93

WRITING AND
LANGUAGE

• Subject-Verb Agreement
• Verb Tense
• Pronoun Reference and
Agreement
• Run-ons and Fragments
• Parallelism
• Misplaced Modifiers
• Improper, Incomplete, and
Illogical Comparisons
• Punctuation: The Rules for
Commas
• Punctuation: The Rules for
Colons,
Semicolons, Dashes, and
Apostrophes
• Diction and Idiom

• Development
• Effective Language Use
• Organization
94

Problem Type: Subject-Verb Agreement

The College Board remains committed to testing students’ subject-verb agreement mastery;
thus, you must develop and maintain your skills in this area. The SAT adds challenges to
subject-verb agreement problems, too: not only must you have a strong general knowledge of
subject-verb agreement issues, but you must also be aware of other grammar issues (including
additional verb errors) that may appear in conjunction with subject-verb agreement problem.
For example, is the problem below a subject-verb agreement problem? Essentially, it is, as
evidenced by choices (B) and (C), but the original, incorrect formulation also presents you with
a sentence fragment, which you must recognize as such before proceeding.

The output of renowned translators Richard Pevear 1

and Larissa Volokhonsky, spilling over tens of thou- A) NO CHANGE
sands of pages and encompassing the hundred-fifty- B) rivals
year golden age of Russian literature, 1 rivaling C) rival
even their most prolific forerunners’ in both quality D) have rivaled
and quantity.

It is only when you approach the answer choices that you can see that your main task is to
make the subject and verb agree. The real issue is this: in a sentence of this length, it may be
difficult to see exactly what the subject for the underlined verb is; that difficulty is the main
hurdle to clear when you’re dealing with subject-verb agreement. In order to begin to
understand, you may need to return to the basics:

Recognizing Singular/Plural Verbs: Basic Info for Beginners

Unlike nouns, plural verbs do not end in “s”—in fact, all singular verbs end in “s,” even the irregular
ones...
singular: The girl flips the cards. plural: The girls flip the cards.

singular plural
is are
was were
has have
does do

Answers to this section:

page 192
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 95

It is imperative that you learn to identify and resolve subject-verb agreement errors quickly.
Here’s your standard approach:
(1) Any time you encounter a verb that has singular and plural forms (such as “is”/“are”), you
must find its subject and check for agreement.
(2) Find the subject by looking past all the modifying and intervening clauses and phrases and
reducing the sentence to its Essential Elements.
The Essential Elements of a sentence are the subject, its verb, and any objects or complements.
Everything else is simply description and extra information.
To find the Essential Elements,
(1) eliminate all prepositional phrases (composed of a preposition and a noun, such as “up the
wall,” “over the counter,” and “around the town.”),
(2) eliminate all dependent clauses, those portions of a sentence that contain a noun and a verb
but are not complete sentences (they often begin with words such as “although,” “because,”
“even though,” “if,” “so that,” “which,” “whenever,” “whether,” and many more),
(3) eliminate all interrupters, portions of the sentence that break the flow (these come in many
forms, but are usually set off by commas).

Complete Sentence Essential Elements

Many of the horses came from Arabia. Many came

Each of the policemen on duty was confused. Each was confused

Though Leslie knew better, she stole money often. [Leslie knew] she stole money

After you’ve earned your degree, many opportunities will [you’ve earned degree]
become available to you. opportunities will become
available
Roger, one of the first to try the new medication, Roger developed effects
developed several worrisome side effects.
*brackets indicate dependent clauses
Now, practice your approach on this problem:

The theory that the mass extinctions of 250 million 2

years ago were caused by increased volcanic activity A) NO CHANGE
and a warming climate 2 are based on newly B) were based
discovered evidence. C) based
D) is based
96

In addition to the basic approach (and realizing that other types of grammar issues may appear
within subject-verb agreement problem) there are Nine Subject-Verb Agreement Rules you
must learn:
 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES NEVER CONTAIN THE SUBJECT
This rule is just an extension of the Essential Elements approach, and the majority of the
subject-verb agreement problems on the SAT are simply variations of this rule.
EXAMPLE: The bin of donated clothes behind the store (was, were) damaged in the storm.
eliminate or look past the prepositional phrases
The bin of donated clothes behind the store (was, were) damaged in the storm.
“bin” is the subject, and it is singular noun; thus

The bin of donated clothes behind the store was damaged in the storm.

 INTERVENING PHRASES / CLAUSES

“Intervening” means “coming between.” This rule is similar to the first and is also an extension
of the Essential Elements approach.
EXAMPLE: The stacks of books which were scattered across his desk (was, were) daunting.
eliminate any phrases or clauses that may be “in the way”
The stacks of books which were scattered across his desk (was, were) daunting.
looking past the prepositional phrase and the dependent clause (“which were scattered
across his desk”), you can now see the subject easily:

The stacks of books which were scattered across his desk were daunting.
Of special note here are certain intervening phrases that the SAT test uses over and over again.
These phrases begin with… as well as…together with…along with…in addition to…
including…combined with...
So, in the problem below, the plural verb “have” seems correct because the rapper and dozens
of volunteers are certainly more than one person, but the correct verb is the singular “has,”
because the actual subject, “rapper,” is singular and is unaffected by the “together with….”

The rapper, together with dozens of volunteers, 3

3 have joined an effort to clean up the grounds of a A) NO CHANGE
school in New Orleans that suffered grave damage B) having joined
from Hurricane Katrina. C) has joined
D) has been joining
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 97

 GERUNDS, INFINITIVES, AND NOUN CLAUSES

Occasionally, an entire word group such as a phrase or clause will be the subject of a sentence.
A gerund phrase begins with an “-ing” verb form and an infinitive phrase begins with “to” plus
a verb. A noun clause will have a subject-verb within it; noun clauses begin with words such as
“how,” “where,” “what,” “who,” and “that.”
EXAMPLE: Washing greasy pots and pans (has, have) never been my favorite chore.
The gerund phrase “washing greasy pots and pans” is the subject—it is the thing that has
“never been my favorite chore.”
EXAMPLE: To believe in an anthropomorphic deity (is, are) to suggest that humans are the
central focus of the universe.
The infinitive phrase “to believe in an anthropomorphic deity” is the subject.
EXAMPLE: How she manages to fail all her tests (is, are) a mystery to me.
The noun clause “How she manages to fail all her tests” is the subject—it is the mystery.
You should learn to recognize situations when the subject is a phrase or clause and know that
gerund phrases, infinitive phrases, and noun clauses are always singular.

 INVERTED SUBJECTS
Most subjects of the sentence are near the beginning of the sentence and in front of the verb.
This structure is dominant in English, and in almost all sentences, the subject will precede the
verb. However, a couple of sentence types are “inverted,” meaning they are “turned around
backwards.” In such sentences, the subject follows the verb. Since this type of structure is
uncommon and will confuse the average student, the SAT writing test contains problems that
involve this rule.
The first type of inverted sentence occurs when many phrases, especially prepositional phrases,
come before the verb. Therefore, using the technique of recognizing and “looking past” phrases
and clauses to find the Essential Elements will also help you solve these problems.
EXAMPLE: Along the road behind the high school (is, are) some dangerously steep ditches.
as always, eliminate prepositional phrases
Along the road behind the high school (is, are) some dangerously steep ditches.

Along the road behind the high school are some dangerously steep ditches.
98

The second type of inverted subject is easy to spot. For this second type, you can simply
memorize a basic rule:
“There” and “here” are NEVER the subjects of a sentence.
Whenever you see “there” or “here” preceding the verb, you should look after the verb to
find the subject, as in the following problem. But you should also look carefully at the way
such an issue might be presented on the SAT. In this case, correct pronoun determiners and
subject-verb agreement are being tested.

4 Their are numerous reasons to buy organic 4

clothes, especially for babies. A) NO CHANGE
B) There are
C) There is
D) Their is

 SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT: COMPOUND SUBJECTS

Conjunctions like “and,” “but,” and “or” join words together and make them compound.
Subjects, of course, can be compound. Two basic rules determine whether a singular or plural
verb goes with a compound subject.
1. Subjects joined by “and” are plural.
EXAMPLE: Seema and Bahir are going to join us for dinner tomorrow evening.
Obviously, Seema and Bahir are two people, and thus are plural.

There is one exception to this rule,

when the compound subject refers to a single person or item
EXAMPLE: The boxer’s manager and physical therapist, Stu Oyler, has been
missing for weeks.
The compound subject refers to one person, as reinforced by the
appositive, “Stu Oyler.”
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 99

2. Subjects joined by “or,” “nor,” “either… or…” or “neither… nor…” follow special
rules.

If any of these conjunctions join two singular EXAMPLE: Samantha or Sheena is expected
subjects, the verb will be singular. to win the beauty contest.

If any of these conjunctions join a plural EXAMPLE: Either the oysters or the salmon
subject with a singular one, the verb will be soufflé was the source of my food poisoning.
singular.

If any of these conjunctions join a singular EXAMPLE: Neither the janitor on duty nor
subject with a plural one, the verb will be the other witnesses were able to describe the
plural. gunman.

If any of these conjunctions join two plural EXAMPLE: Neither the gorillas nor the
subjects, the verb will be plural. chimps were suitable subjects for the new
experiment.

Is there an easy way to remember these particular rules? Actually, there is! If you look closely
at the above examples, you’ll notice the underlying pattern to these rules: With these conjunc-
tions, the verb always agrees with whichever subject is closer (in the examples above,
“Sheena,” “salmon soufflé,” “witnesses,” and “chimps.”)

Below is an example of this type of subject-verb agreement problem as it might appear on the
test. This one is straightforward.

Neither Ron Howard’s The Da Vinci Code nor 5

Sofia Coppola’s Marie Antoinette 5 were well- A) NO CHANGE
received at the Cannes Film Festival, as film critics B) was
booed during the screening of each film. C) is
D) being
100

 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
Indefinite pronouns are special types of pronouns such as “everybody” or “many” that are used
when there is no specific person being referred to or when an undefined portion of something is
being represented.
EXAMPLES: Everybody has enjoyed the play.
Many of my friends have taken the driving test.
In regard to subject-verb agreement, the important thing to know is that some indefinite
pronouns are singular, some are plural, and some can be either singular or plural. You should
be aware of all the information in the following table:

Singular: anyone, anybody, anything, each, one, everyone, everybody, everything, either
much, someone, somebody, something, neither, no one, nobody, nothing, another

EXAMPLE: Neither of the elephants has been given a thorough examination.

Plural: several, many, both, ones, others, few

EXAMPLE: Several of those in attendance at the event have signs of post-traumatic stress.

Mutable: some, all, any, more, most, enough—To determine whether these pronouns are
singular or plural, you must find the antecedent (what the pronoun is referring to); it will often
be located in a prepositional phrase. This does not break rule #1 because, technically, the
subject is still the indefinite pronoun—it’s just that you have to look inside the prepositional
phrase to find what the pronoun refers to in order to determine whether it’s singular or plural.

EXAMPLES: Any (of the treasure) that you find in the cave is yours to keep.
Any (of the people) whom you meet during this mission are likely to be spies.

 COLLECTIVE NOUNS
Collective nouns are another type of subject that can be either singular or plural depending on
context. Collective nouns refer to groups (usually of people).
Some common collective nouns are...
army ~ audience ~ band ~ choir ~ class ~ club ~ committee ~ company
crowd ~ flock ~ gang ~ group ~ herd ~ jury ~ orchestra ~ team
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 101

 If the members of a collective noun are acting as a group, the word is singular.
 If the members are acting individually, the collective noun is plural.
EXAMPLE: The committee is meeting this weekend in a special session.
EXAMPLE: The committee are arguing among themselves about the provision of
the new law.
NOTE: You can often find clues in the sentence, such as the plural pronouns “themselves” in
the second example.

 RELATIVE PRONOUNS
Relative pronouns are certain pronouns that are used to begin adjective clauses. The basic
relative pronouns are...
which, that, who, whom, whose
As with some of the indefinite pronouns, you must find what a relative pronoun refers to in
order to determine whether its verb will be singular or plural.
EXAMPLE: The two letters which were left on the counter are now missing.
You cannot determine whether “which” is singular or plural until you realize that it refers to
“letters” and is thus plural.
Most subject-verb problems that involve relative pronouns are easy, because the word that the
relative pronoun refers to is usually located directly in front of the relative pronoun.
**However, there is one extremely difficult relative pronoun problem which occasionally
appears on the SAT…When a phrase such as “one of the people” precedes a relative pronoun,
it can be difficult to determine what the relative pronoun refers to.

Review the problem below. The adjective clause is “who seem to know anything...” The
relative pronoun is “who.” Some people might think that it refers to the preceding word,
“members.” But carefully consider the meaning of the sentence. Who is it that has knowledge
of the new budget process? One person—Tilda? Or all the committee members? It is actually
just Tilda, so the relative pronoun is referring to “one,” not to “members.”
Notice also that you’re forced to confront pronoun case issues among the answer choices, too.

Tilda is the only one of the committee members 6

6 who seem to know anything about the nuances A) NO CHANGE
of the new budget process. B) whom seems
C) who seems
D) whom seem
102

Now consider the next problem. The relevant adjective clause is “who has been working on the
investigation...” The relative pronoun is again “who.” But whom does it refer to? All of the
officers? Or just Detective Brison? By considering the meaning of the sentence, seeing its
“focus,” you can determine that “who” refers to the all of the officers, not just to Detective
Brison. Thus, the singular verb “has been working” is incorrect.

Detective Brison, who is now up for promotion, is 7

one of the officers 7 who has been working on A) NO CHANGE
the investigation into the murder of my parents. B) who have been working
C) who, having worked
D) who is working

 TRICKY WORDS
Some words that are used as subjects are simply tricky, and thus may appear as problems on the
SAT writing test.
 These include words that look plural but are actually singular, common words such as
“news”; names of some diseases, such as “rabies,” “measles,” and “diabetes”; and names of
school subjects, such as “physics,” “mathematics,” and “economics.”

 Other tricky words are those that seem like one thing but are actually plural. There are only
a few of these; “pants,” “pliers,” and “scissors” are the most common. Be aware that “data”
is plural as well.

 Also, we have the word “majority” and fractions. These function like the mutable indefinite
pronouns. You must determine what the word refers to (look in the prepositional phrase
following) in order to determine whether it is singular or plural.
EXAMPLES: The majority of the voters have grown weary of the negative political ads.
The majority of the population believes in some form of deity.
One third of the stores are going out of business this year.
One third of the merchandise is expected to remain unsold, even at discount
prices.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 103

 One bizarre phenomenon that is sometimes used for SAT problems is the difference
between “the number” and “a number.” “The number” is singular, but “a number” is plural.
The reason is that “a number” is an expression that means “a lot.”
EXAMPLES: The number of tourists who are being held hostage is as yet unknown.
A number of sea cucumbers were found floating on the surface, dead.

 Whenever a subject, even a compound one, is preceded by the words “every” or “each” or
by the odd expression “many a,” the subject is automatically considered singular.
EXAMPLES: Every visitor to the museum today is automatically entered into the
contest.
Each hair and fiber is a possible clue to the identity of the murderer.
Many a traveler has ventured over those mountains, never to return.

 A number of items, especially measurements, that are considered as one amount are
considered singular.
EXAMPLES: In this city, five dollars is not a bad price for parking.
Most young people would agree these days that ten miles is a long way to
walk to go to school.
104

Subject-Verb Agreement Practice

Choose the correct verb. Choose (A) for the first word, (B) for the second.
1. There (is , are) several ways to solve this problem.
2. Three-fifths of the pie (was , were) consumed by Jerry’s ravenous brother.
3. Physics, along with several math courses (is , are) a required subject if you want to major in
engineering.
4. Where (is , are) the binoculars that I gave you for Christmas?
5. The Los Angeles Lakers coaching squad (is , are) coming to visit my school to give us a
talk about sports careers.
6. The number of students who have violated the new dress code (is , are) much lower than we
had predicted.
7. The science of acoustics (is , are) something I will have to study if I am to be a sound
engineer.
8. I was concerned that six miles (was , were) too long of a distance for her to have to walk to
school.
9. A number of issues (has , have) been discussed during the meeting, but we still are no closer
to any resolutions.
10. I’m afraid that these pants I borrowed (is , are) now ruined.
11. The logical structure of his rather tortuous arguments (is, are) always the same.
12. The majority of the organization’s members (is, are) over sixty years old.
13. Both the young child and her grandfather (was, were) depressed for months after
discovering that the oldest ice cream parlor in the city had closed its doors forever.
14. The blueprints that (was, were) displayed on the table were from I. M. Pei’s early designs.
15. A case of bananas (has, have) been sent to the local distributor in compensation for the fruit
that was damaged in transit.
16. A total of 50 editors (reads, read) each article.
17. Neither the shipping clerk who packed the equipment nor the truckers who transported it
(admits, admit) responsibility for the dented circuit box.
18. Either Georgette or Pierre (is, are) going to be asked to dinner by Calvin.
19. I can never decide whether to eat an orange or a Belgian chocolate; each of them (has, have)
its wondrous qualities.
20. Everyone in the United States, as well as the Canadians, (expects, expect) the timber
agreement to fall through.

Answers to this section:

page 192
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 105

Problem Type: Verb Tense, Form, & Mood

Verb tense errors are as common as subject-verb agreement errors.

Furthermore, if your SAT essay contains many errors in tense, it will be hard for you to achieve
even an average score. The basic approach depends on one essential rule: ALWAYS CHECK
YOUR VERBS. You must make sure the correct Form and Tense are being used; there are also
three special situations involving Verb Mood that you must be on the lookout for.

(1) There are four forms of every verb.

The four forms are…
Basic Past Form Past Participle Present Participle
(also known as infinitive form) Form Form
jump(s)* jumped jumped jumping
breathe(s)* breathed breathed breathing
*The basic form is the one that can be either singular or plural.
The two verbs above (“jump” and “breathe”) are known as regular verbs, because their
four forms follow a specific pattern: the past and past participle forms are both made by the
addition of “-ed” and the present participle form is made by the addition of “-ing.”

There are many other verbs, however, known as irregular verbs that do not follow this
pattern. Their present participle forms are also made by the addition of “-ing,” but their past
and past participle forms are non-standard. The following is a list of the irregular verbs most
commonly used on the SAT Writing Test:

Basic Form Past Form Past Participle Form

begin began begun
break broke broken
bring brought brought
burst burst burst
choose chose chosen
come came come
drink drank drunk
freeze froze frozen
ring rang rung
sing sang sung
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
106

How does the SAT use verb form for test questions?

The SAT Writing test uses verb form errors in It wasn’t until the 38th game of the season, a week
two basic ways, and almost all of these errors shy of the midpoint, that Washington’s ambitious
involve the irregular verbs. Sometimes, you bubble finally 1 bursted.
may see a verb form that doesn’t even exist!
For example, in the problem to the right, 1
“bursted” isn’t even a recognized word. The
problem here is that “burst” is an irregular verb, A) NO CHANGE
B) bursts
and thus has an irregular past form, “burst.” C) burst
These types of problems are very easy to D) bursting
solve—anyone with a basic knowledge of irreg-
ular verbs should be able to answer correctly.

A more common and slightly more difficult Before moving to Harlem and settling into the
type of question involves the past participle rhythms of life there, Langston Hughes 2 had
form of irregular verbs. Always keep this in wrote several verses inspired by Harlem’s burgeoning
mind: the past participle forms are the ones artistic community.
that are used with the helpers “has,”
“have,” and “had.” Thus, whenever you en- 2
counter a verb that uses one of these helping
verbs, such as “had wrote” in the problem to A) NO CHANGE
the left, make sure that the main verb is the past B) had written
participle, the “third form.” C) writes
D) has wrote

There are three pairs of ultra-tricky irregular verbs.

The trickiest of these is “lie” and “lay.” Many people nowadays in their writing and speaking do not
even make a distinction between these two verbs. That difference is “lie” means “to lie down to go
to sleep; to recline” while “lay” means “to put something down.”
EXAMPLE: The dog decided to lie down on top of my homework.
EXAMPLE: I was chosen to be the one to lay the flag across the coffin.
As you may notice, the essential difference is that the verb “lay” has an object, something that the
action of the verb is done to. The verb “lie” is just being done. This is also the difference between
“sit” and “set” as well as “rise” and “raise.”
EXAMPLE: Sit down and take these pills or your temperature may start to rise.
EXAMPLE: She set her notes on the podium and waited for the curtain to be raised.

The following table will apprise you of the forms of these difficult verbs.

