discharge.
• Ionization processes may occur by collision, photo ionization and
thermal

• The breakdown gas and air, called spark breakdown is The

transition of a non-sustaining discharge into a self-sustaining

4
Ionization Processes influenced by :
– Pressure,
– Temperature,
– Electro Field Configuration,
– Nature of Electrode Surfaces,
– The Availability of initial conducting particles.

Types of Ionization Processes

• Ionization by collision
• Photo Ionization
• Thermal Ionization

5
 Ionization by Collision
free electron collides with a neutral gas molecule and gives rise to a new electron
and positive ion.
Any electron starting at the cathode
will be accelerated more and more
between collision with other gas
molecules during its travel toward
the anode.

If the energy ε gained during this

travel between collision exceed
the ionization potential, Vi, which is
the energy required to dislodge an
electron from its atomic shell, then
ionization take place

A few of electrons produced at the

cathode, ionize neutral gas particles
producing positive ions and
additional electrons

The additional electron, then,

themselves make ionizing collisions
and the process repeats itself.

6
 Photo ionization
Photo ionization occurs when the amount of radiation energy (hv) absorbed by
an atom or molecule exceeds its ionization potential (eVi ).

Processes by radiation can be absorbed by atoms or molecules:

• Excitation of the atom to a higher energy state
• Continuous absorption by direct excitation of the atom or dissociation of
diatomic molecule or direct ionization etc.

hv  eVi • will be not occur ionization

The gas atoms get to higher states. The reversible reaction may be represented


hv + A  A
A = Molecule with higher energy.
Ionization occur when

hv ≥ eVi or

The photon wavelength

h
  c.
eVi
A + hv → A + + e
h : Plank’s constant,
c : the velocity of light,
 wavelength of the of incident radiation

Substituting for h and c, we get

  (1.27 / Vi ) x 10-6 cm.

8
 Thermal Ionization

❑ Thermal ionization means all the process of ionization

caused by thermal condition of a gas.

❑ The term thermal ionization, in general applies to

ionizing action of molecular collisions, radiation and
electron collision occurring in gasses at high
temperature. If a gas is heated to sufficiently high
temperature many of the gas atoms or molecules
acquire sufficiently high velocity to cause ionization on
collision with the atoms or molecules.

9
At high temperature the following possibilities of
ionization exist:

❑ Ionization due to collision between molecules of a gas

which move with high velocities at high temperatures.
❑ Photo ionization on account of thermal radiation by a
heated gas,
❑ Ionization under collision of molecules with electrons
formed as result of the first two processes.

10
 Ionization on the Surface of Electrode
❑ Liberation of electron from the thickness of metal also requires a definite
a mount of work to be done called the energy of liberation, which is
different for different metals and depends upon the condition of their
surface.
Energy for liberation ( ev ) of electrons
Material Energy of liberation

Aluminum 1.8
Copper 3.9
Copper oxide 5.34

Iron 3.9
Silver 3.1
Platinum 3.6
Barium oxide 1.0

11
 Energy necessary for electron to be
liberated from the metal

➢ By heating the cathode which is accompanied by an increase

in the velocity of electrons.
➢ By bombardment of the surface of a metal by some particles
(for example by positive ions) which posses sufficient
energy.
➢ By irradiating the surface of a metal by short wave radiations
of sufficiently small wave length (photo effect).
➢ By super position of strong external field (cold emission).

12
 Breakdown mechanism of Townsend
The number of electron traveling per second or current growth
eq.
I = I 0 exp(d )

I : the average current in uniform electric field gap

I 0 : the initial current at the cathode
d : is the distance between electrodes
 :the average number of ionizing collisions (Townsend’s first ionization coefficient).

Additional of electrode current before the occurrence of breakdown

exp(d )
I = I0
1 −  [exp(d ) − 1]

 : Townsend’s secondary ionization coefficient

 = function of (p , E/d)

13
At critical distance d = ds

1 −  [exp(d ) − 1] = 0

For d < ds , I ~ I0

if the external source for the supply of I0 is removed, I becomes zero.

