COURSE STRUCTURE

CLASS X

EVALUATION SCHEME
THEORY
Units Term - I Marks
I Chemical Substances-Nature and Behaviour: Chapter 1,2 and 3 16
II World of Living: Chapter 6 10
III Natural Phenomena: Chapter 10 and 11 14
Units Term - II Marks
I Chemical Substances-Nature and Behaviour: Chapter 4 and 5 10
II World of Living: Chapter 8 and 9 13
IV Effects of Current: Chapter 12 and 13 12

V Natural Resources: Chapter 15 05

Total Theory (Term I+II) 80
Internal Assessment: Term I 10
Internal Assessment: Term II 10
Grand Total 100

TERM - I
Theme: Materials
Unit I: Chemical Substances - Nature and Behaviour
Chapter -1 Chemical reactions and equations
Chemical reactions: Chemical equation, Balanced chemical equation, implications of a balanced
chemical equation, types of chemical reactions: combination, decomposition, displacement, double
displacement, precipitation, neutralization, oxidation and reduction.
Chapter – 2 Acids, Bases and Salts
Acids, bases and salts: Their definitions in terms of furnishing of H + and OH- ions, General properties,
examples and uses, concept of pH scale (Definition relating to logarithm not required), importance of
pH in everyday life; preparation and uses of Sodium Hydroxide, Bleaching pow der, Baking soda,
Washing soda and Plaster of Paris.
Chapter – 3 Metals and non – metals
Metals and nonmetals: Properties of metals and non -metals; Reactivity series; Formation and
properties of ionic compounds.

Visit https://telegram.me/booksforcbse for more books.

Theme: The World of the Living
Unit II: World of Living
Chapter – 6 Life processes
Life processes: ‘Living Being’. Basic concept of nutrition, respiration, transport and excretion in plants
and animals.
Theme: How Things Work

Unit III: Natural Phenomena

Chapter – 10 Light – Reflection and Refraction
Reflection of light by curved surfaces; Images formed by spherical mirrors, centre of curvature,
principal axis, principal focus, focal length, mirror formula (Derivation not required), magnification.
Refraction; Laws of refraction, refractive index.
Refraction of light by spherical lens; Image formed by spherical lenses; Lens formula (Derivation not
required); Magnification. Power of a lens.
Chapter – 11 Human eye and colourful world
Refraction of light through a prism, dispersion of light, scattering of light, applications in daily life.

TERM - II
Theme: Materials
Unit I: Chemical Substances - Nature and Behaviour
Chapter – 4 Carbon and its compounds
Carbon compounds: Covalent bonding in carbon compounds. Versatile nature of carbon.Homologous
series.
Chapter – 5 Periodic classification of elements
Periodic classification of elements: Need for classification, early attempts at classification of elements
(Dobereiner’s Triads, Newland’s Law of Octaves, Mendeleev’s Periodic Table), Modern periodic table,
gradation in properties, valency, atomic number, metallic and non-metallic properties.

Theme: The World of the Living

Unit II: World of Living
Chapter – 8 How do organisms reproduce?
Reproduction: Reproduction in animals and plants (asexual and sexual) reproductive health -need and
methods of family planning. Safe sex vs HIV/AIDS.Child bearing and women’s health.
Chapter – 9 Heredity and Evolution
Heredity: Heredity; Mendel ’s contribution - Laws for inheritance of traits: Sex determination: brief
introduction;
Page 7 of 10
Theme: Natural Phenomena
Unit IV: Effects of Current
Chapter – 12 Electricity
Ohm’s law; Resistance, Resistivity, Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends. Series
combination of resistors, parallel combination of resistors and its applications in daily life. Heating
effect of electric current and its applications in daily life. Electric power, Interrelation between P, V, I
and R.
Chapter – 13 Magnetic effects of current
Magnetic effects of current: Magnetic field, field lines, field due to a current carrying conductor, field
due to current carrying coil or solenoid; Force on current carrying conductor, Fleming’s Left Hand
Rule, Electric Motor, Electro magnetic induction. Induced potential difference, Induced current.
Fleming’s Right Hand Rule.

Theme: Natural Resources

Unit V: Natural Resources
Chapter – 15 Our Environment
Our environment: Eco-system, Environmental problems, Ozone depletion, waste prod uction and their
solutions. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable substances.

*****
ONLY FOR INTERNAL ASSESSMENT

Note: Learners are assigned to read the below listed part of Unit V. They can be encouraged to
prepare a brief write up on any one concept of this Unit in their Portfolio. This may be an
assessment for Internal Assessment and credit may be given (Periodic assessment/Portfolio).
This portion of the Unit is not to be assessed in the year-end examination.
Chapter – 16 Management of natural resources: Conservation and judicious use of natural
resources. Forest and wild life; Coal and Petroleum conservation.Examples of people’s participation for
conservation of natural resources. Big dams: advantages and limitations; alternatives, if any. Water
harvesting.Sustainability of natural resources.

Page 8 of 10
 PRACTICALS
Practical should be conducted alongside the concepts taught in theory classes.
TERM-I
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. A. Finding the pH of the following samples by using pH paper/universal indicator:
(i) Dilute Hydrochloric Acid
(ii) Dilute NaOH solution
(iii) Dilute Ethanoic Acid solution
(iv) Lemon juice
(v) Water
(vi) Dilute Hydrogen Carbonate solution
B. Studying the properties of acids and bases (HCl & NaOH) on the basis of their reaction with:

a) Litmus solution (Blue/Red)

b) Zinc metal
c) Solid sodium carbonateUnit–I:(Chapter-2)
2. Performing and observing the following reactions and classifying them into:

