Materials Research.

2013; 16(5): 1161-1168 © 2013

DDOI: 10.1590/S1516-14392013005000110

Crack Propagation under Variable Amplitude Loading

Miloudi Abdelkadera, Zemri Mokhtara, Benguediab Mohameda*,

Mazari Mohameda, Amrouche Abdelwahebb

Laboratory and Reactive Systems, Department of Mechanical Engineering,

a

Djillali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes, Sidi Bel Abbes, Algeria
b
Laboratory of Civil Engineering and Geo-Environment LGCgE, Faculty of Applied Sciences,
Artois University, Béthune, France

Received: May 29, 2012; Revised: April 26, 2013

Experience shows that a damage induced by a given cycle is dependent on the loading history.
In this regard, the objective of this paper is to study and describe the phenomenology of the loading
history on crack propagation. Different loading configuration has been considered for fatigue crack
propagation of XC38 steel; overload cycles followed by underload and vice versa were considered
during propagation. Measure of crack opening has been made using compliance method. It is shown
that the main parameters which cause retardation are the residual compressive stresses and the crack
closure. The finite element modeling is used to calculate the evolution of residual stress profiles before
and after application of the overload-underload cycle. It corroborates the hypotheses on the mechanisms
behind, including those proposed on the residual stresses at the crack tip.

Keywords: crack, overload, underload, plastic zone, residual stress

1. Introduction 2. Experimental Procedure

Maintenance service in aeronautics, transports, machines The material used for this study is an XC38 steel used
and installations often face the existence and appearance of in molding, transmission shifts and tooling components.
cracks in metal components of their structures subjected to The chemical and mechanical characteristics are given
a cyclic loading with variable amplitude. In fatigue, loading in Table 1 and Table 2.
history is one of the main factors for calculating the number All tests were conducted on CT75 specimens with a
of cycle to rupture Nr of cracked element. The interaction thickness B=4 mm and width W = 75 mm.
of the loading level influences the crack growth rate. The All the cracking tests were carried out under air and
understanding of the effect of loading history under the at room temperature on a servo-hydraulic machine type,
spectrum necessitated to consider a simple loading with INSTRON 8516 with static capacity of ± 50KN and dynamic
respect to real spectrum. of ± 100 KN.
It is obvious that the application of an overload during To quantify the overload and underload effect on crack
crack propagation leads to a crack growth rate decreasing propagation four types of loadings have been applied
and in certain cases to arrest. This effect increases the life (Figure 1). All tests whose results were used in this study
time of the structure. are shown in Table 3.
The effect of an underload cycle after overloading cycle The rate of overload τouv and rate underload τund can be
has not been a topic of many works1-10. It is clear that an defined by the following equations respectively:
underload cycle modifies the retardation characteristics.
K ouv − K min
The present paper is a continuation to this works. Many τ ouv = (1)
K max − K min
authors11-18 have shown that the retardation does not depend
exclusively on microstructure changes due to overload K min − Kund
or on the plastic zone geometry, but rather it depends τund = (2)
K max − K min
on residual stress associated with plastic deformation
currently, it is believed that residual stress and crack closure
with the change of plastic due to overload are the main 3. Analysis of Results
causes of retardation from this point crack point opening
measurements are made to put into evidence the beneficial 3.1. Evolution of crack length with the number of
effect of residual stresses. This work presents a study of the cycle N
influence of an overload cycle followed by an underload and
Figure 2 illustrates the different possible cases of fatigue
vice-versa during fatigue crack growth for the case of XC38.
loading shown as a curve giving the evolution of crack length
*e-mail: [email protected] (a) with the number of cycle (N).
1162 Abdelkader et al. Materials Research

