ME338 – Manufacturing Process II

Lecture 2 : Basic mechanics of Machining

Pradeep Dixit
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

Recap: Machining processes

 Recap: Turning: Numerical
• A 50 mm diameter gray cast iron workpiece having length of 150 mm is rough
turned with an uncoated carbide tool . The feed for the tool is 0.4 mm per
revolution ( mm/rev), the depth of cut is 1 mm, and the recommended cutting
speed is 98 m/min.
• Calculate:
– (a) The material removal rate
– (b) Power and torque required by the spindle
– (c) Machining time, Assume approach and over travel to be 3mm
– (d) the uncut chip thickness if the lead angle of tool is 20

Machining process

Material removal is due to the ‘shearing’ caused by the harder sharp tool surface which is
forced to move against a softer workpiece material
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 Machining Process:
• Independent process variables
– Feed, cutting speed, depth of
cut
• Hardness of cutting tool
• Tool geometry/angles - rake/relief
angle, nose radius
• Work holding devices (to reduce
vibration)
• Cutting fluids, Lubricants (to take
away heat, reduce friction)

Output variables:
• Chip type: continuous, discontinuous
• Cutting forces and energy dissipation
• Temperature rise
• Tool wear
• Surface finish

Orthogonal (2D) & Oblique (3D) machining

feed Tool feed Tool

 Orthogonal and Oblique machining
Orthogonal Oblique

90  90

• Orthogonal cutting (2D):

– Cutting edge of tool is perpendicular to the velocity vector
– Cutting forces act along X, Z axes only
• Oblique cutting (3D):
– Cutting edge of tool is inclined at certain angle with the normal to the
cutting velocity vector. Inclination angle (𝑖  0)
– Chip also flows at angle 𝑖 from the rake surface
– Cutting forces act along all three directions, X, Y, Z axes
 Orthogonal and Oblique machining

Orthogonal machining (2D) Oblique machining (3D)

• Cutting edge  cutting velocity • Cutting edge NOT  cutting velocity
• Shear force acts on smaller area • Shear force acts on larger area
• All work/chip material move in parallel
• All work/chip material do not move in
plane to rake surface
parallel plane, but at inclination angle
• Simple 2D analysis, still gives good results
close to actual values • Complex 3D analysis

Orthogonal machining model is used for all the analysis purposes as its simple
and gives close approximation to the actual results
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Orthogonal cutting : from 3D to 2D problem

wt

• Width of cutting tool (wt) > width of chip (w)

• Turning of hollow thin cylinder, where cutting tool exceed the thickness of
the hollow cylinder can be considered as Orthogonal case
• Width of chip (w) >> t0 (more than 10 times)
• The chip does not flow to either side (plane strain condition)
• The tool is perfectly sharp and does Machining. No ‘plaughing’ action
• Friction along the tool-workpiece, chip-rake surface is less
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 Orthogonal cutting

• The surface on which chip flows is called rake surface

• Inclination of tool rake surface from the normal to the cutting velocity is rake
angle: Can be both positive and negative
• As the tool is forced into the material, the chip is formed by shear deformation
along a plane called the shear plane
• The shear plane is oriented at an angle  with the surface of the work
• Shear angle is decided by the material itself (to minimize the cutting energy)
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 Orthogonal Machining - Basic mechanics

• Metal cutting involves concentrated shear along a shear plane

– Cutting is due to shearing action (Mallock, 1881)
– Shearing start at PQ and finish at RS, giving it a wedge shape, (reason for
chip curling)
• Actual shear zone is wedges shaped, but a single shear plane is assumed for
simple calculation
• Material does not deform until the shear plane is reached
– Primary shear zone
– Secondary shear zone
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Cutting models – Now & Then