A. Combination reaction
B. Decomposition reaction
C. Displacement reaction
D. Double displacement reaction
(i) Action of water on quicklime
(ii) Action of heat on ferrous sulphate crystals
(iii) Iron nails kept in copper sulphate solution
(iv) Reaction between sodium sulphate and barium chloride solutions.
Unit-I:(Chapter-1)
3. A. Observing the action of Zn, Fe, Cu and Al metals on the following salt solutions:
(i) ZnSO4(aq)
(ii) FeSO4(aq)
(iii) CuSO4(aq)
(iv) Al2 (SO4)3(aq)
B. Arranging Zn, Fe, Cu and Al (metals) in the decreasing order of reactivity based on the
above result.Unit-I :(Chapter-3)
4. Experimentally show that carbon dioxide is given out during respiration.
Unit-II:(Chapter-6)
5. Determination of the focal length of (i) Concave mirror and (ii) Convex lens by obtaining the
image of a distant object. Unit-III:(Chapter- 10)
6. Tracing the path of a ray of light passing through a rectangular glass slab for different angles of
incidence. Measure the angle of incidence, angle of refraction, angle of emergence and
interpret the result. Unit-III:(Chapter-10)

Page 9 of 10
 7. Tracing the path of the rays of light through a glass prism. Unit-III:(Chapter-11)
TERM-II
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1. Studying the dependence of potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (I) passing
through it and determining its resistance. Also plotting a graph between V and I.
Unit-IV:(Chapter-12)
2. Studying (a) binary fission in Amoeba, and (b) budding in yeast and Hydra with the help of
prepared slides. Unit-II:(Chapter-8)
PRESCRIBED BOOKS:
 Science-Textbook for class IX-NCERT Publication
 Science-Text book for class X- NCERT Publication
 Assessment of Practical Skills in Science-Class IX - CBSE Publication
 Assessment of Practical Skills in Science- Class X- CBSE Publication
 Laboratory Manual-Science-Class IX, NCERT Publication
 Laboratory Manual-Science-Class X, NCERT Publication
 Exemplar Problems Class IX – NCERT Publication
 Exemplar Problems Class X – NCERT Publication

Assessment Areas (Theory) 2021-22

(Class X)
Science (086)
Theory TotalMaximum Marks: 80

Competencies Marks
Demonstrate Knowledge and Understanding 46 %
Application of Knowledge/Concepts 22 %
Analyze, Evaluate and Create 32 %

Note:
 Internal choice would be provided.
Internal Assessment – Term I and II (10 Marks each)
 Periodic Assessment - 03 marks
 Multiple Assessment – 02 marks
 Subject Enrichment (Practical Work) - 03 marks
 Portfolio - 02 marks
____________________________________________________________________________

Page 10 of 10
 Chemical Reactions and Equations

Chemical Changes and Their Representation in the Form of Chemical Equations

A chemical change can be confirmed by any or all of the following observations-

 change in state
 change in colour
 change in temperature
 evolution of gas
 formation of a precipitate

A chemical change is always accompanied by a chemical reaction. Reaction is the term used
for depicting a change or transformation in which a substance decomposes, combines with
other substances, or interchanges constituents with other substances.

Thus, a chemical equation is an easier and more concise method for representing a chemical
reaction. It involves writing symbols and formulae (instead of words) for all substances
involved in the reaction. A chemical equation also indicates the number of atoms of each
element involved in a reaction. In which reactants are given on left-hand side of a reaction
and products are given on right-hand side.
Reactants: The substance which takes part in a chemical reaction.
Products: The new substances produced as a result of chemical reaction.
 Try to represent the statements given below as chemical equations.

(a) Potassium metal reacts with water to give potassium hydroxide and hydrogen gas.

(b) Hydrogen gas combines with nitrogen to form ammonia.

Symbols of elements:

Potassium = K

Hydrogen =H

Nitrogen = N

Ques. Write any two observations in an activity which may suggest that a chemical reaction
has taken place. Give an example in support of your answer.

Sol: A chemical change can be confirmed by any of the following observations:

 Change in temperature
 Evolution of gas

For example: Calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce calcium hydroxide.
During this process, a large amount of heat is also evolved, which increases the temperature
of the system. This confirms that a chemical reaction has taken place.

Also, when calcium carbonate is heated, it decomposes to form calcium oxide and carbon
dioxide.

In this reaction, calcium carbonate breaks down to form calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.
Here, evolution of the gas (carbon dioxide) confirms that a chemical reaction has taken
place.
Balanced Chemical Equations

To describe a chemical reaction more concisely, equations of the reactions are written.

Chemical equation

A chemical equation is a concise form which uses symbols and formulae of the chemical
compounds or elements involved in the reaction. It also indicates the number of atoms of
each element involved in a reaction.

In a chemical reaction, the total mass of the reactants should be equal to the total
mass of the products. This means that the total number of atoms of each element should be
equal on both sides of a chemical equation. Such an equation is called a balanced
chemical equation, and the method by which it is obtained is called the balancing of
chemical equations.

Another example of a balanced chemical equation is the reaction of limewater with carbon
dioxide, that results in the formation of a precipitate of calcium carbonate and water is
represented as:

In this reaction, calcium hydroxide is present in the form of a solution in water, carbon
dioxide is present as a gas, calcium carbonate is produced as a precipitate i.e. in the solid
state, and water is formed in the liquid state.

The energy changes involved in a reaction are denoted by writing the changes involved in
the equation itself.

If energy is used in the reaction, then it will be written on the left-hand side. If it is released
in the process, then it is written on the right-hand side.

For example, combustion of butane (or any other hydrocarbon i.e., the compounds made up
of carbon and hydrogen) is accompanied by the evolution of heat and light energy along
with the production of carbon dioxide and water. Therefore, the equation for the same will
be written as:

The reaction conditions (such as temperature, pressure, catalyst etc.) for a reaction are
indicated above or below the forward arrow in a reaction.

Below are some balanced chemical equations:

 Chemical Reaction Chemical Equation
One reactant or two or more
CaCO3 →→ CaO + CO2
products
Two reactants and one product N2 + H2 →→ 2 NH3
Two reactants and two products Na2SO4 + BaCl2 →→ BaSO4 + 2 NaCl
Two reactants and three or more
Cu + 2 H2SO4 →→ CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2
products

Write the balanced equations for the following chemical reactions.

1. Barium chloride + Sodium sulphate → Barium sulphate + Sodium chloride.

2. Sodium + Water → Sodium hydroxide + Hydrogen

Other questions asked in previous years’ board examinations

Ques. On what basis is a chemical equation balanced?

