PRODUCED BY:

1- Dina hafez saad shehata 73 FLOORING TYPES

2- Dina Hani Elgohary 74
3- Roaa Hassan Mahmoud 86
GROUP 2
4- Sara Hany Fathy 95
5- Salma Muhammed Farouk 106
6- Samaa Hassan Abd ElAziz 109
7- Samar Abd Elwahab Eid Gamal 112
8- Sondos Ahmed Mahmoud Ali 116
9- Sohaila Gaber Muhammed Ismail 117
10- Shrouk Sherif Muhammed Abdeltawab 124
11- Abdelrahman Salah Abdelhamid 133
12- Abdelrahman Ali Ibrahim 134
13- Ola Tharwat Abdo Oulwan 137
14- Muhammed Hossam Elsayed 175
15- Mariam Badr Eldin Hassan 193
16- Mennatullah Mostafa Foad 204
17- Nouran Zaki Eldin Mostafa 229
18- Hoda Waleed Muhammed 246
19- Hesham Abo El Elaa 247
20- Youssef Muhammed Abd Elbary 261

PAGE 1 GROUP 2
 TYPES OF FLOORS:
1. STONE FLOORS

2. WOOD FLOORS

3. PORCELAIN TILES

4. CERAMIC TILES

5. MOASIC TILES

6. RAISED FLOORS

7. CONCRETE FLOORS

8. CARPETING

9. RESILIENT FLOORING (VINYL

COVERING)

10. EPOXY COAT

PAGE 2 GROUP 2
 THE CONTENT FOR EACH TYPE
OF FLOOR:
• ABSTRACT

• TYPES

• USES

• ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

• INSTALLATION

• PROS & CONS

PAGE 3 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
ABSTRACT
• Among flooring materials, none is more elegant
and luxurious than natural stone.

• The term "natural stone" refers to a variety of

mountain-born mineral substances that stand in
contrast to any synthetic or manufactured stone
products.

• Common natural stone flooring includes:

slate, marble, limestone, travertine, granite,
and sandstone

• each of which has slightly different properties.

• It's important to understand the characteristics

of the type of stone flooring tile you are
purchasing to determine if it is appropriate for a
specific location.

PAGE 4 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
TYPES

GRANITE MARBLE

PAGE 5 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
1.1- MARBLE FLOORING
TYPES
EGYPTION MARBLE:
1. Silvia Menia marble
2. Triesta marble (Sinai Pearl Marble)
IMPORTED:
1. Emprador Marble Silvia Menia Triesta
2. Brescia marble
3. Perlato Sicilia marble
4. Green Indian marble

PROS& CONS
PROS:
1.Marble is a beautiful material to use in your
home as it’s completely natural. Emprador Brescia
2.means that each piece is uniquely different. It’s
also easy to clean and extremely durable.
CONS:
1.Unprotected.
2.soft stone that will soak up stains.
3.easily etched by acidic materials.
PAGE 6 GROUP 2 Green Indian Perlato Sicilia
1- STONE FLOORS
1.1- MARBLE FLOORING
TYPES
1.SILVIA MENIA MARBLE:
• Silvia Menia is one of the most famous
Egyptian lime stones as well as it is one of the
best seller stone types in Arab countries.
• Silvia Menia quarries are located in El-Menia,
Egypt in abundance.

It comes into 3 different colors:

1.Light Cream
2.Dark Cream
3.Green

Advantages:
1.All finishes can be applied on it, except flamed.
2.It doesn't need any treatments
3.Anti-freezing material Reception
4.It is used in Exteriors, interiors, walls & floors
and cladding.
5.it is not expensive.

PAGE 7 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
1.1- MARBLE FLOORING
2-TRIESTA MARBLE (Sinai Pearl Marble):
Sinai Pearl is the third most well-known Egyptian
limestone as well as it is one of the best seller
stone types. Its quarries are located in the north
and the south of Sinai Peninsula.

It comes into two different colors:

1.Yellowish.
2.Grey.

ADVANTAGES:
1.Anti-freezing material, so it can be used both
outdoor and indoor.
2.Most finishes can be applied on it.

Kitchen

PAGE 8 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
1.1- MARBLE FLOORING
3-EMPRADOR MARBLE:
• Characterized by beige and brown veins which
lends beauty and elegance of the luxurious
places normally used to determine the wide
open spaces of floors or as counter tops .

It will be a perfect choice to be applied in:

-Kitchen, Bathroom, Stairs, Living room and
Outdoor Landscape.

ADVANTAGES:
1.Easy to install and clean
2.Low maintenance
3.Durable

Bathroom walls and Receptions

flooring

PAGE 9 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
1.1- MARBLE FLOORING
4-GREEN INDIAN MARBLE:
• Indian Green marble is dark greenish marble
stone and is quite.

• Common in Egypt.

• This product is mostly used in construction of

floors.

• Due to its dark texture and color it is used in

reception areas and decoration of lobby
floors.

• The Indian Green Marble is easily

complemented with different colors. it has a
higher price tag than its ceramic or porcelain
counterparts.

• Most commonly it is used in both commercial Hotels

and residential areas, hotels, restaurants,
hospitals and schools.
PAGE 10 GROUP 2
FLOORING PLAN FOR
MARBLE FLOOR:

PAGE 11 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
1.2- GRANITE FLOORING
• Granite is an igneous rock that gets formed
when exposed to a high heat.
• Its structure is crystalline, and tiles made from
granite are very dense and strong.

TYPES:
1.Kashmir White
Kashmir White Platinum white
2.Platinum White
3.Crystal yellow
4.Black Galaxy

ADVANTAGES:
1.Aesthetics 2.Durable 3.Long lasting

DISADVANTAGES:
1.Professional Installation 2.Heavy
Black Galaxy Crystal yellow
3.Maintenance

PAGE 12 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
1.2- GRANITE FLOORING
TYPES
1.KASHMIRE WHITE:
• The Kashmir White Granite is a highly durable
and glossy material.
• A uniform material and an ideal choice for
flooring tiles of 2 cm and 3 cm thickness are
recommended for better durability and
strength.
• The Kashmir White Granite is not only a highly
recommended granite for Kitchen tops, but
also for flooring.