If d = ds I → ∞

This condition is called Townsend’s breakdown criterion and can be written as

 [exp(d ) − 1] = 1

exp( d ) is very large, and hence the above equation reduces to

 exp(d ) = 1

The value of Vs and ds that gives the value of α and ɣ

satisfying the breakdown criterion is called the spark voltage
and sparking distance, respectively.
 Breakdown electronegative Gas

One processes that gives high breakdown strength to a gas is electron

attachment in which free electrons get attached to neutral atoms or
molecules to form negative ions.
The gases in which attachment plays an active role called electronegative
gases.
The most common attachment processes encountered in gasses:
1. Direct attachment, an electron directly attaches to form a negative ion
2. Dissociative attachment, the gas molecules split into their constituent
atoms and the electronegative atoms forms a negative ion.

These processes may be symbolically

AB + e AB¯ + hv (Direct attachment) A : Carbon
AB + e A + B¯ + e (Dissociative attachment) B : Oxigen

15
 Paschen’s Law
The breakdown criterion in gases is given as

 [exp(d ) − 1] = 1
 and  are functions of E / p
E
 = f 2  
 E  p
= f 1 
p  p V
E=
d

Substituting for E in the expressions for  and  and rewriting

V   V 
f 2  [exp pdf 1  − 1] = 1
 pd   pd 
Relationship between V and pd, and implies that the breakdown voltages varies
as product pd varies,

𝑽 = 𝒇(𝒑𝒅) 16
 The Paschen’s Law Curve

At very low pressure, deviations from the Paschen’s Law are observed
when the breakdown mechanism is not influenced by the Properties of the
gas but depends on the Purity and property of the electrodes.

17
 Breakdown Voltage (Vb) as a function of pd in SF6

At higher pd values, the BD voltage in some gases is found to be slightly

higher than the values at smaller gaps for the same values of pd.

18
 Breakdown in Non Uniform Field and
Corona Discharge
❑ In the uniform electric field, a gradually increase in voltage across
a gap produces a breakdown of the gap in the form of a spark
without discharges.
❑ In the non uniform electric field, an increase in voltage will first
cause a Discharge in the gas to appear at points with highest
electric field intensity.
 ❑ This form of discharge is called a corona discharge
and can be observed as a bluish luminescence.

❑ The voltage gradient required to produce visual a.c

corona in air at a conductor surface, called the
corona inception field.
 0.0301 
For parallel conductor of radius r E w = 30md 1 +  kV/cm
 dr 
r in cm
 0.308 
For coaxial cylinders, (r is inner cylinder) E c = 31md 1 +  kV/cm
 dr 

20
Based on the experimental results, the BD potential of air is expressed as

1/ 2
 293 pd   293 pd 
V = 24.22   + 6.08
 760T   760T 
p : pressure (toor)T : temperature oK

At 760 torr and 293 K.

 6.08 
E = V / d = 24.22 +   kV/cm
 d 
This equation has a limiting value for E = 24 kV/cm for long gap. and

 293 pd 
E = 30 kV/cm for   = 1,
 760T 
which means a pressure of 760 torr at 20 oC

21
m : the surface irregularity factor and m:= 1 for highly polished smooth wires
d : the relative air density correction factor and d = 1 at 760 torr and 25 ºC.

0.392b
d=
(273 + t )
b : the atmospheric pressure in torr
t : the temperature in Celciuss degree .

Example:

Two conductors of radius 2 cm, the pressure of 760 air surrounding

temperature of 25 ºC. Find the corona inception field in kV/m

22
 Breakdown and corona inception characteristics for
spheres of different diameters in sphere - plane gap
From figure above can be seen that
a. At small spacing (region I), the field is uniform, and the breakdown voltage mainly
depends on the spacing.
b. At rather large spacing (region II), the field is non uniform, and the breakdown voltage
depends both on the sphere diameter and the spacing and
c. At large spacing (region III), the field is non uniform, and the breakdown is preceded
by corona and is controlled only by spacing.

The corona inception voltage mainly depends on the sphere diameter.