Answers to this section:

page 192
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 107

Regular Form Past Form Past Participle Form

no object lie lay lain
has object lay laid laid

no object sit sat sat

has object set set set

no object rise rose risen

has object raise raised raised

(2) There are twelve verb tenses.

simple past past perfect past progressive past perfect progressive
froze had frozen (was, were) freezing had been freezing
simple present present perfect present progressive present perfect progressive
freeze(s) (has, have) frozen (am, is, are) freezing (has, have) been freezing
simple future future perfect future progressive future perfect progressive
will freeze will have frozen will be freezing will have been freezing

As you can see, the tenses are based upon the four verb forms and many of them are simply
combinations of a verb form and a helping verb. For example, the simple past uses the past
form while the simple present uses the basic form. The simple future, however, is a combi-
nation of basic form and the helping verb “will.”
Notice that all the progressive forms use the past participle (“-ing”) form.
NOTE: if an “-ing” verb does not have a helping verb, it is not actually a verb—it is
either a gerund or a modifying participle, acting like a noun or an adjective.
Since tenses are primarily used to indicate when actions take place, the best way to
understand tenses is to view them on a timeline.

Past Past Present Present Future Future

Perfect Perfect Perfect

The Past Perfect tense represents an action that took place before another past action.
EXAMPLE: Before she studied French in Paris, she had studied Spanish in Spain.

The Present Perfect tense represents an action that began in the past, continued to the present and
may continue into the future.
EXAMPLE: I have known her ever since we met in third grade.
108

Present Perfect tense is also used for actions that occurred at an indefinite time in the recent past.
EXAMPLE: Martha has misplaced her driver’s license and thus can’t come with us.

The Future Perfect tense represents an action that already happened before another action in the
future occurs.
EXAMPLE: By the time Samantha shows up, I will have already completed the project.

The Simple Past, Present, and Future tenses simply occur at a certain point—yesterday, now, or
tomorrow—that is sometimes specifically defined (especially with Simple Past) and sometimes
simply suggested.
EXAMPLES: Yesterday, I visited the nursing home. I enjoy baking pies.
She will take three extra classes next semester.

Simple Present is also used for discussions of literature or other creative works and for
statements of fact or habitual action.
EXAMPLES: In The Catcher in the Rye, Holden idealizes his young sister, Phoebe.
Jupiter’s moon Europa is a likely source of life. He bathes three times a day.
Simple Past is used for discussions of historical events.
EXAMPLE: Abraham Lincoln struggled with the issue of slavery throughout his presidency.
Simple Future is also used to indicate plans and intentions.
EXAMPLE: Because you took me to pick up my car yesterday, I will buy you dinner.
Notice in this last example, that a past tense verb also appears in the sentence. It is okay to mix verb
tenses as long as they are used logically. This is called verb tense consistency.

To check for proper tense consistency, Astronaut Christoph Noel 3 has begun his career
consider all the verbs in a sentence. It may be as a Marine Corps pilot, but then became a computer
helpful to place the verbs on a timeline, scientist and helped to assemble the International
sketched or imagined. In the problem to the
Space Station.
right, Present Perfect “has begun” is taking
place after Simple Past “became, helped”, it is
illogical for a Present Perfect action to happen 3
before the Past; plus, the sentence states clearly A) NO CHANGE
that Noel began as a pilot and then became a B) began
scientist and helped with the Space Station. C) has began
D) begins

GI C AL
Past
Perfect
Past
ILLO Present Perfect
(became, helped) (has begun)
Present Future
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 109

Generally speaking, as in the problem above, past tenses go with other types of past tenses (Past is
paired with Past Perfect, for example); likewise, present tenses go with other present tenses. Still,
checking the logic of the tenses is the key to finding the right answer.

Another technique for the adverb “now” or a indicates Simple Present

finding the right tense is statement of a fact (ex. “the speed of light is…”)

to Always be on the a specific past time (ex: “last week”) indicates Simple Past
lookout for tense or a historical reference (ex. “Abe Lincoln”)
indicators. Often, a the adverb “already,” time clauses using “since,”
word or phrase will be indicates Present Perfect
or phrases such as “throughout history…”
present in the sentence as
a clue indicating which a sentence that has a Simple Past verb and uses a indicates Past Perfect
clause beginning with “after,” “before,”
tense should be used. or “by the time”
Here are some common
indicators... phrases that state or imply “by the time…” indicates Future Perfect

By the end of the 1970s, many veterans of World War The adjacent problem has a clear tense
II 4 are becoming grandparents, though the 70s indicator in the phrase, “By the end of the
birth rate was nothing compared to that of the Baby 1970s.”
Boom.
That phrase clearly suggests that an event
4 or action was completed before another
began. Which verb tense best shows that
A) NO CHANGE relationship?
B) had become
C) became
D) were became

What about the progressive tenses?

The six progressive tenses function just like their six Simple and Perfect counterparts. The differ-
ence is that progressive verbs place emphasis on the fact that the action is “in progress,” not simply
occurring at a fixed time, but occurring over a period of time. Be wary of progressive tenses,
because their expression of continuing action sometimes creates an awkwardness that could be the
reason why an answer choice is wrong. Compare these incorrect and correct answer choices from a
real SAT test problem:
INCORRECT: As we entered the Parthenon, my brother was turning to me to whisper that the
great rotunda of the Parthenon was a symbol of peace and harmony.
CORRECT: As we entered the Parthenon, my brother turned to me and whispered that the great
rotunda of the Parthenon was a symbol of peace and harmony.
110

Two special rules:

1) The -ing verb forms, those used for the progressive tenses, are used more often for phrases
that act as adjectives or nouns. How do these “actions” fit in with other verb tenses?
Here’s the way it works: The action of an -ing phrase takes place at the same time as the
main verb of the sentence. If you need to show that the action took place BEFORE the
main verb, use “having” as a helping verb. (For infinitives, add the helper “have.”)
INCORRECT: Being left outside in the rain, the newspaper was unreadable.
CORRECT: Having been left outside in the rain, the newspaper was unreadable.

2) Though “will” is the helping verb used to express Future Tense, it needs to be changed to
“would” if the other verbs in the sentence are in Past Tense.
INCORRECT: Because he liked animals so much, he will go to the zoo often.
CORRECT: Because he liked animals so much, he would go to the zoo often.

(3) There are three verb moods.

But the only one that is important is subjunctive mood.
Subjunctive mood sentences are about what might happen, what could happen; in short,
they show hypothetical situations. There are three very particular subjunctive rules, and
each one is used regularly for SAT questions.

Subjunctive situation #1:

If she were…
Professor Brown started yesterday’s lecture by
When a hypothetical statement is made with
suggesting that 5 if Benjamin Franklin was alive
“if,” “as if,” or “as though” (or even the verb
today, he would probably work for an advertising
“wish”) do not use “was”; instead, use
firm.
“were.”
EXAMPLE: If she were any taller, it would
5
appear as though she were
suffering from gigantism. A) NO CHANGE
B) if Benjamin Franklin were alive today
This rule is very formal, and distorts what is C) had Benjamin Franklin been alive in the
commonly known about verb tense, so these present
problems (like the one on the right) trick most D) Benjamin Franklin, if he was alive today
students. However, if you learn this rule and
spot these problems, you will always get them
right.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 111

Subjunctive problem #2:

If a condition had happened, a result would have occurred.
This type of subjunctive problem involves an “if” clause that is a condition and another clause that
is a result. The verb in the “result” clause will either be “could have _____,” “would have _____,”
or “might have _____.” The verb in the “if” clause must be Past Perfect. Solving these problems
requires keen perception, but is essentially a simple three-step process:

1. notice a verb with “could have,” “would have,” or “might have” as a helper
I might have chased after the thief if I had not been on crutches at the time.
2. determine whether there is a condition clause and a result clause (notice above that the
two clauses can be in “reverse” order)
3. if there is a condition-result situation, make sure that the verb in the condition clause
is Past Perfect (“had been” in the example above)
NOTE: In some cases, the “if” is omitted; the rule, however, still works the same:
Had I not been on crutches at the time, I might have chased after the thief.

Apply this process to the problem on the left.

If the pilot had been alerted that there was a problem  The presence of “would have prevented” may
with the plane’s rudder, she 6 could take alert you to this special problem.
countermeasures that would have prevented the crash.  Be careful though—recognize that “could
take” is the verb in the main clause (the result
6 clause); notice also that the condition clause
(the one with “if”) already uses past perfect
A) NO CHANGE
(“had been alerted”).
B) could be taking
C) has taken  Thus, the verb in the result clause should be
D) could have taken “could have taken.”

Subjunctive problem #3: I suggest that each student learn this rule.

If a verb such as ask, suggest, or recommend is Some business executives require 7 that the
followed by a singular simple present verb secretary be responsible for writing all reports as well
telling what is being asked, suggested, etc.; the as for balancing the books.
basic form of the verb should be used (and
without the “s” suffix that might be expected). 7
Check out the problem to the right for an
example. A) NO CHANGE
B) that the secretary being
C) the secretary for being
D) that the secretary is
112

Verb Tense, Form, & Mood Practice

Choose the correct verb tense to complete each sentence: (A) for the first choice; (B) for the second.

1. They biked to the top of the mountain and then ( come , came ) back down in time to eat lunch.
2. The garage mechanic thinks that Mrs. Murphy ( has brought , brought ) her car in last night.
3. For anyone with enough brains to have thought about it, now ( is , was ) the time to work out the
solution.
4. Don tells the class repeatedly that at one time New York ( is , was ) the capital of the United States.
5. If the wagon train ( had reached , reached ) Salt Creek in time, the massacre would have been
prevented.
6. The aircraft controller ( expects , expected ) to have spotted the plane on radar before dusk last
night.
7. The family already ( had finished , finished ) dinner when the doorbell rang.
8. First he built a fire, then dragged a log over to use as a seat, and finally ( has collected , collected )
enough wood to burn all night.
9. Rose kept the promise she ( had given , has given ) to Charles last year in India.
10. When he talks with Horatio, Hamlet ( began , begins ) to suspect foul play in the kingdom.

Determine whether the following sentences are (A) correct or (B) incorrect.

11. If I was Sam, I would hire an assistant now before the hiring freeze takes effect.
12. If Harrison were chosen to be the next chief executive officer of the corporation, several
controversial hiring practices would change.
13. If I were you, I would increase my weekly contribution to the company-sponsored retirement fund.
14. As August approaches, every school child wishes that his or her vacation was longer.
15. It is required that every nurse at the hospital donate blood during this shortage.

Choose the correct word in the parentheses. Select (A) for the first word; (B) for the second.

16. The student ( raised , rose ) his hand in class.

17. Hot air ( raises , rises ).
18. Ann ( set , sat ) in a chair because she was tired.
19. I ( set , sat ) your dictionary on the table a few minutes ago.
20. Al is ( laying , lying ) on the grass in the park right now.

Answers to this section:

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WRITING AND LANGUAGE 113

Problem Type: Pronoun Reference & Agreement

Your Essential Pronoun Strategy:

Always check your pronouns!
Pronoun agreement is very similar to subject- The Roman Empire, often by questionable means,
verb agreement—in fact, some of the rules are attempted to bring 1 their version of law and order
exactly the same, and thus the essential to provinces throughout Europe.
approach is also the same. Just as you are
training yourself to look for the subjects that go
with verbs, make sure that you look for the
antecedent of each underlined pronoun tested. 1
For example, in the problem on the right, you
A) NO CHANGE
should check the plural pronoun “their” to see B) there
what it refers to (its antecedent). It refers to C) it’s
“The Roman Empire,” which may have been D) its
vast but is still considered singular. As in
subject-verb agreement, pronouns must match
the words they refer to—singular to singular,
plural to plural.

The subject-verb rule regarding the conjunctions “or,” “nor,” “either… or…” and
“neither… nor…” works in the same way with pronoun agreement.
REMEMBER: The verb in these situations will agree with the closer subject.

EXAMPLE: Neither his two daughters nor his sister was able to give (her, their) honest opinion.
The verb (“was”) is singular because singular “sister” is the closer subject. This determination
essentially sets a standard, so that pronouns that come afterwards will also be singular.
THUS: Neither his two daughters nor his sister was able to give her honest opinion.

One subject-verb rule that DOESN’T It is believed that small fish cluster together when
apply is the one about subjects never being in confronted (by a predator) in order to confuse
prepositional phrases. A pronoun’s antecedent them and thereby protect themselves from harm.
2
MAY APPEAR in a prepositional phrase, as in
the example to the right. The plural pronoun
“them” refers to singular “predator”—an 2
agreement error.
(A) NO CHANGE
(B) it
(C) one
(D) him

Answers to this section:

page 192
114

However, in problems that use indefinite Each (of the barbers) who entered the hair-styling
pronouns “each,” “either,” “neither” or
competition has 3 their own unique techniques of
“one,” you must ignore the prepositional
cutting and manipulating hair.
phrase following the pronoun.
In the problem to the right, even though you 3
could argue that “their” refers to “barbers,”
because of the way pronouns like “each” A) NO CHANGE
function, the FOCUS is singular and just as the B) they’re
verb (“has”) must be singular, so must any C) there
relevant pronouns. D) his

Many SAT pronoun problems involve the indefinite pronouns.

Just as verbs must agree with these pronouns, any other pronouns that refer to them must also agree.
It is definitely worthwhile to learn the indefinite pronouns and how they work. Below is a table to
help you.

 Singular: anyone anybody anything each one

everyone everybody everything either much
someone somebody something neither
no one nobody nothing another

Everyone wants to bring his dog to the picnic. *

Anybody who helps me with my project will have his choice of reward. *
Each of the astronauts has his own opinion of the mishap. *
Neither of the girls is thinking about who will invite her to the dance.

 Plural: several many both ones others few

Both of the dogs were lost because they had been separated from their owner.

 Mutable: some all any most enough

(To determine whether a mutable pronoun is singular or plural, you must

check the word that the pronoun refers to—you will often find this word in a
prepositional phrase that follows the pronoun.)
Some of the music was not appropriate, but it had been approved by the bride.
Some of the songs were “rated R,” but they did have a good groove, at least.

* Though some of these sentences may sound strange, a full explanation appears on the next page.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 115

* What about The Gender Problem?

Indefinite pronoun problems involving words like “everybody” can be difficult for beginner
students because, when people are speaking, they often use plural words like “their” to refer to a
word like “everybody.”
Furthermore, if a singular pronoun is used, it must be either masculine (such as “him”) or feminine
(such as “her”), and most people are uncomfortable with choosing one over the other—it just seems
sexist. And it sounds odd. Additionally, the other methods to fix the problem have their own
issues...

Incorrect but sounds fine: Everybody at the party brought their own beverages with them.
*Correct but sounds weird: Everybody at the party brought his own beverages with him.
*Correct but can be wordy: Everybody at the party brought his or her own beverages with him or her.
Correct but considered odd: Everybody at the party brought his/her own beverages with him/her.

The SAT test has used the starred (*) fixes above. Even though the first one, using the singular
masculine pronoun, may seem strange, it is correct. So, you must realize that though such an answer
choice may seem sexist, the SAT writing test is not testing you on your political or social beliefs,
merely on your knowledge of Standard (or formal) English.

A shift in pronoun person is another type of agreement error.

Most pronouns can be classified as either 1st, 2nd, or 3rd person.
1st person includes I, we, and their different forms
2nd person includes you and its different forms
3rd person includes he, she, they, it, and their different forms
Many of the indefinite pronouns are also classified as third person.
3rd person anyone, anybody, everyone, someone, nobody, one, etc.
Also, all other nouns (such as man, kids, monster, Allen, people) are classified as third person.

Shifts in person are easy SAT problems. To become a world skating champion like Kristi
Yamaguchi, one must be so dedicated that 4 you
Again, always check your pronouns. When you
will practice six hours a day.
see one like “you” or “one” or a word like
“person,” there is a good chance that the
problem is testing you on a shift in person. In 4
the problem to the right, once you notice the
A) NO CHANGE
pronoun “one,” keep an eye open for any B) he or she
pronouns that are NOT in third person. C) they
D) that person
116

Another easy (yet common) pronoun problem on the SAT involves “which” and
“that.”
First, you should realize that even though there is a difference between “which” and “that,” the
difference is subtle and, furthermore, in many cases the two words are interchangeable.
But for pronoun issues, you should keep one
simple rule in mind: The pronouns “which” Candy manufacturers applauded the discovery by
and “that” should not be used to refer to researchers that students 5 which smell chocolate
people. while studying and again while taking a test are able to
recall more of the material.
For example, in the problem adjacent, notice
that the clause “which smell...” is used to 5
describe “students.” I’m sure you’ll agree that A) NO CHANGE
“students” are people and see that the rule is B) that
being broken here. “Who” or “whom” should C) who’s
be used instead (“who” in this case, since it D) who
would be the subject of “smell”).

*The opposite of this rule is true as well: “Who” and “whom” should not be used to refer to objects
or animals. However, this rule is not used often on the SAT, perhaps because an exception can be
made for animals that are named (like pets, for example) or personified animals (such as those in a
story).
*Also, keep in mind that this rule does NOT apply to “whose.” “Whose” can refer to people,
animals, or objects.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 117

Pronouns must be checked not only for agreement

but also for clear reference.
When you check your pronouns, in addition to checking for agreement you must also make sure that
it is clear what they refer to.

EXAMPLE: My brothers have harassed our neighbors all summer, and that has
convinced them to build a fence dividing the properties.
What does “that” refer to? the fact that my brothers have harassed our neighbors?
Pronouns must refer to specific nouns. “That” is vague here, an error.
What does “them” refer to? my brothers? our neighbors?
Pronoun reference must be clear. “Them” is also vague, another error.

Three types of vague pronouns appear on the SAT writing test.

1. Ambiguous pronouns
“Ambiguous” means “vague” or “having two possible interpretations.” Whether “them” refers
to “brothers” or “neighbors” is an example of ambiguity.

2. Implied reference pronouns with “they” and “one”

“Implied” means suggested but not directly stated.

3. Implied reference pronouns with “which,” “this,” “that,” and “it”

“That” in the example above about my brothers harassing the neighbors is a case of this type of
suggested reference. Pronouns must refer to specific nouns, not entire actions or statements.

Train yourself to look for these particular vague pronoun errors.

Otherwise, you may start to see vague pronouns everywhere.
The fact is that not every pronoun without reference is an error. Many indefinite pronouns, such as
“everyone,” have no reference—of course not—they’re indefinite by nature.
The pronouns “it” and “that” are sometimes used to begin sentences or clauses—in most cases,
especially with “it,” this usage is acceptable and not an error.
The following sentence is correct: “It was a stormy night when we first met.”
The pronouns “this” and “that” are sometimes used as “pointers.” This usage is also correct.
EXAMPLE: This usage is also correct. (The pronoun “this” points at “usage.”)
The pronoun “that” is also used to introduce clauses, so if you see a subject-verb structure
immediately after “that,” don’t worry about its being vague.
EXAMPLE: I did not know that she was planning on coming to the party with us.
(“That” is merely structural here, introducing the clause.)
118

1. Ambiguous pronouns
When this type of problem appears on the SAT, Kim, Jimmy, and Hank were hiking 6 when,
it usually occurs when a personal pronoun like
tripping over a root, he fell into the canyon.
“he” or “she” appears after two nouns that could
possibly be referred to.
6
In the problem on the right, there are two possi-
ble interpretations regarding the pronoun “he.” A) NO CHANGE
Does it refer to Jimmy? or does it refer to Hank? B) and then he fell into the canyon after he
tripped over a root
In choices like D you might could assume that C) when Hank fell into the canyon after
“he” refers to Hank since it is likely that the tripping over a root
person who tripped is the person who fell, but D) when Hank fell into the canyon, since he
tripped over a root
what if Jimmy tripped over the root and, as a
result, knocked Hank into the canyon?

Here’s a suggestion: just don’t even try to figure out what the interpretation is. No matter how
logical one interpretation may seem, the other one is still valid. Instead, just recognize this type
of problem—“Oh, it’s one of those again!”—and choose the answer quickly and decisively.

2. Implied reference pronouns “they”

and “one”
There are other pronouns that could have an Roger had just walked into the patent office when
implied reference (such as the ones in the next 7 they told him that his invention had finally
group), but these two— “they” and “one”—are
been approved for patent protection.
common to a few particular types of problems.
Again, it’s all about recognizing typical SAT
7
Writing problems and being able to solve them in
a fast and confident manner. (A) NO CHANGE
(B) he
For example, the problem on the left is very
(C) he or she
typical. Even though we know “they” refers to (D) a staff member
those working at the patent office, it is merely
a suggested reference and thus is considered
wrong.

Though problems like this one often involve the word “they,” keep in mind that pronouns such as
“they” (and “we”) are not vague if you don’t know whom they refer to. There is NOTHING wrong with
the following sentence:
They called me last night, and we made plans to go to the movies.
Instead, recognize situations such as the patent office one above, in which there is a suggested
reference. An even more common situation (which could be called The Authoritative They) occurs
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 119

with the expression “THEY SAID.”

