LIGHT

Light, form of electromagnetic radiation similar to radiant heat, radio waves, and X rays. Light
consists of extremely fast oscillations of an electromagnetic field in a particular range of frequencies that
can be detected by the human eye. Different colors sensations are produced by light vibrating at
different frequencies, ranging from about 4 × 1014 vibrations per second for red light to about 7.5 ×
1014 vibrations per second for violet light.

The visible spectrum of light is usually defined by its wavelength, ranging from the smallest visible
wavelength for violet, about 40 millionths of a centimeter (16 millionths of an inch), to 75 millionths of a
centimeter (about 30 millionths of an inch) for red. A small part of the electromagnetic spectrum where
visible light is found that affects the human sense of sight.

Higher frequencies, corresponding to shorter wavelengths, comprise ultraviolet radiation, and still
higher frequencies are associated with X-rays. Lower frequencies, which are at longer wavelengths, are
called infrared radiation, and still lower frequencies are characteristic of radio waves. Most light comes
from electrons that vibrate at these high frequencies when heated to a high temperature. The higher
the temperature, the greater the frequency of vibration and the bluer the light produced.

NATURE OF LIGHT

Light is emitted from a source in straight lines and spreads out over a larger and larger area as it
travels; the light per unit area diminishes as the square of the distance. When light strikes an object, it is
either absorbed or reflected; light reflected from a rough surface is scattered in all directions. Some
frequencies are reflected more strongly than others, and this gives objects their characteristic colors.
White surfaces scatter light of all wavelengths equally, and black surfaces absorb nearly all light. Image-
forming reflection, on the other hand, requires a highly polished surface such as that of a mirror.

VELOCITY

The speed of light was first measured in a laboratory experiment by the French physicist Armand
Hippolyte Louis Fizeau, although earlier astronomical observations had yielded 1approximately the right
velocity. The speed of light had been measured very precisely as 299,792,458 m/sec (186,282.397
mi/sec) in a vacuum. Accurate knowledge of the speed and the wavelength of light also permit accurate
measurement of length. The velocity of light in air varies slightly with wavelength, averaging about 3 per
cent less than in vacuum; the speed in water is about 25 per cent less, and in glass, 33 per cent less.

ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
Electromagnetic Radiation, waves produced by the oscillation or acceleration of an electric charge.
Electromagnetic waves have both electric and magnetic components. Visible light is only a small part of
the electromagnetic spectrum. In order of decreasing frequency, the electromagnetic spectrum consists
of gamma rays, hard and soft X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves,
and radio waves.

Invisible radiation with wavelength shorter than 400 mu

1. Ultra violet rays 30-400mu

2. X rays .01-30mu

3. Gamma rays

4. Cosmic rays

Invisible radiation with wavelength longer than 700 mu

1. Infra red rays 700-800mu

2. Radio waves

3. Hertzian Waves

4. Long electrical oscillation

Note: The white light which is also known as the visible spectrum or those radiation visible to human eye
has a wavelength of 400-700mu. Wavelength maybe measured in terms of mill microns (mu.) or
nanometers (nm.)

FREQUENCY

Frequency, term denote the number of times that any regularly recurring phenomenon occurs in
one second. The number of complete waves per unit of time; used in measuring the speed of light; unit
of measuring the speed of light maybe mu. per second (mu/sec).

Wave Motion, mechanism by which energy is conveyed from one place to another in waves
without the transfer of matter.

Oscillation, the repeated motion back and forth past a central neutral position, or position of
equilibrium. A single motion from one extreme position to the other and back, passing through the
neutral position twice, is called a cycle. The number of cycles per second, or hertz (Hz), is known as the
frequency of the oscillation.

Wavelength, distance between corresponding points on two consecutive waves. For example, the
wavelength of ocean waves is the distance between one crest and the next, or one trough and the next.
Wavelength is a fundamental concept when considering any kind of wave motion, and can vary from
very long—for example, hundreds of meters for long radio waves—to very short—for example, million-
millionths (10-12) of a meter for gamma rays.2

Separation of White Light into Colors

 Light from many sources, such as the sun, appears white. When white light passes through a prism,
however, it separates into a spectrum of varied colors. The prism bends, or refracts, light of different
colors at different angles. Red light bends the least and violet light bends the most.