USES:
buildings, furniture, artificial limbs, floorings,
residential floorings, commercial floorings, front
walls, claddings, decorative functions, coverage Residential floorings:
roofs, bathrooms, kitchens, urban furnishings, bedrooms
accessories, ornaments, wall tiles.

PAGE 13 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
1.2- GRANITE FLOORING

2.PLATINUM WHITE:
• The Platinum White is a very bright material
and perfect for budget flooring.
• The biggest advantage of using Platinum White
Granite is the price.
• This is all weather granite with high durability.
• This granite is available in polished, flamed and
leather finishing to meet any flooring
requirement.

WHERE TO LAY?
1.you can use this granite for Kitchen Tops as
well.
2.In Malls in both flooring and stairs and looks Commercial stores
very attractive

PAGE 14 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
1.2- GRANITE FLOORING
3.BLACK GALAXY
• If you are looking for dark granite flooring, the
Black Galaxy Granite flooring is one of the best
solutions a. Likewise, the Absolute Black.
• Black Galaxy Tiles are also popular for flooring.
• The tiles are sorted in without line which is a
very premium choice for flooring.
• The price range of Black Galaxy Granite tiles is
very affordable.

WHERE TO LAY?
1.The tiles are also used in making Kitchen
Countertops
2.suitable for both interior and exterior projects
and recommended for countertops, accent walls,
backsplashes, cladding, floors, and other features. Commercial stores

PAGE 15 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
1.2- GRANITE FLOORING
4.CRYSTAL YELLOW
• The Crystal Yellow granite is one of the most
used colors for granite flooring.
• This granite is very bright in color and perfect
for indoor flooring.
• This is one of the most uniform granite, which
has evenly scattered crystals in the pattern.
• This granite looks bright in the low light area.
• This is durable, affordable and weather-
friendly granite for use in Indoor and outdoor.

WHERE TO LAY?
1.you can use tiles of Crystal Yellow at your
swimming pool area.
2.In Bedroom, Kitchen, Laundry, Main Area,
Outdoor, elevation Main Area:
Receptions

PAGE 16 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
INSTALLATION

1-Prepare the Subfloor 2-Create Reference Lines 3-Mix and Spread the Mortar

4-Set the First Tile 5-Set the Tile With a Rubber 6-Install Additional Tiles
Mallet
PAGE 17 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
INSTALLATION

7-Install the Remaining Full-Size 8-Cut Tiles With a Wet Saw 9-Remove Excess Mortar
Tiles

10-Seal the Marble 11-Grout the Tile 12-Wipe the Tiles Clean 13-Seal the Grout

PAGE 18 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS
(GRANITE FLOORING)

PAGE 19 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS
(MARBLE FLOORING)

PAGE 20 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS
(MARBLE FLOORING)

PAGE 21 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

T section connection
PAGE 22 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

Marble skirting Detail

PAGE 23 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

Threshold

PAGE 24 GROUP 2
1- STONE FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS
Flush threshold
Marble & Carpet can be
connected without additional
sections

PAGE 25 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
ABSTRACT
• Is any product manufactured
from timber that is designed for
use as flooring, either structural
or aesthetic.
• Wood is a common choice as a
flooring material and can come
in various styles, colors, cuts,
and species.
• Bamboo flooring is often
considered a form of wood
flooring.

PAGE 26 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
TYPES& FORMS

PAGE 27 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING

TYPES
1.Laminate flooring
2.Parquet flooring
3.Solid hardwood flooring
4.Engineered hardwood flooring

1- LAMINATE FLOORING

• Made by producing an image of wood on a layer

of plastic, which is laminated to a board backing.
• Top-quality versions have convincing textured
finishes, and are hard wearing and tough.
• Laminate flooring is a surface which simulates
wood with a photographic applique layer under
a clear protective layer.

Laminate Flooring

PAGE 28 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
1- LAMINATE FLOORING

BENEFITS:
• The faux wood effect means you get a floor
with all the aesthetic benefits of wood, and at a
cheaper price.
• It is easy to install.
• less prone to scuffs and scratches
• It is a long-lasting and durable product.

WHERE TO LAY?
Living rooms, studies and playrooms. Some
products include a waterproof core which means
they can be used in bathrooms and kitchens

Kitchens

PAGE 29 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
2- PARQUET FLOORING

• Parquet flooring owes the origins of its name to

the French word, parqueterie

• Typically laid in a geometric, angular style,

squares, lozenges and triangles often feature in
traditional parquet flooring.

• Referred to as mosaic flooring.

• parquet flooring is appreciated for its decorative

effect. Parquet flooring can be made from solid
and engineered wood these days.

PAGE 30 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
2- PARQUET FLOORING

BENEFITS:
• Parquet flooring is elegant and adds warmth and
beauty to most interior settings.
• easy to maintain.
• It is durable and long-lasting.
• Parquet flooring adds value to your home.

WHERE TO LAY?
• in hallways and reception areas so that it can be
shown off regularly.
• It requires a relatively constant atmosphere due
to its susceptibility to water or humidity damage.

Reception areas:
Restraunt entrance hall

PAGE 31 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
3- SOLID HARDWOOD FLOORING

• made from solid wood.

• Each board of solid hardwood flooring is made

from a single piece of hardwood that’s about
3/4 of an inch (18-20mm) thick.

• Some types are suitable for installation as the

structural floor, without needing a sub-floor
underneath.

• It’s usually fitted using tongue-and-groove.

PAGE 32 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
3- SOLID HARDWOOD FLOORING

BENEFITS:
• add value to a property.

• can be sanded down and refinished regardless

of how long they have been installed; this can
restore the original finish after scuffs or scrapes.

• tends to outlast other hardwood floor types.

WHERE TO LAY?
• Anywhere with a constant atmosphere,
particularly in hallways where you can show it
off.

Hallways

PAGE 33 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
4- ENGINEERED HARDWOOD FLOORING

• Engineered wood flooring is a versatile and

resilient flooring option.

