Environmental Conservation 37 (4): 380–387 

C Foundation for Environmental Conservation 2010 doi:10.1017/S0376892910000718

Why history matters in ecology: an interdisciplinary THEMATIC ISSUE

Interdisciplinary Progress
perspective in Environmental
Science & Management
PÉTER SZABÓ∗
Institute of Botany of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Department of Vegetation Ecology, Poříčí 3b,
CZ-603 00 Brno, Czech Republic
Date submitted: 29 January 2010; Date accepted: 26 April 2010; First published online:
2 November 2010

SUMMARY (history, archaeology, anthropology, ethnography and human

geography) or in the natural sciences (palaeoecology,
In recent decades, the interconnectedness of history and
vegetation ecology, landscape ecology, conservation biology
ecology has received increasing attention. Although
and restoration ecology). This, in effect, means that, based
necessarily interdisciplinary, efforts to study this
interconnectedness had their roots either in the on their initial training and inherent interests, scholars have
humanities and social sciences or in the natural tried either to understand more about nature with the help of
sciences: scholars have tried either to understand (usually human) history, or about human history with the help
more about nature with the help of history, or, about of natural phenomena. The authors of such studies often felt
human history with the help of natural phenomena. it necessary to justify the inclusion of ecological or historical
As a result, theoretical studies about the integration information into their work. As a result, there is a growing
of ecology and history try to answer two relatively body of literature trying to answer two relatively distinct
distinct questions: ‘why ecology matters in history’ questions: ‘why ecology matters in history’ (for example
and ‘why history matters in ecology’. This paper Worster 1990, 1993; Hughes 1995) and ‘why history matters
sets out to systematize current knowledge on the in ecology’ (for example Rackham 1998; Swetnam et al. 1999;
latter question and to highlight those issues that have Foster 2000; Egan & Howell 2001; Lunt & Spooner 2005;
so far received less attention. The arguments can Bürgi & Gimmi 2007). In this paper, I deal with the second
be grouped into three major themes. First, history question. In my view, although the existing studies cover
matters in ecology because it aids understanding of many aspects of this topic, they usually concentrate on a
current patterns and processes in nature. Second, single discipline and one geographical region. This is partly
because it fosters better informed management and justifiable: a scholar specializing in the management of current
policy decisions; and third, because it places ecology North American forests need not deal with medieval French
and conservation in a wider interdisciplinary context. forest management. However, given the interdisciplinary
Besides dealing with the perspectives of ecologists nature of the initial question, the combined knowledge of
and conservationists, this paper also includes material several disciplines and the particular experiences of many
from historians, anthropologists and archaeologists, geographical regions have the potential to provide an overall
that is, from scholars whose primary interest does picture that can in turn help the individual researchers to
not lie in ecological investigations, but who have, better contextualize their own work.
nonetheless, embraced the need for the integration of This paper sets out to review and systematize the existing
ecology and history. knowledge on the question ‘why history matters in ecology.’
My main aims are to demonstrate the whole array of arguments
Keywords: complex ecosystems, conservation, historical
and to highlight those issues that have so far received less
ecology, history, interdisciplinarity
attention but are equally valid and important. The arguments
can be grouped into three major themes. First, history
INTRODUCTION matters because it aids understanding of current patterns and
processes in nature. Second, because it fosters better informed
In recent decades, the interconnectedness of history and management and policy decisions; and third, because it
ecology has received increasing attention (for example see places ecology and conservation in a wider, interdisciplinary
Peterken 1981; McDonnell & Pickett 1993a; Worster 1993; context (for a broadly similar classification from a different
Russell 1997; Meine 1999; Bowman 2001; Egan & Howell viewpoint, see Bürgi & Gimmi 2007). I discuss these themes
2001; Foster et al. 2003; Rackham 2003; Verheyen et al. 2004; one by one, although some of the issues are overlapping,
Crumley 2007; Dietl & Flessa 2009). Although necessarily especially as regards ecosystems knowledge and its application
interdisciplinary, efforts to study this interconnectedness in conservation and management. It is perhaps necessary to
had their roots either in the humanities and social sciences emphasize at this point that ‘why history matters in ecology’ is
a different issue from ‘which are the current trends in historical
∗ ecological research’ and also from ‘what should be done to
Correspondence: Dr Péter Szabó e-mail: [email protected]
 Why history matters in ecology 381