They said in the newspaper that the earthquake had caused billions in damage.
“They said…” Who is they? How do they know so much? The implication here is that “they” is the
reporters, but that is simply a suggestion, not a reference.

To the right is a common SAT problem involving I have always enjoyed learning about our universe
implied reference with the pronoun “one.” and all the techniques used in astronomy, so I look
A field of study or a career is mentioned, and then forward to going to college and 8 becoming one.
the sentence says someone wants to become
“one.” In this case, the suggested reference is to 8
“astronomer.”
(A) NO CHANGE
Again, this is a typical “formula” for a test (B) being one
(C) becoming an astronomer
problem, so once you can recognize it, the answer
(D) turning into an astronomer
is almost automatic.

3. Implied reference pronouns “which,” “this,” “that,” and “it”

Errors with these pronouns are similar to the other types of implied references, but in most cases the
reference is to a broad action or idea.
EXAMPLE: I exposed one of my best friend’s biggest secrets, and that is why he is no longer my
best friend.

“That” is incorrect, referring to the action of exposing one of the friend’s biggest secrets.
This type of error is difficult for most students, because sentences like the example above are quite
common in normal speech and are practically considered correct in the written language.
However, on the SAT Writing test, such uses of these pronouns are definitely wrong.
Furthermore, this type of error is fairly common on the test questions.
The problem below is an example:

By attracting new industry when the old factory 9

closed, the council kept the economy of the town (A) and this was a disaster many workers had
from collapsing, 9 and this was a disaster many feared
workers had feared. (B) because many workers had feared this
(C) the fear many workers had would be a disaster
like this
(D) a disaster that many workers had feared

Being aware of these implied reference pronouns, you should recognize that “this” in A is an error
because it is referring, not to a noun, but to the idea of the economy collapsing. You can also see
that “this” in B and C make the same error. Scanning a problem like this for vague pronouns after
you SPOT the initial one can lead you directly to the only viable answer.
120

Be careful with “it.”

“It” is the most troublesome of these three vague
pronouns, since it is commonly used to begin Professor Chen repeated her point that the hero, if
clauses. Even in some cases, in which “it” given the chance to relive the moment, would choose
appears to be ambiguous or have an implied 10 to do it.
reference, it is still considered acceptable.
Approach “it” with caution.
10
In the problem to the right, “it” presents a special (A) NO CHANGE
challenge; it looks as though it could refer to (B) to do that
“moment,” a singular noun. But can you do a (C) to do so
moment? No. You can’t. The “it” is vague, (D) on doing so
because it’s actually referring to “to relive the
moment.” Replacing “it” with “so” is one
effective (and correct) technique.

An Elementary Issue: Possessive Determiners

The College Board has decided to test your knowledge of some pretty elementary distinctions
between possessive determiners and their homophonic cousins. You should, therefore, learn once
and for all the differences between...

Their Third person plural possessive, as in That’s their problem.

They’re Contraction of “they” and “are,” as in They’re tired and hungry.
There An adverb or expletive, showing place or indicating the
existence of something, as in The book is over there, or There are many
good reasons to study grammar.

Its Third person singular, neuter possessive pronoun, as in The squad lost its leader in
the skirmish.
It’s A contraction of “it” and “is,” as in It’s hot outside.

Your Second person singular/plural, neuter possessive pronoun, as in I borrowed your

sweater.
You’re A contraction of “you” and “are,” as in You’re my best friend.

Whose Possessive relative/interrogative pronoun, as in I don’t know whose boots these are.
Who’s A contraction of “who” and “is,” as in Who’s coming to the beach this weekend?
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 121

Pronoun Reference & Agreement Practice

Directions: Choose the answer that best fixes the underlined portion. If no errors exist, choose “No change is
necessary.”

1. Both Diane and her cat, Big Toe Joe, take her or his afternoon naps under the green quilt on the
living room sofa.
A. his
B. its
C. their
D. No change is necessary.

2. Aunt Louisa’s barking Chihuahuas so startled poor Carolina, who was soundly sleeping, that she
threw a book at it.
A. them
B. her
C. him or her
D. No change is necessary.

3. Yesterday when Pedro was in his calculus class, Amir’s snoring and Beverly’s bubble gum
smacking were so loud that they distracted the poor boy from Dr. Armour’s lecture.
A. he
B. she
C. he or she
D. No change is necessary.

4. In Jack's kitchen, each cup, plate, bowl, and glass has their rim chipped by careless dishwashing.
A. his
B. his or her
C. its
D. No change is necessary.

5. Tony refuses to eat at Burger Chief because their onions make his breath stink so badly that his
girlfriend won't kiss him for three days.
A. his
B. his or her
C. its
D. No change is necessary.

6. During the pep rally, not only the cheerleaders but also Dr. Stover, the principal, shouted as loudly
as they could to inspire the basketball team to win.
A. he or she
B. she
C. it
D. No change is necessary.

Answers to this section:

page 192
122

Directions: Choose the option that, when used to replace the corresponding underlined portion, will correct
a pronoun error in one of the underlined portions.

7. At Antonio's Restaurant, every waiter wanted to take a break after he had taken care of his
A B
guests, but all of the managers wanted them to take breaks at strictly scheduled times.
C
A. they
B. their
C. the waiters
D. No change is necessary.

8. An explosive crash made every patron, server, hostess, and manager turn his or her head in
A
Isaiah's direction. They could not believe how red the poor boy turned as he stood amid the
B C
pile of dish fragments.

A. their
B. These people
C. it
D. No change is necessary.

9. Leroy bought a new pair of jeans at the Gap for two reasons: they were having a great sale, and the
A
saleswoman had told him that she thought he had a cute smile.
B C

A. it was having
B. had told it
C. it had
D. No change is necessary.

10. Melissa washed her new pants because they had stiffened from the starch. Unfortunately, the hot
A
water shrank the cotton fabric, so Melissa found scissors and used it to make the pants into shorts.
B
These shorts became her favorite pair because they showed off her beautiful legs.
C
A. it had
B. them
C. it showed
D. No change is necessary.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 123

Considering issues of pronoun reference, determine whether each sentence is

(A) correct or (B) incorrect

11. All students can secure parking permits from the campus police office; they are open from 8 a.m.
until 8 p.m.
12. The poor dog had long been abused by it’s owner.
13. Jill was tired after the movie, which is why she declined an invitation to go out to dinner.
14. The average price for a ticket to the rock concert is $30, and this is not unreasonable, considering the
length of the show.
15. I would have ordered the cheeseburger special, but it doesn’t come with fries.
16. Whose friends left their dirty fingerprints all over your refrigerator?.
17. Some critics have accused Chaucer of “Frenchifying” English, which has been disproved.
18. If this article makes a few more people take democratic societies more seriously, it will have served
its purpose.
19. I spent hours studying voting rights in the District of Columbia, which helped me immeasurably
during the lawsuit.
20. The sign had been nailed to the fence so many times that it was beginning to look shabby.
124

Problem Type: Run-Ons & Fragments

What is a run-on sentence? What is a fragment?
Most people believe that a run-on sentence is simply a sentence that is too long; it seems to “run”
on and on forever. In fact, a sentence as short as four words long could be a run-on! Likewise,
a sentence that is one hundred words long could be correct! A run-on sentence is simply two
or more independent clauses (complete sentences) that are not joined with the proper
punctuation.
A fragment is easier to define and usually easier to spot. A fragment is simply NOT a complete
sentence, not an independent clause.
So, to spot fragments and run-ons and to solve problems involving them on the SAT, you must first
be able to recognize complete sentences.
So, what is a complete sentence (independent clause)?
A clause is a structure that has a subject and a verb.
An independent clause has to have, additionally, a complete thought.
Consider the difference between the following. The first structure is an independent clause; the
second is a dependent clause.
EXAMPLES: Barbara bought a new poodle Because Barbara bought a new poodle
Do you detect the difference? The first example sounds more definite; it clearly tells what Barbara
did. The second example is exactly the same as the first one except for the addition of the
subordinating conjunction “because,” yet it seems more like an unfinished thought than a definite
statement. Because Barbara bought a new poodle…what? What happened?
Instead of a complete thought, this second example merely gives a reason, the beginning of a cause
and effect statement, but without the “effect.” It doesn’t express a complete thought; therefore, it is
not a complete sentence. Like any other dependent clause by itself, it is definitely a fragment.
Fragments are usually composed of either dependent clauses or conglomerations of
phrases.
Fragment: When Jasper eventually figured out the solution to the engineering problem.
(there is a subject, there is a verb, but there is no complete thought—this fragment is just a
dependent clause. Removing the subordinating conjunction “when” would fix the problem.)
Fragment: Near the bus stop behind the high school, with his kid sister by his side.
(everything in this sentence is a prepositional phrase)
Fragment: The young starlet, who won the Oscar for her first film, having a hard time deciding
what her next role should be. (the double-underlined clauses are both dependent ones; “having a
hard time” is a participial phrase; “deciding” is a gerund; the noun “starlet” appears to be the
subject but has no verb.)
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 125

Be very aware of “-ing” verb forms.

In the last example on the previous page, two -ing verb forms may appear to be verbs, but they are
not. REMEMBER: Verb forms that end with “-ing” are not actually verbs unless they have a helper
like “is,” “were,” or “have been.” “-Ing” verb forms are either gerunds or participles, used as either
nouns or adjectives.

George Orwell’s term doublespeak 1 referring

Many sentence fragment problems, such as the
to the intentional use of language to confuse or to
one on the right, contain -ing forms, which some
mislead, as when one says “revenue enhancement”
people may mistake as real verbs.
instead of “tax increase.”
A basic approach to this type of problem,
therefore, once you spot that the original is a 1
fragment, is to scan the other choices and
LOOK FOR A REAL VERB! A) NO CHANGE
B) referring to language which is
In this problem, three of the choices are fragments. intentionally used
How quickly can you spot them? C) which refers to intentionally using
language
D) refers to the intentional use of language

What about run-ons? How are complete sentences supposed to be joined?

There are, essentially, three ways to join complete sentences.

1) , and
comma and regular conjunction (and, or, nor, but, yet, for, so)
2) ;
semi-colon
3) ; therefore,
semi-colon and a transitional word (such as however, nevertheless, thus, indeed, moreover,
etc.), followed by a comma
The following sentence is a run-on because it uses only a comma to join two independent
clauses: Ralph needed to study for his biology test, he had left his notes and textbook at school.
The following sentence is correct because it uses a comma and a coordinating conjunction to join
two independent clauses: Ralph needed to study for his biology test, but he had left his notes and
textbook at school.
The following sentence is correct because it uses a semi-colon, a transitional word, and a comma
to join two independent clauses: Ralph needed to study for his biology test; however, he had left
his notes and textbook at school.
The following sentence is not a run-on, because it uses a semi-colon to join two independent
clauses, but it does not have adequate coordination—there is no explicit logical connection
between the two clauses: Ralph needed to study for his biology test; he had left his notes and
textbook at school.

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126

Are there any other ways to join complete sentences?

Actually, there are three other punctuation devices that could be used to join complete sentences.
the dash —
parentheses ( )
the colon :

We will go over these devices in greater detail in the Punctuation section.

NOTE: Transitional words like “however” and “therefore” are sometimes used as parenthe-
tical expressions, much like phrases such as “of course” and “in fact.” On these occasions, they do
NOT require a semi-colon, because they are not joining complete sentences. They are, however,
usually set off with commas.
EXAMPLE: Susan understands the scientific concept, but her implementation, however, is poor.
(notice that what comes after “however” is not a complete sentence)

Overall, awareness of run-on sentences

Many people think taxes are too 2 high, conse-
will improve your performance on the
quently, some of those people do not report all the
SAT writing test.
money they earn.
For example, in a problem like the one on the
right, if you realize upon reading the original
sentence that it is a run-on (there should be a 2
semi-colon before “consequently”), you should A) NO CHANGE
be able to skim the other choices and look for B) high, therefore, some of those people do not
other run-ons. Out of the three other answer report
choices, two of the revisions are still run-ons. C) high; consequently, some do not report
D) high, some people do not report
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 127

Run-ons & Fragments Practice

Determine whether each of the following sentences is
(A) a run-on (B) a fragment or (C) correct

1. James finished writing the paper at 2:00 am; then, he went to bed and slept through the class
the next morning.
2. Open the door for the cat she’s been out all night.
3. Although she knows that she’s stressed out about the test.
4. Having no more to do with the administration, despite 20 years of loyal service and several
prestigious awards for his research.
5. In fact, I noticed his piercing laugh above the noise of the crowd.
6. Which the other members of the class were unable to find in the library.
7. Rose is a good friend, when she makes a promise she keeps it.
8. Though shoveling all the snow from the walk and the driveway took two hours.
9. When she laughs, I laugh when I laugh, she laughs.
10. After the rain, the smell in the garden, as fresh as dew.
11. My grandmother is 83 years old therefore she walks very slowly.
12. Mark and Cathy went to San Diego for Christmas; they came back for New Year’s,
however.
13. Tony is the only freshman on the team, yet he was chosen as the most valuable player.
14. Ross edited the magazine for decades he was followed by Shawn.
15. In spite of her bossy nature, her ego, and her mean streak, her students love her as a teacher.
16. First try to do this exercise without looking in the book, if you can’t do it, refer to page 56.
17. A good idea, don’t you think, to talk over the problem with his mother, father, and guidance
counselor.
18. At the end of the course there is a test, it consists of three essays.
19. Huge redwood trees that had been alive for nearly 2,000 years.
20. She asked the teacher for an extension on the assignment, the teacher agreed.

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128

Problem Type: Parallelism

Parallelism essentially means that similar things must be joined together.
(nouns go with nouns, adjectives with adjectives, infinitive phrases with infinitive phrases, etc.)
EXAMPLE: On Sundays, she liked attending church in the morning, having a nice dinner in the
afternoon, and she would go see a movie in the evening.
The conjunction “and” is joining together three “items” in a series: attending church,
having a nice dinner, and going to see a movie. However, though the first two are
expressed as gerund phrases (-ing phrases), the third is an independent clause, a full
sentence. Therefore, this sentence is not parallel.

Parallelism is one of the most common

The basic conjunctions to look out for are
errors on the SAT writing test;
therefore, always be on the lookout! for and nor
Your basic approach should be to check for but or yet & so
parallelism errors WHENEVER YOU SEE A
CONJUNCTION
(especially the basic ones such as “and”). Experts disagree about 1 what is the definition of
intelligence and how to measure it.
Consider the problem to the right.
 Notice the conjunction “and.” 1
 What is it joining together? It joins together two A) NO CHANGE
things the experts disagree about: B) how to define intelligence, and also its
- the definition of intelligence measurement
- the measurement of intelligence C) how to define and measure intelligence
D) defining intelligence as well as
 The first is expressed grammatically as a measurement
dependent clause (a structure that has a
subject and verb but is not a complete NOTE: “as
statement); the second as an infinitive (with adverb “how”) well as” is
not really a
conjunction,
(A) what is the definition of intelligence and (how) to measure it but with it,
<dependent clause> ≠ <infinitive (“to” + verb)> parallelism
(B) (how) to define intelligence and (also) its measurement still needs to
<infinitive> ≠ <noun> be checked.
(C) (how) to define and [to] measure intelligence
<infinitive> = <infinitive (with “to” omitted)>
(D) defining intelligence as well as measurement
<-ing phrase> ≠ <noun>

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WRITING AND LANGUAGE 129

A knowledge of grammatical structures definitely helps out with parallelism.

Here are the basic structures you may encounter on parallelism problems:
Clauses
A clause is a structure that has a subject and a verb. An independent clause is basically a
complete sentence; a dependent clause, on the other hand, does not express a complete thought.
Dependent clauses almost always begin with words such as “if,” “because,” “although,” “why,”
“since,” “that,” and many more. For example...
if she comes to the beach with us
why he never understood the preacher’s sermons
which led him to become an astronaut
-ing Phrases
Technically, there are two types of -ing phrases, those that act as nouns and those that act as
adjectives, but the distinction is almost never important for parallelism. For example...
swimming through the deep channel
finding his mother in the kitchen
Infinitive phrases
An infinitive is the word “to” + a verb and can be simply “to sit” or complex, such as “to sit cross-
legged on the middle of the floor while listening to the guru speak about Tao.” Infinitives are often
used in problems involving parallelism, such as the one below. Infinitives can make parallelism
problems tricky. For example, here, the conjunction “and” should be joining together the three
things the nurses taught:
While I was hospitalized with a broken arm, the
to eat, to write, and to shave.
nurses tried to teach me 2 to eat, write, and to
But the sentence says shave with my left hand, but I was never able to
to eat, write, and to shave master this ambidexterity.
The “to” must be used consistently with each part
2
of the compound infinitive OR it must be used with
the first part of the compound and then omitted A) NO CHANGE
from the others: to eat, write, and shave B) eating, writing, shaving
C) to eat, write, and shave
Prepositional Phrases D) to eat, to write, and shave
A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition
(“to,” “by,” “for,” “with,” etc.) and also includes a
noun or pronoun. For example...
to the store; for my alma mater; of the moment; with your consent

Verb Phrases & Noun Phrases

A verb phrase is simply a verb with all of its objects/complements and modifiers, and a noun phrase
is simply a noun with its modifiers. What’s important to note is that if you see something like this
three blind mice running from the farmer’s wife
you should realize that even though it starts with some adjectives and contains an -ing phrase, it is
still a noun phrase, a noun with modifiers (things that describe it): three blind mice running from
the farmers’ wife
130

A few parallelism problems require you to check for matching style as well as
matching grammar.
Though most parallelism problems will involve simply a needed match between certain grammati-
cal elements, occasionally you will come across a more sophisticated problem that wants you to
match not only the grammar but also the style of the joined phrases.
EXAMPLE: This summer, I am going on a trip to Europe with my dad, and my mom is taking
me to Australia during winter break.
Though the two parts of the sentence are grammatically parallel (they are both independent
clauses), the wording of the second clause is different. It is better if changed to the following:
EXAMPLE: This summer, I am going on a trip to Europe with my dad, and
during winter break I am going to Australia with my mom.
WARNING: Do not get carried away with this concept! Do not think that every parallel structure
must be exactly the same. “Stylistic parallelism” is not a requirement based on the rules—it is more
like a preference, a way to make writing flow better.

Formerly, science was taught by the textbook 3

3 method, while now the laboratory method is
A) NO CHANGE
employed. B) method; however, the laboratory method is
now being employed
C) method; now it is taught by the laboratory
method
Comparisons must also be parallel. D) method, but now the laboratory method is
what is employed

EXAMPLE: Joseph was more interested in talking to his fellow students than to listen to the
lecturer.

It’s fairly easy to hear the error here; the comparison is between the gerund “talking” and the
infinitive “to listen.” The infinitive should be changed into a gerund to create a parallel structure.

The problem to the right is also a parallelism Jonathan will not be blamed for having brought his pet
problem with a comparison. Note that the rat to school any more than 4 the teacher will
comparison “any more than” is between two blame me for having accidentally left the cage
statements, two clauses. So, A is grammatically unlocked.
parallel. But notice how C has the exact style
and wording as the first part of the sentence: 4
A) NO CHANGE
Jonathan will not be blamed for having
B) blaming me for the accident of leaving the
brought… cage unlocked
I will be blamed for having accidentally C) I will be blamed for having accidentally left
left… the cage unlocked
D) they will blame me for accidentally leaving
So, C has grammatical and stylistic parallelism, the cage unlocked
and is thus a better answer.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 131

Certain types of conjunctions are used for tricky parallelism problems.

The SAT test writers often use what is called correlative conjunctions to create difficult parallelism
problems. The correlative conjunctions, which could also be called conjunction pairs, include
not only… but also…; either… or…; neither… nor…; & both… and…
Because these types of conjunctions can be widely Gustave Eiffel is famous not only for building
separated in a sentence, most students will not
the Eiffel Tower but also 5 his design of the
notice that a parallelism issue may be involved. The
internal structure of the Statue of Liberty.
trick is simply to train yourself to spot these word
pairs and then follow a basic technique.
5
Notice the presence of a conjunction
like “not only” and find its partner. A) NO CHANGE
B) designing
C) that he designed
Imagine a box or a blank after each D) for designing
conjunction, and look to see what it
contains…
Consider practice problem 5:
Gustave Eiffel is famous not only but also

What comes after the “not only”? What comes after the “but also”?
...is famous not only for building but also his design of
the Eiffel the internal
Tower structure of…

What is the primary grammatical element in each “box”?