• Each floorboard consists of three or four layers

of wood, glued together at right angles to create
a plank around 14mm thick.

• It has a real wood veneer of around 4mm on top.

HDF
TYPES:
1.MDF (Medium Density Fiberboard).
2.HDF (High Density Fiberboard)

MDF
PAGE 34 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
4- ENGINEERED HARDWOOD FLOORING

BENEFITS:
• more resistant to moisture and heat compared
to solid hardwood.

• It’s construction method makes it more stable

than a piece of solid wood; it is less likely to
buckle or gap.

• You can install engineered hardwood flooring at

any level, including below ground. In contrast,
solid hardwood floors cannot be installed in
basements.

• It is highly durable and long-lasting.

WHERE TO LAY?
Anywhere it won’t be exposed to water or Reception
humidity, Wooden stairs are very difficult to lay and
fitting around places.

PAGE 35 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
FLOORING FIXING METHODS
1.FLOATING FLOORS:
• It allows you to install flooring into your home or
other type of building that is not nailed to the
actual floorboards in your home.
• Floating planks lock together and rest on top of
another flooring material.
PROS:
• It make replacing damaged planks easy.
• helpful for easy access to pipes, electrical wires
etc.
• It is low cost.
CONS:
• Engineered Wood Flooring can’t be sanded as
many times as Solid Wood Laminate, Flooring
can’t be sanded at all.
• Because the flooring isn’t attached to the sub-
floor, it can move slightly when walking over it.
• A hollow or echoed sound can sometimes occur
when walking over a floating floor.
PAGE 36 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

Detailed drawing for floating method

PAGE 37 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
FLOORING FIXING METHODS

2.GLUE-DOWN FLOORS:
• The adhesive is applied to the subfloor in small,
workable sections.
• It is usable on all wood flooring types. it is
mostly used on solid wood boards which do not
have a click or tongue and groove system.

Pros:
• It is much more robust and feels sturdier
underfoot.
• It is seen as a more permanent fixing method.
• Wood allows for the necessary expansion and
contraction.
Cons:
• The time it takes to install your flooring is higher.
• It is high cost.
• It significantly more difficult to replace .
• Glue can damage your brand new wood
flooring’s look if it gets onto the face of the
plank.
PAGE 38 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

Detailed drawing for Glue-down Floors method

PAGE 39 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
FLOORING FIXING METHODS
3.NAIL OR STAPLE DOWN INSTALLATION METHOD
• It is the most demanding of methods, requires
the most skill and potentially specialist tools
such as a floor nailer and so.
• This method can only be carried out when there
is a wooden sub-floors.
• It is commonly used with solid wood floors as
due to their extra thickness plus the fact that
they will be more prone to expansion.
Pros:
• This type of installation is seen as a permanent
method
• It is a cost effective method
• Damaged board can be replaced by a
professional seamlessly
• The last advantage is the improved look
Cons:
• It may not be suitable for your home if particle
board subfloor, or the wood floor needs be
installed over a concrete slab such as in
basements or condos.
PAGE 40 GROUP 2
2-WOOD FLOORING
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

Detail drawing for Nail or staple down Floors method

PAGE 41 GROUP 2
FLOORING PLAN FOR
WOODEN FLOOR:

PAGE 42 GROUP 2
3- PORCELAIN
ABSTRACT
• Porcelain tiles are actually part
of the ceramic family but are
distinct in their characteristics,
which stems from the slight
(albeit crucial) difference in
materials used, and the modes
of production.

PAGE 43 GROUP 2
3- PORCELAIN
Types of porcelain
TYPES:
1.FULL BODY
• Made with a limited number of
select materials, blended,
pressed and fired to get through
body porcelain tiles.

ADVANTAGES:
• Good technical performance.
• Makes the product suitable for
heavy commercial use.

DISADVANTAGES:
• No original color effect;
repetitive look.
• Doesn’t have the natural look of
real stone.

Full body porcelain

PAGE 44 GROUP 2
3- PORCELAIN
2.GLAZED:
• Made with clay and other materials, which are
blended and pressed in order to create the
texture. The tile is then dried, decorated, and
fired.

ADVANTAGES:
• Affordable prices.
• Appealing look.

DISADVANTAGES:
• Detailing loses definition when the tiles are
structured as a result of the limits of the
technology used when decorating uneven
surfaces; also not suitable for use in high-traffic
areas.
Glazed section

PAGE 45 GROUP 2
3- PORCELAIN
3.DOUBLE CHARGE:
• Materials of multiple loading porcelain are
pressed twice.

• Made with a limited number of colored

materials and no glaze.

• These tiles consist of two layers, with 25% of

the thickness made of noble minerals and the
remaining 75% of simple fine speckled material.

• Shares the same advantages and disadvantages

of full body porcelain.
Double Charge section

PAGE 46 GROUP 2
3- PORCELAIN
USES
• Floor and walls , internal and
external.

• Airports, malls, palaces, hotels,

exhibitions, restaurants, banks
interfaces , villas and luxury
building.

• Kitchen and bathrooms.

• patio or sidewalk without

worries of cracks developing
due to freezing.

• household applications.

PAGE 47 GROUP 2
3- PORCELAIN
PROS & CONS
PROS: CONS:
• One of the strongest fired flooring options today • Very hard and cold underfoot that may cause
• More durable material than ceramic tiles. excessive stress on the joints.
• Needs minimal maintenance and does not require • Porcelain tiles are heavy, Specially the larger sizes
polishing after installation. • Expensive • Lack of uniformity of size and shape.
• Very hard to be shipped or cracked easily • tiles with glossy finish become very slippery
• high resistance to scratches, chemicals, Corrosion especially on wet floors.
and fire. • Installation of porcelain tiles needs the services of a
• Lower moisture absorption leads to lesser staining professional.
and easier cleaning. • Its increased density means that it's very hard and
• available in many different styles ,colors and more difficult to cut.
designs.
• Water, salts and allergen and bacteria resistant
• the choice of emperors, royalty, and privileged.