foster the cooperation between history and ecology’. These the natural sciences and the humanities. However, with the
topics certainly deserve attention, but will not be dealt with in emergence of environmental history as a strong subdiscipline
this paper. within history (see for example Worster 1988; Crosby 1995;
I use the terms ‘history’ and ‘ecology’ in a broad sense. Winiwarter & Knoll 2007), the focus of historical ecology has
The former refers to the study and interpretation of any shifted towards ecology with a strong emphasis on nature
information from the past; observational (including archival) conservation. Despite its long history, historical ecology
and experimental (including long-term experiments and still lacks unified methodology and specialized institutional
archives of past experiments) data are both historical sources background. The researchers who at least partly identify
(Newell & Wasson 2002). By ‘history’, I mean both human themselves as historical ecologists define historical ecology
activities and natural processes in the past. Separating human in a number of different ways (Rackham 1986, 1998, 2003;
and non-human history (at least in the Holocene) is impractical Crumley 1994, 2007; Russell 1997; Egan & Howell 2001;
and often irrelevant or impossible. A Spanish forest fire in Balée 2006; Bürgi & Gimmi 2007). These definitions usually
1415, for example, may or may not have been started by people include the notion that the main focus of historical ecology
(Lloret & Marí 2001). To establish the effects of this fire in is the study of human-nature interactions in the past. This,
today’s landscape, the source of fire is irrelevant. However, in however, does not imply that the historical ecology of a
the reconstruction of past fire regimes, how this particular fire place completely devoid of human impact (or at least human
started becomes more interesting. Knowing the proportion inhabitants) could not be written (Rackham 1998), but rather
of human versus lightning-induced fires provides essential that most ecosystems have been influenced to some degree by
information for the management of this landscape. Given the humans and that it is an important goal of historical ecology to
nature of historical evidence, however, the source of the 1415 include this influence in the interpretation of past and present
fire will most probably not be known. The key to fruitful ecosystems.
interdisciplinary research is to understand the limitations of
both historical and ecological sources and to find the kind of
CURRENT ECOSYSTEMS AND HISTORY
questions the available evidence may answer.
‘Ecology’ is also used in a broad sense, meaning ‘the That current patterns and processes in nature have a historical
scientific study of the distribution and abundance of trajectory was realized already in the theory of evolution.
organisms and the interactions that determine distribution In palaeoecology, to take another example, pollen analysts
and abundance’ (Begon et al. 2006), which, for the purposes have been working on the history of long-term changes in
of this paper, I understand as basic ecology, ‘an extremely vegetation for almost a century (Boyd & Hall 1998). Such
broad science that can encompass any system on Earth’ approaches, however, were somewhat ahistorical (as perceived
(McDonnel & Pickett 1993b), including results from, for by a historian) for two reasons. On the one hand, they regarded
example, landscape ecology and restoration ecology. Although the past as essentially predictable (see for example how
many aspects of nature conservation and restoration are originally biostratigraphical zones [Boreal, Atlantic] became
not directly connected to ecological research (and therefore chronostratigraphical zones in common scientific language).
ecology and nature conservation and restoration are not the On the other hand, they often disregarded human activity
same thing), in this paper the practical application of ecological (with the exception of domestication, of course) (for a recent
research in conservation and restoration is also included in the attempt at a more historical approach in evolutionary ecology,
term ‘ecology’. see Brooks 1985; Brooks & McLennan 1999). A significant
The specific discipline that investigates past ecosystems is change in this attitude happened about half a century ago,
historical ecology. Although the term ‘historical ecology’ was when a larger number of scientists started to appreciate the
not used until the twentieth century (the earliest publication profound human impact on practically every landscape in the
to include it in its title known to me is Etter 1953), world (Birks et al. 1988). Initially this meant that patterns
research in what is today called historical ecology has a long and processes that had been understood as natural were given
history. Probably the earliest such publications arose from a new, anthropogenic aspect: humans were accepted as an
the 18th-century controversy concerning whether the sweet ecological factor. This, however, still often (although by no
chestnut was native to England (Rackham 2003). Research means always) implied that people were outside the system,
interest in the human impact on ecosystems was present in that they disturbed processes that otherwise had a predictable
the 19th and early 20th centuries (see for example Marsh trajectory (Cronon 1993; Russell 1997).
1874; Schwappach 1886; Beevor 1924; Watt 1931). Historical The next key argument in the process of integrating ecology
ecology that defined itself as such was born approximately half and history was that human activity was not an outside factor
a century ago simultaneously and independently in Europe that fitted awkwardly into natural processes, but rather an
and in the USA (Etter 1953; Lambert et al. 1960; Tubbs organic part of such processes, or, in other words, that nature
1968; Peterken 1969; Rymer 1974, 1979; Crompton & Sheail and culture are impossible to tell apart (McDonnell & Pickett
1975; Rackham 1975; Rice 1976; Bilsky 1980; Crumley & 1993a; Haila 1999, 2000). As a result, it is increasingly difficult
Marquardt 1987) as an interdisciplinary venture. Initially, to define what a ‘natural’ ecosystem might be. Woodland
its methodology and research topics were balanced between ecologists, for example, demonstrated that past land-use,
382 P. Szabó