- “for building the Eiffel Tower” is a preposition (“for”) with an -ing
phrase used as the noun object—overall, a prepositional phrase
- “his design of the internal structure of…” is basically just a noun with modifiers—a
noun phrase

A prepositional phrase does not match a noun phrase. The sentence is not parallel.
How does one correct these problems? ...is famous not only for building
Basically, you must make the two parts match. In the Eiffel
this case, that would mean either changing the first Tower
part into a noun phrase or changing the second part
into a prepositional phrase (probably with an -ing
object). We cannot change what comes after “not but also for designing
only” in this sentence, so we would have to change the internal
what comes after “but also.” structure of…
132

Parallelism Practice
Choose the answer that completes the sentence in the most effective, clear, and correct way.

1. Many gasses are invisible, odorless, and ____________.

A. they have no taste
B. have no taste
C. tasteless
2. Everyone agreed that she ____________.
A. neither had the voice nor the skill to be a public speaker
B. had neither the voice nor the skill to be a public speaker
C. had neither the voice nor was she skilled enough to be a public speaker
3. The mayor will be remembered because ____________.
A. of his refusal to accept political favors and because he kept his promises
B. he refused to accept political favors and because he kept his promises
C. of his refusal to accept political favors and he kept his promises
4. The great wastes of the southeast quadrant of Saudi Arabia are at once forbiddingly empty,
climatically harsh, ____________.
A. and the beauty of them is haunting
B. and hauntingly beautiful
C. but their beauty is haunting
5. When the artist first began sketching, she discovered that it is important both ____________.
A. to be attentive to the line of the figure and focusing on the composition
B. being attentive to the line of the figure and that one focus on the composition
C. to be attentive to the line of the figure and to focus on the composition
6. After the doctor warned her that she was in poor health, the chairwoman resolved to go on a
diet, stop smoking, and ____________.
A. to exercise every day
B. exercise every day
C. exercising every day
7. Leonardo was handsome, generous, clever, and ____________.
A. ambidextrous
B. able to use either hand for most activities
C. he could use either hand for most activities
8. Leonardo’s life had three distinct periods: his childhood in Vinci, his apprenticeship in Florence,
and ____________.
A. when he was an adult
B. his being an adult and earning his own way
C. his adulthood spent in various Italian cities
9. In childhood, Leonardo had not only a loving family and relatives but also ____________.
A. safe and unspoiled acres to explore
B. he had the whole gentle slop of a mountain to explore
C. included fields and vineyards to explore

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WRITING AND LANGUAGE 133

10. However, two natural events haunted his memory for years: a hurricane destroyed much of the
valley below his village, and ____________.
A. a flood washed away much of the city of Florence
B. a flood that washed away much of the city of Florence
C. the surging waters of a flood that washed away much of the city of Florence
11. Wind and water became major topics for Leonardo’s study; he decided that both wind and water
were useful but ____________.
A. did harmful things
B. they caused harm
C. harmful
12. Viewers can find in many of Leonardo’s works small round pebbles washed by a stream,
riverbanks covered with moss and flowers, and ____________.
A. little freshwater crabs partly hidden beneath rocks
B. viewers can also find little freshwater crabs partly hidden beneath rocks
C. little freshwater crabs are sometimes partly hidden under the rocks

Choose (A) if the sentence has correct parallelism; choose (B) if it does not.

13. Personal digital assistants can be not only practical, but also entertaining for hours on end.
14. Filling out applications for summer jobs is about as much fun as when you take the SAT.
15. My lab partners were more concerned about getting the lab work done quickly than about what
grade they might get.
16. To say she is excitable is like saying Bill Gates is well off.
17. The sheer magnitude of the structure was awesome, but the aesthetics were less than appealing.
18. The elegance of a proof lies more in its conciseness and clarity than in how clever it is.
19. I bought my tickets, reserved the hotel room, and planned the itinerary myself.
20. We had to build our own shelters, orient ourselves without instruments, and had to hunt and
gather our own food.
134

Problem Type: Misplaced Modifiers

Misplaced introductory phrases are a common type of problem on the SAT.
Most of these test questions involve participial phrases. A participial phrase is an adjectival
modifier which is usually formed with an “-ing” form of a verb (but can also be an “-ed” form).

In the problem below, “frustrated with the lack of fashionable clothing…” is an introductory
participial phrase. The rule that governs these phrases is really quite simple:

Introductory phrases modify the

Frustrated by the lack of fashionable clothing at subject.
decent prices in most retail 1 stores, a new
discount store was opened on Main Street by a local So, whenever you are presented with an intro-
designer.
ductory phrase (especially the participial ones),
find the subject and check to see if it “matches”
1 the modifying phrase.

A) NO CHANGE For example, in the adjacent problem, the

B) stores, it was on Main Street that a local subject is “discount store.” Check it. Is the store
designer opened a new discount store itself frustrated with the lack of fashionable
C) stores, a local designer opened a new clothing?
discount store on Main Street
D) stores led a local designer to open a new No, that’s silly. The subject should be the local
discount store on Main Street designer who, being frustrated, opened his own
store.

Spotting misplaced introductory phrases

greatly increases your speed and efficiency. !  Spot the introductory phrase
(p.s. the comma after it is a clue)

Once you spot an introductory phrase, you

can quickly scan the answer choices to make Burdened with three pieces of luggage and a pair
sure that the subjects match—if they don’t, of skis, 2 Sarah’s search for a baggage cart
you can quickly and confidently eliminate those was desperate.
answers.
2

  Check the subject in the original

sentence. Eliminate A.
A) NO CHANGE
B) Sarah’s desperate search was for a baggage
cart
C) a baggage cart was what Sarah desperately
 Scan the other choices, checking
 the subjects to see if they match.
 searched for
D) Sarah desperately searched for a baggage
cart
 Rejoice! There is only one choice that works!
You just solved the problem in about 10 seconds
 or less, and there’s no doubt that you have the
correct answer!

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WRITING AND LANGUAGE 135
Other types of introductory phrases also modify the subject.*
EXAMPLES: 1. While eagerly awaiting the start of her birthday party, Mary’s wrapped presents
were all tirelessly inspected by the very curious Mary.
“While eagerly awaiting…” should modify Mary, not her presents.
2. Worn through all the way to the floor beneath, our thick work boots were making
the old carpet even worse.
“Worn through…” should modify the carpet, not the work boots.
3. To ensure the quality of the dough, random samples are examined by the baker.
“To ensure the quality…” should modify the baker, not the samples.
4. Under the cushions of the couch, Jack and I found several quarters.
“Under the cushions…” should modify the quarters, not Jack and I.
5. One of three sisters, Helda’s father was a butcher who ran four shops.
“One of three sisters…” should modify Helda, not her father.

*Infinitive phrases (such as in #3 above) and prepositional phrases (like #4) can also be adverbial.
In other words, they sometimes modify the VERB, not the subject. Thus, this rule will not always
apply to them, but it ALWAYS applies to participial phrases. So whenever you see an introductory
participial phrase (usually they’re “-ing” phrases followed by a comma), CHECK TO SEE IF THE
PHRASE MATCHES THE SUBJECT.

Misplaced participial phrases can also

occur elsewhere in a sentence. 3 Millions of people, spread by rat fleas in
medieval Europe, were killed by bubonic plague.
When participial phrases occur in the middle or at
the end of a sentence, they usually modify the word
that immediately precedes them. 3
A) NO CHANGE
EXAMPLE: Janet could hear her children
B) Millions of people in medieval Europe,
playing outside with the neighbor’s spread by rat fleas, had been killed by
dog yelling and laughing. bubonic plague
C) Millions of people, killed by bubonic
“Yelling and laughing…” appears to modify plague, were spread by rat fleas in medieval
“dog” when it should be modifying the Europe
children. D) Spread by rat fleas, the bubonic plague
killed millions of people in medieval Europe

In practice problem 3, A, B and C suffer from this problem. It appears that millions of people, or
even Europe itself, were spread by rat fleas!
136

Overall, there are four specific types of misplaced modifiers that could occur as
problems on the SAT writing test (arranged here from very high frequency to very low frequency):

1. misplaced introductory modifiers / misplaced participial phrases

2. regular misplaced modifiers
3. squinting modifiers
4. limiting adverbs

One basic rule governs all of these types of problems: Modifiers should be placed close to the
words they describe.

One early morning when I was stationed in New Regular misplaced modifiers often
Dehli, 4 I found myself in the rather awkward create absurd situations.
position of shooting an elephant in my pajamas.
In the problem to the left, the prepositional phrase
“in my pajamas” is misplaced. Certainly, it is
4 referring to what the person was wearing when he
shot the elephant, but because of its misplaced
A) NO CHANGE position, it seems as though the elephant itself is
B) I found myself in my pajamas, in the rather
awkward position of shooting an elephant
wearing the pajamas!
C) I found myself in the rather awkward
These types of misplaced modifiers usually
position in my pajamas of shooting an
elephant involve a prepositional phrase or dependent
D) I found myself shooting an elephant in the adjective clause that appears at the end of the
rather awkward position of my pajamas sentence when it should be in an earlier position.
Though the SAT does occasionally test on this
error, it is a much less common type of problem
than the introductory misplaced modifier.

Be careful… Squinting modifiers are hard to spot.

A squinting modifier is an adverb that is positioned between two verbs (or verbals) in such a way
that it is difficult to determine which word it is supposed to modify.
EXAMPLE: The way I babble on sometimes surprises me.

The adverb “sometimes” could be modifying the verb “babble” or it could be modifying
“surprises.”
These errors are hard to notice; fortunately, the SAT writing test rarely uses them. Still, it is always
useful to be aware of the different types of problems that could appear. Furthermore, it is a good
habit to check your modifiers for any possible errors. Finally, training yourself to recognize a subtle
error like this one means that you are training yourself to examine sentences more closely, on the
test questions and in your own writing.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 137

Limiting adverbs are so strong that you have to place them very carefully.
Limiting adverbs are words like

nearly only almost really & just

These words can drastically change the meaning of a sentence, depending on their placement.
EXAMPLES: We saw almost every painting in the museum.
This sentence indicates that we saw perhaps 90% of the paintings.
We almost saw every painting in the museum.
This sentence is not even logical, unless we were hiding our eyes every time we
looked at each painting in the museum.

“Only” is the limiting adverb used With some limiting adverbs, the meaning of
most often on the SAT. the sentence is usually open to interpretation.
However, the word “only” is so strong that an
incorrect placement creates absurd interpreta-
Roberta hurt Joshua’s feelings by saying that tions (such as the one above with “almost”).
Joshua 5 only had a face that a mother could Therefore, “only” is the limiting adverb used
love. most often for the SAT Writing test.

5
In the problem to the left, “only” is placed in
front of the verb “had,” putting emphasis on
A) NO CHANGE Joshua’s having a face. He only had a face??
B) had only a face that a mother could love What???
C) had a face that a mother could only love
D) had a face that only a mother could love Where should the “only” go?
138

Misplaced Modifier Practice

Considering misplaced modifiers, determine whether each of the following sentences is
(A) correct or (B) incorrect.

1. Traveling around the town, doctors visited patients, dispensed medicines, and treated
wounds.
2. Groups of children ran through the amusement park carrying colorful balloons.
3. After finishing the performance, the audience applauded the actors.
4. With their many colors, these dresses should sell well during the summer.
5. Entertaining at birthday parties, clowns often tell jokes and make balloon animals.
6. Demanding great focus, some people enjoy the intensity of tennis.
7. While singing romantic songs, a guitar and a flute were often played.
8. With its fancy frosting roses, the wedding cake was sure to wow the guests.
9. A crow, having a loud and brazen caw, would sometimes awaken us at dawn.
10. Possessing a vast knowledge of history, the professor presented fascinating impromptu
lectures.
11. The little diner, which had been in business since the 40s, was called simply “Eats.”
12. Still well-regarded by young people today, the students were eager to read the classic novel.
13. Built by a group of skilled craftspeople, visitors were awed by the beauty of the old
cathedral.
14. The development of the pedagogical method led over a period of time to improved student
performance.
15. Based on ancient motifs, members of the choir sang the composer’s hymns.
16. After he had studied for hours, the answers to the algebra problems were clear to Juan.
17. Wearing shorts and a polo shirt, the new car was washed by my brother.
18. To be well done, you should grill a hamburger for 15 minutes.
19. Having a fabulous sun roof, my sister purchased the car.
20. Having procured the needed vaccine, the doctors gave the shots to the babies.

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WRITING AND LANGUAGE 139

Problem Type: Improper, Incomplete & Illogical Comparisons

Don’t forget your basic comparison Grapes, mangoes, and oranges are widely considered
rule! delicious fruits, but it is in fact the banana that is
shown by many surveys to be 1 the more
 When comparing two things, use “-er” or popular fruit in the world.
“more.”
 When comparing more than two things, 1
use “-est” or “most.”
A) NO CHANGE
comparative form: more incredible, nicer B) more popular than all others of the world’s
superlative form: most incredible, nicest fruits
C) the most popular fruit in the world
EXAMPLES: Johanan is friendlier than Michael. D) —of all the world’s fruits—the most popular
It was the most fantastic story that
I had ever read.

A couple of things to keep in mind…

1. A comparison using “more” often contains the word “than”
2. Don’t make a double comparison (“more taller,” “most tallest”), and if you encounter one on
the SAT, don’t overlook it and miss out on some easy points!

Some words can’t be used with comparatives and superlatives.

These words, called absolute modifiers, are so strong in their meanings, that it would be incorrect
to use “more” or “most” with them:

perfect dead unique final identical opposite

For example, if someone is perfect, he is already at the peak of his achievement—he can’t be the
“most perfect.” Likewise, if someone is dead, he is dead—that’s it! He can’t be “more dead.”
“Unique” is the word most often used on the SAT when testing students on this rule.

So, REMEMBER that “most unique” is wrong, that “more unique” is wrong!

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140

Every time you encounter a comparison, you should check for a few possible
errors.
In addition to the basic comparison rule, there are a few other common comparison errors that the
SAT will be testing you on. Just as you do with verbs and pronouns, always check your
comparisons. Look out for…

1. Parallelism Errors
In the same way that items joined by conjunctions should “match,” comparisons must also
have parallel structuring.

2. Incomplete Comparisons
You must make sure that the comparison does not create any confusion by being
incompletely stated.

3. Illogical Comparisons
This type of error, in which the wrong things are being compared, is common on the SAT
writing test.

1. Comparisons must be parallel.

REMEMBER: Parallelism essentially means that the parts of a sentence being joined together (or
compared) must have the same grammatical form or structure and maybe even the same style.
EXAMPLE: James was more worried to impress his study partner than passing the test.
The comparison is between the infinitive “to impress” and the gerund “passing.”
The infinitive should be changed into a gerund and preceded by “about” to create a
parallel structure: James was more worried about impressing his study partner
than about passing the test.

The problem to the right is a typical SAT Twice as many bird species inhabit Europe 2 as
problem. If you check for parallelism, you in North America.
will see that the comparison “twice as
many… as” is between a verb phrase 2
...inhabit Europe and a prepositional A) NO CHANGE
phrase ...in North America. B) as inhabit
C) instead of in
D) when compared to

2. In some special cases, comparisons must be complete.

Many comparisons are incompletely stated. For example, “His dog is friendlier than mine.” is an
incomplete comparison. The sentence, more fully expressed, would be “His dog is friendlier than
mine is.” Most incomplete comparisons are normal and acceptable. It is quite common for a word
or two to be dropped from a comparison. Incomplete comparisons are not automatic errors.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 141

However, an incomplete comparison is incorrect if it is ambiguous.

If there are two possible interpretations for an incomplete comparison, then an error is present.
EXAMPLE: On last week’s sociology project, Keith helped Amber more than Elizabeth.
This sentence seems to be correct, but it is an incomplete comparison, so you must check it for any
possible ambiguity. What does the sentence mean?

Does it mean… helped

On last week’s sociology project, Keith helped Amber more than Elizabeth .
or does it mean…
On last week’s sociology project, Keith helped Amber more than Elizabeth.
???? he helped
If such ambiguity exists, the comparison is wrong. Consider this: I like sushi more than my sister.

Learn to recognize these other incomplete comparison errors.

(a) the “as… as…” problem
In much the same way that most comparisons with “more” are followed by “than,” most
comparisons with “as” are followed by a second “as.” This structure is obvious in most cases.
EXAMPLE: That spider is as big as my hand!
If the second “as” were missing from this comparison, the error would be easily apparent.
That spider is as big my hand!

Still, the SAT does test students on this rule. Brand-name prescription drugs are often more
familiar to consumers than generic drugs, but
In some problems an intervening phrase such the latter are not nearly 3 as expensive than
as “if not bigger than” will make the missing brand-name drugs.
“as” harder to spot.
3
The problem on the right is a bit more obvious,
but if your “ear” gets fixated on the “more… A) NO CHANGE
B) more expensive as
than” construction in the beginning, you may
C) as expensive then
overlook the incorrect “as… than” at the end. D) as expensive as

Essentially, remember that “more” goes with “than” and, in most cases, “as” goes with
* “as”—also, be on the lookout for “if not better than” phrases as they often occur with
these types of problems.

* Finally, be aware that comparisons can be constructed with “so… as…” This is an acceptable,
though rare, structure; it is often used with negative comparisons.
EXAMPLE: This ski slope is not so forgiving as the first one we tried.
142

(b) comparisons that require “other”

You should first realize that one item or person can be compared to a group of items or persons, and
the comparison would still be between two things (and use the comparative “-er” or “more”) even
though many items total are involved.
EXAMPLE: The only American on the trip, Roger had more trouble adapting to the
culture than did those students who were native to the region.

Though more than two people are involved in this comparison, the comparison is
structured in such a way that it is still between two things:

more trouble than those

Roger
students…

There is a special rule involving these types of comparison between a person and a group. This rule
is regularly used for SAT test questions, so you should learn to check for this situation:
If the person being compared to a group is a member of that group, the word “other”
must be used.
EXAMPLE: Overall, though, Roger had a more exciting time than the students on the trip.
In this version of the sentence, Roger is being compared to the students on the trip, not just
students native to the area. Since Roger himself is a student on the trip, the example above is
incorrect because the word “other” must be used. The following example is a correct application
of this rule.
EXAMPLE: Malcolm X was more aggressive than other civil rights leaders. *The expression
“anyone else” can
1. Malcolm X is being compared to a group, civil rights leaders sometimes be
2. Malcolm X belongs to this group—he was also a civil rights leader used in place of
3. the word “other” is used—the sentence is correct “other.”

3. Comparisons must be logical.

(Illogical comparisons are the most common comparison issue on the SAT.)
Whenever you see that two things are being compared, think carefully for a second and determine
whether the comparison is logical.
EXAMPLE: The industrial use of plastic is greater than steel.

At first, the comparison may seem okay, but train your brain to look closer. What is actually
being compared? The use (of plastic) and steel. We need to compare the use of one thing to the
use of another. The error could be fixed by stating “the use of steel,” “that of steel,” or simply
“steel’s” (possessive).
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 143

In the adjacent problem, the original sentence Like most new residents, 4 the town’s winding
is incorrect because it wrongly compares streets confused Curtis for a day or two.
“residents” to “streets.”
4
To solve this problem, use a technique similar to
that for misplaced modifier problems. Scan the A) NO CHANGE
subject of each choice, narrowing the answers B) Curtis was confused by the town’s winding
down to those which make the comparison to an streets
C) Curtis, who found the town’s winding streets
actual resident, Curtis.
confusing
D) there were winding streets in the town which
confused Curtis

Don’t forget the Pronoun Case issue involving Incomplete Comparisons

Remember: If you encounter one of the personal pronouns in a comparison, you must make sure to
complete the comparison in order to determine the correct pronoun case.
EXAMPLE: Darlene has saved much more money than (I, me).

“me” sounds correct, but you should be sure, so complete the comparison:
Darlene has saved much more money than (I, me) have saved.
now you will likely hear that “I” is correct—the nominative case is used
because the pronoun is actually the subject of the unspoken verb “is”
144

Improper, Incomplete, and Illogical Comparisons Practice

Considering the various comparison errors, determine whether each sentence is
(A) correct or (B) incorrect
(Answer key pg. 193)
1. Lana is the best athlete in our school’s history.
2. Charlene’s most highest math score is 90%.
3. Which one of the twins has the better disposition?
4. The history teacher is fiercer than any member of the faculty.
5. This novel is the most important book we will read this year.
6. Jan helped Dirk with his project more than Brandy on Saturday night.
7. Bill and Karl make better muffins than the other members of their fraternity.
8. The show that we watched was more amazing as the one we had watched earlier.
9. This is the most worst movie I’ve ever seen.
10. Lucy is a more graceful dancer than Rhonda.
11. The most significant reason for the founding of this institution was a need for help.
12. Slavery in the United States was much worse than Europe.
13. Shelly, the woman from California, has had more work experience than anyone else in her
department.
14. Ken’s piano playing is more worse than his singing.
15. The Lowell family has donated the most money to this hospital than any other family.
16. Henry VIII thought that annulling his marriage to Catherine of Aragon to marry Anne Boleyn was
the most perfect move on his part.
17. Mr. Anderson is undoubtedly the most biggest spender whom I’ve ever met.
18. Compared to his brother, Scott is the skinniest.
19. Sophia’s resume was more organized than Nick, but Nick’s resume included more information.
20. Chantal paid me the most unique compliment when she likened my photography to that of Ansel
Adams.