PAGE 48 GROUP 2
3- PORCELAIN
INSTALLATION
1. Begin laying the tile from the center of the
room, using your reference lines as your
guide.

2. Spread thinnest with the notched edge of a

trowel. Larger tiles require more thin set and a
larger notched trowel.

3. As you lay your tile, you can use plastic spacers

to help ensure you have straight grout lines. You
will remove the spacers before the thinnest
dries.

4. Clean up any excess thinnest immediately using

the manufacturer’s instructions.

PAGE 49 GROUP 2
3- PORCELAIN
INSTALLATION
5. After a few rows of tile are installed, set them
with a tile level and a mallet.

6. As you reach the perimeter of the room, cut

and adjust tiles to complete your installation.

7. Allow the tile to set according to the

manufacturer’s instructions. Grout the tile.

8. Clean the tile surface with a damp sponge and

clean water.

PAGE 50 GROUP 2
3- PORCELAIN
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

PAGE 51 GROUP 2
3- PORCELAIN
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

Connection between porcelain and

Connection between porcelain and
marble
ceramic tiles with a marble tile

PAGE 52 GROUP 2
4- CERAMIC
ABSTRACT
• Is a tile made of clay, by subjecting it to burn
under high temperatures, then fat his face
with a layer strong quartz or basalt, the
thickness of this layer thin, very often, so a
value of neglected relative to the thickness
of the tiles. We have several dimensions of
the ceramic lowest is 10*10

USES
• It is extremely versatile and so can be used in
almost any room in the home.

• It is most often used in bathrooms and

kitchens.

• It’s not prefer to use in ( public building ).

PAGE 53 GROUP 2
4- CERAMIC
TILE LITTLE ABSORBTION TILE HIGH ABSORBTION
OF WATER (GLAZED) OF WATER (UNGLAZED)
.
Finishing touches: Additional firing process in No additional firing
kiln, a layer of liquid glass process
is added to tiles
Thickness: Less dense/thick (lighter Denser and thicker
glazes are harder than
darker glazes)
Slip resistance: Liquid glass top coat less More slip resistant in
slip resistant moist/high traffic areas
Scratch resistance: Higher luster shows more Scratch resistance
scratches
Stain resistance: Resists staining with non- More vulnerable to stains
porous liquid glass top
coat
Style options: Wider range of Earthy coloring/aesthetic
styles/colors
Uses: ceramic coating suitable ceramic flooring suitable
for floors exposed to or bedrooms, halls and
moisture such as corridors
PAGE 54 bathroom floors GROUP 2
4- CERAMIC
TYPES:
• Grade II tiles are often used in residential
applications with light traffic, such as a
bathroom.

• Grade III tiles are also appropriate for

residential use and in kitchens and entryways .
These types of ceramic tiles might also be used
in commercial environments where there is not
a high volume of foot traffic.

• Grade IV tiles are found in commercial and

residential settings. They are durable and long-
lasting, but not so industrial that they will not
look great in a home.

• Grade V tile that is used in industrial settings.

These types of tiles are extremely sturdy and
able to withstand traffic, . You rarely find this
tiles in residential settings because of their
industrial look.
PAGE 55 GROUP 2
4- CERAMIC
INSTALLTION BY USING MORTAR ON
SAND:
Following materials are required approximately
for fixing 1 sqm of tiles:
1. Cement - 9.0 Kg
2. Sand - 0.9 Cft.
3. Color Cement - 0.1 Kg

INSTALLATION:
1. Preparation of the support surface (firm
base) Preparation of the mortar bed
2. Fixing the tile
3. Sealing the joints
4. Cleaning

PAGE 56 GROUP 2
4- CERAMIC
INSTALLATION
1.fill the ground with smooth sand and
consolidate well by watering Installation of
ceramic tiles well by watering
2.over the sand bed lay pcc (1:4:8) pcc – plain
cement concrete 1 – one portion of cement 4 –
four portions of sand 8 – eight portions of
40mm metal
3.prepare cement mortar with 1:3 proportion
4.spread the cement mortar with uniform
thickness of 20 to 25 mm over pcc
5.Fix the tiles over the cement mortar bed with
uniform joints
6.clean the surface of the tiles with wet cloth
fill the joints with colored cement that matches
the shade of the tiles.

PAGE 57 GROUP 2
4- CERAMIC
INSTALLATION BY USING ADHESIVE
MATERIAL
1. Dry the Floor

2. Find the midpoint of each wall and

snap a chalk lines on the floor. The line
crossing at the room's center are the
starting point of the tile.

3. Spread adhesive material

4. Installing the tile

5. Grouting the tile

PAGE 58 GROUP 2
4- CERAMIC
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

Installation of ceramic tiles using mortar on sand Installation of ceramic tiles using adhesive material

PAGE 59 GROUP 2
FLOORING PLANS FOR PORCELAIN AND
CERAMIC FLOORS:

PAGE 60 GROUP 2
5- MOSAIC TILES
ABSTRACT
• Mosaic flooring can be produced from any of a
variety of material pieces. Ceramic and porcelain
are very popular as they can be printed to take
on any color or pattern. Natural stone is the
preferred method for rustic and dramatic
effects. Glass chips are used when an upscale,
elegant demeanor is desired.

• The tiles are typically small for the greatest

impact with the design. The materials can also
be mixed, such as porcelain tile with glass tile
accents to add more dimensional depth and
style to the mosaic pattern.

PAGE 61 GROUP 2
5- MOSAIC TILES
USES
1.Glass and ceramic mosaic tiles are used in pools,
spas, steam thicker than standrooms, and in
washrooms.
2.Stone tiles can be used in out door designs as
patios and paths.

PROS:
˗The design possibilities. You can find many pre-set
mosaic patterns, or get creative and make your
own.
˗Durable and waterproof.
˗Easy to clean. 1

CONS:
˗The installation process can be tricky to lay mosaic
tile evenly and get the grout lines clean.
˗High cost of glass tiles.
2
PAGE 62 GROUP 2
5- MOSAIC TILES
INSTALLATION
1.Dry-fit tiles before adhering to determine the
pattern. Sheet tiles can be cut with a utility knife
along the grout lines to match up to the inlay tiles.

