By Systems Realization Laboratories

Georgia Institute of Technology

No matter what fastener is used in a problem with tensile stresses occurs

given application, all fasteners perform when the fastener is elongated and
generally the same purpose. Quite sim- looseness can quickly occur.
ply, fasteners join two or more pieces of
material. Some fasteners fasten the Tensile and shear stresses (force divided
same type of materials and others can by cross-sectional area) are present in
be used on a variety of materials. almost all applications. While it may
not be possible to calculate the exact
Just as all fasteners have the same gen- force, rough estimates can be made
eral purpose, they all face the same gen- very little deformation of the fasteners. using certain techniques. Once an esti-
eral concerns. In choosing the most Another problem that exists is that mation of the forces and the stresses is
appropriate for a given application, sev- once shear deformation begins, there is obtained, one can determine if the
eral things must be taken into account, little or no recover within the material. product will be likely to fail. Some sup-
such as economics and availability, plus In other words, once deformation pliers provide information on the max-
strength and durability (an ASME begins, the material does not bound imum safe loads their products can
Nuclear Grade bolt is extremely strong, back into its original material. support, but if this information cannot
but it will cost you one leg and both
arms). This section focuses on the vari- Tensile/Compressive Forces. Tensile and
ous loads the fasteners must undergo. compressive forces are the forces that
act in the direction of the fastener. Ten-
Various Loads to Bear sile forces pull on the fastener and
stretch it out while compressive forces
Shear Forces. Shear forces are the forces tend to squeeze the fastener. In most
that act against the direction of the fas- cases, compressive forces are not a big
tener. problem in most application. Tensile
loads, however, tend to stretch the fas-
Shear forces tend to rip a fastener tener and can lead to failure of the part
against the grain, and there is usually in extreme cases. The most probable

Official Publication of AWCI 19

 be obtained, material property tables Curing Time and Cleanup. Different units. There are standard sizes for bolts,
give the values for a variety of materials. adhesives require different curing however, that standardize the dimen-
times. It is important to read and fol- sions on the different sizes of bolts so
While these calculations are only an low the directions that pertain to each that they are known without actually
estimate, they will tell you whether or adhesive. The materials should be dried buying the bolts themselves. These
not a component of your project is at room temperature, in a dry environ- dimensions are tabulated in any
questionable or might fail. Its always ment and out of direct sunlight. mechanical engineering handbook.
better to be safe than sorry, so be sure Information about the standard unified
your fasteners can support the loads Cleanup should be done as you go. national fine and course thread series
they are expected to handle. Most cleaners will not remove adhe- threads, which are widely used, are
sives after drying. Make sure to proper- shown in the tables on page 23.
Basic Adhesives Theory ly close all adhesive containers, and
store them out of the reach of children The meanings and uses of the values
This section presents the basic theory in a dry place at room temperature. in the tables are defined as follows:
necessary to use adhesives effectively.
Size. The size of the bolt indicates the
The treatment in this section is primar- Threaded Fasteners
nominal diameter of the bolt. The
ily on an elementary level; consult an
size is normally the diameter of the
expert or the product manufacturer for How do bolted joints work? Bolted
unthreaded portion of the bolt but
complex analyses or calculations. joints use the bolt to “squeeze” the parts
for small sizes, a size number designa-
together, which should be fairly appar- tion is given so that sizes that are not
Preparation. Before any adhesive can ent. What may not be apparent is that standard fractions can be used.
be applied, there are a few steps to fol- a properly assembled bolted joint actu-
low to minimize problems. ally stretches the bolt as it clamps the Nominal Diameter The diameter of
members between it, resulting in a the bolt. This information is only
The instructions on the adhesive compressive stress in the members and necessary for the smaller bolts, since
should be read carefully. Old clothes a tensile stress in the bolt. This load is the size column is the same as the
should be worn, and tarps, old sheets or called the bolt pre-load, and is desir- diameter column for bolts 1/4 inch
newspaper should be used to cover able. When an external load tries to and larger.
area. Make sure that the surfaces for the separate the members, a tensile stress is
adhesive to be applied to are clean and exerted on the members and on the Threads Per Inch. This is the pitch,
dry. If applying adhesive to surfaces bolt-the bolt takes some of the load, or the number of threads per inch of
threads on the bolt. This figure is
such as metal or glass, rough the sur- and the members take the rest. The
important when calculating how
faces to help in the adhesive process; pre-load, however, means that any ten-
many turns of the nut on the fasten-
this can be done by sanding. sile load on them must first overcome
er will be required to clamp the
the compressive stress in the members
members, or how much of the thread
Application. Application of the adhe- before it can begin to try to separate the will extend beyond the nut when
sive is very important. Glues work best members from each other. Bolted clamped. The inch is also very impor-
when a thin layer is applied to both sur- joints are normally designed so that the tant when using standard threads for
faces. Too much glue is just as bad as maximum load that is expected to be power screw applications, because it
too little glue. The glue can be applied supported by the members is smaller defines how many turns will be
with brushes or Popsicle sticks. Once than the pre-load, so that the members required to move the nut a given dis-
the glue has been applied, line the two will never be separated in operation of tance along the thread.
surfaces up and clamp them together to the joint.
dry. Be sure to wipe away any excess Tensile Stress Area. The tensile stress
glue before it dries. Types of Bolts area (in square inches) is the cross-
sectional area that should be used
When applying tape, it is important to Bolts come in many different sizes and when calculating the stress on a bolt
are available in both metric and English that results from an applied load. The
make sure to get all the air bubbles out.