Straight-line Motion of Light

Since light travels in straight lines, straight-sided objects cast straight-sided shadows. Here columns
in bright sunlight cast aseries of shadows, forming a regular geometric pattern. A shadow is simply an
area that appears dark because light is prevented from reaching it by some obstacle. A shadow is never
completely dark, because some light is reflected into it from its surroundings. In addition, the edge of a
shadow forms a soft “penumbra”, because light from part of the source can reach that area.

Characteristics of Light

1. Reflection, phenomenon of light and other wave motions in which the light or other wave
motion is returned after impinging on a surface, or the boundary between two media.

It is a condition that occurs whenever an object changes direction of light wave and does not allow
light to pass through it.

There are two laws of reflection:

1. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal (an imaginary line perpendicular to the
reflecting surface at the point of incidence) all lie in the same plane.

2. The angle of
incidence equals the angle of
reflection. 3

2. Refraction, bending of
waves that occur when a
wave front passes obliquely
from one medium to
another. The phenomenon is
most familiar with light
waves. When light passes
from a less dense medium
(for example, air) to a denser one (for example, glass), it is refracted towards the normal (an imaginary
line perpendicular to the surface). This occurs because the light waves are slowed down by the denser
medium, causing them to change direction. On passing from a denser medium into a less dense one, the
light is refracted away from the normal.
3. Diffraction, in physics, term used to describe the interaction between waves and solid objects in
which a wave of any type spreads out after passing the edge of a solid object or after passing through a
narrow aperture, instead of continuing to travel in a straight line. The degree of diffraction that occurs
depends on the relationship between the size of the aperture or object and the wavelength of the wave
—when the two are close together in size, diffraction occurs.

4. Transmission, When light passes through an object, the light is transmitted. A medium such as lens or
clear window pane, through which the objects are clearly visible, is transparent. Frosted glass which
transmits light scatters it to objects can not be seen clearly is termed translucent.

5. Absorption, when light falls upon an object and is neither transmitted nor reflected, it is absorbed.
Sometimes only part of it is absorbed. A white card looks white because it reflects back to our eyes;
most of the white light falls on it, whereas dark cloth appears dark because it absorbs rarely all the light
striking it.

Spectrum, rainbow-like series of colors, in the order violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red,
produced by splitting a composite light, such as white light, into its component colors. Indigo was
formerly recognized as a distinct spectral color. The rainbow is a natural spectrum, produced by
meteorological phenomena. A similar effect can be produced by passing sunlight through a glass prism.
The first correct explanation of the phenomenon was advanced in 1666 by the English mathematician
and physicist Sir Isaac Newton.

Color, physical phenomenon of light or vision associated with the various wavelengths in the visible
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. As a sensation experienced by human beings and some
animals, perception of color is a complex neurophysiologic process. The methods used for color
specification today belong to a technique known as colorimetry and consist of accurate scientific
measurements based on the wavelengths of three primary colors.
 Colors of Light in the Visible Spectrum

The color of the visible light is basically composed of colors with acronym ROYGBIV, which stands
for red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. When all wavelengths of the visible spectrum are
radiated by a light source in equal amounts, the mixture is seen as white light. In place where no
radiations from any light source can be seen, the absence of light is called black. Whenever any
wavelength of light is present in greater abundance than others, the resulting light is colored.

PRIMARY COLORS- also called additive primary colors

a. Red 700mu

b. Blue 450mu

c. Green 550mu

COMPLEMENTARY COLORS- also called subtractive primary colors

a. Magenta 400mu

b. Cyan 500mu

c. Yellow 590mu

NEUTRAL COLORS

a. Gray

b. White

c. Black

Separation of White Light into colors

Light from many sources, such as sunlight, appears white. When white light passes through a prism,
however, it separates into a spectrum of varied colors. The prism bends, or refracts, light of different
colors at different angles. Red light bends the least and violet light bends the most.