2.Lay out perpendicular lines in the center of the

room and snap grid lines at intervals of the same
dimensions as the mosaic sheet. Mix the epoxy
adhesive and, using a 1/4-inch notched trowel,
spread and comb the adhesive on a small area, just 1
inside the layout lines.

2
PAGE 63 GROUP 2
5- MOSAIC TILES
INSTALLATION
3.Lay sheet or tiles. Make sure the entire surface of
the sheet is level in the mortar.

4.Cut and set partial Tiles. Use a wet saw to cut the
field tiles against the wall to size.

5.Wipe excess mortar from the surface of the tile

with a damp sponge. Make sure you remove all of
the excess, dried mortar is very difficult to remove.
Let the mortar set, then grout and clean the tiles. 3 4

PAGE 64 GROUP 2 5
6- RAISED FLOORS
ABSTRACT
• The raised floor is made of tiles of 60 * 60 cm,
which rose from the original ground and were
loaded on racks.

• When it rises to a large percentage, conductive

grips are placed between each holder and the
other.

• leaving the open space created between the two

for wiring or cooling infrastructure.

PAGE 65 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
60*30 cm 60*60 cm
TYPES
1.concrete filled steel: The slab consists of cement
mixed with concrete layers.

2.Hollow steel: Hollow about 6cm from the

bottom with circular recesses, distributed over the
total area of the slab.

3.Wood core: With wooden beams, it has been

pressed to increase its carrying capacity. It has a
layer of steel on top and bottom of the slab.

4.Aluminum: It is used more in ventilation

openings. Concrete filled steel Hollow steel

5.Fiber tiles: a mixture of cement with fiber and on

them two pieces of steel from the top and bottom.

Wood core Aluminum Fiber tiles

PAGE 66 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
COMPONENT
1.Panels

2.Stringers

3.Pedestals

panels Pedestals

PAGE 67 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
PANEL TYPES
1.Concrete core:
heavy weight & have steel frame with a concrete as
internal core.
2.Calsium sulphate core: Concrete core Calsium sulphate
GI sheet encaping at top & bottom & calcium
sulphate infill material.
3.Fiber core
4.Glass core

COVERING TYPES
1.Vinyl Covering Fiber core Glass core
2.HPL
3.Carpet
4.Timber

Vinyl Covering HPL Carpet Timber

PAGE 68 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
STRINGERS
• It provides the horizontal connection between
the columns in order to obtain the required
modularity, improving the stability and the
distribution of loads on the Structure.

PAGE 69 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
PEDESTALS
• Pedestals are affixed to the subfloor through
either mechanical fixings or adhesives. Since the
pedestals are adjustable, the gap between the
elevated floor and the subfloor can be between
3 and 48 inches. To ensure that the panel is fixed
and supported stably, the pedestals must also
contain the following parts:

1.Locking Device (Corner Lock)

2.Head Plate
3.Hexagon Nut
4.Stem (Threaded Rod)

PAGE 70 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
USES
1.Large IT/Server Rooms.

2.Offices.

3.Underfloor air conditioning.

4.Underfloor plumbing/electric cables.

5.Laibraries.

6.Computer rooms

7.classrooms.

PAGE 71 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

Stringer connection with pedestal Panel to wall connection

PAGE 72 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS
1.Ramps

PAGE 73 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS
Ramps Details

RAMP DETAIL WITH CONCRETE FLOOR

CONNECTIONS AT PEDESTAL HEAD

PAGE 74 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS
Ramps Details

RAMP DETAIL WITH CONCRETE FLOOR

PAGE 75 GROUP 2
RAMP DETAIL WITH CONCRETE FLOOR
6- RAISED FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS
2.Stairs

PAGE 76 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

Stairs detail

PAGE 77 GROUP 2
Expansion joints.
6- RAISED FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

PAGE 78 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
INSTALLATION

1.Check room dimensions against 2.Finding starting points.

approved drawings.

3.Check lines at right angels 4.Check control lines.

to make sure room is square.
PAGE 79 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
INSTALLATION

5.Target finished floor height and 6.Clue pedestals base take care of 7.Bolt stringers if they are part of
center pedestals on the 60cm location. the system.
marking.

9.Lay panel in opposite direction 10.Use one chalked control line

8.Check for rocking panels..
along the long wall for remainder
follow same steps as before.
of floor.
PAGE 80 GROUP 2
6- RAISED FLOORS
PROS & CONS
PROS: CONS:
• Ease of reconfiguration and easy access • For constructing such raised tile floor, you need
Access to air, power, voice, and data under the floor lets you specially trained
reconfigure contractor who must have knowledge of using the
your layout with minimal downtime as your workspace tools for construction.
needs change. • Tiles are liable to break or get chipped
• Occupant health and comfort • Durability of tiles are not too long.
Create a healthy work environment. Clean and newly • Additional cost.
conditioned air is introduced through the floor directly. • Reduces the clear heights.
• LEED (Sustainability): Credit Contribution
- Recycling of access flooring and reuse of access flooring
component
can reap savings in initial building costs and continuing
operational costs,and for gaining LEED points.
• Design flexibility
- Changing the design of existing spaces is not limited by the
location of power and data. Floor height can be varied to
accommodate various finishes or functions within a space.

PAGE 81 GROUP 2
7- CONCRETE FLOORS
ABSTRACT
• A concrete floor is typically one in which a flat
slab is formed of concrete, which is either
poured in-situ or precast in a factory.

• Rebar is necessary to compensate for the fact

that whilst concrete is strong in compression, it
is relatively weak in tension. By casting rebar
into concrete, it is able to carry tensile loads and
so increase overall strength.

PAGE 82 GROUP 2
7- CONCRETE FLOORS
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION
• foundation wall cast integrally with the slab as
an edge thickened slab.

• constructed as a separate concrete or concrete

masonry perimeter foundation wall with the
slab laid later.

