EE17401- M& I

Inductive transducer ,
Capacitive transducer
 Inductive transducer
• An inductive electromechanical transducer is a transducer which
converts the physical motion into the change in inductance.

• Inductive transducers are mainly used for displacement

measurement.

• The inductive transducers are of the self generating or the

passive type. The self generating inductive transducers use the
basic generator principle i.e. the motion between a conductor
and magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor.
 Inductive transducer
• The variable inductance transducers work on the following
principles.
– Variation in self inductance
– Variation in mutual inductance
 PRINCIPLE OF VARIATION OF SELF
INDUCTANCE
• Let us consider an inductive transducer having N turns and reluctance
R. when current I is passed through the transducer, the flux produced
is
Φ= Ni / R
Differentiating w.r.t. to t,
dΦ/dt = N/R * di/dt
The e.m.f. induced in a coil is given by
e = N * dΦ/dt
e = N * N/R * di/dt
e = N2 / R * di/dt
Self inductance of an inductor is given by
L = e/di/dt = N2 / R
 Contd….
The reluctance of the magnetic circuit is R = Ɩ/μA
Therefore L = N2 / Ɩ/μA = N2 μA / Ɩ
N number of turns of coil
μ Permeability of core
A Area of magnetic circuit through which flux is passing
l Length of the magnetic circuit

Variation of self inductance may be due to

(i) change in number of turns
(ii) change in reluctance
(iii) Change in permeability
 CHANGE IN SELF INDUCTANCE WITH
CHANGE IN NUMBER OF TURNS N
• From equation L = N2 μA / Ɩ , L vary with the variation in the
number of turns.
• As inductive transducers are mainly used for displacement
measurement, with change in number of turns the self inductance
of the coil changes in-turn changing the displacement
• Fig shows transducers used for linear and angular displacement
 CHANGE IN SELF INDUCTANCE WITH
CHANGE IN PERMEABILITY
• The value of self inductance of a coil also depends on the
permeability.
• The iron core is surrounded by a winding. The displacement to be
measured is applied to the rod which moves in and out of the
ferrite core according to the direction of the displacement.
• When iron core moves in, permeability increases when iron core
moves out permeability decreases. This cause the self inductance
of the coil to increase or decrease depending on the permeability
and accordingly the output voltage changes.
 VARIABLE RELUCTANCE INDUCTIVE
TRANSDUCER
• From equation L = N2 /R, L is inversely proportional to
reluctance.
• The coil is wound on the ferromagnetic iron core. The target and
core are not in direct contact with each other. They are separated
by an air gap. The size of the air gap determines the reluctance of
the magnetic circuit, which in turns decides the self inductance.
• The displacement is applied to
the target plate. According to
the displacement the target
plate moves which changes
the air gap and hence the
self inductance.
 PRINCIPLE OF CHANGE IN MUTUAL
INDUCTANCE

• The mutual inductance between two coils is given by

Where M : mutual inductance

K : coefficient of coupling
L1:self inductance of coil 1
L2 : self inductance of coil 2

• By varying the self inductance or the coefficient of coupling the

mutual inductance can be varied
 Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
• Displacement is a vector quantity representing a change in position
of a body or a point with respect to a reference. It can be linear or
angular motion.

• By using displacement transducer many other quantities such as

force, stress, pressure, velocity and acceleration also can be found.

• A simple and most popular type of displacement transducer is

variable inductance type transducer wherein the inductance is
varied according to displacement.

• It is achieved by varying the mutual inductance between the coil

or by varying the self inductance.
 Construction of LVDT
• The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into
electrical signal is the Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
• The transformer consists of a single primary winding P and two secondary
windings S1,S2 sound on a cylindrical former.
• The secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed
on either side of the primary winding.
• The primary winding is connected to the alternating current source. A movable
soft iron core is placed inside the former.
• The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the soft iron
core.
• The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps in
reducing harmonics and high sensitivity of LVDT.
• The LVDT is placed inside a stainless steel housing because it will
provide electrostatic and electromagnetic shielding.
 working of LVDT
• As the primary is connected to an AC source so alternating current and
voltages are produced in the two secondary windings of the LVDT.
• The output in secondary S1 is Es1 and in the secondary S2 is Es2.
• In order to convert the output from s1 and s2 into a single voltage signal, the
two secondaries are connected in series opposition.
• Thus the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages .
So the differential output voltage is ,
 Now three cases arise according to the locations of core which explains
the working of LVDT.
• CASE I : When the core is at null position (for no displacement)
then the flux linking with both the secondary windings is equal so the
induced emf is equal in both the windings. So for no displacement the
value of output Eo is zero as Es1 and Es2 both are equal. So it shows that
no displacement took place.
• CASE II : When the core is moved to the left of null position
the flux linking with secondary winding S1 is more as compared to flux
linking with S2. Due to this Es1 will be more as that of Es2. Due to this
output voltage Eo is positive and the output voltage is in phase with the
primary voltage.
• CASE III :When the core is moved to right of Null position , the flux
linking with secondary winding S2 is more as compared to flux linking
with S1. Due to this Es2 will be more as that of Es1. Due to this output
Eo will be negative and the differential output voltages are 180o out of
phase with each other.
 Some important points about magnitude and sign of voltage
induced in LVDT

– The amount of change in voltage either negative or positive is

proportional to the amount of movement of core and indicates
amount of linear motion.