Answers to this section:

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WRITING AND LANGUAGE 145

Problem Type: Punctuation—The Rules for Commas

The SAT writing test will require knowledge of the rules of PUNCTUATION in standard
written English.

A survey of the writing sections on tests that the College Board has released suggests that you
will encounter anywhere from six to twelve punctuation problems on the multiple-choice
section of the writing and language test—on average, six to eight. But six to eight problems of
the forty-four total questions is approximately 13%-18%, as much as perhaps 60 points on your
total score! That’s certainly a big enough chunk to make punctuation worth your attention.

Besides, isn’t it time that you learned how and when to use commas, semicolons, colons,
dashes, and quotation marks? This lesson will help you master the rules for commas.

Use a comma to separate main clauses joined by one of the

Comma Rule coordinating conjunctions – for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.
#1 This method is most useful when the clauses combined with the
conjunction are l o n g.

For example: Other ways of editing DNA exist, but the new CRISPR technology holds the
promise of doing so with unprecedented simplicity, speed, and precision.

Use a comma after long introductory modifiers.

Comma Rule The modifiers may be phrases or dependent clauses.
#2 THE IMPORTANT THING TO REMEMBER ABOUT RULE #2 is that you need a
COMMA, not another piece of punctuation (or an extra word, as in (C)
in both problems below) in this kind of construction:

By allowing doctors to put just the right cancer- Although these embryos could not develop to
hunting genes into a patient’s immune 1 system, 2 term; viable embryos could one day be
the technology could lead to new approaches to engineered for therapeutic reasons or non-medical
oncology. enhancement.

1 2
A) NO CHANGE A) NO CHANGE
B) system; B) term—
C) system, and C) term, but
D) system: D) term,

Answers to this section:

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146

Comma Rule Use a comma to separate words, phrases, and clauses in a

#3 series of three or more items.

Examples: Red, white, and blue were her favorite colors. (words)
He ran down the street, across the park, and into the arms of his father.
(phrases)
When John was asleep, when Mary was at work, and when Bob was studying,
Mother had time to relax. (clauses)

You will most likely see problems that ask you to evaluate the final piece of punctuation before the
end of the series, and again: IT SHOULD BE A COMMA, not another punctuation mark or any
other combination of commas and conjunctions, as you see among the answer choices below.

Charitable groups, members of 3 Congress, and, Proust’s sentences are delightfully convoluted by
concerned researchers are working together to find long appositive phrases, multiple subordinate
solutions to the problem of homelessness in Ameri- 4 clauses, and uncanny and gorgeous observations
ca’s cities. of sensory minutiae.

3 4
A) NO CHANGE A) NO CHANGE
B) Congress: and B) clauses; and
C) Congress; and, C) clauses, along with
D) Congress, and D) clauses—and

Comma Rule Use commas to set off nonessential (unnecessary for

#4 meaning of the sentence) words, phrases, and clauses.

Rule #4 requires us to look more closely at a few different phrase and clause patterns that come
up again and again on the writing test.

 APPOSITIVE PHRASES: For some reason, the College Board especially likes to test
your comma skills by making problems where there are appositive phrases in a passage. So
WHAT’S AN APPOSITIVE PHRASE, and HOW SHOULD IT BE PUNCTUATED?

An appositive phrase is a noun or noun phrase that follows another noun or noun phrase,
identifying that other noun or noun phrase more precisely.

FOR EXAMPLE: The Huns, destroyers of the Roman Empire, bandaged the heads of their
children, applying pressure to flatten the frontal and occipital bones, so causing their heads
to grow in a pointed fashion.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 147

Notice that the appositive in the previous example, destroyers of the Roman Empire, is
flanked on both sides by a comma. And that is how it should be punctuated. And that is what
the SAT will test, by offering various incorrect options, usually in place of the second comma.

The 5 author, a historian at Oxford University 5

could have crafted a dozen pithy histories of various A) NO CHANGE
other subjects. B) author a historian at Oxford University
C) author, a historian, at Oxford University,
D) author, a historian at Oxford University,

 “SUCH AS” & OTHER INTERRUPTING PHRASES

When you’re taking the writing test, beware of examples introduced by “such as,” and know
that a comma usually precedes that kind of phrase:

The glassmaking industry’s first products were trinkets, such as beads and pendants,
cast from molds and carved by hand.

One useful feature of 3D printed glass is that, unlike a blown-glass vessel, a printed
vessel can have complex surface features on the inside as well as the outside.

 NON-ESSENTIAL CLAUSES

There are two types of adjective clauses that you should be able to identify on the writing
test: essential and non-essential. Adjective clauses begin with the words who, whom, whose,
which, that and sometimes where, when, and why. An adjective clause is essential if its
removal would significantly change the meaning of the sentence. An adjective clause is
non-essential if its removal doesn’t alter the sentence’s basic meaning.

SOME EXAMPLES:

ESSENTIAL: All of the students who studied hard should be able to pass the test.
Note that the removal of the adjective clause would change the sentence to:
All of the students should be able to pass the test.
That’s a significant change!

NON-ESSENTIAL: Marla, who studied hard, passed the test.

Note that we don’t need the additional clause “who studied hard” to identify Marla.

SO—What about commas and essential and non-essential clauses?

148

The rules are:

PUT COMMAS AROUND NON-ESSENTIAL CLAUSES.
DO NOT PUT COMMAS AROUND ESSENTIAL CLAUSES.

In the problems below, you’ll encounter an example of each. Can you determine how to
punctuate them correctly?

The country’s combative mood helps to explain the The impact of America’s economic recovery is dwarfed
huge 6 crowds, that have been turning out to by slowing industrial demands in 7 China, which
cheer Senator Bernie Sanders of Vermont, a still consumes about half the world’s metals, such as
pugnacious underdog in the contest for the next iron, aluminum, and zinc.
Democratic presidential nomination.

6 7

A) NO CHANGE A) NO CHANGE
B) crowds—that B) China that
C) crowds that C) China which
D) crowds that, D) China
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 149

Commas Practice
Considering the use of commas and other punctuation, determine whether each of the following sentences is
(A) correct or (B) incorrect.

1. The raw materials boom was fanned by a weak American dollar; the currency in which most
stuff that comes out of the ground is priced.
2. All of the children, who noticed the smoke, called out “fire!”
3. After a few awkward attempts, Jamison finally managed to do a cartwheel.
4. Jenny managed to finish her Christmas shopping, wrap her gifts, and prepare a meal for her
family by 6 p.m.
5. Some wingless insects including some ants and spiders, can glide through the air.
6. Have you seen the new air-mattress that self-inflates?
7. Most scientific discoveries are the result of deliberate experiment; a few, though, occur by
chance.
8. Many of the residents chose chocolate cake which usually seems to be a crowd pleaser.
9. The Koran presents the whole material world, and the animal kingdom in particular, as a
divine miracle to which man must respond with awe and self-restraint.
10. Liz worked at her desk all night, but the job was not finished in time.
11. Borna Coric, a Croatian professional tennis player, is currently the youngest player in the
top 80 of the ATP world rankings.
12. Rising sea levels, melting glaciers; and expanding deserts will affect everybody; regardless
of what they believe.
13. The new car, all sleek and shiny was nowhere to be found.
14. Even among commercial airlines, carelessness, fatigue, and lack of experience by flight
crew account for around 60% of fatal air crashes.
15. The puppy wet and bedraggled crept under the porch.
16. The children, free from constraints, ran along the sidewalk.
17. The Eiffel Tower which is located in Paris is no longer the highest tower in the world.
18. It is, however, not up to me to decide your fate.
19. The angel told them to fear not, for she brought them good news.
20. It has long been thought that our universe is all there is, but it is possible we may live in just
one of many.

Answers to this section:

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150

Problem Type: Punctuation—The Rules for Colons, Semicolons,

Dashes, and Apostrophes

The SAT presents a comprehensive look

at issues regarding proper writing and
thus requires students to master the rules
of punctuation, especially the rules that
govern commas, semicolons, colons, and
dashes. Fortunately, these rules are pretty
routine and thus easy to master, and the
way that they’re tested on the SAT is
: ’— ;
When he later examined his motivations, he conclud-
fairly direct. Basically, you’re most often ed that he had been unconsciously 1 selfish, it
going to see problems which ask you to was to allay his conscience.
evaluate a piece of punctuation as a
connecting device. You’ll be asked to
decide among options which involve 1
other pieces of punctuation, as in the A) NO CHANGE
example problem to the right. B) selfish. It being
C) selfish: it was
D) selfish, and it has been

Colons

 Use a colon to introduce a list, especially after statements that use such words as
these, namely, the following, or as follows.

EXAMPLE Friday’s test will cover these areas: the circulatory, the digestive, and
the nervous systems.

EXAMPLE He requested the following: a screwdriver, a level, and wood screws.

 Don’t use a colon to introduce a list if the list immediately follows a verb or a
preposition. That is, be sure the words preceding the colon form a sentence.

EXAMPLE The best non-animal sources of protein are soybeans, wheat germ,
brewer’s yeast, nuts, seeds, and whole grains.
[The list follows the verb are and acts as the sentence’s predicate
nominative. Don’t use a colon.]

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WRITING AND LANGUAGE 151

EXAMPLE My sister likes to decorate her hamburgers with lettuce, tomato,

mustard, ketchup, and relish.
[The list follows the preposition with and acts as the object of the
preposition. Don’t use a colon.]

 Use a colon to introduce material that illustrates, explains, or restates the preceding
material. Note: Of all usages, this one seems to appear the most frequently on the
SAT.

EXAMPLE I often wish my parents had had more than one child: they worry too
much about me.

EXAMPLE The epidemic grew ever more serious: now children as well as adults
were being affected.

The smell of a freshly mown wicket, the hubbub of Notice the mish-mash of options
an expectant Indian crowd, the sights and sounds of you’re presented with in the problem
cricket, the company of 2 cricketers’; he adored to the left. You’re asked to decide
it all. whether ―cricketers‖ needs an apos-
trophe (and, if so, where it should go)
and whether the given semicolon is
2
the best connector between the phrase
fragment that begins the sentence and
A) NO CHANGE the clause that follows. The variety of
B) cricketers: he issues here is typical of a punctuation
C) cricketer’s: he
D) cricketers, he problem on the SAT.

The same level of variety occurs in

the choices for the problem to the He was not responsible for the big changes that
right. In this case, the choices, adding coincided with his 3 administration: commer-
the words ―with‖ and ―and‖ as they cialization, the rise of ―television-friendly‖ shorter
do, make the problem a little more formats of the game, and corruption.
difficult. It is a punctuation problem,
but as it includes additions of prepo-
sitional (―with‖) and conjunctive
3
(―and‖) connectors, the problem
forces you to read each option into A) NO CHANGE
the sentence and deal with new B) administration;
nuances (or distortions) of meaning. C) administration, with
D) administration and
The SAT demands that you be alert
to such twists.
152

This problem is quite a challenge.

Yes, it’s about punctuation. But it’s
These days, anyone wanting to know what the
also forcing you to decide whether
future holds can consult everything from telephone the underlined ―for‖ is a conjunction
psychics to intelligence agencies, bookies, futures or a preposition. Be careful! ―For‖
markets, and media pundits. Their record is far can’t be a conjunction here: it would
from perfect. But it is difficult to say just how result in an awkward set of frag-
4 imperfect, for all the importance people attach ments to follow. It is a preposition,
to forecasting, hardly anyone bothers to keep score. though. As such, it heads a preposi-
tional phrase. Knowing that, your job
becomes simple: how best to intro-
duce the prepositional phrase? Only
4 one choice (of course) does so cor-
A) NO CHANGE rectly. ―Since‖ in choice (B) presents
B) imperfect, since problems similar to those with ―for‖
C) imperfect; because for in choice (A). ―Because for‖ in (C)
D) imperfect: for
would result in an incorrect fragment
to the right of the semicolon.

Semicolons

On the SAT, the semicolon comes up most frequently in wrong answer choices, but that doesn’t
mean those choices will always be wrong. And knowing how to use this nuanced piece of
punctuation is essential for educated writers of English, anyway. So here are the rules that
govern semicolon use:

 Use a semicolon instead of a comma between independent clauses that are not joined by
and, but, or, nor, for, so, or yet.

EXAMPLES After dinner, Marika wanted to go to the movies; Carrie planned to watch
the basketball game on television. The game was not exciting enough for
me; I got bored and fell asleep.

 Use a semicolon rather than a period between independent clauses only when the ideas in
the clauses are closely related.

EXAMPLE Carrie enjoys watching basketball. Mai would rather play.

Carrie enjoys watching basketball; Mai would rather play.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 153

 Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by a conjunctive adverb or a

transitional expression.

Conjunctive adverbs and transitional expressions show the relationship between the
independent clauses that they join.

EXAMPLES There was no proof that Mike’s dog had trampled Mrs. Lavitka’s flower
garden; nevertheless, Mike offered to help repair the damage.

The phone rang repeatedly during dinner; as a result, my food was cold by
the time I got to eat.

 Use a semicolon rather than a comma before a coordinating conjunction to join

independent clauses that contain commas.

EXAMPLES A large, green frog leapt across the wet grass; and the frisky, playful kitten
chased after it.

There will be no school the last Friday in November, the second week in
January, and the third week in April; and on the first Thursday of each
month, we will have a half day.

Now, test your knowledge and punctuation skills with these example problems:

They were an eclectic 5 bunch: housewives, 5

unemployed factory workers, and professors of A) NO CHANGE
mathematics. But Mr. Tetlock and his collaborators B) bunch; housewives
were able to extract some common personality traits. C) bunch, with
Superforecasters are clever, on average, but by no D) bunch, housewives
means geniuses. More important than sheer intelli-
gence was mental attitude. Borrowing from Sir Isai-
ah Berlin, a Latvian-born British philosopher, Mr.
Tetlock divides people into two 6 categories; 6
hedgehogs, whose understanding of the world A) NO CHANGE
depends on one or two big ideas, and foxes, who B) categories, having hedgehogs
think the world is too complicated to boil down C) categories: hedgehogs
D) categories of hedgehogs
into a single slogan. Superforecasters are drawn
exclusively from the ranks of the foxes.
154

The word jhana literally means ―meditation.’’ In the 7

sutras, there are four jhanas and four immaterial A) NO CHANGE
states. In modern times these eight states are simply B) higher, you
called the eight jhanas. Thus the jhanas are eight C) higher; you
altered states of consciousness, brought on via D) higher: you
concentration and each yielding more concentration
than the previous. Upon emerging from the jhanas—
preferably the fourth or 7 higher—you begin
doing an insight practice with your jhanically
concentrated, indistractable mind. This is the heart
of the method the Buddha discovered.

Generating access concentration can be done in a 8

number of ways. A common means for doing so is A) NO CHANGE
through following the breath, a practice known B) compound; anapana means
as anapanasati. The first word of this Pali C) compound anapana, which means
D) compound, anapana, means
8 compound, anapana means ―in-breath and out-
breath,‖ while the word sati means ―mindfulness.‖
The practice is therefore ―mindfulness of breathing.‖

By some measures Britain’s railways are booming. 9

Since the network was privatized in 1994, the A) NO CHANGE
number of train journeys taken each year has B) And as well as being pricey, the service is
doubled. The growth in passenger-kilometers trav- uncomfortable:
C) And as well as being pricey, there is
eled has been among the fastest in the European discomfort, where
Union. But the service has become far more expen- D) And, as well as being pricey, the service is
sive, with rail fares now one-quarter higher in real uncomfortable when
terms than in 1995. 9 And as well as being
pricey, the service is uncomfortable, 22% of passen-
gers commuting into London and 16% of those
traveling into Manchester have to stand.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 155

Dashes

Of all the types of punctuation tested on the SAT, the dash is probably tested the least. But its
usage is fairly restricted: in general, if a change or interruption begins with a dash, it should end
with another, not some other piece of punctuation (unless the change or interruption is at the
end of sentence). Review the examples below to learn the rules and to see the dash in action.

Dashes to Signal Change

 Use a dash to indicate an abrupt break or change in thought within a sentence.

Example A small stand sells blocks of sugar—the gift to bring when invited to
dinner—sugar for the mint tea and for the sweet pastry, so flaky and light,
that they bake.

Dashes to Emphasize

 Use a dash to set off and emphasize extra information or parenthetical comments.

Examples It was a shiny new car—the first he had ever owned.

A shiny new car—the first he had ever owned—sat in the driveway.

Chinese President Xi Jinping and Barack Obama Examine the excerpt of real-world journal-
announced an agreement between China and the ism to the left. Note that there are three
United States to enact ―nearly complete bans on pairs of dashes in a single paragraph. Each
ivory import and export.‖ The end destination of
most poached ivory—by most estimates, seventy per
pair functions in essentially the same way:
cent—is China, where it fulfills the appetite of the to emphasize important points in the
country’s growing middle class for carvings that overall discussion which happen to be
were once the exclusive province of aristocrats. But interrupting the main clause and which are
China is also deeply invested in Africa—especially in surrounded by dashes.
extraction industries, such as logging and mining—
and African leaders have grown increasingly resent-
ful that their countries’ relationships with China are By now, you can probably guess what
causing the destruction of their wildlife. The you’ll see in a problem that asks you to
announcement was the most significant of recent focus on this type of construction: in the
indications from Chinese officials that, after years of incorrect choices, there will be another
promoting ivory sales domestically, the government
may be becoming sensitive to the adverse effect that
piece of punctuation where a dash should
the trade is having on its international reputation. But go. Your solution: make sure you pair
are their efforts—which still include very few dashes with dashes.
specifics—too late?
156

Now, test your knowledge and punctuation skills with these example problems:

To hold global warming to less than two degrees Adjacent is a dash problem. You have to
Celsius, the best estimates available suggest that read carefully to see that the sentence which
total emissions will have to be kept under a trillion begins ―What’s fundamentally at issue in
tons of carbon. The world has already consumed Paris‖ is interrupted, but the underlined
around two-thirds of this budget. If current trends portion directs you to the point where the
continue, the last third will be used up within the interruption ends and the sentence picks
next few decades. What’s fundamentally at issue in up again with, ―is who should be allowed
Paris—although the matter is never stated this bald- to emit the tons that remain.‖ What’s in
ly, because, if it were, the conference might as well between these two sentence parts begins
be called 10 off, is who should be allowed to emit
with a dash and should end with one, so
the tons that remain.
your task couldn’t be much easier.

10

A) NO CHANGE
B) off; is who
C) off—is who
D) off: is who

Recently, police recruits in several cities—among 11

them Cincinnati, Las Vegas, and 11 Memphis— A) NO CHANGE
have begun to learn a different approach: command B) Memphis,
less, listen more. C) Memphis;
D) Memphis:

The things that give cities a bad conscience are self- Sometimes, you’ll see dashes come up in
evident: seeing the rise of 432 Park Avenue, the tall- the answer choices even when no dash
est, ugliest, and among the most expensive private appears in the passage. As always, read
residences in the city’s 12 history, as a catchment carefully; observe the context. Is the author
for the rich from which to look down on everyone trying to emphasize something? Is there an
else, it is hard not to feel that the civic virtues of interruption?
commonality have been betrayed.

12

A) NO CHANGE
B) history—
C) history;
D) history
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 157

Apostrophes

Remember that to form a possessive noun, you add an apostrophe and s to most singular nouns
and plural nouns not ending in s.

EXAMPLES girl—girl’s children—children’s

 You add only an apostrophe to most plural nouns ending in s to make them possessive.

EXAMPLE girls—girls’ students—students’

 Remember that possessive pronouns, such as its, hers, whose, and theirs, never contain
apostrophes.

 To form contractions with verbs, you use an apostrophe to replace the missing letters.

EXAMPLES does not—doesn’t have not—haven’t would not—wouldn’t

 To form contractions with pronouns and verbs, you also use an apostrophe to replace
dropped letters.

EXAMPLES you are—you’re they would—they’d she will– she’ll

 Use an apostrophe and s to form the plural of letters, numerals, and symbols, but do not use
an apostrophe for any other plural!

From their earliest days of training, many police 13

recruits are steeped in a so-called warrior mentality, A) NO CHANGE
in which routine 13 patrol’s resemble combat and B) patrols’
citizens pose a potentially mortal threat. C) patrols
D) patrols’s

In their intimate perspective the photographs empha- 14

size the 14 women’s shared experience—the A) NO CHANGE
inward focus and physical determination in their B) womens’
final, transformative moments of becoming mothers. C) womens
D) womens’s
158

Punctuation Practice
Determine whether the punctuation in the sentences below is (A) correct or (B) incorrect.