Sol: Law of conservation of mass forms the basis of balancing chemical equations. In a balanced chemical
equation, the number of atoms of each element is equal on both sides of the equation.

Ques. Balance the following chemical equation:

Pb(NO3)2 (s) PbO (s) + NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

Sol: The balanced chemical equation for the given reaction is:

Information conveyed by balanced chemical equations

 Result of the chemical change

 Number of molecules of reactants being consumed and products being formed
 Chemical composition of reactants and product species
 Molecular mass of reactants and products
 Proves the law of conservation of mass

Limitation of a chemical equation

A chemical equation does not provide some other important chacteristics of a chemical
reaction, such as:

 time needed to complete the reaction

 physical state of reactants and products
 concentration of each reactant and product
 rate of the reaction

Making a chemical reaction more informative

 Providing the information about catalyst used, temperature and pressure of the reaction
above or below the arrow.
Combination Reactions

You know that chemical changes involve chemical reactions. Chemical reactions are
primarily of five types. They are listed as follows:

1. Combination reactions

2. Decomposition reactions

3. Displacement reactions

4. Double displacement reactions

5. Oxidation and reduction reactions

Here, we will discuss combination reactions in detail. Do you know what actually happens
in a combination reaction?

In these reactions, two or more substances combine to form a new compound. The reactants
in such reactions can be elements as well as compounds. The general equation used to
represent a combination reaction is:

A+Z AZ

For example, coal is primarily carbon. When it burns, it combines with oxygen present in the
air to form carbon dioxide.

Some other examples of combination reactions are discussed below.

1. Combination of two elements

On heating, magnesium combines with oxygen present in the air to form magnesium oxide.

2. Combination of two compounds

Calcium oxide, also known as quick lime, when mixed with water reacts with it to form
calcium hydroxide, also known as slaked lime. The chemical equation for the same is given
as:

Hence, in combination reactions, two or more compounds combine to

produce only one product. Generally, combination reactions are exothermic in nature i.e.
energy is released when two or more compounds combine.

Hence, it can be concluded that combination reactions are generally exothermic in nature. In
the above activity, CaO combines with water to give only a single product, Ca (OH)2.

However, there are very few combination reactions which are endothermic in nature. One of
the examples of such a reaction is combination of nitrogen and oxygen gas to form nitrogen
dioxide gas:

In this reaction, reactants absorb energy from the surroundings in order to form product.
What happens when coal is burned? On burning, coal combines with oxygen to produce
carbon dioxide. It also gives a lot of heat energy. Hence, burning of coal is an exothermic
reaction.

DO YOU KNOW?

Lime water or slaked lime (Ca(OH)2) is used in white washing of walls. It combines with
carbon dioxide present in the air to form a thin layer of calcium carbonate. The chemical
formula of calcium carbonate is CaCO3. The chemical equation involved in the reaction can
be represented as:

Ca(OH)2 (aq) + CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s) + H2O (l)

Slaked lime Carbon dioxide Calcium carbonate Water

Ques. Define a combination reaction. Give one example of a combination reaction which is
also exothermic.

Sol: In combination reactions, two or more substances combine to form a new compound.
Only one product is obtained in such reactions. The reactants in such reactions can be
elements as well as compounds. The general equation used to represent a combination
reaction is:

A+Z AZ

For example, calcium oxide reacts vigorously with water to produce calcium hydroxide.

CaO (s) + H2O (l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq)

Calcium oxide Water Calcium hydroxide

A large amount of heat is also evolved during this process, which increases the temperature
of the system. Hence, the combination of calcium oxide and water is exothermic in nature.

Decomposition Reactions

We know that chemical reactions are primarily of five types. They are listed as follows:

1. Combination reactions

2. Decomposition reactions

3. Displacement reactions
4. Double displacement reactions

5. Oxidation and reduction reactions

Activity:

Take 3 g of green ferrous sulphate crystals in a dry boiling tube. Heat the boiling tube over
the flame of a burner. Observe the change in color of the crystals on heating.

It will be observed that the colour of the crystals undergoes a change. Also, the
characteristic smell of burning sulphur is observed. Do you know why this happens?

Here, green crystals of ferrous sulphate lose water on heating. Hence, a change in colour is
seen in the crystals. On further heating, it decomposes into ferric oxide, sulphur dioxide, and
sulphur trioxide. The chemical equation involved in the reaction can be represented as:

Here, ferrous sulphate breaks down or decomposes to form three new substances. Hence, it
is an example of decomposition reactions.

What are decomposition reactions?

In these reactions, a compound breaks down or decomposes to form two or more

substances. These reactions are exactly opposite to combination reactions. We know that
there is only one product in combination reactions. Similarly, there is only one reactant in
decomposition reactions. The general equation used to represent a decomposition reaction
is:
 Decomposition reactions require a source of energy in the form of heat, light, or electricity
to decompose the compound involved. Hence, these reactions can be classified into three
types, depending on the source of energy for the reaction.

a) Decomposition by heat or thermal decomposition

b) Decomposition by electricity or electrolysis

c) Decomposition by light or photolysis

Let us now study three different types of decomposition reactions.

One of the most common examples of thermal decomposition reactions is the

decomposition of calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate when heated decomposes to form
calcium oxide and carbon dioxide.

In this reaction, one compound i.e. calcium carbonate breaks down to form two compounds,
namely calcium oxide and carbon dioxide. Hence, it is an example of decomposition
reactions. Commercially, this reaction is very important as calcium oxide (obtained as a
product in this reaction) is used in cement and glass industries.

Hands-on Activity

Take about 3 g of solid lead nitrate in a boiling tube. Note the colour of the compound. Heat it in
the flame of the Bunsen burner. Observe the change taking place.

You will observe that emission of brown fumes occurs. These fumes are of nitrogen dioxide.

During this reaction, lead nitrate decomposes to form lead oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen
gas. The following reaction takes place:

2Pb(NO3)2 (s) → 2PbO (s) + 4NO2 (g) + O2 (g)

Lead nitrate Lead oxide Nitrogen dioxide Oxygen
 The Taj Mahal is made up of marble. Do you know that chemically,
marble is nothing but calcium carbonate?