– By noting the output voltage increasing or decreasing the

direction of motion can be determined

– The output voltage of an LVDT is linear function of core

displacement .
 Advantages of LVDT
• High Range – The LVDTs have a very high range for
measurement of displacement. They can used for measurement of
displacements ranging from 1.25 mm to 250 mm
• No Frictional Losses – As the core moves inside a hollow former
so there is no loss of displacement input as frictional loss so it
makes LVDT as very accurate device.
• High Input and High Sensitivity – The output of LVDT is so high
that it doesn’t need any amplification. The transducer posseses a
high sensitivity which is typically about 40V/mm.
• Low Hysteresis – LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence
repeatability is excellent under all conditions
• Low Power Consumption – The power is about 1W which is very
as compared to other transducers.
• Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals – They convert the linear
displacement to electrical voltage which are easy to process
Disadvantages of LVDT:
• Relatively large displacements are required for appreciable
differential output.
• LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so it always requires a
setup to protect them from stray magnetic fields.
• LVDT gets affected by vibrations and temperature.

Applications :
1. It can measure a displacement ranging from few mm to cm
2. Acting as a secondary transducer, LVDT can be used as a
device to measure force, weight and pressure. The force or
pressure to be measured is first converted into a displacement
using primary transducer. Then this displacement is applied to
LVDT to get the proportional output voltage.
 Capacitive transducer
• The capacitive transducer or sensor is nothing but the capacitor
with variable capacitance.
• Capacitive transducers are passive transducers that determine the
quantities like displacement, pressure and temperature etc. by
measuring the variation in the capacitance of a capacitor.
• The principle of operation of capacitive transducers is based
upon the familiar equation of a parallel plate capacitor.
 Capacitive transducer
• The capacitive transducer work on the principle of change of
capacitance which may be caused by
(i) Change is overlapping area A
(ii) Change in the distance d between the plates
(iii) Change in dielectric constant

• These changes are caused by physical variables like displacement,

force and pressure.
 Working of Capacitive Transducer
Transducer using the change in the Area of Plates:
• From the equation of the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor,
the capacitance is directly proportional to the area A of the plates.
Thus the capacitance changes linearly with change is area.
• This type of capacitive transducer is useful for measurement of
moderate to large displacement say from 1mm to several cm.

Fig: Capacitive transducer working on the principle of change of capacitance with change of area.
• The capacitance of the parallel plates is given as

where l – the length of overlapping part of plates

w – the width of overlapping part of plates.

Fig: Capacitance displacement curve of capacitive transducer (working on principle of change of plate area
caused by change in displacement)
• The capacitive transducer is used for measuring the angular
displacement. It is measured by the movable plates shown below.
One of the plates of the transducer is fixed, and the other is
movable.
• The angular displacement changes the effective area between the
plates and thus changes the capacitance. The capacitance is
maximum when two plates completely overlap each other (ie)
θ=180o

Fig: Capacitive transducer for measurement of angular displacement.

Transducer using change in Distance between plates:
• The capacitance C depends on the separation between the two
plates. One plate is fixed and the displacement to be measured is
applied to the other plate which is movable. Capacitance C varies
inversely proportional to the distance d.
• This transducer is useful for measurement of extremely small
displacements.

Fig: Capacitive transducer using the principle of change of capacitance with change of distance
between plates.
• Another method of varying distance is employing cantilever plate.
• When displacement is applied to cantilever type spring , plate
moves towards the second plate decreasing the distance which
increases the capacitance of the capacitor.

Fig: Capacitive transducer using cantilever spring plate

Variation of dielectric constant for measurement of liquid level :
• The capacitive transducer using the method of change in dielectric is
used for the measurement of the liquid level.
• The electrodes are two concentric cylinders and the liquid acts as the
dielectric. At the lower end of the outer cylinder there are holes
which allow passage of liquid between the plates.
• The value of the capacitance of the capacitor is,
Capacitive pressure transducer:
• The capacitive pressure transducer is based on the principle that
when the distance between the two parallel plates changes,
capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor changes.

• As shown in the figure below, a capacitive transducer has a static

plate and a deflected flexible diaphragm with a dielectric in
between. When a force is exerted to the outer side of the diaphragm
the distance between the diaphragm and the static plate changes.
This produces a capacitance which is measured using an alternating
current bridge or a tank circuit.
Advantage of Capacitive Transducer

• It requires an external force for operation and hence very useful

for small systems.
• The capacitive transducer is very sensitive.
• It gives good frequency response because of which it is used for
the dynamic study.
• The transducer has high input impedance hence they have a small
loading effect.
• It requires small output power for operation.
Disadvantages of capacitive Transducer

• The metallic parts of the transducers require insulation.

• The frame of the capacitor requires earthing for reducing the effect
of the stray magnetic field.
• Sometimes the transducer shows the nonlinear behaviour because
of the edge effect which is controlled by using the guard ring.
• The cable connecting across the transducer causes an error.
Uses of Capacitive Transducer
The following are the uses of capacitive transducer.

• The capacitive transducer uses for measurement of both the linear

and angular displacement. It is extremely sensitive and used for
the measurement of very small distance.
• It is used for the measurement of the force and pressures. The
force or pressure, which is to be measured is first converted into a
displacement, and then the displacement changes the capacitances
of the transducer.
• It is used as a pressure transducer in some cases, where the
dielectric constant of the transducer changes with the pressure.
• The humidity in gases is measured through the capacitive
transducer.
• The transducer uses the mechanical modifier for measuring the
volume, density, weight etc.