23
 1. SF6 positive dc breakdown
2. SF6 positive impulse breakdown
3. SF6 positive dc corona
4. SF6 50 HZ ac breakdown
5. SF6 50 HZ ac corona

Figure 2.7. Breakdown characteristics of SF6

24
The Meek’s equation for the radial field at the head of an avalanche
when it has crossed a distance x is
 x

5.27 x10  x exp  d x 
−7

Er = 0 
V/cm
(x / p )1 / 2
where

x is the value of 
at the head of the avalanche,
 is the Townsend coefficient of ionization , and p is the gas pressure in Torr
x is the distance in cm which avalanche has progressed

25
 Negative lightning impulse (1.2/4)
BD Voltage as a function of pressure
Breakdown voltage in mixtures of SF6

26
 Practical Considerations in Using Gas Mixtures
for Insulation Purposes
Generally, the preferred of SF6 gas
• High dielectric strength, Good arc interruption properties
• SF6 gas that causes environmental problems and the molecules absorb energy
from the sun and radiate it into the atmosphere for long duration time.
• As alternate gas or gas mixture to be use in electrical equipment

• SF6 and its mixtures with N2, air and CO2 has given breakdown values
which are 80-90% of the pure SF6 values and the ability to quench high current
arcs is promising, cost is low.

• Applications, such as Gas Insulated Transmission System, cables, capacitors,

current transformer and voltage transformer

• SF6/N2 mixtures have been used in Gas Insulated Transmission system.

27
Lightning Impulse Breakdown Strength of SF6 /Other Gas mixture

28
 Vacuum Breakdown

Mechanisms for breakdown in vacuum divided into three

categories:

a) Particle exchange mechanism

b) Field emission
c) Clump theory

29
 Particle exchange mechanism of vacuum breakdown

Assumed that a charged particle would be emitted from one electrode

under action of the high electric field, and when it impinges on the other
electrode, it liberates oppositely by charged particles due to ionization of
adsorbed gases
These particles are accelerated by the applied voltage back to the
first electrode where they release more of the original type of particles
30
 Cumulative Chain Reaction Breakdown

Particle-exchange Mechanism
Electrons, positive ions, photons and absorbed gases

➢ An electron present in the vacuum gap is accelerated toward to anode, and

on impact release A positive ions and C photons.
➢ These positive ions are accelerated toward to the cathode, and on impact
each positive ion liberates B electrons and each photon liberates D
electrons.

(AB + CD) > 1 BD

31
(i) Anode Heating Mechanism

Electrons produced at small

micro-projections on the cathode due
to field emission bombard the anode
causing a local rise in temperature
and release gases and vapours into
the vacuum gap

These electrons ionize the atoms of the gas and produce positive ions
arrive at chatode, increase the primary electron emission due to space
Charge formation & produce secondary electron by bombarding the surface

The process continues until a sufficient number of electrons produced

to give rise to breakdown.

32
(ii) Cathode Heating Mechanism

The breakdown voltages of the gap, sharp points on the chatode surface are
responsible for the existence of the pre-breakdown current, which is generated
according to the field emission process

This current causes resistive heating at the tip of a point and when a critical current
density is reached, the tip melt and explodes and initiating vacuum discharge.
BD occur when the electric field in order 10(e6) to 10(e7) V/cm

33
(iii). Clump Mechanism

• A loosely bound particle (clump) exist on

one of the electrode surface.

34
(iii). Clump Mechanism

On the application of a high voltage, this particle gets charged, subsequently

gets detached from the mother electrode, and is accelerated across the gap.

35
(iii). Clump Mechanism

The breakdown occurs due to a discharge in the vapour or gas released by the
impact of the particle at the target electrode.

36
 Example 2.1 What will the breakdown strength of air be for small gaps (1 mm)
and large gaps (20 cm) under uniform filed conditions and standard
atmospheric conditions

Solution:

Under uniform filed and standard atmospheric condition

For 1 mm gap

For 20 cm gap

37
In an experiment in a certain gas it was found that the steady state current is 5.5 x
10-8 A at 8 kV at a distance of 0.4 cm between the plane electrodes. Keeping the
field Constant and reducing the distance to 0.1 cm results in a current of 5.5 x 10-9
A. Calculate Townsend’s primary ionization coefficient α.

Solution,
The current at the anode I is given by
I0 = exp (αd)

where I = I0 is the initial current and d is the gap distance. Given

d1 = 0.4 cm, d2 = 0.1 cm

I1 = 5.5 x 10-8 A, I2=5.5 x 10-9 A

𝐼1
= exp α(d1 – d2)
𝐼2
i.e., 10 = exp(α x 0.3), 0.3 α = ln (10)
α = 7.676 / cm torr
38
THE MOST SIGNIFICANT EXPERIMENTAL
FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE BD
MECHANISM:

• Gap length
• Geometry and material of the Electrodes
• Surface uniformity and treatment of the surface
• Presence of extraneous particles and
• Residual gas pressure