continuity and management history influence the vegetation forgotten ecological factor in that country (Kirby & Buckley
of individual woods to the extent that anthropogenic impact 1994; Rackham 2003).
becomes an integral part of vegetation development. This, In connection with the previous issues, the general topic of
apparently, has two main reasons. First, things that happened change and dynamism in ecosystems has also been fostered
in what would be considered the distant (and therefore by a historical approach. The lesson history teaches is that
irrelevant) past by modern ecologists have a decisive effect ‘perhaps the most natural feature of the world in which
on seemingly natural patterns. For example, past land-use we find ourselves is its continual flux’ (Jackson & Hobbs
influences soil conditions and vegetation composition through 2009). Ecosystems change on many temporal scales from days
long time spans (Sandor et al. 1990; Verheyen et al. 1999; to millennia, therefore current systems should be seen as
Hermy & Verheyen 2007), extending as far back as the necessarily temporal elements in a process that can have a
Roman Period (1st–4th centuries AD) in several French woods multitude of realizations (Bowman 2001; Jackson 2006). Any
(Dupouey et al. 2002; Dambrine et al. 2007; Plue et al. 2008). given ecosystem can be part of a number of such processes: the
Similar studies also abound for other types of vegetation, such mostly lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forests in Yellowstone
as grasslands (Pärtel et al. 1999; Eriksson et al. 2002; Herben National Park, for example, experience cycles of smaller fires
et al. 2006). Second, as Rackham (2003, 2006) argued, certain and regrowth at relatively regular intervals. To this are added
conditions created by human impact have existed for such a the effects of occasional huge fires and storms (Romme &
long time that they are incorporated into the ecology of current Despain 1989). At the same time, these forests represent one
woods. To take an example, fragmentation, which is usually phase in the general vegetation development since the latest
viewed negatively by conservationists (for example Saunders Ice age (Whitlock & Bartlein 1993). Historical knowledge not
et al. 1991), has in some protected woods existed for millennia only allows researchers to understand these processes, but also
and played an active part in shaping the current vegetation. provides an opportunity to identify keystone processes, those
Had these woods not stood in a fragmented landscape, they that are apparently the most important in the given ecosystem
would have developed into different (and not necessarily (Marcucci 2000).
richer) ecosystems from those valued so highly today (but
see also Ewers & Didham 2006). A more comprehensive
ECOLOGICAL CONSERVATION, MANAGEMENT
view on this issue is that ecosystems are highly complex (for
AND HISTORY
example Bradbury et al. 2000; Newell & Wasson 2002). Their
properties and dynamics are determined by mutual constraints Most theoretical research into the significance of history for
among the individual elements over time. This ‘refers simply ecosystems focused on conservation and restoration. This is by
to the fact that the local rules of interaction change as the no means accidental. Restoration ecology, if it is to take itself
system evolves and develops’ (Levin 1998). Changes in one seriously, must, by definition (the Latin prefix re- implies
factor influence other factors, which, in turn, have their effect going back to or repeating a previous stage), be concerned
on the first factor and so on. The patterns of these feedback with the past. Consequently, some scholars called restoration
loops through time are difficult to map and, especially when ecology ‘applied historical ecology’ (Swetnam et al. 1999;
humans are involved, are unpredictable. Rackham 2003; Balée 2006). Solid theoretical foundations are
Another major reason why historical information is essential especially needed in this field, because management decisions
in understanding present ecosystems was raised by the will inevitably influence landscapes. These decisions cannot
American ecologist D.R. Foster (2000). He argued that be avoided: doing nothing is also a form of management with
because ‘time-lags develop in the response of all biological its own distinct consequences.
and physical systems to disturbance or environmental change’, On a basic level, historical ecology is thought to be able to
instantaneous measurements often collect data about events identify baseline conditions (typically those before significant
and processes that without a historical insight remain human impact) that can serve as restoration targets (Egan
hidden from the investigators (see also Newell & Wasson & Howell 2001; Swetnam et al. 1999; Balée 2006; Fule
2002; Newell et al. 2005; Jackson et al. 2009). Repeated, et al. 1997). This research direction has been particularly
longer-term observations may provide a solution, but only strong in North America and Australia, where pre-European
if they explicitly include historical events as explanatory settlement conditions were often interpreted as natural.
data. However, many studies pointed out that this view could be
In addition, history also informs about the ‘invisible’ parts misleading for two main reasons (see for example Pickett
of ecosystems (Clark 1990; Foster et al. 1996; Foster 2000). & Parker 1994; Landres et al. 1999; Lentz 2000; de Vries
There are some, typically catastrophic, disturbance events 2005). First, history did not start with European settlement.
which are important elements of current ecosystems but will Native peoples had a large influence on many landscapes.
certainly not occur during a three-year grant project and may This influence is now recognized to the extent that in recent
not occur for hundreds of years. The effects of extreme floods, years criticism was voiced (Vale 1998, 2002) that we should
fires or storms, if luck fails to bring them around, can only be not swing to the other extreme and view all pre-European
approached through historical studies. A good example is the settlement North American landscapes as largely modified
‘Great Storm’ of 1987 in England, a powerful reminder of a by humans. In Europe, however, this issue is less discussed.
 Why history matters in ecology 383