Thermal decomposition of some compounds:

 Metal hydroxides: They decompose on heating to produce metal oxide and water or steam.

b) Decomposition by electricity

When electricity is passed through water containing a few drops of sulphuric acid, it breaks
down to give its constituent elements as products i.e. hydrogen and oxygen. This is known
as electrolysis of water. Let us understand decomposition by electricity with one of its
application in the real world.

When silver chloride is kept in the sun, it decomposes to form chlorine gas and metallic
silver. As the reaction proceeds, the white coloured silver chloride turns grey because of the
formation of silver. Chlorine produced in the reaction escapes into the environment as it is
produced in the gaseous state.
 Figure 3: Photolysis of silver chloride

Silver bromide also undergoes decomposition in a similar manner when exposed to

sunlight.

As the above reactions are sensitive to light, they are used in black and white photography.

It is seen that decomposition reactions require a source of energy in the form of heat, light,
or electricity to decompose the compound involved. Hence, it can be concluded
that decomposition reactions are endothermic in nature.

Ques.

(a) What is the colour of ferrous sulphate crystals? How does this colour change after
heating?

(b) Name the products formed on strongly heating ferrous sulphate crystals.

Sol: a) The colour of ferrous sulphate crystals is green.

On heating, ferrous sulphate crystals (FeSO4.7H2O) lose their water of crystallisation and
due to this, the colour of the compound changes to white/colourless.

(b) On strong heating, ferrous sulphate crystals give ferric oxide (Fe2O3), sulphur dioxide
(SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3) as products.

Decomposition reaction occurs in this change.

Ques. Give an example of a decomposition reaction. Describe an activity to illustrate such a

reaction by heating.

Sol: Example of decomposition

reaction:
 2 g of lead nitrate is taken in a boiling tube and heated. On heating, lead nitrate decomposes
to produce lead oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen. The chemical equation involved in the
reaction is:

Displacement Reactions

We know that chemical reactions are primarily of five types. They are listed below.

1. Combination reactions

2. Decomposition reactions

3. Displacement reactions

4. Double displacement reactions

5. Oxidation and reduction reactions

In this part, we will discuss displacement and double displacement reactions in detail.

In displacement reactions, a more reactive metal replaces a less reactive metal from the
latter’s salt.

Reactions in which a more reactive element replaces a less reactive element from the
salt solution of the less reactive element are called displacement reactions.

Do you know that displacement reactions are of two types? They are:

1. Single Displacement Reactions

2. Double Displacement Reactions

Single Displacement Reactions can be better understood with the help of the following
figure.

In the above figure, you have three blocks. It will be observed that while red and blue blocks
are fixed in, green block is aloof. Now, if a blue block is detached from the red and fixed with
the green, it will mean that the green block displaces the red block.
 Thus, in a single displacement reaction, an uncombined single element replaces the other
element present in a compound.

Another example of single displacement reaction is:

Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Zinc Copper sulphate Zinc sulphate Copper

The reactivity of metals can be known from the reactivity series, which lists metals in their
respective order of reactivity (most reactive at the top, least reactive at the bottom).

Now, consider the following figure.

Do you observe any difference from the first block sequence? In the above figure, there
are four different blocks with different colours in two pairs. These blocks are detached.
Then, the blue block is exchanged with the yellow block. This represents a double
displacement reaction.

A Double Displacement Reaction is a bimolecular process in which parts of two

compounds are exchanged to give two new compounds. The general equation used to
represent double displacement reactions can be written as:

AB + CD → AD + BC

Double Displacement Reactions have two common features:

 Firstly, two compounds exchange their ions resulting in the formation of new compounds.
  Secondly, one of the new products formed would be separated from the mixture in some
way (commonly as a solid or gas).

Hands on activity

Activity - I

Take 2 mL each of lead nitrate and potassium iodide solution in two separate test tubes. Gently pour the
potassium iodide solution into the lead nitrate solution.

As soon as you do this, you will observe the formation of a yellow precipitate. This yellow precipitate is of lead
iodide. In this reaction, the two compounds lead nitrate and potassium iodide react by exchanging their ions to
form new compounds, lead iodide and potassium nitrate.

The equation involved in this reaction is:

Activity - II

Take five 100 mL beakers and add 20 mL water in them. Label the beakers as I, II, III, IV, and V. Add 5 g
copper sulphate to beakers I and II, 5 g zinc sulphate to III and V, and 5 g iron sulphate to beaker IV. Now, add
some iron nails to beakers II and V, copper turnings to beakers III and IV, and zinc granules to beaker I. Then,
keep the beakers undisturbed for some time and observe carefully.
You will observe that the colour of copper sulphate solution changes in beakers I and II. On the other hand, no
change is observed in beakers III, IV, and V.

Can you explain these observations using the concept of displacement reactions?

In beaker I, zinc (Zn) replaces copper (Cu) from copper sulphate (CuSO4) solution to form zinc sulphate
(ZnSO4) and copper. Because of this, the blue colour of copper sulphate disappears and a reddish brown
substance i.e. copper gets deposited at the bottom of the beaker. The chemical equation for the reaction can be
represented as:

Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Zinc Copper sulphate Zinc sulphate Copper

Similarly, in beaker II, iron replaces copper from copper sulphate solution. Hence, the
colour of the solution changes from blue to green and a reddish brown substance gets
deposited on the iron nail.

Fe (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + Cu (s)

Iron Copper sulphate Iron(II) sulphate Copper

Do you know why there are no changes in beakers III, IV, and V?

Since no change is observed in beakers III, IV, and V, it can be concluded that copper is less
reactive than zinc and iron. Hence, copper can not replace zinc from zinc sulphate solution and
iron from iron sulphate solution. Therefore, we can also say that iron is less reactive than zinc.
Hence, iron cannot replace zinc from zinc sulphate solution.

Hence, it can be concluded that in displacement reactions, a more reactive metal

replaces a less reactive metal from its salt solution, whereas a less reactive metal
cannot replace a more reactive metal.