Concrete floor slab and Concrete floor cast into

integral footing rebate in foundation wall

Concrete masonry foundation

PAGE 83 GROUP 2
wall and concrete floor
7- CONCRETE FLOORS
MAIN FINISHES
• Polished concrete: Polished concrete is a result
that originates from a troweled concrete. The
polishing process creates resistance on the
surface, modifying directly the hardness of the
concrete. In addition, polished concrete offers a
surface that is easy to maintain.

• Smoothed concrete: Smoothed concrete is the

result of the process of uniformity driven by a Polished concrete
vibration trowel, which generates the
planimetry on the surface of fresh concrete,
making its level balanced and its thickness
homogeneous.

PAGE 84 GROUP 2
Smoothed concrete
7- CONCRETE FLOORS
USES
1. Car parks.

2. Commercial and industrial

buildings.

3. Residential blocks.

4. Factories.

PAGE 85 GROUP 2
7- CONCRETE FLOORS
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

PAGE 86 GROUP 2
7- CONCRETE FLOORS
INSTALLATION

Install the felt paper The metal lath Install the metal lath

Pour the concrete Spread the concrete Allow the concrete to

dry
PAGE 87 GROUP 2
7- CONCRETE FLOORS
PROS & CONS
PROS: CONS:
• Low-maintenance: The same properties that make • Hardness: There’s no denying that concrete is hard
concrete floors so durable also make them easy to care underfoot, a quality that some find uncomfortable. It’s
for. Properly sealed concrete floors shrug off dirt, grit, also unforgiving and it may be a concern if there are small
stains, spills, and hard impacts. A little sweeping and children or elderly folks in the household. Area rugs can
damp mopping is all that’s required to keep them looking help alleviate concerns.
like new. • Moisture: In below-grade basements, moisture migrating
• Beautiful design options: Modern techniques for up from underneath the slab may make concrete
concrete finishing have moved concrete floors from ho- unacceptably damp and damage any surface treatments,
hum to luxurious. Dyes added as the wet concrete is such as paint. Proper sealing of the concrete helps, as
being mixed produces concrete in a huge range of earthy does mitigation of any outside problem areas like leaky
colors. Surface treatments such as acid stains, concrete gutters and poor soil drainage.
stains and paint made for concrete floors turn plain • Cracking: Like it or not, even expertly installed concrete
concrete into beautiful, one-of-a-kind finishes. Also, may develop cracks over time. That’s because the large
concrete can be stamped with rubber stencils to give it expanse of a slab has to endure changes in temperature,
texture. Combined with the right dyes or coloring agents, moisture and settling. Colored cement paste and patching
finished concrete can be made to mimic ceramic tile, materials help disguise cracks.
natural stone, brick, even dirt! • Environmentally suspect: While concrete itself is an inert,
• Heated floors: For new construction or for concrete biodegradable material, the process of making cement
poured over an existing slab, you have the option to add requires a lot of energy and produces carbon dioxide.
radiant heat — electrical cables or hot water tubes Compared to other building materials such as steel, wood
embedded in the concrete to create warm, comfy floors. and glass, concrete has by far the most embodied energy.
PAGE 88 GROUP 2
8- CARPETING
• Carpets are often referred as soft floor
coverings, they can be categorized by their
construction , patterns and types of yarn used, a
good carpeted floor usually inhances look and
appearance of your premises.

ADVANTAGES:
1.Warm and soft to the touch
2.Fairly inexpensive
3.There is a wide selection of colors and styles
4.They offer insulation and sound proofing
5.Easy to clean
6.Easy to maintain and repair

DISADVANTAGES:
1.May flatten and harden
2.There is the possibility of mold grown in areas of
high moisture.
3.They tend to absorb large spills into the pads
underneath.
4.They could require professional cleaning

PAGE 89 GROUP 2
8- CARPETING
USES
• In hospital settings it can
provide directional clues to
move people to the registration
counters or elevations.
Hospitals Mosques
• It can block out sound in a
school ,computer lab , studios
etc..

• In restaurants , Hotels,
Mosques , offices, shops as
carpeted floor offers comfort ,
increases noise absorbency and
Schools Hotels
has an aesthetic appeal.

PAGE 90 GROUP 2 Offices

8- CARPETING
TYPES OF FACE YARN (PILING)
• A carpet typically consisting of
an upper layer of pile attached Cut Pile Loop Pile Cut & Loop Pile
to a backing .

• Piling can be described as sewing

type of yarn into a backing
material Cut Pile Sisal Textured Cut And Loop Pile

• There are 3 types of piling:

1.Cut Pile
2.Loop Pile
3.Cut & Loop Pile Frieze Level Loop Pile Level Cut And Loop Pile

Cut Pile Twist Multi Level Loop Pile

PAGE 91 GROUP 2 Saxon Berber

8- CARPETING
1
COMPONENT OF CARPETS&ITS
2
MATERIAL
1- Face Yarn 3
-Nylon -Olefin
-Wool -Polyester
2-Primary Backing: A primary 4
backing in which the yarns are
sewn. 1- Face yarn
3-Adhesive Material: Synthetic
adhesive as Latex and Acrylic etc..
4-Secondary Backing: A 2-4-Primary & Secondary Backing 3- Adhesive Material
secondary backing that adds Wool
strength to the carpet.
Carpets Can Be
-Woven : (More durable) It Is
Produced on loom. Olefin
-Non woven : Produced by attaching
surface to a pre fabricating backing. Nylon
Woven Non-Woven Latex & Acrylic adhesives

PAGE 92 GROUP 2 Polyester

8- CARPETING
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS Carpet Floor 8mm
Adhesive Material
Marble skirting with carpet Concrete 9cm
Concrete Slab 20cm

Carpeting floor with Transition strip where

wooden skirting tile meets carpet

PAGE 93
8- CARPETING
INSTALLATION

1- Clean the floor 2- Determine area 3- Applying adhesive 4- Lay the carpet pad

5- Surface adjustement 6- Trim the carpet 7- Add the material divider fixation
PAGE 94 GROUP 2
9- RESILIENT FLOORING
• Resilient flooring is a loose,
catch-all term that refers to
floor coverings that occupy a
middle ground between soft
floors (such as carpeting) and
hard floors (such as stone or
hardwood).