White light is composed of electromagnetic vibrations, the wavelengths of which are evenly
distributed from 350 to 750 nm (1 nm, or nanometer, is 1 billionth of a meter, or 40 billionths of an
inch). If the intensities of these vibrations are roughly equal throughout the spectral range, the light
appears white or grey, depending on the brightness of surrounding areas in the scene being viewed.
Light composed of vibrations of a single wavelength in the visible spectrum differs qualitatively from
light of another wavelength. This qualitative difference is perceived subjectively as hue. Light with a
wavelength of 750 nm is perceived as red, and light with a wavelength of 350 nm is perceived as violet.
The quality of the intermediate wavelengths is perceived as blue, green, yellow, or orange, moving from
the wavelength of violet to that of red.

MEDIUMS OF LIGHT:

1. Transparent objects- mediums that merely slow down the speed of light but allow it to pass
freely in other respects, transmits 90% or more of the incident light.
 2. Translucent objects- mediums that allows light to pass through it in such a way that the outline
of the source of light not clearly visible, transmit 50% or less of the incident light.

3. Opaque materials- mediums that divert or absorb light, but do not allow light to pass through;
they absorb most the light while reflecting some of it.

SOURCES OF LIGHT;

1. Natural light

2. Artificial light

Classification of Natural light according to intensity

1. Bright sunlight- there are two sources when the sun is shining bright

Direct Sunlight and Reflected

2. Hazy Sunlight- When the sunlight is obscured by the clouds. Light is decreased, in effect, the light
coming from the sky becomes stronger that the shadows appear more bluish than the bright sunlight, In
black and white photographs, the shadows of objects in an open space are barely visibl as films are more
sensitive to the blue light than the other color light.

3. Dull Sunlight- When direct sunlight is obscured by the clouds. No direct sunlight reaches the
objects in an open space. Objects at far distance appear bluish or completely dark

ARTIFICIAL LIGHTS- this light can be divided into continuous and short duration

A. CONTINUOUS RADIATION66

1. Carbon Arc- consists of a pair of carbon rods connected in series with a resistance across direct
current.

2. Incandescent- lamp with a heated filament: an electric lamp that produces light from an
electrically heated filament. It consists of a conducting filament enclosed by a glass bulb heated by the
electric current until emits light.

3. Photoflood lamps- bright light used in photography: a very bright incandescent lamp used in
photography and filming. These can be placed to shine from below giving mysterious and strange effects
of frights to observers of the picture. The lamps can be placed up very high producing deep shadows
underneath protruding surfaces, if subject is a person standing, he will appear gloomy and somber.

4. Fluorescent lamps- an electric lamp containing a low pressure vapour, usually mercury, in a glass
tube. When an electric current is passed, ultraviolet radiation is produced and is converted into visible
light by an internal coating on the tube.

B. SHORT DURATION RADIATION

1. Chemical Flash lamps- light is produced by the rapid burning of metal wire, foil or primer
powders. To produce a rapid and complete burning, the bulb is charged with oxygen, the lamp flashes
once.
 a. F-lamp- such as SM or SF, has effective flash duration of about 1/200 of a second.

b. S-Lamp slow peak and their brilliance are about 30 milliseconds after the current is applied

c. M-Lamp used in all shutter speeds provided the synchronizer level is on

d. FP-Lamp- intended for focal plane shutter.

2. Electronic flash lamps- consisting of a slender glass tube filled with a gas xenon, a high voltage
electric discharge is passed through coiled tube, causing the glass to glow.

Flashbulb - bulb producing bright light for photography: a small glass bulb filled with shredded
metallic foil that produces a brief intense flash of light for taking photographs. Also called photoflash

INVISIBLE RADIATION THAT ARE CONVENIENTLY USED AND ESSENTIAL IN POLICE PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Ultra violet rays- used in photographing questioned documents suspected of being falsified or forged,
can be used to detect overwritten, erased, or hidden writings in a document.

2. Infra red rays- used in photographing unseen objects, or objects located in dimly lighted or dark areas;
for recording charred or burnt patterns, overwriting, and internal injuries.

3. X-rays- invisible radiation that can be used to photograph internal objects

4. Gamma rays- used in recording or photographing objects hidden by opaque mediums.

INTENSITY OF LIGHT7

One important aspect of light is its intensity as it reaches the subject, and how it is reflected by the
subject. This is very important for the police officer to understand, because the intensity of light on a
subject varies considerably when the distance between the light source and the subject of the film is
changed. The relationship of intensities is governed by the inverse square law which is shown graphically
in figure.