Types of double displacement reaction: A Double Displacement Reaction is of three

types.

 Precipitation reaction

In precipitation reaction, soluble ions in separate solutions are mixed together to form an
insoluble compound that settles out of the solution as a solid. This insoluble compound is
called a precipitate.
 Example:

If an aqueous solution of sodium sulphate is mixed with barium chloride, it will be observed
that a white insoluble substance is formed. The white insoluble substance is called
a precipitate. Here, barium chloride reacts with sodium sulphate to produce barium
sulphate (white insoluble precipitate) and sodium chloride. Thus, this is an example of a
double displacement reaction. The chemical equation involved in the reaction is

BaCl2 (aq) + Na2SO4 (aq) → BaSO4 (s) + 2NaCl (s)

Barium chloride Sodium sulphate Barium sulphate Sodium chloride

 Neutralisation reaction

Neutralisation reaction is a chemical reaction in which an acid and a base react to produce
salt and water (H2O).

Example:

2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (s) + 2H2O (l)

Sodium hydroxide Sulphuric acid Sodium sulphate Water

 Gas forming reaction

Gas forming reactions are those reactions in which either, one of the product is formed in
gaseous state or a product decomposes instantly to form a gaseous compound.

Example:

2HNO3 (aq) +Na2SO3 (aq) →2NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) + SO2 (g)
Nitric acid Sodium sulphite Sodium nitrate Water Sulphur dioxe

Oxidation and Reduction Reactions

You must have observed that when butter is kept in the open for a long time, it becomes
rancid. Also, its smell and taste undergo a change.
Do you know why?
This is because butter undergoes oxidation i.e. it reacts with oxygen and gets oxidized. This
process is called rancidity.

What is Oxidation?

Oxidation is defined as a process that involves a gain of oxygen or a loss of hydrogen. When
a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen during a reaction, it is oxidized.
Let us perform an activity to understand more about these reactions.

Activity:

Take around 1g copper powder (reddish brown in colour) in a china dish and heat it over a
burner (as shown in the given figure).

What do you observe?

It will be observed that after some time, the surface of the powder is covered by the layer of
a black substance. When copper powder is heated, it combines with oxygen to form copper
oxide.

Actually, in the process, copper powder gains oxygen. Thus, it gets oxidized to form copper
oxide on heating. This process is called oxidation.

Now, if hydrogen gas is passed over heated copper (II) oxide, then the black coating on the
surface turns brown. This is because a reverse reaction takes place and copper is re-
obtained.

Here, copper (II) oxide loses oxygen and gets reduced to copper. This process is
called reduction.

What is Reduction?

Reduction is defined as a process that involves a gain of hydrogen or a loss of oxygen. When
a substance loses oxygen or gains hydrogen during a reaction, it is reduced.
Oxidation and reduction always take place simultaneously. Therefore, reactions involving
oxidation and reduction are known as Redox (‘Red’ for reduction and ‘ox’ for
oxidation) reactions. In a redox reaction, one substance is oxidized, while the other is
reduced.

The substances that are reduced (provide oxygen or remove hydrogen) in course of the
reaction are called oxidizing agents. These substances oxidise other chemicals in the
reaction and are reduced in the process. On the other hand, the substances that are oxidized
(remove oxygen or provide hydrogen) are called reducing agents.

For example:

In the above reaction, CO2 gets reduced to CO and here, CO2 is the oxidizing agent. On the
other hand, hydrogen gets oxidised to form water and here, H2 is the reducing agent.

We come across many examples of redox reactions in our daily life. For example, in the
process of corrosion, metal combines with oxygen and gets corroded. Again, food gets
spoiled, when it is oxidised and the process is called rancidity. We will discuss them
separately.

Corrosion:

It may be defined as a process where materials, usually metals, are deteriorated because of a
chemical reaction with air, moisture, chemicals, etc. For example, corrosion causes damage
to car bodies, bridges, iron railings, ships, and all objects made of metals (especially those
made from iron). Iron, in the presence of moisture, reacts with oxygen to form iron (III)
oxide. This reaction is represented as:

This hydrated iron (III) oxide is rust. If not controlled, rusting can corrode the entire iron
present in an object. As rust is softer than iron, the strength of the object decreases when
rusting takes place. Every year, a large amount of money is spent on the maintenance of
structures made of iron such as bridges, rails, ships etc.

Rancidity:

When fats and oils are oxidized, they become rancid and their smell and taste also change.
Thus, the oxidation of fats and oils can be easily observed by a change in their taste and
smell. Oxidation of food can be prevented in many ways. Two common methods are
discussed below:

1. Storing food in airtight containers. By doing so, the oxygen available for oxidation
becomes limited. Hence, oxidation can be prevented.
2. Sometimes, antioxidants are added to food to prevent their oxidation. These antioxidants
are oxidised first, which slows down the process of rancidity. These are reducing agents.
Normally, vitamin C and vitamin E are added as antioxidants.

Ques. What is an oxidation reaction? Give an example of oxidation reaction. Is oxidation an

exothermic or an endothermic reaction?

Sol: The reaction in which a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen is called an oxidation
reaction.

For example, when copper (Cu) is heated in the presence of air, it gets oxidised to form
copper oxide (CuO). The chemical equation involved in this reaction can be represented as

Since heat energy is consumed during this process, therefore, this is an endothermic
reaction.
 Acids, Bases and Salts

Nature of Metal Oxides and Non-Metal Oxides

You must have observed that in a laboratory, almost all acids are stored in a glass or
plastic bottle. However, acids are never kept in metal containers. Do you know why?

This is because acids are corrosive in nature. They can react with metals and destroy them.

Do you know what happens when metals react with acids?

When an acid reacts with metals, salt and hydrogen gas are produced. Thus, metals
react with acids and replace the available hydrogen(s) to form salt. This can be represented
as follows:

For example, sulphuric acid (H2SO4) reacts with calcium (Ca) to produce hydrogen gas (H2).
Calcium sulphate (metal salt) is also produced in the reaction. The chemical equation
involved is as follows:

DO YOU KNOW?