PAGE 95 GROUP 2
9- RESILIENT FLOORING
TYPES
1.Vinyl
2.Linoleum
3.Cork
4.Rubber
5.Asphalt
6.Polymeric poured seamless
floors

ADVANTAGES:
• Durable
• Flexible
• Inexpensive

DISADVANTAGES: 1 2 3
• Indentation

4 5 6
PAGE 96 GROUP 2
9- RESILIENT FLOORING
9.1- VINYL FLOORING

TYPES:
1.Normal Vinyl
2.Luxury vinyl
3.Conductive Vinyl
4.Anti Static Vinyl
5.Sportive Vinyl
6.Anti slips Vinyl

PAGE 97 GROUP 2
9- RESILIENT FLOORING
9.1- VINYL FLOORING

USES:
1.Normal Vinyl: is used mainly in
houses, offices and schools.

2.Luxury vinyl: is considerably

thicker than standard vinyl, giving
it a semi-rigid nature, also used in 1 2
houses, offices and schools but it
is more realistic and lasts
considerably longer.

3.Conductive Vinyl: is used in

health care facilities because its
components not only attract
electrical charges, steering them
away from people and sensitive
electronic equipment.

PAGE 98 GROUP 2
9- RESILIENT FLOORING
9.1- VINYL FLOORING

USES:
4.Anti Static Vinyl flooring :
reduces, removes, or prevents
the build-up of static electricity,
is frequently used in technical
rooms and technological
4 5
buildings such as laboratories,
operating rooms, oncology areas,
power generators, electrical
rooms, substations, control
rooms, control towers, etc.

5.Sportive Vinyl: is used to make

indoor sport floors and Sport
Court tiles for outdoor play areas.

6.Anti slips Vinyl: It s very

popular to lay in kitchens, 6 7
bathrooms, toilets, hallways etc.

PAGE 99 GROUP 2
9- RESILIENT FLOORING
9.1- VINYL FLOORING
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

PAGE 100 GROUP 2

9- RESILIENT FLOORING
9.1- VINYL FLOORING
INSTALLATION
1.Remove the baseboards
Start by removing the baseboards. First, cut
through any paint sealing the baseboards to the
wall using a utility knife. Then use a pry bar to
gently loosen the baseboards.

2.Prep your subfloor

Prep your subfloor so that it's clean, dry and level 1
within 3/16-inch change per 10 feet. Use a self-
leveler on low spots and/or sand high spots of
wood or concrete. Don't sand vinyl flooring as it
may contain asbestos. Self-leveler is available in
powder and pre-mixed form and is used to create
a flat, smooth surface in flooring projects. The
strength of the product is similar to concrete. Self-
leveler dries fast, so you have to work quickly.

PAGE 101 GROUP 2 2

9- RESILIENT FLOORING
9.1- VINYL FLOORING
INSTALLATION
3.Score the first row of planks
Score and cut the tongue off the first row of vinyl
planks using a utility knife. Set the first plank in
place on the starting line with the cut side toward
the wall, maintaining the expansion gap.

4.Place the planks

3
Hold the next plank at a slight angle against the
previous plank's end and fold down to click it into
place. To cut the last piece to fit, score it with a
utility knife and snap the plank.

PAGE 102 GROUP 2 4

9- RESILIENT FLOORING
9.1- VINYL FLOORING
INSTALLATION
5.Insert the Tongue
Insert the tongue of the first piece into the
groove of the previous row's first plank and
rotate down to click together.

6. Connect the Short End

For the next piece, connect the short end first 5
and then the long end. You should feel it lock.
Continue the installation, making sure to stagger
the joints by 6 inches and maintain the expansion
gap .

7. Install Under Door Jambs 7

To get under door jambs, slightly bend the planks
into place, and use a pull bar or tapping block to
lock the joint if necessary.

PAGE 103 GROUP 2 6

9- RESILIENT FLOORING
9.1- VINYL FLOORING
INSTALLATION
8.Peel and Stick Vinyl Plank Flooring
The floor preparation and layout are the same for
peel-and-stick vinyl planks as they are for floating
vinyl plank floors. To install each piece, peel the
adhesive backing off the plank and stick it to the
subfloor.
9. Finishing Reinstall the Trim Moldings
After the floor is laid, re-attach the baseboards 8 9
and trim, preferably using an pneumatic brad
nailer. Manually nailing with a hammer, while
possible, can easily damage the trim, while a brad
nailer does this work effortlessly .
If you do manually nail, use a nail-set to recess the
7
nail heads below the surface of the trim. If the
level of the floor has been raised enough, it may
be necessary to trim the ends of door case
moldings to fit the reduced space.

PAGE 104 GROUP 2

10- EPOXY COAT
ABSTRACT
• It is a flooring surface that comprises multiple
layers of epoxy that is applied to a floor with a
depth of at least two millimeters. Confusion
typically arises when comparing an epoxy floor
and epoxy floor coating.

• The difference between the two lies in the

depth of the epoxy - as stated, epoxy floors are
classified as an epoxy coating of at least two
millimeters thick. Any epoxy floor less than two
millimeters thick is commonly referred to as an
epoxy floor coating.

PAGE 105 GROUP 2

10- EPOXY COAT
TYPES
1.Epoxy Terrazzo Flooring: provides a decorative,
durable and seamless flooring surface.

2.Epoxy Flake Coating: It has a decorative floor

finish that is easy to clean and has good resistance
to foot traffic and chemicals.

3.Epoxy Floor Coatings: Their finishing can be Epoxy terrazzo flooring Epoxy flake coating
chosen to be matte, satin or glossy.

4.Epoxy Self-Levellers: The resin-rich formulations

of epoxy SL provide a very strong durable finish for
heavy-duty demanding environments.