If an object, such as a card, is placed one foot from a light source, the light striking the card will be
of particular intensity. If it is then moved two feet away from the light, the intensity of light falling on
the card will be one fourth as great. As the card is moved farther away, the intensity of the light reaching
the card further decreases as the square of the distance from the source increases. This property of light
is very important to the police photographer especially when shooting vehicle accidents outdoors at
night flash or flood. The officer’s failure to correct the exposure as the subject moves farther from the
light source, will result in badly underexposed negatives due to the inverse square law. The function is
also important in the darkroom. if, for example, you have made a satisfactory 5x7 enlargement from the
same negative, there should be an approximate increase of four times in the exposure. If the importance
of this inverse square law is not recognized in the darkroom, disappointment and poor quality prints will
result.

CAMERA

It is defined as a light tight box chambered to the aperture enclosed in a shutter at the opposite
end of which is the place where sensitized material is located.
 A Camera may also be defined as a light tight (proof) box with a means of forming the image- LENS
or PINHOLE, with a means of holding sensitized material at one end- FILM HOLDER, and with a means of
controlling the amount of light needed to affect the film at the other end- SHUTTER.

Other Definitions:

 Device for taking photographs: a device for taking photographs by letting light from an image fall
briefly onto sensitized film, usually by means of a lens and shutter mechanism.

 device for making pictures: a device that converts images into electrical signals for television
transmission, video recording, or digital storage

Modern cameras operate on the basic principle of the camera obscura. Light passing through a tiny
hole, or aperture, into an otherwise light-proof box casts an image on the surface opposite the aperture.
The addition of a lens sharpens the image, and film makes possible a fixed, reproducible image. The
camera is the mechanism by which film can be exposed in a controlled manner. Although they differ in
structural details, modern cameras consist of four basic components: body, shutter, diaphragm, and
lens.

Pinhole Camera

A simple camera can be built by making a pinhole in a box. Light passes through the hole and forms
an inverted, backwards image of the subject on the back of the box. The image will be somewhat dim,
but the detail sharp enough that properly placed film will produce a good photograph. However, this
kind of photography only works if the film receives absolutely no other light.

The lens, which is attached to the front of the body, is actually a grouping of optical glass lenses.
Housed in a metal ring or cylinder, it allows the photographer to focus an image on the film. The lens
may be fixed in place or set in a movable mount. Objects located at various distances from the camera
can be brought into sharp focus by adjusting the distance between the lens and the film.

The diaphragm, a circular aperture behind the lens, operates in conjunction with the shutter to
admit light into the light-proof chamber. This opening may be fixed, as in many amateur cameras, or it
may be adjustable. Adjustable diaphragms are composed of overlapping strips of metal or plastic that,
when spread apart, form an opening of the same diameter as the lens; when meshed together, they
form a small opening behind the centre of the lens. The aperture openings correspond to numerical
settings, called f-stops, on the camera or the lens.

The shutter, a spring-activated mechanical device, keeps light from entering the camera except
during the interval of exposure. Most modern cameras have focal-plane or leaf shutters. Some older
amateur cameras use a drop-blade shutter, consisting of a hinged piece that, when released, pulls across
the diaphragm opening and exposes the film for about 1/30th of a second.
 In the leaf shutter, at the moment of exposure, a cluster of meshed blades springs apart to uncover
the full lens aperture and then springs shut. The focal-plane shutter consists of a black shade with a
variable-size slit across its width. When released, the shade moves quickly across the film, exposing it
progressively as the slit moves.

The viewing system or viewfinder to enable the photographer to see, through the lens of the
camera, the scene being photographed.

EARLY FORMS OF CAMERA

1. Pinhole Camera-

2. Box Camera

3. Camera Obscura

OTHER TYPE OF CAMERA

1. Roll Film Camera- cheapest and simplest to use

a. Box Camera -best for beginners, it is cheap and capable of turning out good results without too much
effort

b. Folding Camera- it has a leather bellows instead of a solid body

c. Reflex Camera- term reflex is derived from the word reflection, means that one or more mirrors are
employed to form the image you see when you look into the camera.