When acid-containing food items such as pickles, curd, and citrus fruits are kept in metallic
utensils, a reaction between the metal and the acid (present in the food item) takes place.
Iron, aluminium, and copper are more prone to acid attack. Sometimes, these reactions
result in the formation of toxic substances.

The following activity can be performed to confirm that hydrogen gas is produced when
metals react with acids.

Now, let us see what happens when metals react with bases.
Metals react with bases and replace the available hydrogen(s) to form salt as follows:

For example, metal (Zn) displaces hydrogen from the base (NaOH) and produces hydrogen
gas. The reaction between sodium hydroxide and zinc can be represented as:

However, it should be noted that not all metals react with bases.

The following activity can be performed to confirm that hydrogen gas is produced on
reacting metals with bases.

Activity:

Place a few pieces of zinc granules in a test tube. Then, add 2 mL sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
in it and heat the solution. A reaction between bases (such as NaOH) and metals (such as
Zn) is initiated on heating.

Figure 2: Experiment showing the reaction of bases with metals

We will observe that bubbles are formed in the test tube as soon as dilute sodium
hydroxide solution is added to the zinc granules. This proves that gas is evolved in the
reaction. The gas evolved in the test tube is then passed to the soap solution through the
delivery tube. Soap bubbles filled with hydrogen gas will be seen in the soap solution. The
presence of hydrogen gas is confirmed by its burning with a ‘pop’ sound when a candle is
brought near the bubbles.
Hence, hydrogen gas is formed and evolved in the reaction.

Now, let us study some other chemical properties of acids and bases. Do you know how
metallic oxides react with acids and non–metallic oxides react with bases?

Acids react with metal oxides such as copper oxide, zinc oxide, etc. to produce metal salts.
The reaction between a metal oxide and an acid can be written as:

DO YOU KNOW?

Metal oxides:

Many metals react with oxygen to produce metal oxides. For example, sodium (Na) reacts
with oxygen (O2) to produce sodium oxide (Na2O). The chemical equation for the same is as
follows:

2Na + O2→Na2O2

Metal oxides on reacting with strong acids produce salt and water (similar to the reaction
of bases with acids). Hence, metal oxides are also known as basic oxides.

The following activity shows the reaction between an acid and a metallic oxide.

Activity:

Take 50 mg copper oxide in a beaker and slowly pour dilute hydrochloric acid on it, while
stirring constantly. Observe the colour of the solution.

Fig 3: Reaction of metallic oxides with acids.

HCl reacts with copper oxide (CuO) to produce a metal salt i.e., copper chloride and water.
It will be observed that copper chloride dissolves in water and forms a solution that is blue-
green in colour.

Hence, this shows that acids react with metal oxides to produce salt and water.

Similarly, non-metallic oxides react with bases to produce salt and water. The reaction
between non-metallic oxides and bases is represented as follows:

DO YOU KNOW?

Non-metal oxides:

Non-metals react with oxygen to produce non-metallic oxides. For example, sulphur (S)
reacts with oxygen (O2) to produce sulphur dioxide (SO2) as follows:

Non-metallic oxides react with strong bases to produce salt and water (similar to the
reaction of acids with bases). Hence, non-metallic oxides are also known as acidic oxides.

For example, a reaction between a non-metallic oxide such as carbon dioxide and a base
such as calcium hydroxide produces salt and water. This reaction can be written as:

Hence, non-metallic oxides react with bases to produce salt and water.

Reaction Of Acids and Bases With Metal Carbonates And Metal Hydrogen Carbonates

You have already read about acids and bases. Now, let us learn more about them by
exploring their chemical properties.

You must have observed that when baking soda (sodium hydrogen carbonate) is treated
with vinegar (acetic acid), a brisk effervescence is observed. Similarly, when chalk (calcium
carbonate) is treated with sulphuric acid, effervescence is observed. Do you know what
happens in these reactions? Which gas is evolved during these reactions?
All metal carbonates and hydrogen carbonates react with acids to give a
corresponding salt, carbon dioxide, and water. Thus, the reaction can be summarized
as:

For example, zinc carbonate on reacting with sulphuric acid produces zinc sulphate, water,
and carbon dioxide as follows:

DO YOU KNOW?

Acid rain contains mainly nitric acid and sulphuric acid, which are formed by the
dissolution of nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide in air. Acid rain corrodes buildings and
statues made with marble and stone. Marble and stone generally contain carbonates of
metals. Hence, they react with acid rain. The Taj Mahal (situated in Agra), which is a
heritage build

Similarly, zinc hydrogen carbonate on reacting with sulphuric acid produces zinc sulphate,
water, and carbon dioxide as follows

Zn(HCO3)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

Zinc hydrogen carbonate Sulphuric acid Zinc sulphate Carbon dioxide Water

The following activity can be performed to confirm that carbon dioxide gas is produced
when acids react with metal carbonates.

The reaction of the hydrogen carbonates of metals with acid can be tested in a similar
manner.
The reaction for the same is

Carbon dioxide reacts with calcium hydroxide (lime water) to form calcium carbonate
(white precipitate). The reaction of carbon dioxide gas with limewater is as follows:

Sodium chloride salt produced in the reaction dissolves in water.

Hence, this activity shows that acids react with metal carbonates and metal hydrogen
carbonates to produce salts, carbon dioxide gas, and water.

Metal carbonates and metal hydrogen carbonates do not react with bases.

Reactions Of Acids And Bases With Each Other

You must have observed that antacid tablets are used during indigestion. An antacid
contains magnesium hydroxide, which is a mild base. Magnesium hydroxide neutralizes the
effect of excess hydrochloric acid produced in the stomach during indigestion. Hence, it
helps relieve the pain. Do you know what actually happens when acids and bases react
with each other?

When acids are mixed with bases, they neutralize or cancel each other’s effect. The
products formed on mixing acids with bases are salt and water.

The process of treating an acid with a base to form salt and water is called
neutralization. The general reaction for neutralization can be written as follows:

A lot of heat is produced during the reaction. Hence, it is an exothermic process. Thus, we
have

+Heat

Do you know that all acids generate hydrogen (H+) and all bases generate hydroxyl
(OH-) ions in their aqueous solutions?