18 Construction Dimensions r November 1997

tensile stress area is generally calculat- manently This strength usually corre- Bearing Stress. Using washers reduces
ed (as it is in the tables) by using the sponds to about 90 percent of the yield the bearing stress on the member sur-
cross-sectional area corresponding to strength of the material the bolt is faces by distributing the load over the
the average of the minor diameter made from. For standard, low carbon washer area instead of just the bolt head
and the pitch diameter. steels, the proof strength of bolts from area. For materials like wood and other
1/4 to 1-1/2 inch in diameter is about soft materials, this is critical because the
Minor Diameter. The minor diame- 33 ksi. For medium carbon steels, you bolt head or nut might start to sink
ter of a bolt is the diameter of the val-
can count on a minimum proof into the member surface before an ade-
leys in the bolt’s threaded region.
strength of bolts of about 85 ksi for the quate pre-load is reached. Separation
Bolt Strengths same sizes, and for medium carbon, can occur, in addition to the damage of
heat treated bolts you can get as high as the member surface.
Bolts have a variety of strengths because about 120 ksi proof strength.
there is are a number of different mate- Vibration. Washers help prevent nuts
rials from which they are made. Since Using Washers and bolts from coming loose during
bolts are normally holding other parts operation of the joint, especially when
together, they are classified by proof Whenever you use a bolted joint, vibration is present.
strength instead of yield strength. whether you are using a screw or a bolt
and nut, you should always use wash- Tightening. Washers make it easier to
The proof strength of a bolt is the ers. Here are several reasons that you tighten a bolt and nut joint by keeping
strength at which the bolt deforms per- should use washers: them from turning when the other part

Official Publication of AWCI 21

is turned. This is especially
important when it is difficult to
Unified National Course (UNC) Threads
get at one side or the other of
the joint.
Tensile
Major Threads/ Stress Minor Thread
Strength. Although really only Size Diameter(in) inch Area (in2) Diameter(in) Length(in)
an issue when high-strength 1 0.0730 64 0.00263 0.00218 0.396
joints are being used, washers 2 0.0860 56 0.00370 0.00310 0.422
help prevent damage to the nut 3 0.0990 48 0.00487 0.00406 0.448
and bolt from any burs that 4 0.1120 40 0.00604 0.00496 0.474
might exist from drilling holes. 5 0.1250 40 0.00796 0.00672 0.500
Burrs on the surface can cause 6 0.1380 32 0.00909 0.00745 0.526
failure when high stresses are 8 0.1640 32 0.01400 0.01196 0.578
imposed on the joint. 10 0.1900 24 0.01750 0.01450 0.630
12 0.2160 24 0.02420 0.02060 0.682
About the Authors 1/4 0.2500 20 0.03180 0.02690 0.750
This material has been reprinted 5/16 0.3125 18 0.05240 0.04540 0.875
from the web site of the Systems 3/8 0.3750 16 0.07750 0.06780 1.000
7/16 0.4375 14 0.10630 0.09330 1.125
Realization Laboratory in the G.
1/2 0.5000 13 0.14190 0.12570 1.250
W. Woodruff School of
Mechanical Engineering, Geor-
gia Institute of Technology,
Unified National Fine (UNF) Threads
Atlanta. This material is avail-
able at www.srl.gatech.edu/ Tensile
DLS/primer. The main web site Major Threads/ Stress Minor Thread
for the Systems Realization Lab- Size Diameter (in) inch Area (in2) Diameter (in) Length(in)
oratory is at www.srl.gatech.edu.
David Cowden, Jennifer B. 1 0.0730 72 0.00278 0.00237 0.396
Craine, Joseph Craine III, Artis 2 0.0860 64 0.00394 0.00339 0.422
Ray and Garig Vandervelt wrote 3 0.0990 56 0.00523 0.00451 0.448
or contributed substantially to 4 0.1120 48 0.00661 0.00566 0.474
the material in this article. It is 5 0.1250 44 0.00880 0.00716 0.500
part of the virtual Product 6 0.1380 40 0.01015 0.00874 0.526
Realization Studio, an online 8 0.1640 36 0.01474 0.01285 0.578
design/education environment 10 0.1900 32 0.02000 0.01750 0.630
developed by Farrokh Mistree, 12 0.2160 28 0.02580 0.02260 0.682
Janet K. Allen and David 1/4 0.2500 28 0.03640 0.03260 0.750
5/16 0.3125 24 0.05800 0.05240 0.875
Rosen. The manager of the pro-
3/8 0.3750 24 0.08780 0.08090 1.000
ject is David D. Clark.
7/16 0.4375 20 0.11870 0.10900 1.125
Cowden will graduate with a
1/2 0.5000 20 0.15990 0.14860 1.250
master’s in mechanical engineer-
ing and plans to work in com-
puter integrated manufacturing upon magazine went to press. school at the University of Tennessee
graduation. Joseph C. Craine III will also gradu- after graduation.
Jennifer B. Craine, who will gradu- ate as a mechanical engineer from Ray graduated in spring 1997 with a
ate from Georgia Tech next month as a Georgia Tech. He is employed by BME and is currently pursuing a mas-
mechanical engineer, was interviewing Southern Nuclear at Plant Vogtle. ter’s degree in heat transfer at Georgia
for employment as this issue of the Vandervelt plans to attend medical Tech.

Official Publication of AWCI 23