For a simple overload it is observed three different Furthermore, in the case of a high underload in
domains: compression applied before an overload (Puneder = Ppeak)
In stage one the crack advance with increasing number attenuates the delay of crack propagation.
of cycle N. The second stage corresponds on the application
of overload, the crack shows down for a certain number of 3.2. Evolution of crack growth rate da/dN as a
cycle Nd called number of delay cycles. After the end of the function of stress intensity factor amplitude ∆K
overloads effect, the crack advances normally. In Figure 3, we propose to study the phases of crack
In the case of an overloads followed by underload growth. It illustrates the evolution of the crack growth rate
when Punder = Pmax for an overload ratio τ = 1.7 it is observed da/dN as a function of the amplitude of the stress intensity
a decrease in retardation effect. factor ∆K. we note that after the application of an overload,
For a good comprehension of underload effect, we there is a crack arrest for a certain number of cycles
decided to make tests by varying the peak of underload as corresponding to retardation cycles Nd.
a function of the load when Punder = Ppeak. It is noticed that In terms of growth rate, this phenomenon results in
the application of a high underload following an overload instantaneous appearance of a “hook” putting into evidence
decreases significantly the number of delay cycles Nd. deceleration, which corresponds to an immediate delay.
The crack growth rate after an overload can be described
Table 1. Chemical composition of XC 38. by two stages:
Element C Mn Si P S
• When the growth rate decreases rapidly to reach a
minimum value noted (da/dN)min this zone highly
% 0.38 0.65 0.25 0.01 0.02
perturbed by the overload corresponds to a crack
length amin;
• The crack progresses in the plastic zone until it
Table 2. Mechanical properties of CX 38. reaches its initial value (da/dN)base.
E Re0.2 % Rm A Hv Y It should be noted here, that the low value of crack
GPa Mpa MPa % growth rate reached in the case of an overload for a
212 315 580 20 210 0.3 ration τ = 1.7, the minimum growth rate is about de 2.16
10-5 mm/cycle while its value 1.2 e-4 mm/cycle in the case
of an overload following by an underload where Punder = Ppeak.
Table 3. Different types of loadings. The growth rate increases when the ration of underload
increases its value becomes 1.36 e-4 mm/cycle.
Material Type of Ratio R Overload Underload
In this case, this high-intensity underload applied after
tests ratio ratio
an overload (Punder = Ppeak) two important phenomena re
Single produced:
XC38 0.1 1.7 1
overload
• After the application of an overload followed by an
XC38 Overload/ 0,1 1.70 –1.11 underload the crack growth rate decreases slightly;
XC38 underload 0,1 1.70 –1.70 • It reaches a growth rate higher than its initial growth
Underload/ rate then reaches a gain its initial growth after a certain
XC38 0,1 1.70 –1.70
overload number of cycles.

Figure 1. different types of loadings.

2013; 16(5) Crack Propagation under Variable Amplitude Loading 1163

This can be explained by the residual tensile stresses progresses. Moreover, when the phenomenon of crack
induced by high applied underload. closure occurs, the load-strain curve P-δ shows a change
With a high underload applied before an overload (when in slope Figure 4.
Punder = Ppeak) eliminates the retardation of crack propagation. During the crack propagation, there is the appearance
Table 4 summarizes the different results for different of two distinct bridges on diagrams (P-δ), corresponding
loading type to show the difference in behavior betweens apparently to double opening Figures 5, 6 and 7.
thesis loadings. This double opening point was obtained regardless of
the position relative to the overload of underload.
3.3. Analysis in terms of crack closure
To measure the opening load Po a strip sensor has
been used. The principle is to measure the deformation of
the ligament of a specimen, in effect; this deformation is
linked to its rigidity. The latter is weakened when the crack

Figure 4. Evolution of hysteresis cycle P-δ load-strain.

Figure 2. Evolution of crack length (a) with cycle number (N).

Figure 5. Evolution of hysteresis cycle P-δ load-strain (test 02).

Figure 3. Evolution of growth rate da/dN as a function of SIF

amplitude ∆K.

Table 4. Results for different types of loadings.

Types of loading Nd ad (da/dN)min
(cycles) (mm) (mm/cycles)
Single overload 94000 7,49 2,16 E-5
Overload/underload
25000 6,34 1,2 E-4
(Punder=Pmax)
Overload/underlod
22000 6,09 1,36E-4
(Punder=Ppeak)
Underload/overload
0 0 1.4 E-3
(Punder=Pmax) Figure 6. Evolution of hysteresis cycle P-δ load-strain (test 03).
1164 Abdelkader et al. Materials Research

Figure 7. Evolution of hysteresis cycle P-δ load-strain (test 04).