1. I have only one thing to say to you, Brett: either attend the practice sessions or leave the
team.
2. Yes, Jeff class begins at 8 a.m. sharp.
3. Emily Dickinson—wrote the following—‖We never know how high we are / Till we are
called to rise; / And then, if we are true to plan, / Our statures touch the skies.‖
4. Have you read: The Iliad?
5. Actually, I have many reasons to be glad I live in an apartment: there is no lawn to mow, a
bus stop is nearby, and I babysit for four families without going outside.
6. Our assignment was to write a brief essay: on these lines from Robert Frost; ―Nature’s first
green is gold, / Her hardest hue to hold.‖
7. The primary colors are—red, yellow, and blue.
8. The unemployment rate has decreased; sharply since the new president took office.
9. Nadine puts peanut butter—her favorite food—on bananas, apples, and grapes.
10. These are Tamar’s favorite flowers; daffodils, lilacs, and sunflowers.

Select the underlined portion of each sentence where a semicolon or colon should be
placed.

11. Read about the history of the Enlightenment it’s extremely fascinating.
A B C
12. Some scientists believe that aliens may attack Earth thus, those scientists are wary of
A B C
making contact.

13. Tall, ancient trees guard the primeval forest, visitors to Sequoia are able to walk among
A B
these impressive giants.
C
14. The native peoples have such a profound knowledge of the land that they are able to devise
A B
detailed mental maps these maps both help the people navigate and inspire their artwork.
C

Answers to this section:

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WRITING AND LANGUAGE 159

15. In the 16th century, England experienced a cultural and artistic renaissance, it reached
A
its height during the Elizabethan era, which is most famous for the playwright, Shakespeare.
B C
16. During the Elizabethan era, English peasants were exposed to new foods and drinks coffee,
A B
tea, and chocolate were among the imports coming in from the New World.
C
17. Austrians celebrate summer solstice with an exciting procession of ships down the
A
Danube River, nearly thirty ships sail down the river as fireworks erupt from the hills.
B C
18. Sweden offers excellent social services to its citizens known as the Nordic social welfare
A
system, it provides universal health care and education from kindergarten through college.
B C
19. One of the central symbols of Halloween is the jack-o’-lantern the top of a pumpkin is
A B
removed, the pulp is scooped out, and an image—usually a face—is carved into rind.
C
20. Pretzels have become a popular snack-food, some say that they were invented by an Italian
A B
monk who wanted to reward his students for learning their prayers.
C
160

Problem Types: Diction (frequently confused words) & Idiom

(conventional expression)

What is diction?
Diction basically means “word choice.” Making sure you use correct diction is simply making sure
you use the right words.
Perhaps you’ve heard someone trying to sound smart by using a “big” vocabulary word, but he
used it the wrong way. He just committed an error in diction. It’s beneficial to spread sophisticated
language throughout your writing for the sake of variety and clear expression, but be careful that
you know the specific meaning of a word and, more importantly, its exact usage.
Each SAT writing test may contain an error or two in diction to test you on proper word usage. The
errors on the SAT test often involve commonly confused words, such as in problem 1.

Your approach: Know the difference

between commonly confused words Most of the sediments and nutrients of the Mississippi
such as “effected” and “affected.” River no longer reach the coastal wetlands, a recent
phenomenon that has adversely 1 effected the
Commonly confused words, especially typical
ones like “good” and “well” and “imply” and region’s ecological balance.
“infer,” are the ones to look out for.
1
Being aware of the most common commonly
confused words, you will know why a word A) NO CHANGE
like “effected” would be underlined, and then B) effected the regions
C) affected the region’s
can quickly check to see whether it is being D) affects regional
used properly.

Following is a list of commonly confused words. Study them until you feel
confident in your ability to distinguish between them.

affect - (v.) to have an influence on

effect - (n.) the result of something (v.) to bring about

The radiation emitted by the new army base will affect your health in a negative way.
The effects of smoking range from bad breath and stinky clothes to emphysema and cancer.
The priest effected a positive change in his community by teaching compassion to the gangs.

Answers to this section:

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WRITING AND LANGUAGE 161

adopt - to take something new to you and make it your own

adapt - to change something that you already have to make it work better

The captain adopted a new technique for sailing through the strait.
The captain adapted his previous method to fit the new weather conditions.

complement - something that matches or completes something

compliment - an expression of praise and admiration

The scarf that Jean picked out to wear with her new dress was a perfect complement to the outfit.
When she wore the outfit to work, she received many compliments from other employees.

aggravate - to make something worse, exacerbate Aggravate is commonly used to

mean annoy, but this usage has
annoy - to bother, disturb, frustrate
always been considered an error
on the SAT.
The humidity in the air aggravated his respiratory condition.
My little sister was annoying me during the movie.

excess - more than what is needed

access - the ability or right to approach, enter, communicate with, or use
After forming the dough into a pie crust, we trimmed off the excess around the edges.
Because we had won the backstage passes, we were given access to the band’s private rooms

torturous - like torture, causing extreme suffering

tortuous - winding

Staying after school for two hours of detention was torturous for Stephen and Joan.
The mule slowly made its way up the tortuous trail that wound around the mountain.

eminent - famous, outstanding, having a high position

imminent - about to happen
Kelly was nervous when she met the eminent professor who had written a best-selling novel.
After reviewing the seismic data, the scientists believed a large earthquake was imminent.

regardless - in spite of
irregardless - [considered non-standard English, this word is always incorrect]

Regardless of his level of maturity, John is still not old enough to see this horror movie.

principal - (n.) the administrator of a school (adj.) main, primary, most important
principle - (n.) a rule, a law, a basic truth

The principal is the principal disciplinarian in our school.

We studied various principles of gravity in our physics class.
162

all ready - everybody or everything is together or prepared

already - previously

The campers are all ready to begin the hike up Mullet Mountain.
Ms. Sharon has already read us that story; I wish she would buy some new books.

farther - used to express a greater distance

further - used to express a longer time or greater degree
Because of his superior athletic ability, Phil could run farther than I could.
I don’t think I can continue my research into the brain any further without an assistant.

imply - to hint or suggest indirectly [what an author or painter would do in their work]
infer - to come to a conclusion, to deduce from clues [what a reader or art critic would do when
looking at a creator’s work]
By making such odd statements, are you trying to imply that I stole your watch?
We inferred from the tone of the speaker’s presentation that he was opposed to the President.

liable - responsible, especially according to the law

likely - suggesting something that is probable
The judge determined that Terrence was liable for the damage to his uncle’s car.
Because his uncle took him to court, Terrence is not likely to speak to his uncle again.

kind of a - Do not use the article a after kind of, sort of, or type of
Incorrect: When Julia tried to kiss him on their first date, Hank pushed her away and said,
“Please! I’m not that kind of a boy.”

only one of a kind - the phrase “one of a kind” means “unique,” so using “only” with it is considered
redundant and illogical; the correct expression is “only one of its kind”
Incorrect: Being the only surviving member of its species, this wild cat is the only one of a kind
in the world.

being that - [as both are considered non-standard English, these expressions are always incorrect]
being as

“Being that” is used on the test, sometimes in problems such as the one below:

2 Being that the university’s senior tenured faculty 2

is still many years away from retirement, it seems A) NO CHANGE automatically wrong
unlikely that the junior faculty will be able to achieve B) For the reason that
C) On account of wordy and awkward
tenure in the foreseeable future.
D) Because It’s actually OK to
start a sentence with
“because”
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 163

Another type of structural diction error involves the difference between

“if,” “whether,” and “that.”
Almost anyone who looks at the problem below will see nothing wrong with the usage of “if.”
HOWEVER, even though this is a common usage, it is not a correct one. Here’s the difference
between “if” and “whether”:
if - used to show hypothetical or conditional situations
whether - used to show an option of two or more possibilities, much like an “either… or…” situation
The approach: Check to see whether you can place the expression “or not” at the end of the
clause; if you can, use “whether.”

Try this approach with the adjacent question: Many educators 3 question if the decreasing enroll-
ment of students in universities is a reversible trend
…question if the decreasing enrollment… is and fear what will happen if the numbers do not return
a reversible trend (or not) to previous levels.

3
Thus, …question whether the decreasing
enrollment… is a reversible trend A) NO CHANGE
B) question whether
C) question that
D) questioning if

Now, let’s throw “that” into the mix. There is speculation 4 if increasing cold weather
“That” has many functions, but here’s the one was what may have been responsible for the Anasazi
you’ll see in problems that involve “if,”
move from Mesa Verde to sites in other canyons.
“whether,” and “that”:
that - used to express a fact, even one that is 4
controversial or of doubtful validity
A) NO CHANGE
B) whether increasing cold weather was what was
Notice also here that you’re faced with an C) whether increasingly cold weather may have
adjective/adverb problem: “increasing cold been what was
weather” or “increasingly cold weather”? D) that increasingly cold weather was

Two other structural diction problems are tricky, but once you learn to spot them,
you’ll ALWAYS get them right!
like - cannot be used as a subordinating conjunction to introduce a clause; instead, use “as,” “as if,” or “as
though”

Incorrect: It seemed like she had expected me to ask her to the dance.
164

Correct: It seemed as though she had expected me to ask her to the dance.
The approach: whenever you see “like,” check to see if there is a subject-verb structure (a clause)
following it; if so, the “like” is incorrect.

reason… is because…
- you should not use “because” after “the reason”
Incorrect: The reason she unfriended him on Facebook was because he had made some rude
comments on her photo.
The approach: Whenever you see “reason,” check to see if “because” follows it; if it does, it’s
wrong!

During the war, 5 when it looked like the The reason for the continued popularity of country-
German army was going to cross into France, western performers 6 is because the music
English mercenaries joined the French to resist the draws on experiences with which almost everyone
assault. can identify.

5 6
A) NO CHANGE A) NO CHANGE
B) when it was looking like B) is that
C) when it looked as though C) was because
D) as it looked as if D) were that

What is idiom?
Idiom refers to certain expressions or certain rules about how particular words are used. Idiom is
often defined as “something about a language that cannot be explained to someone who is outside
the culture or who doesn’t speak the language.”
For many, IDIOM IS THE MOST DIFFICULT PART OF THE SAT WRITING TEST
because it usually does not function according to any set rules. It is definitely the one part of
Grammar which can be explained only by saying “Hey, that’s just the way it is…”
The type of idiom used on the SAT test involves the use of certain prepositions or adverbs with
certain words. For example, sometimes the preposition “with” is needed with the verb “agree,” but
sometimes the preposition “to” is required:

*I agreed with Sharon that we should call for help. (agree with a person or opinion)
*I agreed to her plan to lure the thief into the open. (agree to a plan or to do something)
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 165

What’s the best way to learn idiom?

Unfortunately, there is no easy way to learn idiom. Again, idiom is not always logical; no
discernible reason may be apparent for why a certain preposition (like “with”) must be used with a
certain word (like “familiar”).
One way that you could improve your knowledge of idiom would be to keep a list of all the new
idiomatic phrases you encounter. There are thousands and thousands of idioms (some of which you
may already know), and it certainly wouldn’t hurt to keep track of some of the ones common to the
SAT writing and language test. Here’s a good list to get you started:

abide by [rules, policies, etc.] blamed for limited to

abide in [a place] capable of (but able to) object to
accuse [someone] of in charge of participate in
apologize for concerned about pray for
apply for consist of prohibit from
approve of correlate with protect [someone] from
angry at [a thing] depend on [or] upon provide with
angry with [a person] differ from recover from
argue with [a person] differ with [to argue] rely on
argue for [what a lawyer discriminate against stare at
or politician does] (make an) excuse for subscribe to
aware of insist upon succeed in

Here’s a suggestion: Read more! Become familiar with the language.

The phenomenon of idiom provides a good illustration of what the College Board and universities
expect: they want you to know how the language works. They want you to be familiar enough with
the language that you barely have to think twice when considering what is correct or incorrect about
a sentence. Furthermore, they would like for you to be able to write just as well. One way to achieve
these goals is simply to read often and expose yourself to sophisticated writing and ideas.

So, how important is idiom?

Actually, it is pretty important. Unfortunately, the only way to get a strong grasp on what is
correct or incorrect idiom is to become familiar with the language, and doing so may take a lot of
time. The following problem is an example:

Glass walls and dividers can also be used to replace 7

solid walls as a means 7 through distributing A) NO CHANGE
natural light more freely. B) of
C) from
D) DELETE the underlined portion
166

Are there any other types of idiom?

There are two.
One is simply those colorful expressions such as “my teacher has an ax to grind with the principal”
and “geometry is all Greek to me.” You will not be tested on idioms such as these, but you might
encounter them on the SAT (especially on the Critical Reading section) or in your daily conversa-
tion, so it would be good to know their meanings.

Another type of idiom error involves the Over the past two years, many apparel manufacturers
choice between infinitives and gerunds. have 8 worked to meeting the revised federal
standards for the design of uniforms.
 Certain verbs, such as “finish,” “stop,”
“keep,” “put off,” “consider,” “think about,”
“discuss,” and “go,” should be followed by 8
gerunds.
A) NO CHANGE
 Certain verbs, such as “want,” “hope,” B) worked to be meeting
“need,” “expect,” “plan,” “promise,” and C) worked to meet
D) been working on meeting
“decide,” should be followed by infinitives.

These types of idiom errors are more common on the SAT Writing and Language Test—one
technique for solving them is to consider whether a word idiomatically requires a “to” or some
other preposition/adverb. If it requires “to,” it is likely that an infinitive should be used; if not, a
gerund would be your best bet.

In the problem above, notice how, when you spot the “to,” it is easy to realize that “meeting” in
answer choice A should be changed to the infinitive form “to meet.”
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 167

Diction & Idiom Practice

In each of the following sentences, determine whether (A) the infinitive or (B) the gerund should be used.

1. The publicity campaign was aimed (to improve, at improving) the eating habits of children
2. Reba has always had a strong dislike (to do, of doing) chores around the house.
3. She has always been reluctant (to sweep, for sweeping) the floors.
4. At first, we thought that perhaps she was not capable (to perform, of performing) physical labor, but
soon realized she was just lazy.
5. She’s such a sensitive girl that we hesitated (to say, saying) anything about her not helping out.
6. Still, we felt that we should prohibit her (to go, from going) to any more parties.
7. But, she’s such a sweet girl that we were not able (to punish, for punishing) her in any way.
8. Mike postponed (to get dressed, getting dressed) for the party, and we ended up being quite late.
9. Do you enjoy (to see, seeing) movies in the theater when they are first released?
10. I would love (to dance, dancing) with you! Thanks for asking!

Determine which of the words in parentheses provides the correct diction.

Choose (A) for the first word, (B) for the second.

11. Were you trying to (imply, infer) something about the President in the book you wrote?
12. We have decided to (adopt, adapt) the new technique of baby-diapering that was recently invented.
13. Kim was always (aggravated, annoyed) by her brother, who was loud and obnoxious.
14. I don’t know if I can handle driving on this (torturous, tortuous) mountain highway any longer; it’s
making me dizzy.
15. There are (all together, altogether) too many people living in this town.
16. The alarm emitted a (continuous, continual) buzz, which would not stop even when we unplugged it.
17. If our President runs for a third term, I may decide to (immigrate, emigrate) and leave this country
forever.
18. I am glad we are finally (altogether, all together) at this reunion.
19. We need to figure out some way that we can (adopt, adapt) this old program so that it will run on my
new computer.
20. Can I (imply, infer) from your statements that you don’t wish to attend the party?

Answers to this section:

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168

Problem Type: Development—Propositions, Support, Focus, &

Quantitative Information

The SAT writing test isn’t all about mechanics. Some of the questions will require you
to consider the BIG PICTURE—that is, how the author makes his or her argument or point,
and what strategies he or she could use to improve the expression of overall ideas in the pas-
sage or in a paragraph. DEVELOPMENT questions are one type the College Board uses to test
your understanding of these issues.

Development questions are focused on what an author is saying and how that
message can be improved, mainly by...
 Making main points (propositions) MORE CLEAR...like:
Which choice most effectively establishes the main topic of the paragraph?

 Getting the supporting details RIGHT...like:

The writer wants to complete the sentence with a final example. Which choice best
accomplishes this goal?

 Ensuring paragraphs are FOCUSED AND UNIFIED...like:

To improve the focus of this paragraph, which sentence should be deleted?

 Working with graphical information so that it REFLECTS THE CONTENT OF THE PASSAGE,
and vice versa...like:
The writer wants the information in the passage to correspond as closely as
possible with the information in the chart. Which choice best accomplishes this goal?

Questions about PROPOSITIONS will ask you to consider adding,

Propositions changing, or keeping any sentence that expresses the main idea of
the whole passage or of a paragraph.

Consider the following paragraph, which establishes the importance of angiosperms as a food
source and as a resource for many commercial products. Each of the answer choices here is
tempting for one reason or another, but which one BEST reflects the IMPORTANCE of
angiosperms, as emphasized in the paragraph?
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 169

As a result, angiosperms are the most important 1

ultimate source of food for birds and mammals, Which choice, if inserted at the beginning of the
including humans. In addition, the flowering plants are paragraph, would most effectively establish the
the most economically important group of green main topic of the passage?
plants, serving as a source of pharmaceuticals, fiber
products, timber, ornamentals, and other commercial A) The angiosperms dominate the Earth’s
products. surface in more environments than any other
group of plants.
B) Fruits are derived from the maturing floral
organs of the angiospermous plant.
C) The taxonomy, or classification, of the
angiosperms is still incomplete.
D) The size range among angiosperms is quite
remarkable.

Proposition questions may also ask you to decide whether you should REVISE a sentence to
ensure that it truly does reflect the main idea of a passage or paragraph. Consider this one...

According to new data from field trials carried out 2

in Bangladesh and South 1 Africa, pages from The writer is considering revising the underlined
a “drinkable” book can greatly benefit humanity. portion of the sentence to read:
Titled The Drinkable Book, the hardcover work pages from a “drinkable” book can remove
contains pages impregnated with silver nanoparticles more than 99 percent of bacteria from
that release bacteria-killing ions. In field trials, the contaminated water.
pages successfully eliminated from water the bacteria Should the writer make this revision?
that cause cholera, typhoid, and other waterborne A) Yes, because it expresses more directly the
diseases. Water was cleaned by simply pouring it over benefit of the “drinkable” book, which is
illustrated in the rest of the paragraph.
a page that had been torn out from the book and slid B) Yes, because it explains how the book
into an accompanying filter box. should be read.
C) No, because it is not relevant to the
paragraph’s discussion of water-borne
bacteria.
In a way, such a question is rather EASY, D) No, because it includes a statistic that
because the WRONG answer choices go contradicts the main idea.
astray:

 B - The “drinkable book” is not intended to

be read.
 C - It does relate to the rest of the passage
because it’s about removing bacteria from
water.
 D - The statistic doesn’t contradict the
main idea—it’s one of the most important
facts about the book!

Answers to this section:

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170

SUPPORT for any given proposition or main idea comes in a large variety of
Support modes: examples, facts and statistics, comparisons, expert testimony, and so
on.

On the writing test, you’ll occasionally be asked to decide when a supporting

sentence should be added, whether one can be altered to better align with the
writer’s main idea, or whether a piece of support is actually distracting or
contradictory and should be deleted.

TRY THIS...

California’s urban areas are also slowly transforming 3

themselves. East of Los Angeles is a quietly innovative At this point, the writer is considering adding the
water district called the Inland Empire Utilities Agen- following sentence:
cy, providing water for just under a million people. The desalination process removes chemicals
The agency has an aggressive water recycling program, and salt, turning 35 million gallons a day of
tainted brine into water at least as clean as
which cleans and resupplies 52 million gallons of
tap.
water a day for an immediate second use, on farms, in
Should the writer make this addition here?
factories and commercial laundries, in recharging the
area’s groundwater. And although it is dozens of miles A) Yes, because it shows that, with ingenuity, it
is possible to desalinate ocean water even
from the Pacific Ocean, the agency also desalinates from an inland location.
water. The Inland Empire sits over an aquifer that has B) Yes, because it both shows how the tainted
been polluted by a legacy of careless agricultural and water is cleaned and explains one of the tech-
human habitation. 3 Those techniques expand niques mentioned in the following sentence.
C) No, because it dubiously refers to the tainted
Inland Empire’s water supply without actually requir- water as “at least as clean as tap.”
ing any new water, and they represent the leading edge D) No, because its language is too technical for
of an effort in Southern California toward “water the general reader to understand.
independence.”

FOCUS problems, in writing teacher’s terms, deal with PARAGRAPH UNITY.