* 35mm Single Lens Reflex (SLR

* Twin Lens Reflex

* Miniature camera

d. German Leica

a) Range Finder

b) Single Lens Reflex

2. Press Camera

3. View Camera

4. Studio Camera

5. Graphic Camera

6. Camera Still

7. Polaroid Camera

8. Video Still Camera9

SLR Camera Anatomy

1. Film winder 2. Shutter Speed Dial.

3. Flash Hotshoe 4. Focusing ring.

5. Film Rewind Crank 6. Film Speed Dial.

7. Flash Synch Socket 8. Lens.

9. Depth of Field Preview 10. Self Timer/Exposure Lock.

11. Aperture Ring 12. Shutter Release

The Single-lens reflex, or SLR, cameras are among the most common in use today. Singlelens reflex
means that the same lens is used for viewing and taking the photograph. The movable mirror between
the lens and the film reflects the image on a ground-glass viewing screen while the user adjusts the
focus. When the shutter release button is depressed, a spring pushes the mirror out of the way, and the
image is recorded on the film.

Single-lens reflex camera

The single-lens reflex (SLR) is a type of camera that uses

a movable mirror placed between the lens and the film to
project the image seen through the lens to a matte focusing
screen. Most SLRs use a roof pentaprism or pentamirror to
observe the image via an eyepiece, but there are also other
finder arrangements, such as the waist-level finder or porro
prisms.10

The shutter in almost all contemporary SLRs sits just in front of the focal plane. If it does not, some other
mechanism is required to ensure that no light reaches the film between exposures. For example, the
Hasselblad 500C camera uses an auxiliary shutter blind in addition to its in-lens leaf shutter.

The cross-section (side-view) of the optical components of an

SLR shows how the light passes through the lens assembly
(1), is reflected by the mirror (2) and is projected on the
matte focusing screen (5). Via a condensing lens (6) and
internal reflections in the roof pentaprism (7) the image
appears in the eyepiece (8). When an image is taken, the
mirror moves in the direction of the arrow, the focal plane
shutter (3) opens, and the image is projected in the film (4) in
exactly the same manner as on the focusing screen.
This
feature

separates SLRs from other cameras, as the user sees the image as it would be captured. This aids in
accurately knowing the image beforehand.

Exposure Control

Shutter Speed and Aperture Settings

The shutter is a sliding door that allows light to pass through the aperture (opening) onto the film.
Different settings on a small dial on the top of the camera determine how long the shutter will remain
open. The aperture selector is on the body of the lens. The numbers that indicate the size of the
aperture are called f-numbers or f-stops. The f-stop is equal to the ratio of the focal length of the lens to
the diameter of the opening. The shutter speed and f-stop determine the exposure—that is, the overall
amount of light that will reach the film. However, even when the amount of light is constant, the effect
may be different. Photographers experiment with different combinations to achieve various effects.

Designs
 Cameras come in a variety of configurations and sizes. The first cameras, “pinhole” acameras, had
no lens. The flow of light was controlled simply by blocking the pinhole. The first camera in general use,
the box camera, consists of a wooden or plastic box with a simple lens and a drop-blade shutter at one
end and a holder for roll film at the other. The box camera is equipped with a simple viewfinder that
shows the extent of the picture area; some models have, in addition, one or two diaphragm apertures
and a simple focusing device.

The view camera, used primarily by professionals, is the camera closest in design to early cameras
that is still in widespread use. Despite the unique capability of the view camera, however, other camera
types, because of their greater versatility, are more commonly used by both amateurs and professionals.
Chief among these are the single-lens reflex, twin-lens reflex (TLR), and rangefinder. Most SLR and
rangefinder cameras use the 35-mm film format, while most TLR as well as some SLR and rangefinder
cameras use medium-format film, that is, size 120 or 220.

View Cameras

View cameras are generally larger and heavier than medium- and small-format cameras and are
most often used for studio, landscape, and architectural photography. These cameras use largeformat
films that produce either negatives or transparencies with far greater detail and sharpness than smaller
format film.