The existence of this second opening point on the

diagram (P-δ) does have the measures in question the first
point of opening. This first point is the notion of opening
point according to Elber.
On the diagrams (P-δ), we determine following
displacements:
• The total displacement of the δt crack tip;
• Displacement created by the underload δc;
• The residual displacement δr remaining after the
sequence overload.
It is observed that the residual displacement of the
sequence-underload-overload is greater than the residual
displacement of the sequence of overload-underload.
We also note that when the rate of underload increases,
the value of the distance from the crack tip residual
decreases. This effect tends to give back to the initial crack
acuity, resulting in a decrease in life time.

3.4. Evolution of tensile opening

In this study, changes in opening tress distribution have
been taken into account in the calculation of the stress
intensity factor for each loading case. We observe that after
applying an overload the tensile opening stress increase
rapidly and reach a greater value than that of the base load
then slowly decrease (Figure 8a).
An overload applied before underload, causing a Figure 8. a) Variation of opening load after overload; b) Variation
decrease of the stress of opening, which is less than the of opening load after overload/underload (Punder = Pmax); c) Variation
maximum stress followed by a slow decrease to a level of opening load after overload/underload (Punder = Ppeak).
below the previous case (Figure 8b).
In Figure 8c it is observed that after the application of
an underload be a decrease in tensile opening load is high layer than that associated to the highest load (overload). The
with a higher underload ratio. required opening stress increases and causes a diminution
Figure 9 shows the plot of the variation of the opening of ∆Keff. The reduction of the effective stress intensity factor
stress intensity factor Kop with respect to crack length a, the explains the decrease after the application of overload, which
results show that there are distinct stages: gives an immediate delay.
• Effect of single overload The third stage, the opening stress decreases gradually
In stage one where the loading is of constant amplitude with a growth that follows until a new equilibrium value
represents an increasing effective stress intensity factor ∆Keff is reached.
due to a constant opening load P. • Effect of an overload followed by an underload
The second stage corresponds to the application of a first In the case of an overload followed by an underload the
overload cycle where the crack progresses in a plastic zone crack closure occurs just after the application of an overload
2013; 16(5) Crack Propagation under Variable Amplitude Loading 1165

followed by underload. This takes place at a distance of ∆K eff

U= (3)
4 mm, which may be comparable to the overage values ∆K
of crack length associated which the minimum distance
The effective stress intensity factor range is given by
of propagation after overload/underload. The increase of
the equation:
underload amplitude lowers the opening stress intensity
factor. ∆K eff = K max − K ouv = U .∆K (4)
• Effect of an underload followed by overload
In the case of high underload applied before an overload
3.5. Evolution of the micro-hardness
(Punder = Ppic) the opening stress intensity factor is low. This
can be explained by the residual tensile stress due to the Micro-hardness measurements were performed using
applied underload. an indenter type ZWICK ZHV1 (a diamond in the form
We find that if the tensile overload is followed by a of a square-based pyramid whose opposite faces form an
compressive overload, the material at the crack tip may angle of 136°), Around 30 indentations near fatigue crack
growth path were made. The distance between the centers of
undergo reverse plastic deformation and this reduces the
two adjacent indentations is about 0.9 mm. All the hardness
residual stresses.
readings were obtained using 2 kg-force load, and the full
Figure 10 shows the evolution of crack closure (U)
load was held for 15 s. the positions of the measuring points
as a function of crack length (a). The value of this ration of hardness are given in Figure 11.
U permit to deduce the amplitude of the effective stress Figure 12 shows the micro-hardness profile measured on
intensity factor ∆Keff and this predict the crack growth rate the surface of specimens from the figure on can state that:
using Elber’s relation. The cyclic hardening more important results in a
The opening ratio U can be expressed by the following significant increase of micro hardness just after the
equation: application of an overload cycle. This reduces the growth
rates in this zone perturbed by the overload resulting in
retardation.
The hardening rate looks very important in the case of
overload which provokes a consequential retardation. If the

Figure 9. Evolution of the opening stress intensity Kop factor with Figure 11. Micro-hardness measuring positions.
crack length a.