Piispanen’s Stack of card model

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 Basic terms in machining process
Shear plane length 𝑙𝑠
𝑡0
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜙
𝑙𝑠
𝑡𝑐
= 𝑆𝑖𝑛((90 − 𝜙 − 𝛼 )
𝑙𝑠
𝑡0 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜙
𝑟= =
𝑡𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜙 − 𝛼)
• Undeformed chip thickness (~depth of cut)
• Chip thickness increases after the shearing process
• Cutting ratio (𝑟) OR chip thickness ratio or chip ratio
• Chip ratio (𝑟) = chip thickness before cutting (𝑡0)/chip thickness after cutting (𝑡𝑐)
• 𝑟 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛 ɸ/ 𝐶𝑜𝑠 (ɸ − 𝛼)
• Relationship: rake angle (α), shear angle (ɸ) and chip thickness ratio (r)
• tan ɸ = 𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 / (1 – 𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼)
• Chip reduction coefficient : Inverse of chip thickness ratio (r)
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Measurement of shear angle (ɸ)

• How to measure shear angle (ɸ) ?
• Quick stopping device – suddenly stop
the cutting action, e.g.:
• Cutting speed 0.8 m/s,
• Stopping time 0.17 ms
• Microscopic examination of chip
thickness
• Uncut chip thickness or depth of cut
• Chip thickness ratio can be calculated
• Rake angle (𝛼) is a cutting tool parameter Quick-stopping device
– known value
• Shear angle (ɸ) can be calculated by
following relationship
• tan ɸ = 𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼 / (1 – 𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼)

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 Piispanen’s Stack of card model : shear strain

• Shear strain (γ) = AC/BD = (AD+DC)/BD

• Shear strain (γ) = Cot ɸ + tan (ɸ-α)
• Typical value of shear strain vary 2 – 5

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Kinematics of orthogonal machining

Vc

Vs
α
ɸ
A V B

• V cutting velocity, Vs shear velocity along shear plane, Vc chip velocity along the
rake surface
• In orthogonal cutting, width of chip assumed to remained same
• Using material conservation law, Chip thickness ratio r can be calculated
• Chip thickness ratio r = Vc/V = Sin ɸ / Cos (ɸ-α)
• Shear strain rate (γ’) = VS/d; where d is shear plane thickness (0.001 – 0.01 mm)
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 Kinematics of orthogonal machining
• Deformation in cutting generally takes place within a very narrow deformation
zone
– Thickness of shear plane is in order of 0.001 – 0.01 mm.
– Therefore, the rate at which shearing takes place (shear rate) is high.
– Shear strain rate (γ’) = VS/d; where d is shear plane thickness (0.001 – 0.01
mm). Typical shear strain rates, 𝛾 = 104~106𝑠−1
– Large shear strains are associated with low shear angles, or low or negative
rake angles.
• Shear angle influences force and power requirements, chip thickness, and
temperature.
• As the rake angle decreases and / or the friction at the tool – chip interface
increases, the shear angle decreases and the chip becomes thicker,
• Thicker chips mean more energy dissipation because the shear strain is higher
• Because work done during cutting is converted into heat, temperature rise is
also higher.

Forces in cutting motion: relationship

• Knowledge of cutting forces is needed for:
– Estimation of power requirements
– Estimation of total energy needed to machine of a specified
volume of different materials
– To check economical aspect of manufacturing process
– Machine tool design e.g. static/dynamic stiffness
– Part accuracy e.g. tool-work piece deflections
– Need to find shear force Fs of any material

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 Cutting forces in shaping & Turning

Cutting force in direction of cutting direction

Fc and Ft are perpendicular to each other

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Forces in cutting motion: relationship

• Eugene Merchant has established relationship
between different forces
• Assumptions:
– Orthogonal cutting
– Width of cut >> depth of cut
– Cutting velocity remains constant
– Cutting edge of tool is really sharp (no tool wear,
point contact)
– No sideways flow of chip
– No BUE, No discontinuous chip
– Chip behaves like free body in stable
equilibrium, opposite and equal forces

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 Forces in cutting motion

N FC, FT can be
measured during
F
machining by
R
dynamometer
NS FCFS

R
FT R

FC Horizontal cutting force by tool on the work piece (along cutting direction)
FT Vertical thrust force which help in holding tool in position, acts on the tool nose (normal
to cutting direction)
F Friction resistance of the tool against the chip flow (opposite to chip flow)
N Normal to the chip force provided by tool (normal to chip flow direction)
FS Shear force acts along shear plane, resistance to shear of the metal in forming the chip
NS Normal force , backing up force on the chip by the work piece (normal to shear plane)
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Orthogonal machining - Free-body diagram