Rangefinder Cameras

Rangefinder cameras have a viewfinder through which the photographer sees and frames the
subject or scene. The viewfinder does not, however, show the scene through the lens but instead closely
approximates what the lens would record. This situation, in which the point of view of the lens does not
match that of the viewfinder, results in what is known as parallax. At longer distances, the effects of
parallax are negligible; at short distances, they become more pronounced, making it difficult for the
photographer to frame a scene or subject with certainty.

Reflex Cameras

Reflex cameras, both the SLR and the TLR types, are equipped with mirrors that reflect in the
viewfinder the scene to be photographed. The twin-lens reflex is box-shaped, with a viewfinder
consisting of a horizontal ground-glass screen located at the top of the camera. Mounted vertically on
the front panel of the camera are two lenses, one for taking photographs and the other for viewing. The
lenses are coupled, so that focusing one automatically focuses the other. The image formed by the
upper, or viewing, lens is reflected to the viewing screen by a fixed mirror mounted at a 45° angle. The
photographer focuses the camera and adjusts the composition while looking at the screen. The image
formed by the lower lens is focused on the film at the back of the camera. Like rangefinder cameras,
TLRs are subject to parallax.

In the SLR type of reflex camera, a single lens is used for both viewing the scene and taking the
photograph. A hinged mirror situated between the lens and the film reflects the image formed by the
lens through a five-sided prism and on to a ground-glass screen on top of the camera. At the moment
the shutter is opened, a spring automatically pulls the mirror out of the path between lens and film.
Because of the prism, the image recorded on the film is almost exactly that which the camera lens
“sees”, without any parallax effects.
Auto focus cameras use electronics and a CPU to sample automatically the distance between camera
and subject and to determine the optimum exposure level. Most autofocus cameras bounce either an
infrared light beam or ultrasonic (sonar) waves off the subject to determine distance and set the focus.

Design Comparisons

Folding Camera

Folding cameras, favoured for their compact design and movable

bellows, have been in use for many years. The camera’s lens is
incorporated into the bellows, which is slid back and forth along a rail
to change focus. The dark cloth covering the photographer and the box
body of the camera blocks out undesirable light, which might otherwise
interfere with the picture.

Brownie Box Camera

Box cameras like this “Brownie” were the earliest cameras used by the
general public. Relatively simple in design and operation, they consisted of a
wooden or plastic box, a drop-blade shutter, and a holding device for the
film. Modern box cameras are similar to early models, generally featuring
only one shutter speed and one opening; the very easy operation makes it a
popular camera among casual photographers.

Early SLR

Forerunner to many modern cameras, the 1937 Exacta singlelens reflex

(SLR) model featured a viewfinder, a film-winder, and precision action.

View Camera

View cameras are used for portrait and still-life photography. A geared track,
precision lenses, and a long bellows make the cameras fairly cumbersome, but
they are capable of capturing difficult subjects such as buildings with a
minimum of distortion.

Polaroid Instant Camera

The Polaroid, or instant, camera delivers a finished print directly following

exposure. Although most models are somewhat larger than the standard personal camera, the
advantage of this system is the convenience and speed of the results. Special film used in conjunction
with the camera is designed to develop itself, and represents one of the more recent chemical
revolutions in photography.

Reflex Camera

Reflex cameras use mirrors to form an image of the scene to be photographed in the viewfinder. The 35-
mm single-lens reflex (SLR) camera is one of the most popular cameras on the market today because of
its compact size, speed, and versatility. Most models offer a combination of automatic and manual
options.
Autofocus Camera

Some cameras are able to adjust themselves automatically,

focusing on the main figure in the field view. The autofocus

mechanism usually bounces infrared light beams or ultrasonic

waves off of a subject, taking rangefinding samples which are

processed electronically.

Accessorized SLR

Photographers may create a complicated-looking arrangement by

accessorizing a basic camera according to their personal taste and

desired photographic effects. Here, a tourist has added a telephoto lens

and a tripod to a basic single-lens reflex (SLR) camera in order to capture

an East African scene.

Digital Photography

In the late 20th century, new technologies began to blur the lines between photography
and other image-making systems. In some new forms of still photography, silver-halide emulsions

were replaced by electronic methods of recording visual information. 15