Although early 20th-century historical geographers had a In addition to enhancing knowledge about managed
tendency to overemphasize the landscape impact of their own ecosystems, a historical perspective also sheds light on the
nation, environmental archaeology is a flourishing and well- process of management itself. Historical ecology studies not
recognized subject, and the American concept of ‘wilderness’ only past ecosystems but also past ecosystem management.
(Nash 1967; Oelschlaeger 1991) is very hard to interpret The effects of past management systems can provide
in a European context. It is for certain that practically all an indication of how current ecosystems may react to
European landscapes have been heavily influenced by humans management efforts. By the same token, present management
for thousands of years (Birks et al. 1988), and that ‘natural’ should be seen as part of an on-going ‘experiment’ with
conditions, if they are to be found at all, have to be searched ecosystems, rather than a process with a confidently
for somewhere in or before the Mesolithic (Szabó 2009). The predictable outcome (Harper 1987; Newell & Wasson 2002;
second problem with defining baseline conditions stems from Thompson et al. 2009). History provides an opportunity to
the realization, discussed above, that ecosystems are not static, assess policy making and management as an adaptive process
but are in constant flux. Consequently, selecting a particular (Newell et al. 2005). Or, as historians would say it, only ‘those
temporal phase as the most desirable target is often rather who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it’
difficult to justify. (Santayana 1906), which in this case means repeating failures
A much more useful concept than baseline conditions is of past conservation efforts. It is especially important that
that of the ‘historical range of variability’ (Morgan et al. 1994; natural resource management be aware of its own history
Rackham 1998; Aplet & Keeton 1999; Hessburg et al. 1999; with its changing fashions. The past provides a standard
Landres et al. 1999; Keane et al. 2009; Mitchell & Duncan against which to check the current wave of fashion (be it zero
2009; Thompson et al. 2009). Introduced in the 1990s, this management, species extirpation or species reintroduction;
concept, rather than focusing on a single state, includes the Chase 1986; Rackham 1998). The most important feature
full variation of conditions that are known to have occurred of this standard is that it is local: it warns not to accept
in history. Current conditions and processes are evaluated conservation principles from other countries or continents
against this background. This idea resolved the integration of uncritically (Marcucci 2000). As argued by Foster et al.
dynamism into ecosystem management. Change is considered (2003), perhaps the most critical contribution of historical
to be acceptable as long as it falls within the historical range. knowledge to the process of ecological conservation is that
What is more, with a shift from patterns to processes, dynamic it reinforces ‘the conviction that, although science and
systems became conservation targets themselves (Foster et al. history may inform management, the ultimate driver of
1996; Jackson & Hobbs 2009). Rivers are good examples of policy is human values and perceptions’, which is especially
such systems. It is understood that the quickly changing important to keep in mind when confirming or negating
meanders of any larger river in some moment in history the rights of various groups of people to participate in
cannot be a restoration target. The whole system of the flood management decisions (Hayashida 2005). This, however, does
plain needs to be restored, where floods, geomorphology, not mean that conservation and restoration have no claim
climate, vegetation and traditional fishing, amongst others, on objectivity. By embracing a human perspective, historical