39
 VACUUM DEVICES FOR HIGH POWER
APPLICATION

I. VACCUM CIRCUIT BREAKER

II. VACUUM INTERUPTERS
III. VACUUM CONTACTORS
IV. VACUUM CAPACITORS
V. VACUUM SWITCH GEARS

40
 Corona Loss on Conductors at DC Voltage
When the voltage of the conductor reaches
the corona inception value, streamers move
toward In the air medium around the
conductor. As the line voltage is increased
the streamers moves towards the other
electrodes forming an envelope of positive
ions and electron around the conductor.
With positive polarity of conductor, electrons
quickly move away to the conductor,
electrons quickly move away to conductor,
which is anode. The positive ions drift
towards the plane slowly due to low mobility
(average Velocity per unit electric stress) and Movement of Positive ion
a progressively weak electric field out side
the corona zone.
41
If the conductor has negative polarity,
electrons move away towards the plane
and gradually get attached to O2 atoms
forming negative ions, which reach the
positive plane. Therefore corona
formation a round the conductor is
accompanied by the passage of a current
between the electrodes. There will be a
power loss associated with this current
flow.
Movement of electrons

42
Factors Affecting Corona
Atmosphere, as corona is formed due to ionization of air surrounding
the conductors, therefore it is affected by the physical state of
atmosphere. In stormy weather, the number of ions is more than and as
corona occurs at much less voltage as compared with fair weather.

Conductor size, the effect corona depends upon the shape and conditions
of the conductors. The rough and irregular surface will give rise to more
corona because unevenness of the surface decrease the value of BD
voltage. Thus a stranded conductor has irregular surface and give rise to
more corona than a solid conductor.

Spacing Between Conductor, If S (spacing) >> d (diameter), they May

not be any corona effect. Larger distance between conductors reduces the
electro-static stresses at the conductor surface, thus avoiding corona
formation.

Line Voltage, The line voltage greatly affect.

43
 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

Advantages
i. The air surrounding the conductor the conductor becoming conducting and
hence virtual diameter of the conductor is increased. The increasing diameter
reduces the electrostatic stresses between the conductors.
ii. Corona reduces the effects of transients by surges

Disadvantages
i. Cause energy loss
ii. Ozone is produced by corona and may cause corrosion of the conductor due
to chemical action.

44
 REDUCING CORONA EFFECT

I. By increasing conductor size, the voltage at which corona

occurs is raised which and hence corona effects are
considerably reduced.
II. By increasing conductor spacing, the voltage at which
corona occurs is raised which and hence corona effect can
be eliminated.

Corona Loss by Peek can be expressed

241
P= ( f + 25)(r / d )1 / 2 (V ph − V0 ) 2 x10 −5 kW / km / phase.

f = frequency (Hz); r = radius of the conductor (cm);d = Spacing of the conductor (cm)
Vph = rms value of the phase voltage (kV)  = relativeairdensity

45
 Corona Loss by Peek can be expressed as
241
P= ( f + 25)(r / d )1/ 2 (V ph − V0 ) 2 x10 −5 kW / km / phase.

f = frequency (Hz); r = radius of the conductor (cm);d = Spacing of the conductor (cm)
Vph = rms value of the phase voltage (kV)  = relativeairdensity

0.392b d V0 = distruptive critical voltage

= Vo = 21.1m0 r ln
(273 + t ) r mo = irregularity factor

The corona loss in fair weather have values measured from 0.3 to 1.7
kW/conductor .km for 500 kV lines and from 0.7 t0 17 kW/conductor .km for
700 kV lines (EPRI, 1979).

Ex. Three phase transmission line system with length 140 mil, size N0. 4/0 AWG
stranded has radius of 0.671 cm. spacing distance between conductor is 14 feet.
The phase voltage of 150 kV, 50 Hz. Calculate corona loss, if temperature air
surrounded of 20 Celsius degree, barometer 76 cm Hg, m0 = 0.83.
Formula corona power loss by Peak and Peterson

3.73K −5
Pc = 2
fV 2
x10 kW / conductor.km
(D / r)

F : frequency, V: the line voltage and

D and r are the phase conductor separation and radius.

K: a factor depending on the ratio of the operating voltage V to the corona

onset line voltage.

K is usually taken as about 0.6 for new stranded conductors and about 0.85 for
weathered conductor.

47
48