Focus You’ll be able to notice whenever a focus problem is afoot because the sentences
in a paragraph will be numbered with numerals in brackets, and one of those
sentences may be OFF-TOPIC!

The test may then ask you about whether a given sentence should be kept or
deleted and why, or, at the end of the paragraph, you’ll be asked if there is a
sentence THAT DOESN’T BELONG—or, in other words, that disrupts the
paragraph’s focus.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 171

These problems are relatively easy. Check them out:

[1] From the founding of the United States until the 4

late 19th century, women were almost entirely exclud- The writer is considering deleting the underlined
ed from voting or participating in the country’s poli- sentence from the paragraph. Should the sentence
tics. [2] Women’s suffrage groups gained steam during be kept or deleted?
the 1800s, working separately and together to gather A) Kept, because it shows the overwhelming
support for a federal amendment that would enshrine in support for women’s suffrage among the
states.
the country’s constitution women’s right to vote and B) Kept, because it follows directly from the
for similar amendments to the constitutions of individ- previous sentence, reinforcing the assertion
ual states. [3] The women’s suffrage movement and of the success of the women’s suffrage
the movement to abolish slavery had several themes in movement.
C) Deleted, because it blurs the paragraph’s
common. [4] The first constitutional amendment for focus on passing the Nineteenth Amendment.
women’s suffrage was proposed in Congress in 1878 D) Deleted, because it doesn’t provide a specific
and was reintroduced in every Congress thereafter. example of the success of the women’s
[5] Meanwhile, individual states began amending their suffrage movement.
own constitutions. 4 [6] By 1918, 15 states
allowed women to vote. [7] After a federal vote passed
in the House and failed in the Senate, the National 5
Women’s Party banded together to oust senators
To improve the focus of this paragraph, which
who had voted against the measure. [8] The Nineteenth
sentence should be removed?
Amendment, allowing women to vote all across
A) Sentence 1
the United States, was finally ratified on August 18, B) Sentence 3
1920. 5 C) Sentence 5
D) Sentence 7

Both the reading and writing sections of the SAT include graphics.
Quantitative The reading test includes two graphics, while the writing test gener-
Information ally includes one. For that one graphic, you’ll encounter one or two
questions which may ask you to consider

 how the writer can integrate the information from the graphic
into his or her argument,
 whether that argument accurately reflects the information in the
graphic,
 or whether the graphic accurately reflects the information in the
argument.

Try the problems on the following page...

172

Despite all the ups and downs in China’s economy

over the past decade, its official unemployment rate
has remained incredibly stable. Incredible in the sense
of “impossible to believe.” The registered urban job-
less rate is just 4.1% now. This would seem to point to
economic vigor, but the problem is that it has sat at
that precise level, without moving, since late 2010, and
it 6 fluctuated within just five percentage points
relative to unemployment rates in Japan, the United
States, and the Euro zone, even at the depths of the
global financial crisis.

6
Which choice completes the sentence with accurate
data from the chart?
A) NO CHANGE
B) was predicted to drop below Japan’s rate in
2008,
C) mirrored the low unemployment rates in Japan,
the United States, and the Euro zone in 2009,
D) has stayed within a narrow range of 4.0-4.3%
since 2002,

Many universities in America and Britain have incor-

porated “great” literature into their law curriculum.
There are sensible reasons behind this; the University
of Southampton, in line with recent studies, states (not
implausibly) that it offers the opportunity to study law
through a literary prism of Shakespeare, Dickens,
Kafka and others in order to “help law students to
become more ethically astute practitioners.” Indeed,
Supreme Court judges allude to literary giants like
Shakespeare and Carroll 7 eight times as often as
colloquial masters like Faulkner or Salinger.

7
Which choice most accurately reflects the data in
the chart?
A) NO CHANGE
B) twice as often
C) three times as often
D) four times as often
 WRITING AND LANGUAGE 173

Development Practice
The thing about airport immigration lines is that you Pre-arrival clearance has been available for those
only get to experience how awful other countries’ are. A 7 flying, or refueling at, Shannon airport in Ireland
bit like driving, we swear at the idiots around us, while for some time. This was one of the benefits of IAG, the
convincing ourselves of our own irreproachability be- parent of British Airways, acquiring Aer Lingus, an
cause we never get to hear the exasperation of those we Irish carrier. Eight other European airports may also be
have just cut off. 1 Still, there must be nowhere in included in the scheme, reports the Telegraph, includ-
the rich world in which immigration is as consistently ing Schiphol in Amsterdam, Madrid-Barajas and
difficult as in America. Things have certainly improved Arlanda Airport in Stockholm. Still, it will probably
with the introduction of ESTA visa system, but still the take two years for officials on both sides of the Atlantic
lines at American airports can last hours and the immigra- to agree upon and then implement the scheme in
tion officers 2 bend over backwards to assist new Britain. And, of course, there is always the danger that
immigrants in acclimating to their new home. the immigration officers that are sent over here will be
[1] The Daily Telegraph reports that travelers on a just as surly and incompetent as those they employ at
British Airways flight have 3 “waited up to 138 home. But let’s stay optimistic.
minutes to clear immigration at JFK. [2] So many of the
four million Britons who travel to the United States each
year will no doubt be delighted to hear of a plan to station
American immigration officers at two British airports,
London Heathrow and Manchester. [3] These will process
travelers before they leave the country, and with luck
considerably speed up entrance at the other end. [4] Some
officials have expressed misgivings about the feasibility
of the program. [5] And, as the Telegraph goes on,
processing people before they board the plane would be
popular on both sides of the pond: 4
There has also been concern in the White House at
the poor impression visitors to the U.S. 5 obtain of the
country on their arrival at a time when tourism plays an
increasingly important role in the American economy.
[...] The Obama administration believes [the move]
would improve the country’s safety by preventing terror-
ists’ boarding a plane in the first place.
“I want to take every opportunity we have to expand
homeland security beyond our borders," said [Jeh] John-
son [America’s homeland security secretary] last year.
“To use a football metaphor, I’d much rather defend our
end-zone from the 50-yard line than 6 our one-yard
line.”
174

1 4

Which choice most effectively establishes the main To improve the focus of the second paragraph,
topic of the paragraph? which sentence should be deleted?
A) NO CHANGE A) Sentence 1
B) Those who have experienced the process of B) Sentence 2
immigrating to America, however, almost C) Sentence 4
universally express admiration for its system. D) Sentence 5
C) Without new policies to make immigration
processes more expedient, most countries— 5
and immigrants—will continue to pay the
price of inefficiency. A) NO CHANGE
D) Immigrants to the United States, however, B) find
tend to have fewer complaints than those C) sense
traveling to countries such as Germany, for D) get
example.

2 6

A) NO CHANGE
Which choice most effectively supports the B) from our one-yard line
paragraph’s central claim? C) on our one-yard line
D) while standing on the one-yard line
A) NO CHANGE
B) work to create an atmosphere of professional-
ism and respect unrivaled in the world. 7
C) tend towards an unappealing blend of the surly A) NO CHANGE
and the incompetent. B) flying from, or refueling at,
D) often dispense with bureaucratic formalities so C) flying or refueling in
as to move people through the system more D) flying from or also, refueling at,
quickly.

The writer would like to make an addition to the

end of this sentence that will accurately reflect
more of the data in the chart. Which choice best
achieves this goal?

A) NO CHANGE
B) and close to three hours at Miami, although
wait times differ depending on the airport and
the time of day.
C) but only from three to five p.m.
D) while immigrants from other countries fared
better at less crowded points of entry.

Answers to this section:

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WRITING AND LANGUAGE 175

Problem Type: Effective Language Use—Precision,

Concision, Style & Tone, Syntax

In its ongoing effort to get students to evaluate texts for more than just mechanics, the College
Board has added EFFECTIVE LANGUAGE USE questions to the writing test. These
questions ask you to judge rhetorical qualities and properties such as...

 precision, meaning selecting the right word for the context of a sentence or the
expression of an idea...

For example: The author vacated from tradition in several ways. Is vacated the most
PRECISE choice, or should it be evacuated, departed, or retired?

 concision, or whether there is redundancy (needless repetition) in a phrase, sentence, or

paragraph...

For example: There are more students than the current building as it stands right now can
accommodate. Is this the most SUCCINCT way of expressing the idea? Or
should it be current design of the building right now, building as it is now
currently standing, or simply current design of the building?

 style and tone, questions which will ask you to determine whether a word or phrase fits in
with the author’s tone (e.g., casual or formal, expressive or objective), or which choice
might achieve a certain stylistic effect…

For example: Which choice best maintains the sentence pattern already established in the
paragraph?

 syntax, or how to combine sentences or to improve the flow or emphasis of a selected

portion of a passage.

For example: Which choice most effectively combines the sentences at the underlined
portion?

PRECISION questions are essentially vocabulary questions—another

Precision reason for you to study academic vocabulary, in spite of the College Board’s
claim that on the test there will be “No vocab that you’ll never use again.” In
fact, precision questions on the test are designed to gauge your mastery of the nuances of
vocabulary and your familiarity with contemporary usages and their most common
contexts. Indeed, vocabulary questions will not necessarily be as easy as the College Board
suggests.

Answers to this section:

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176

Below are a few examples to give you an idea of what you’ll be up against.

The chronology of life on Earth that nineteenth 1

century geologists created was based on the ever- A) NO CHANGE
changing species of fossils within the rocks. These B) preserved
fossils are mainly animals, mainly marine and C) continued
mainly ones with hard parts such as shells, which D) upheld
are easily 1 kept. The method worked well, but
only up to a point. Below the strata they dubbed 2
the Cambrian, fossils vanished. Unknown, lifeless
A) NO CHANGE
aeons stretched into the past. It was as if an almost
B) imprecise
biblical act of creation had populated the Earth C) indeterminate
overnight, after an 2 uncertain period of its D) obscure
being a desert.

The idea of virtual reality—of building a con-

vincing computer-generated world to 3 replace 3
the boring old real one—has 4 built science A) NO CHANGE
fiction’s novels and movies since the 1950s. In the B) amend
1990s, as computers became commonplace, several C) abridge
big firms tried to build headsets as a first attempt to D) switch
realize the idea. They failed. The feeble computers
of the time could not produce a convincing experi- 4
ence. Users suffered from nausea and headaches,
A) NO CHANGE
and the kit was expensive and bulky. Although VR B) kindled
found applications in a few bits of engineering C) forced
and science, the consumer version was little more D) fueled
than 5 a shortened fad in the world’s video-
game arcades. But now a string of companies are 5
betting that information technology, both hardware
and software, has 6 boosted enough to have A) NO CHANGE
B) a passing
another go. They are convinced that their new, C) a casual
improved virtual reality will shake up everything D) an expiring
from video-gaming to social media, and from films
to education. 6

Though the difference between the answer A) NO CHANGE

choices is often slight, note that the correct B) elevated
C) gained
answers are often common expressions such
D) advanced
as “indeterminate period” and “passing fad.”
**Read often. Listen carefully. Be familiar
with the language, and you will do well on
these types of problems.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 177

Concision is defined as “Terseness and economy in writing and

Concision speaking achieved by expressing a great deal in just a few words,” and
it is a quality that the College Board continues to promote as worthy of
your attention. Specifically, you’ll be asked to consider

 whether a phrase or clause could be cut back, or

 whether an idea has already been expressed elsewhere in the

passage

In the passage below, PASSIVE VOICE and other AWKWARD OR CLUNKY CHOICES contrast
with the directness and concision of the correct answer.

The herring is hardly the grandest of fish, but as a 7

cheap source of protein it’s hard to beat, and herring
A) NO CHANGE
fishing was a way of life for many communities B) Wealth was made by merchants who traded
around the North Atlantic from the Middle Ages up to in the fish
the 20th century. 7 Merchants were made C) The fish made merchants wealthy when they
wealthy by trading the fish. In Scotland, herring are traded in it
D) Trade in the fish made merchants wealthy
known as “the silver darlings”; in Norway, they are
called, even more lovingly, “the gold of the sea.”

Below, we can see that Môquet dies, so why do we need “shot at and executed”? Similar
problems with WORDINESS plague the other incorrect answer choices in both questions.

Guy Môquet was just 17 years old when 8 a firing 8

squad shot at and executed him in Nazi-occupied
A) NO CHANGE
France. In a poignant letter to his family before his
B) his execution by firing squad occurred
death in 1941, the young Communist résistant wrote: C) he was executed by firing squad
“My life has been short, I have no regrets, if only that D) his life was ended by execution by a firing
of leaving you all. I am going to die…Mummy, what I squad
ask you, what I want you to promise me, is to be brave
and to overcome your sorrow.” 9 Môquet swiftly
9
entered French history as a Resistance martyr, and
remains a potent symbol. In 2007, on the day of his A) NO CHANGE
inauguration as president, Nicolas Sarkozy vowed that B) Môquet entering French history swiftly as a
Môquet’s farewell letter would be read out each year in martyr of Resistance
C) French history was entered by Môquet as a
every French high school. martyr of Resistance
D) Martyrdom in the Resistance allowed
Môquet to enter French history with all
swiftness
178

Style and Tone questions require you to attend to an author’s

Style & Tone attitude toward his or her subject and the overall mode of expression.

For example, the passage may be scientific, and require an analytical and questioning style, or
it may be more informal, and so you might end up selecting a word choice to reflect that
informality. Additionally, style and tone questions will ask you not only about words but about
sentence patterns that achieve a particular rhetorical effect.

David Hogue isn’t sure that he should tell me his

name. He sits in a back office in the shelter where he
NOTICE the repetition of sentence
has lived for the past 18 months, hands folded neatly in
patterns within this paragraph, then
answer the question below.
his lap. It isn’t that he doesn’t want to talk. He tells me
about how he’s had trouble finding work. 10 He
tells me about how he’s bounced between homes for
years. He tells me about how his brother dropped him
off here the day after New Year’s.

10
The author is considering revising the underlined Probably the most tempting incorrect
sentence as follows: answer choice here is B, because it forces
The fact that he bounced between homes for you to weigh sentence variety against the
years is the next thing he shares. pattern of repetition the author has set up
Should the writer make this revision? in this paragraph.
A) Yes, because it more precisely expresses
what has happened to David Hogue But if you read B with an eye (or ear) for
B) Yes, because it adds sentence variety to the style, then you’ll note that this awkward
paragraph
C) No, because it distorts the main idea of the sentence would introduce an unwanted
sentence form of variety at the expense of the
D) No, because it disrupts the rhetorical effect rhetorical effect of repetition, which in
of repetition that the writer has established in this paragraph allows the author to
the paragraph
establish that his subject, David Hogue,
really does want to talk and that what
he’s sharing is important.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 179

It is a rivalry that compares 11 with Chris Evert-Martina Navratilova and Steffi Graf-Monica Seles. Venus and
Serena Williams have met 26 times, 13 in Grand Slam events and eight in Grand Slam finals. The 13 Grand Slam
meetings are the most of any pair save for Evert and Navratilova, who met 22 times. The Williamses’ latest match,
Tuesday night in the United States Open quarterfinals, may be the most important yet, as Serena is bidding for the
first Calendar-Year Grand Slam since Graf in 1988. But it is also a rivalry between sisters, and that brings with it
some ambiguity or even 12 bad vibes. The sisters have said they do not especially 13 enjoy playing each other.
“It definitely doesn’t get easier,” Serena said after their most recent meeting in the round of 16 at Wimbledon this
year.

11 12
The writer is considering adding the following Which choice is most consistent with the overall
phrase at this point tone of the paragraph?
in terms of importance and longevity A) NO CHANGE
Should the writer make this addition? B) soreness
C) irritation
A) Yes, because it lends a more serious tone D) discomfort
and provides detail about the nature of the
comparison
B) Yes, because it offers an example of the 13
rivalry between the Williams sisters Which choice is most consistent with the overall
C) No, because it blurs the focus of the tone of the paragraph?
paragraph on the records that Serena
Williams has set A) NO CHANGE
D) No, because it does not help to qualify the B) revel in
sort of competition that exists between the C) savor
Williams sisters D) delight in

In 2011, Raquel Nelson was convicted of vehicular homicide following the death of her four-year-old son.
Nelson, 14 it’s crucial to note, was not driving. She didn’t even own a car. She and her three children were
crossing a busy four-lane road from a bus stop to their apartment building in suburban Atlanta, Georgia. She’d
stopped on the median halfway across when her son let go of her hand and stepped into the second half of the
road. Nelson tried to catch him but wasn’t fast enough; she and her two-year-old daughter were also injured. The
driver admitted to having alcohol and painkillers in his system (and to being legally blind in one eye) and pleaded
guilty to the charge of hit-and-run. He served six months in prison. For the crime of walking three tired, hungry
children home in the most efficient way possible, Nelson 15 faced more jail time than the man who had killed
her son.

14 15
Which choice best maintains the tone established Which choice is most consistent with the
in the paragraph? overall tone and purpose of the paragraph?
A) NO CHANGE A) NO CHANGE
B) just to let you know B) saw
C) it is of the utmost significant to recognize C) bore
D) we must now surely realize D) tolerated
180

refers to how words are assembled to create phrases and clauses.

SYNTAX
Syntax Syntax questions on the SAT ask about how two or more sentences can be
melded together most effectively—in other words, how a combination can
provide the smoothest reading or emphasize a particular idea.

Global food security largely depends on the produc- 16

tion of a few “mega-crops” in the breadbasket Which choice most effectively combines the
regions: maize, wheat, rice and soybeans. On the sentences at the underlined portion?
whole, the system works well. International trade A) NO CHANGE
provides a global market for these specialized B) centers, reducing
production 16 centers. This trade reduced the cost C) centers, and this trade also reduces
D) centers, a trade that reduces
of food for billions of people by allowing agriculture
to flourish where it can be most efficient. Trade also
allows countries to meet unforeseen production
shortfalls through imports, as Britain did in the
summer of 2013 after floods spoiled the winter
In practice problem 16, the writing at the
underlined portion is a little choppy,
wheat harvest. But when extreme weather ruins the
repeating the word “trade” where it is
harvest in a breadbasket region, that’s not just a
unnecessary. Which choice would result in
problem in the country affected, it’s a problem for all
the smoothest connection between the
importing countries.
sentences?

I've found that high turnover, unhappiness and low 17

morale lead to decreased productivity, not to mention Which choice most effectively combines the
an obviously lower quality of life for the employees sentences at the underlined portion?
that endure it every day. This is why I built my A) NO CHANGE
business in a way that rewards employees for B) productivity. This allows
17 productivity, while allowing them the freedom C) productivity, and allowing for
D) productivity; I can thus allow
and autonomy they need to be happy. All of my
employees work from home, every day, and there are
no strict hours they’re expected to work. Instead, I
set goals and expectations with regard to productivi- 18
ty or output; my employees know that their responsi- Which choice most effectively combines the
bilities must be met both on-time and at the highest sentences at the underlined portion?
level of quality. 18 They meet those expectations, A) NO CHANGE
and they enjoy autonomy, a high degree of respect B) Whenever meeting those expectations, they
C) As long as they meet those expectations,
and trust, and freedom. they
D) When they meet those expectations, it is then
that they
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 181

Effective Language Use Practice

Serving Up School Lunches of Tomorrow This being the Bay Area, there’s even a tech as-
pect to the program: kids are able to preselect meals on
It’s no secret that, although progress has been
smartphones, where they’re also being provided
made, school lunches need help. This is a national pro-
nutritional information about the food being offered.
ject, and an important one. One of the proving grounds
Space is being modernized and made more re-
is 1 San Francisco. The school district there is join-
laxed. As Madsen said to me, “There are so many
ing with researchers from the Department of Agricul-
things they’re trying to fit into the school day that it’s
ture and the University of California, Berkeley’s
really hard to make lunch kind of a good social experi-
School of Public Health to evaluate a project designed
ence, which is really what kids need; every study
to increase school lunch participation, improve nutri-
shows that if you sit down and relax over a meal, eve-
tion, reduce waste and ultimately counter tendencies
ryone is better off.” If kids learn those 8 customs
toward obesity.
in school, the next generation of adults will be much
I took a look at a pilot project for this program by
wiser eaters.
visiting Roosevelt Middle School and 2 chatting
with Zetta Reicker, who’s the director of the school
1
system’s student nutrition services, and Kristine
A. Madsen, an associate professor at the school of Which choice most effectively combines the
sentences at the underlined portion?
public health. (I also talked to a few kids, and ate
lunch. Which was—for institutional food—better than A) San Francisco, its school district
B) San Francisco, a place where the school
O.K.) 3 For me, I feel the primary takeaway is that district
since school food is often healthier than what many C) San Francisco, where the school district
kids get at home, participation isn’t just a matter of D) San Francisco, which has a school district that
economics (the more kids served, the more efficient the
program), but can have a real impact on kids’ health. 2
We want kids to be eating school 4 lunches. It’s
something we want because those are the only meals A) NO CHANGE
B) communicating
most get that are prepared according to constantly C) gossiping
evaluated and (we hope) ever-improving standards. D) chewing the fat
So the goal is to 5 coax kids to eat it.
To that end, access to lunches has been improved;
3
there was a time 6 when a cash-paying kid got
more choices than a free-lunch candidate, but now A) NO CHANGE
the system in San Francisco is blind to how the lunch B) For me, the primary takeaway
is paid for. Food is made available not only in the C) In my own opinion, the primary takeaway
D) Regarding the primary takeaway, what I feel
cafeteria but outdoors during recess and in hallways
(preventing cafeteria lines that were so long that kids
were 7 acquiring their food as the next class was
starting). And the food is better; what was once frozen
is now prepared fresh.