Epoxy floor coating Epoxy self-levellers

PAGE 106 GROUP 2

10- EPOXY COAT
USES

As a coating
As a mortar

PAGE 107 GROUP 2

10- EPOXY COAT
ARCHITECTURE DETAILS

PAGE 108 GROUP 2

10- EPOXY COAT
INSTALLATION

1. Sweep the floor well 2. Mix the hardener and the 3. Apply the mixture over the
resin for 2 mins. surface.

4. Use the kit squeegee 5. Flake application “optional”. 6. Apply the final top coat.
to the poured lines of epoxy
,then wait about 30 mins.
after the first back roll.

PAGE 109 GROUP 2

10- EPOXY COAT
BENEFITS& ADVANTAGES

• Aesthetics: Epoxy flooring can be applied as a seamless, easy-to-clean floor surface with a wide range of
customisable color options, as well as a variety of gloss levels (glossy, satin, matte). Further design options include
the addition of colored microchips and metallic pigment additives.

• Maintenance: Since epoxy is a seamless and impervious flooring option, the concrete substrate is protected from
chemicals, dirt, liquids and other contaminants. This makes the floors easy to clean and requiring only a scrubber or
standard mopping with a general-purpose cleaner – no waxing or buffing is necessary. Epoxy floors do not require
much maintenance other than a standard cleaning, making them a great long-term value option.

• Durability: Workloads on epoxy floors can vary from foot traffic to truck and forklift traffic. An industrial flooring
option can withstand daily abuse from a wide variety of equipment and manufacturing processes. As an abrasion and
chemical-resistant material, epoxy flooring options can meet the durability needs of most industrial manufacturers.

• Environment Suitability: As one of the most versatile flooring options, epoxy flooring is great for a variety of
environments such as industrial, commercial, medical, food and beverage manufacturing, aviation, recreational,
healthcare, transportation, manufacturing, educational, grocery, retail and many more.

PAGE 110 GROUP 2

 GENERAL
COMPARISONS

PAGE 111 GROUP 2

Flooring type cost Where to install tips
Hardwood one of the best for the shared living It will develop crapes, scratches and dents over time and
Flooring most spaces of the main floor. needs refinishing
expensive
options
Laminate Flooring lower price high-traffic areas that aren’t this material can be prone to moisture damage and difficult
the kitchen or bathroom. to repair.
Vinyl or Linoleum Not as cheap meant for high-traffic, you Installation and maintenance are a breeze.
as it used to be can put it almost anywhere

Porcelain or Not expensive kitchens, bathrooms and It is more difficult to install, and it can chip and scratch
Ceramic Tile entryways. under heavy use. Unlike hardwood or carpet, you can
replace individual parts instead of the entire surface if
necessary.
Natural Stone Tile One of the Different kinds of stones Softer stone likes sandstone won’t resist moisture as well as
Flooring most have different options for harder stone like granite or marble.
expensive installment
flooring
options
Carpet Of the Most suitable for bedrooms To maintain an attractive and sanitary surface, you should
cheapest hire a pro to clean it at least once a year.
materials
PAGE 112 GROUP 2
 NATURAL STONES MANUFACTURED MATERIALS

EACH MATERIAL AND MODEL HAS IT’S STANDARD

FLEXIBLE SIZES – CAN BE SPECIFIED ACCORDING SIZES EXCEPT FOR THE MATERIALS THAT CAN BE
TO THE DESIGN APPLIED DIRECTLY ON THE FLOOR LIKE FAIR
FACED CONCRETE AND MOSAICS

NEEDS REGULAR MAINTENANCE

NEEDS LESS MAINTENANCE
(WAXING OR POLISHING )
NATURAL STONES

GENERALLY MORE EXPENSIVE THAN SOME OF

MANUFACTURED MATERIALS STARTING PRICES
STARTING PRICE FOR SOME MATERIALS ARE LESS
SUCH AS CERAMIC, TERRAZZO TILES AND
PORCELAIN

ABILITY TO DESIGN DIFFERENT PATTERNS USING

IT’S A MUST TO USE THE AVAILABLE SIZES FROM
DIFFERENT MATERIALS by WATER JET CUTTING MANUFACTURED TILES
EACH MATERIAL
METHOD

PAGE 113 GROUP 2

 CERAMIC PORCELAIN
text:
MIXTURE OF RED OR WHITE CLAY WITH A COAT MADE BY THE DUST-PRESSED METHOD OF A
Text
OF OPAQUE , GLASSY MATERIAL ON THE FACE COMPOSITION FROM PORCELAIN CLAYS

IF CHIPPED IT SHOWS THE RED CLAY BENEATH IF CHIPPED IT SHOWS SAME MATERIAL AS THE
THE OUTER COVER. OUTER COVER

MUCH HARDER , DENSER AND FINE-GRAINED CERAMIC

EASIER TO CUT, DRILL AND INSTALL THAN CERAMIC WHICH MAKE IT HEAVIER TO
HANDLE AND HARDER TO CUT AND DRILL

SUITABLE FOR VERY LIGHT TO MODERATE T EXCELLENT FOR LIGHT TO HEAVY TRAFFIC AS IT’S
TRAFFIC MORE DURABLE

WATER RESISTANCE MORE WATER RESISTANCE

PORCELAIN

LESS EXPENSIVE MORE EXPENSIVE

PAGE 114 GROUP 2

 MARBLE GRANITE
text:
HARD AND DENSE STONE BUT SOFTER THAN
Text
MUCH HARDER STONE, TOUGH AND DURABLE
GRANITE

IDENTIFIED BY IT’S DISTINCT SWIRLS OR VEINS IDENTIFIED BY IT’S CLOSE GRINS

RECOMMENDED TO MEDIUM TRAFFIC EXCELLENT FOR HEAVY TRAFFIC LIKE STAIRS

MARBLE

POROUS MATERIAL hence ABSORB STAINS SCRATCH AND STAIN RESISTANT

NEEDS REGULAR MAINTENANCE DOESN’T NEED REGULAR MAINTENANCE

MORE VARIETIES AND FINISHES OPTIONS LIMITED VERITIES AND FINISHES OPTIONS GRANITE

COULD HAVE HIDDEN CRACKS AND PORES DOESN’T HAVE HIDDEN CRACKS OR PORES

PAGE 115 GROUP 2