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 Forces in cutting motion: relationship

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How to draw Merchant Circle

Fs 𝛼 Tool
Ns Fc ɸ
( − )
Ft
R

 F

𝐹𝑠 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜙 + 𝛽 − 𝛼) 𝐹𝑠 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽 − 𝛼) 𝑤𝑡0

𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑠 = 𝜏𝐴𝑠 = 𝜏
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑅 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽 − 𝛼) 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜙 + 𝛽 − 𝛼) 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜙
𝐹𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜙 + 𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐹 = 𝑅 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛽 𝐹𝑠 =
𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽 − 𝛼)

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 Forces in cutting motion: relationship

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How to calculate FC, FT Theoretically : Merchant ?

Material has shear strength τ (known)

Width w, depth of cut t0 – known
Rake ankle α – tool parameter known
Deformed chip thickness can be measured
Shear angle ɸ can be calculated
Β friction angle

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 Minimize cutting energy – Merchant theory
• Merchant’s theory: Nature always tries to
take the path of least resistance
• During machining process, shear angle ɸ
assumes a value such that least amount of
energy is consumed
– Cutting force Fc should be minimum
• Assuming that β is independent of ɸ and
shear yield stress of the work material is
constant, we can show that:

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Effect of shear angle, rake angle on power

Larger shear angle >> lower shear plane area >> lower
cutting energy >> lower power requirement >> lower
cutting temperature
shear angle can be increased by either increasing rake
angle (tool design) OR by reducing friction angle (lubricant
cutting fluid)

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 Effect of Changes in Shear Angle
• If φ decreases, the chip becomes
thicker
– Larger shear zone
– More energy is dissipated since
strains are larger
– Higher temperature and forces
– More deformation
• If φ increases, the chip becomes
smaller
– Smaller shear zone
– Less energy is dissipated since
strains are smaller
– Temperatures and forces are lower
– Less deformation occurs
– Overall better machining process

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Theoretical and experimental shear angle

• Merchant original theory works for
soft materials e.g., plastic, but had
errors when it was applied to metals.
Why ?
• Model does not work well for metal ?
• Merchant has assumed that shear
stress is independent of normal stress,
which is not entirely true
• Om chip-rake surface, friction plays a
critical role
• Shear stress also depends upon the
normal stress
– How?

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 Stress distribution along the rake face

Actual distribution of shear and normal stress on the rake face

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Modified Merchant theory

• With modified Merchant theory:

Machining constant: Cm (degree)

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 Other theories

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Specific cutting energy

• Power consumption during machining process
– Cutting Force Fc, Cutting velocity v
– Power consumed: Fc.v
– Volume of material removed: w.t1.v (w: width, t1: depth of cut)
• Specific energy = Total power consumed / volume of metal
removed
– Specific energy: Fc/wt1

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Specific cutting energy for various materials

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Dynamometer to measure Fc and Ft

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 Summary
• Chips: continuous, discontinuous, continuous with BUE
• Cutting tool: rake angle, relief angle, rake angle
– Rake angle can be positive or negative
• Orthogonal cutting (2D) and Oblique cutting (3D)
• Cutting action is mainly due to shearing of materials
– Primary and secondary shear zone
• Chip thickness ratio, Shear angle and rake angle are related
• tan ɸ = r Cos α / (1 – r Sin α)
• Merchant circle for knowing different forces
– Fc and Ft can measured by dynamometer
– Merchant modified relationship:

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Example 1

Solution:
Coefficient of friction  = F/N
Ultimate shear strength 

𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝛼
tan ɸ =
(1 – 𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛 𝛼)
𝑤𝑡0 𝐹𝑐 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝜙 + 𝛽 − 𝛼)
𝐹𝑠 = 𝜏𝐴𝑠 = 𝜏 𝐹𝑠 =
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝐶𝑜𝑠(𝛽 − 𝛼)

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Example 2

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