together create a dynamic landscape. Another perspective on knowledge simply helps us to realise our own limitations and
this issue is that the historical range of variability concept motivations.
helps to ‘isolate the unconservable’: to identify things that A significant and somewhat undervalued way historical
are inherently ephemeral (Rackham 1994). These include not ecology helps conservation and management is that it
only passing phases in a dynamic system (such as the meanders emphasizes the uniqueness of every site (Rackham 1998,
above) but also phenomena that are not part of the long-term 2003). History, as a science, inherently focuses on individual
history of a site (such as a poplar plantation on the flood plain). places and events. Generalizations are arrived at almost
A historic view on dynamic ecosystems also allows for a better exclusively inductively. Historical studies explain why a given
understanding of change itself in all its temporal and spatial site is special, why it is different from any other site in the
variation. An especially important issue here is that of driving world. It should be a priority in every management plan to
forces, which often create considerable challenges (Brandt perpetuate this genius loci, rather than making the site conform
et al. 1999; Bürgi et al. 2004). A typical example is global to what is thought to be the right state of that ecosystem by
climate change. From historical and palaeoecological records it the present level of knowledge. Quite often this may entail
is known that neither the current extent nor the current speed preserving features that seem anomalous; the knowledge of
of change are necessarily unprecedented, and they therefore history can provide the courage to accept the fact that our
may fall within the historical range of variability. Such change, understanding of how the ecosystem in question works may
however, when caused by human activities, is (as far as can be inaccurate or inadequate.
be told) exceptional and has no historical parallels (McNeill
2000). Historical ecology offers an integrated understanding
AN INTERDISCIPLINARY VIEW
of change that considers causalities as well as sequences of
events (Christensen 1989; Bürgi & Schuler 2003; Bürgi et al. Scientists often emphasize the importance of interdisciplinary
2004; Szabó 2010). efforts in order to achieve a deeper understanding of
384 P. Szabó

ecosystems. In fact, historical ecological research was origin- landscapes. It must be realized that changing one part of a
ally initiated not with the aim of providing useful knowledge system (such as species composition, management system,
for nature conservation, but rather as an interdisciplinary settlement pattern or built heritage) inevitably influences all
venture in which natural scientists and humanists both other parts.
tried to exceed the limitations of their respective disciplines
(Bilsky 1980). Bridging the divide between the ‘two cultures’
(Snow 1959) in scientific research has become an explicit aim
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
of historical ecology (Ingerson 1994). This has two distinct
advantages. First, the higher variety of sources of information, This paper was written with the help of grant IAA600050812
the more secure knowledge about the past (and therefore about and institutional long-term research plan AV0Z60050516,
the present) is: ‘independent data sets provide an important both from the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic.
cross-check in building consensus among collaborators’ I thank Radim Hédl, Petra Mutlová and three anonymous
(Crumley 2007). Second, interdisciplinary research produces reviewers for their useful comments on earlier versions of the
synergetic results that, in optimal cases, are more than text.
the simple sum of information gathered from individual
disciplines.
By now some scholars take this standpoint for granted. References
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