Figure 12. Micro-hardness profile measured on the surface of

Figure 10. Evolution of closure relation with crack length (a). specimens.
1166 Abdelkader et al. Materials Research

tensile overload is followed by a compressive overload, the 4.1. Conditions modeling

hardening intensity is less with respect to a single overload.
The aim of this section is to perform a numerical
For the same case, the intensity decreases with the
simulation of crack propagation advance. This has been
hardening ration overload. Contrary to the behavior observed
tensile overload followed by a compression load, the conducted using ANSYS. The geometric dimension are
intensity of curing is less important. similar to those of the specimen used in the experimental
study (w=75 mm, B=4 mm). In the simulation, the properties
4. Numerical Simulation and behavior of the material determined by experimental
monotonic tests were used. For symmetry reason only one-
It is believed that residual stresses and crack closure half of the specimen has been meshed Figure 13.
which one both related to plastic zone development due to
We used triangular elements with 3 nodes; the size of
overload are most of the time the cause of the retardations.
elements in the path of the crack is 0.1 mm. The advance of
These two phenomena will be affected by monotonic and
the crack for 0.1 mm is performed represented 10 increments
cyclic hardening in the crack tip zone. It is worth introducing
residual stress and crack closure concepts. for a crack length for 0-25 mm.
Residual stresses have an important role in the The boundary conditions are:
retardation mechanism after overload cycle, overload / • The load is applied on the upper pact of the hole;
underload and underload/overload. • The node displacement (Uy) locates en front of the
crack are blocked;
• The crack advance, simulated by kill-element
technique, the number indicates “increment” required
to reach this point 0.1 mm crack advance is made
every five increments.

4.2. Evolution of the stress field

In this part, we represent the stress distribution for the
different cases studied. It is noticed the common profile

Figure 13. Mesh of the half specimen CT.

Figure 16. Steps of loading applied to the numerical modeling

(overload/underload).
Figure 14. Steps of loading applied to the numerical modeling
(single overload).

Figure 17. Evolution of stress field during overload-underload

Figure 15. Evolution of stress field during the overload. (Time 1110).
2013; 16(5) Crack Propagation under Variable Amplitude Loading 1167

Figure 18. Evolution of stress field during overload-underload Figure 20. Evolution of stress field during underload/ Overload.
(Time 1115).

that the higher the overload the lower is the values of

compressive stresses this leads to the acceleration of the
crack propagation.
The effect of high underload has also been investigated
Figure 19. It is noticed the application of high underload
provokes a relaxation of compressive residuals stresses
at the crack tip, if the applied compressive stress during
underload is higher, when underload the residual stress
become a tensile this will accelerates the crack propagation
and eliminates the retardation Figure 20.

5. Conclusion
The study presented in this paper aims to characterize
the crack propagation under variable loading. In this case,
all the cycles are either an overload/underload or underload/
Figure 19. Steps of loading applied to the numerical modelling overload type.
(underload/overload). The study has focused primarily on the influence of
both the overload underload ratios. Four types of loading
configurations were experimentally tested for the case of XC
of σyy during overload cycle and overload/underload 38 steel. Through the experimental investigation, we find
followed by underload and vice-versa. During overload cycle that for simple overload applied during constant amplitude
Figure 14 it is observed an increase compressive stresses loading causes a delay in crack propagation. Crack closure
(the increment 1105 that represents the propagation cycle is important in the case of single overload.
at the time of application of the overload), which are added If the tensile overload is followed by a compressive
to opening stresses resulting from unloading this delaying overload decreases the number of delay cycles, the material
the opening of the crack Figure 15. at the crack tip may undergo reverse plastic deformation and
this reduces the residual stresses.
If an underload cycle followed by an overload
The application of a high underload following an
cycle Figure 16 (the increment 1110 that represents the
overload decreases significantly the number of delay cycles
propagation cycle at the time of application of the underload) Nd. In this case the Crack closure is less important for the
residual stresses exist at crack tip but are less important case of overload/underload than that of single overload.
with respect to a single overload. It is noticed that for an We can conclude that the life time caused by a sequence
undreload applied after an overload decreases considerably of overload-underload and lower than that caused by simple
residual stresses Figure 17. overload.
In order to investigate the effect of an underload, the The measurements show that the residual compressive
underload ratio has been increased Figure 18. It is observed stresses and the crack closure are the major’s causes of delay.
1168 Abdelkader et al. Materials Research

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