Answers to this section:

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182

4 8

Which choice most effectively combines the A) NO CHANGE

sentences at the underlined portion? B) habits
C) traditions
A) lunches being that
B) lunches, which is because D) rules
C) lunches, for the reason that
D) lunches because

A) NO CHANGE
B) compel
C) promote
D) encourage

A) NO CHANGE
B) when more choices went to the kid who paid
cash than to the one who was eating for free
C) when, as far as choice goes, cash-paying kids
were better off than kids eating for free
D) during which the kids who were eating for free
didn’t get the same amount of choices as the
kids who were paying cash

A) NO CHANGE
B) obtaining
C) getting
D) gaining
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 183

Problem Type: Organization—Logical Sequence;

Introductions, Conclusions & Transitions
The ORGANIZATION of a passage strongly affects readers’ comprehension, so the College
Board will continue to test this important feature of written discourse by asking test-takers to
consider matters of logical sequence and introductions, conclusions, and transitions. Students
familiar with paragraph organization issues will recognize some of the same issues on the
SAT.

Organization questions are focused on whether a discussion is logically

arranged (coherent) and on the building blocks that help tie ideas together.
They will ask you to...
 Consider whether the sequence of sentences in a paragraph is COHERENT, as in:
To make this paragraph most logical, sentence X should be placed…
—or—The writer wants to include the following sentence in paragraph X. Which of
the following is the most logical place for this sentence?

 Finding the RIGHT TRANSITION to logically connect ideas, as in:

Which choice results in the most effective transition to the information that
follows in the paragraph?

 Selecting a sentence that would help INTRODUCE OR CONCLUDE the passage, as in:
The writer wants to conclude the passage with a sentence that emphasizes the main
idea. Which choice would best accomplish this goal?

Logical Sequence [1] Dogs, unlike people, are capable of pure love—at least according to
Freud. [2] As ever more Americans live alone, unconditional affection
is in demand. [3] Pet ownership has risen for decades. [4] More than a
Effective writing is clear. To third of homes have at least one dog. [5] But the popularity of four-
ensure clarity, writers must legged friends has an icky cost: dogs squeeze out a lot of waste:
around 275 pounds a year. [6] Around 60% of the stuff gets scooped
organize ideas logically. Often, and trucked to landfills, where it releases methane, a greenhouse gas.
Logical Sequence questions will [7] With over 83 million pooches roaming the country, that is a lot of
ask you to EVALUATE THE poop. [8] The rest delivers surprises to pedestrians and can contaminate
PLACEMENT OF A SENTENCE waterways, as carnivorous diets create pathogen-rich waste.
WITHIN THE SEQUENCE OF
SENTENCES IN A PARAGRAPH. 1
To make this paragraph most logical, sentence
6 should be placed
A) where it is now.
B) after sentence 4.
C) after sentence 7.
D) after sentence 8.

Answers to this section:

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184

Logical Sequence questions may also ask you to decide where a given sentence would best fit
into a paragraph. Consider the following problem.
[1] Home to Europe’s biggest Muslim minority, some 5 2
million-6 million strong, France has become a particular- The writer wants to add the following sentence
ly fertile recruiting ground for violent Islamist networks. to this paragraph.
[2] In absolute numbers, France has supplied more of its Since 2012, fully 126 of them have been
citizens to fight with jihadists in Iraq and Syria than any killed in combat there, according to the
other European country. [3] The French government is latest French figures, more than half of them
this year alone.
also worried about jihadist recruitment inside its prisons,
where over half of all inmates are Muslim. [4] Manuel Which placement would be the most logical?
Valls, the prime minister, says France is engaged in noth- A) After sentence 1
ing less than a “war of civilization” against radical Islam. B) After sentence 2
C) After sentence 4
[5] The government recently tightened counter-terrorism D) After sentence 5
laws and increased the intelligence budget in response.

Because the sentence you’re asked to add to

the paragraph refers to the deaths caused by
fighting, it should logically be placed closest
to where there is talk of battle.

Transitions
One way that writers help  Showing logical relationships with stock
readers move along through a transitions...
passage is by using transitions.
Whether single words, simple The majority of transition problems on the SAT involve
phrases, or entire clauses, choices between stock transitions. By stock, we mean those
transitions show how ideas are handy little prefab words and phrases that indicate
CONNECTED and what the relationships between ideas at a glance.
LOGICAL RELATIONSHIP
between them is. The thing is, there are many different kinds of possible
relationships between ideas, and just as many stock
Types of Relationships transition words and phrases to signal them. Have a look...

ADDITION TIME EXEMPLIFICATION OR

ILLUSTRATION
COMPARISON CONTRAST
PLACE
EFFECT CLARIFICATION
CAUSE
INTENSIFICATION CONCESSION
QUALIFICATION
SUMMARY CONCLUSION
PURPOSE
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 185

 ADDITION: furthermore, moreover, too, also, in the second place, again, in addition, even more, next,
further, last, lastly, finally, besides, and, or, nor, first, second, secondly, etc.
 CONTRAST: yet, and yet, nevertheless, nonetheless, after all, but, however, though, otherwise, on the
contrary, in contrast, notwithstanding, on the other hand, at the same time, although
 COMPARISON: in the same way, by the same token, similarly, in like manner, likewise, in similar
fashion
 INTENSIFICATION: indeed, to repeat, by all means, of course, undoubtedly, certainly, without a doubt, yes,
no, in fact, surely, in fact
 SUMMARY: to summarize, in sum, in brief, to sum up, in short, in summary
 TIME: while, immediately, never, after, later, earlier, always, when, soon, whenever, meanwhile, sometimes,
in the meantime, during, afterwards, now, until now, next, following, once, then, at length, simultaneously,
so far, this time, subsequently
 CLARIFICATION: that is to say, in other words, to explain, i.e. (that is), to clarify, to rephrase it, to put it
another way
 CONCESSION: to be sure, granted, of course, it is true
 CONCLUSION: in conclusion, to conclude, finally, overall
 EXEMPLIFICATION OR ILLUSTRATION: to illustrate, to demonstrate, specifically, for instance, as an
illustration, e.g. (for example), for example
 PLACE: here, there, nearby, beyond, wherever, opposite to, adjacent to, neighboring on, above, below
 CAUSE: because, since, on account of, for that reason
 EFFECT: therefore, consequently, accordingly, thus, hence, as a result
 QUALIFICATION: almost, nearly, probably, never, always, frequently, perhaps, maybe, although
 PURPOSE: in order that, so that, to that end, to this end, for this purpose Source: The University of Wisconsin Writer’s Handbook

KNOWING the words that signal The important CONTEXT for the question below lies in
each type of relationship between the general sentences before the one about SimPrints. So,
ideas is a piece of the transitions is SimPrints the result (consequently) of what dons and
puzzle, but it is not the entire picture. investors and companies are doing? Does it point to a
contrast with those activities (however)? Does it mention
Your job as a test-taker is to determine
another, similar type of activity (similarly)? Or is it one
the relationship between ideas and example (for example) of what that activity looks like in
select the appropriate stock transition the real world with real companies?
when asked. And there are a fair num-
ber of such questions on the new test— ...That freedom, combined with the chance encounters that are
anywhere from one to five problems, possible in a small city full of brainy folk, means that much of
but more often four or five: that’s Cambridge’s genius is off-balance-sheet and hard to track.
almost 6% of your total score. Entrepreneurs donate advice. Dons and angel investors take
young firms under their wing. Companies invite students to
3
help them. SimPrints, 3 consequently, hosts weekly
A) NO CHANGE “hacking” sessions during which young developers help solve
B) however its technical quandaries—and it also flies star volunteers out to
C) similarly
Zambia to help test products….
D) for example
186

Here are several more opportunities to determine logical relationships. Try them out.

Mr. Obama’s trip to the summit in Las Vegas comes as 4

part of a green week for the president. He will visit New A) NO CHANGE
Orleans on August 27th to mark a decade since Hurri- B) And
cane Katrina struck the city, and Alaska on August C) Thus
31st to bemoan the melting Arctic. The president has D) For instance
stretched executive power to its limit, and perhaps
beyond, in the name of limiting climate change.
4 Yet this is not enough for some of his supporters.
In addition to the expected attacks from Republicans,
Mr. Obama is currently being pelted from the left for
clearing the way for Shell to drill for oil in the Arctic.

5 After Jimmy Carter moves into the twilight of his 5

life, it is enormously frustrating for those of us who A) NO CHANGE
worked closely with him in the White House to witness B) As
his presidency caricatured as a failure, and to see how he C) Since
D) Whenever
has been marginalized, even by his fellow Democrats,
6 while he left office in 1981.
6
A) NO CHANGE
B) although
C) where
D) since

Marx might have called this kind of work “estranged 7

labor,” but the phrase isn’t quite right. My experience A) NO CHANGE
working in fine dining was marked by hard, repetitive B) Thus
and often meaningless work. But it wasn’t completely C) Nevertheless
“estranging,” not at first. 7 To the contrary, I found D) Finally
that hard, repetitive work, however “estranged” in
some abstract or theoretical sense, could be incredibly 8
affirming. Executing the same tasks with machine-like A) NO CHANGE
precision over and over and over again, like one of B) so
Adam Smith’s nail-cutters, offered a special kind of C) but
enjoyment. There was no reflection, no question about D) yet
what my job required of me, 8 or I could indulge, for
hours, in the straightforward immediacy of action.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 187

 Showing logical relationships with custom transitions...

Custom transition problems are not as prevalent as stock transition problems on the current test
(you may see one or two in the writing section). But it’s still important to know what they might
look like so that you can be better prepared for whatever the test may throw your way. Have a
look at the following example.

In the last presidential election cycle, climate change 9

was barely considered until Hurricane Sandy forced the Which choice most effectively sets up the
issue onto the candidates. We should take note: Even if information that follows?
we don’t prioritize this issue, it will be present in our A) People in power are working to address this
lives. A majority of Americans support action to reduce urgent issue, but there are still reasons for
greenhouse gas emissions, and so do leaders of the mili- concern.
B) There are even more reasons to be confident
tary and even Pope Francis. And late in his term, Presi-
about our ability to prepare for climate
dent Obama is making good on pledges to protect our change.
environment. 9 C) And so, it seems, are many of his contenders
in the Republican party.
D) Yet in spite of those hopeful signs that we
For one thing, some of the presidential candidates don’t
can deal with climate change, recent science
even believe in climate change at all. “For the last 17 shows that our actions will be utterly futile.
years, there’s been zero warming,” Sen. Ted Cruz of
Texas said weeks before flooding and storms killed over
30 people in Texas, Oklahoma and Mexico. Last year
saw a record number of natural catastrophes, and the
weather-related ones were the most costly.

Some custom transition problems may ask you whether an underlined portion should be kept or
deleted. In these problems, only one of the answer choices may suggest that the given sentence
is a transition, so be alert!
In the mid to late sixties, it was natural to assume that 10
people would stop believing things just because they
The writer is considering deleting the underlined
had always believed them. Faith would steadily give sentence. Should the writer do this?
way to science as humanity converged on an ever better A) Yes, because it does not provide a transition
understanding of what was real. from the previous paragraph.
B) Yes, because it fails to support the main point
10 Almost 50 years later, that dream seems to be of the previous paragraph.
C) No, because it continues to assert how
coming apart. Some of the opposition is familiar: The
scientific explanations came to supplant
creationist battle against evolution, for example. But explanations based on faith.
it’s not just organized religions that are insisting on D) No, because the chronological transition
their own alternate truths. On one front after another, from the first paragraph is used to emphasize
how the expectations about science have not
the hard-won consensus of science is also expected to
been met.
accommodate personal beliefs, religious or otherwise,
along with the validity of global climate change.
188

Introductions & Conclusions

INTRODUCTION AND CONCLUSION QUESTIONS occur with about the same frequency as custom
transition questions: about one or two per test. But the skills they test on are just as important,
since they focus on a technique that is vital to the writing process: how to “make the reader’s
movement through a passage smoother and more meaningful.” (The College Board)

Sticking to a diet requires self-control and a willing- 11

ness to forgo present pleasures for future benefits. Which choice provides the most appropriate
11 Exercise is also considered to be a major predictor introduction to the passage?
of healthful and lasting weight loss. Wondering why we A) NO CHANGE
so often override our resolve to eat more healthfully, B) Those future benefits may include improved
scientists at the University of Zurich recently consid- physique, increased self-confidence, and
greater overall health, but they are often
ered the role of stress, which is linked to a variety of
hard-won.
health problems, including weight gain. (There’s some C) Not surprisingly, almost everyone yields to
truth to the cliché of the jilted lover eating ice cream temptation at least sometimes, opting for the
directly from the carton.) But just how stress might cookie instead of the apple.
D) But scientists are beginning to question
drive us to sweets has not been altogether clear. It turns
whether dieting alone is the optimal way to
out that even mild stress may immediately alter the lose weight and keep it off.
workings of our brains in ways that undermine
willpower.

In a survey of recently released SAT tests, we have found that conclusion questions appear
a little more frequently than introduction questions. That greater frequency probably occurs
because the main point of a passage is generally well-established by the end, and
CONCLUSION QUESTIONS ARE USUALLY ALSO MAIN POINT QUESTIONS.
Check out the first and last paragraphs of this passage about streaks of success in sports...

First paragraph: Anyone who watched Game Five of Last paragraph: The recent streak of papers
the NBA championship series on June 14th would vindicating the long-maligned hot-hand belief fits
swear they had seen a “hot hand”1 in action. In the into a broader trend. Earlier generations of sports
final quarter Stephen Curry, basketball’s best shooter, researchers, like those featured in the film Money-
made four long contested jump shots to seal a victory ball,” delighted in disproving this conventional belief
for the Golden State Warriors, who went on to win the among coaches and announcers. But as the quality of
title in the next contest. Most economists would shake data improves—shot distances could not be calculat-
their heads at the notion that Mr. Curry had truly ele- ed until the NBA began recording players’ locations
vated his game: numerous studies have found that with camera arrays— 12 many of those old nug-
players do not sustain outperformance after a brief run gets of popular wisdom are now being proven true.
of unusual success, and their authors have dubbed the
1
belief that such streaks have predictive power the “hot Hot Hand' The notion that because one has had a string of
successes, he or she is more likely to have continued success. For
hand fallacy.” But a new wave of research suggests example, if one flipped a (fair) coin and guessed correctly that it
would land on heads three times in a row, it might be said that they
that Mr. Curry may indeed have been “in the zone” have a "hot hand."
after all.
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 189

12
Which choice most clearly ends the passage with a
restatement of the writer’s primary claim?
A) NO CHANGE
B) researchers will continue to doubt the
conventional, intuitive notion that the hot-
hand is even possible.
C) athletes may decide to ignore the hot-hand
theory until the evidence is conclusive.
D) the hot-hand theory is something that
gamblers, at least, can bet on.
190

Organization Practice
How a Knockout Punch Works hits the mat can also contribute to the trauma. It is less
clear how exactly that trauma contributes to uncon-
On May 2nd at the MGM Grand casino in Las sciousness. 6 For instance, the impact can cause the
Vegas, two of the world’s most marketable boxers, massive release of important brain chemicals called
Manny Pacquiao of the Philippines and America’s neurotransmitters, which normally help the brain send
Floyd Mayweather, will face each other in a fight. signals. This can mess with the cellular chemistry of
1 According to Forbes magazine, Pacquiao was the the brain and cause neurons to fire out of control.
second-highest paid athlete in the world as of 2015. Overwhelmed, the brain may simply shut down—
Mr. Mayweather, an undefeated professional boxer, reboot, effectively—until chemical balance can be
takes particular delight in flattening his opponents (26 restored. Other mechanisms might also cause a knock-
of his past 47 wins were knockouts). What is a knock- out. The carotid artery, which provides blood to the
out punch and how does it work? brain, has a reflex area known as a sinus, which helps
[1] A knockout blow is a form of cerebral concus- regulate the flow of blood and oxygen to the head.
sion, a common scourge in other sports such as foot- A sharp knock on the jaw could jolt that sinus, altering
ball, soccer, and hockey. [2] But in boxing, to land the blood and oxygen flow by enough to generate a loss of
killer blow is a constant endeavor as much as it is an consciousness.
occupational hazard. [3] It can start at the feet, work its 7 So that they can’t plan for it, fighters look to
way up the rotating torso, and force itself through the diffuse the impact of potential knockout punches by
shoulder muscles onto the fist. [4] A good punch is a training hard. A muscular neck is key to ensure that the
result of the entire body working in tandem. [5] It need head, upon being hit, does not bob back and forth like
not always be forceful. 2 [6] Likewise, former a dandelion in the wind. A strong jaw bone helps, too,
heavyweight champ George Foreman, who won 68 of and so do clever fighting techniques. Ironically, the
his 76 bouts by knocking his opponents off their feet, very boxing gloves that protect the pugilist from cuts
relied on catching them off-guard with a flurry and bruises—a throwback to the bare-knuckle era—are
of short-arm slugs. [7] Joe Frazier and Mike Tyson, responsible for damaging head injuries. Heavily pad-
3 on the other hand, were known to put their entire ded gloves favor the hitter who would have been loath
body into their punches, to devastating effect. 4 to punch with the same ferocity using his bare knuck-
5 So what happens in those final few moments les; the bones of the skull are stronger than those in the
between the time the jaw takes a hit and the legs give fist. But the 10-ounce gloves help knockout artists like
away? The start of the process is easy enough to ex- Mr. Mayweather show off their skills. It makes busi-
plain. In most cases, the impact from a punch or series ness sense too; the “fight of the century” is set to rake
of punches causes the brain to move inside and smash in $400 million. 8 That’s cash that gamblers can
up against the skull. Roundhouse punches and hooks pump back into the coffers of the MGM Grand, which
are particularly menacing. The arc at which the gloved can then schedule more boxing matches.
fist meets the opponent’s jaw sends the head (and
hence, the brain) into a spin. Just as a passenger on a
motorbike would slide in his seat and bump into his
rider when he brakes without warning, a blow to the
head causes the skull to shift and the brain to catch up
before colliding against it. The fall when a dazed head
WRITING AND LANGUAGE 191

1 5
Which choice provides the most appropriate The writer is considering deleting the underlined
introduction to the passage? sentence. Should the sentence be kept or deleted?
A) NO CHANGE A) Kept, because it provides an effective
B) Undoubtedly, both will go in to the match transition from the previous paragraph
hoping to win it with a definitive knockout B) Kept, because it illustrates the “devastating
strike. effect” mentioned in the previous paragraph
C) The public has been clamoring for a C) Deleted, because the question it poses is
fight between Pacquiao and Mayweather, irrelevant to the main idea of the passage
especially since Pacquiao’s 2009 victory D) Deleted, because it isn’t related to the topic
against Miguel Cotto. of this paragraph
D) Pacquiao’s reluctance to submit to drug
testing before the event, however, has
led to suspicions that he is using banned 6
substances.
Which choice most effectively sets up the
information that follows?
2
A) NO CHANGE
B) One possibility is that
A) NO CHANGE
C) On the other hand,
B) Subsequently
D) The flip-side of the coin is that
C) For example
D) On the other hand
7
3 A) NO CHANGE
B) Whether
A) NO CHANGE C) Whereas
B) consequently D) While
C) in other words
D) similarly
8

4 The writer wants a conclusion that refers back

to the anecdote in the introduction while still
To make this paragraph most logical, sentence 4 maintaining the overall theme of the article.
should be placed Which choice best accomplishes this goal?
A) before sentence 1. A) NO CHANGE
B) before sentence 2. B) On Saturday, high rollers at the MGM
C) after sentence 2. Grand casino in Las Vegas and millions of
D) after sentence 6. TV viewers will clamor for the guy in their
corner to deliver that knockout blow.
C) In boxing, a knockout is usually awarded
when one participant falls to the canvas and is
unable to rise to his feet because of exhaus-
tion, pain, disorientation, or unconsciousness.
D) The race and sports book is a state-of-the-art
betting area at the MGM Grand where bets on
the fight will be made.

Answers to this section:

page 194