H+ ions cannot exist independently; rather they combine with water molecules (H2O) to
form hydronium ions (H3O+).
Thus, in an aqueous solution of acids:

Similarly, bases also dissociate in aqueous solutions. However, not all bases dissolve in
water. The bases that dissolve in water are known as alkalis. Thus, it can be said that ‘all
bases are not alkalis, but all alkalis are bases’.

Alkalis dissolve in water and produce ions.

These hydroxide ions ( ions) can exist freely in water or in an aqueous solution.

These hydrogen (H+) and hydroxyl (OH-) ions react with each other in neutralization
reactions to form water.

Hence, neutralization reactions, in terms of hydrogen and hydroxide ions can be

represented as:

Or,

DO YOU KNOW?

A bee sting leaves methanoic acid on the skin, which causes burning, pain, and irritation.
Methanoic acid is a weak acid. If a mild base such as sodium hydrogen carbonate or baking
soda is applied to the stung area, then it gives relief. This is because baking soda neutralizes
the effect of methanoic acid.

This activity shows that an acid nullifies the effect of the base in the solution and vice-versa.
Acids react with bases to produce salt and water. The chemical equation involved in the
given activity can be represented as:
Adding water to acidic or alkaline solutions decreases the concentration of H+ and ions per
unit volume. This process of decreasing the concentration of H+ and ions per unit volume is
known as dilution.

The process of dissolving an acid or a base in water is an exothermic process. If water is added
directly to the concentrated acid, then the heat generated may cause burning. Hence, acids should
always be added slowly to water with constant stirring.

Strengths of Acids and Bases

Acids and bases can be distinguished from each other with the help of acid-base indicators
such as litmus. Litmus is a natural indicator, which can be used to distinguish between an
acid and a base. Acids change the colour of blue litmus paper to red, while bases change the
colour of red litmus paper to blue.

Do you know that the strength of all acids is not equal?

You must have observed how sulphuric acid is stored in a school laboratory. In all
probability, you would notice that there is a bottle labelled as concentrated sulphuric acid
and another labelled as dilute sulphuric acid. What does this mean? Why is the same
acid stored in two different bottles?

There are a large number of chemicals that act as acids or bases. However, the strength of
all these acids is not equal. A given acid may be stronger than some acids and weaker than
others. For example, sulphuric acid is a stronger acid than acetic acid, which is a very weak
acid.

Similarly, the strength of all bases is also not equal. For example, sodium hydroxide is a
strong base, whereas magnesium hydroxide is a weak base.

The strength of an acid in a solution is determined by the concentration of H+ ions present

in the solution. An increase in the concentration of H+ ions increases the strength of an acid.

Similarly, an increase in the concentration of ions increases the strength of a base.

Now, we know that different acids and bases have different strengths.

Can the relative strength of an acid be determined?

Or, Is there a way to find out whether a given acid is weaker or stronger than other
acids?

pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The term pH stands

for ‘Potential of Hydrogen’. The pH scale varies from 0 to 14. A pH value from 0 to 6.9
represents acidic solutions, while a pH value from 7.1 to 14 represents basic solutions. A
pH value of 7 indicates that a solution is neither acidic nor basic i.e. it is neutral.

Acidity is the measure of H+ ions and alkalinity is the measure of ions in an aqueous
solution. If the pH value of an aqueous solution increases, then it represents an increase in
the concentration of ions. When the pH value decreases, it represents an increase in
H ion concentration. Thus, we can say that the higher the H+ ion concentration, the lower
+

is the pH value.

Acids which give rise to more H+ ions are said to be strong acids, while acids that give
rise to less H+ ions are said to be weak acids. Hence, hydrochloric acid, which gives rise
to more H+ ions, is a strong acid. On the other hand, acetic acid having the same
concentration as that of hydrochloric acid is a weak acid, as it gives rise to less H+ ions. The
figure given below represents the variation of pH with a change in the concentration of
H+ and ions.

[H3O+] in aquous solution (In

pH= -log10 [H3O+] pH of aquous solution
molarity)
10-4 pH= -log10-4 = 4 log 10= 4 4
pH= -log 10-3 = 3 log 10=
10-3 3
3
pH= -log 10-2 = 2 log 10=
10-2 2
2
pH= -log 10-1 = 1 log 10=
10-1 1
1

pH of aquous acidic solutions

In laboratories, we use a pH paper or universal indicator to measure the pH. This gives an
 approximate measure of the pH. The pH values of some common substances are indicated
in the pH paper as shown in the following figure.

[H3O+] in aquous pOH of aquous

pH= -log10 [H3O+] pH of aquous solution
solution (In molarity) solution
10-4 pH= -log10-6 = 6 log 10= 6 6 8
pH= -log 10-5 = 5 log 10=
10-3 5 9
5
pH= -log 10-4 = 4 log 10=
10-2 4 10
4
pH= -log 10-3 = 3 log 10=
10-1 3 11
3

pH of aquous basic solutions

Chemical properties of salts

 Reaction of salt with acid:

Salt + Acid ⟶ other salt + acid

H2SO4 + NaCl → Na2SO4 + 2 HCl

 Reaction of salt with base:

Salt + Base ⟶ other salt + base

Na2SO4 + Ba(OH)2 →→ BaSO4 + 2 NaOH

 Reaction of salt with another salt:

Salt + other salt ⟶ New salt + New salt

AgNO3 + NaCl→→AgCl + NaNO3

Let Us Explore:

pH can be accurately detected by using a pH meter. A typical pH meter consists of a glass

electrode connected to an electronic meter that measures and displays the pH readings.

Importance Of pH In Everyday Life

Do you know why it is advised to clean your mouth after consuming food?

Acids are produced in the mouth due to the degradation of sugar and food particles by
certain bacteria. As a result, the pH of mouth is lowered.

pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH scale varies from 0
to 14. A pH value from 0 to 6.9 represents an acidic solution, whereas a pH value from 7.1
to 14 represents a basic solution. A pH value of 7 represents neutral solutions.

Tooth enamel, which is made of calcium phosphate, is sensitive to pH.It does not dissolve in
water (neutral pH), but gets corroded when pH in the mouth is below 5.5.
Hence, tooth decay starts when the pH of mouth is lower than 5.5.

Do You Know:

pH change as the cause of tooth decay:

Toothpastes used by us for cleaning our teeth are generally basic in nature. Hence, it can
neutralize excess acid present in the mouth and prevent tooth decay.
Let us study the role of pH in our daily life.

All living organisms are pH sensitive and can survive only in a narrow range of pH.

Most reactions in the human body take place in a pH range of 7.0 to 7.8. A change in the pH
value inside the body can alter the biochemical reactions and prove fatal.

If the pH of rain water is less than 5.6, it is called acid rain. Acid rain contains mainly nitric
and sulphuric acids, which are formed by the dissolution of nitrogen oxides and sulphur
dioxide (respectively) in the atmosphere. When water from acid rain flows into the rivers,
it results in a decrease in the pH value of river water. This decrease in the pH makes the
survival of aquatic life very difficult.

Thus, acid rain causes extensive harm to soil, water resources, forests, and human health.

pH in our digestive system:

We know that our stomach produces gastric juice during digestion. Gastric juice contains
hydrochloric acid, which helps in the digestion of food without harming the stomach. When
the stomach produces an excess of acid, it causes irritation and pain and results in
indigestion.

Gastric juice in our stomach has a pH value that falls in the range of 1.5 − 2.0.

Indigestion can be treated by taking antacids. Magnesium hydroxide called milk of

magnesia is a mild base. It is used as an antacid, and can be used to neutralize the effect of
excess acid in the stomach and cure indigestion.

Do You Know:

Sodium hydrogen carbonate, commonly known as baking soda, is also used as an antacid to
neutralize stomach acidity. When sodium hydrogen carbonate is taken orally, it reacts with
excess hydrochloric acid present in the stomach, and reduces its strength by neutralizing
its effect.

Self defence by animals and plants through chemical warfare:

Baking soda is also used to neutralize the effect of a bee sting. A bee sting leaves methanoic
acid inside our body, which causes pain and irritation. Thus, baking soda neutralizes the
effect of methanoic acid.

Plants also require a specific value of pH for healthy growth. For example, there are a few
plants that require a pH of 4.5 to 5.5. Such plants are called acid loving plants. Some
evergreen shrubs and bushes are acid loving plants.
Plants are sensitive to pH changes:
Soil pH and plant growth:
pH of soil,which is required for healthy growth of plants can be easily measured. Do you
know how?

To measure the pH of soil, take 2g of soil to be measured in a test tube. Add 5 mL water to it
and shake the contents for some time. Now, filter the contents of the test tube and collect
the filtrate in another test tube. You can measure the pH of the filtrate using a universal
indicator.

Chemistry in Daily Life

Common salt is an important dietary substance and is essential for life. Common salt is
chemically known as sodium chloride. An important method for obtaining common salt is
by the evaporation of sea water. Seawater contains many salts dissolved in it. Sodium
chloride is separated from this mixture of salts.

Salts can also be prepared by the process of neutralization reactions. For example, sodium
chloride (NaCl) can be prepared by reacting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide
(NaOH).

Potassium sulphate, sodium sulphate, calcium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, copper

sulphate, sodium chloride, sodium nitrate, sodium carbonate, and ammonium chloride are
other examples of salts.

Do you know which acids and bases are used to obtain these salts? First, let us try to
write the chemical formulae of each of these salts. The given table shows the chemical
formula of each salt with their acidic and basic components.

Salt Chemical formula Acidic component Basic component

Potassium sulphate K2SO4 K+

Sodium sulphate Na2SO4 Na+

Calcium sulphate CaSO4 Ca2+

Magnesium sulphate MgSO4 Mg2+

Copper sulphate CuSO4 Cu2+

 Sodium chloride NaCl Na+

Sodium nitrate NaNO3 Na+

Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 Na+

Ammonium chloride NH4Cl NH4 +

Salts having the same positive or negative radicals are said to be belonging to the same
family. Some families are discussed below:

Family I (Sulphate salts):

This family contains group as a common group. Potassium sulphate, sodium sulphate,
calcium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, and copper sulphate are grouped in this family.

Family II (Chloride salts):

This family contains group as the common group. Sodium chloride and ammonium
chloride are grouped in this family.

Family III (Sodium salts):

This family contains Na+ group as a common group. Sodium sulphate, sodium chloride, and
sodium nitrate are grouped in this family.

Do you know salts can be acidic, basic, or neutral in nature? The salts of strong acids
and strong bases are neutral with a pH value of 7. On the other hand, salts of strong acids
and weak bases are acidic with a pH value of less than 7, and those of strong bases and
weak acids are basic in nature with a pH value of more than 7.

Common salt is a neutral salt. It is formed by the combination of a strong acid (hydrochloric
acid) and a strong base (sodium hydroxide). The following activity can be performed to
know more about acidic, basic, and neutral salts.

Activity 1:

A small amount of sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, aluminium chloride, zinc sulphate,
copper sulphate, sodium acetate, sodium carbonate, and sodium hydrogencarbonate are
collected. A few crystals of each salt are separately dissolved in 2 mL distilled water. Then,
the pH of each sample solution is checked by using a pH paper.
The given table lists the observations obtained in the activity.

Salt Chemical formula pH

Sodium chloride NaCl 7

Potassium nitrate KNO3 7

Aluminium chloride AlCl3 Less than 7

Zinc sulphate ZnSO4 Less than 7

Copper sulphate CuSO4 Less than 7

Sodium acetate CH3COONa More than 7

Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 More than 7

Sodium hydrogencarbonate NaHCO3 More than 7

Hence, it can be concluded that sodium chloride and potassium nitrate are neutral salts. On
the other hand, aluminium chloride, zinc sulphate, and copper sulphate are acidic salts,
while sodium acetate, sodium carbonate, and sodium hydrogencarbonate are basic salts.

Do you know that common salt is an important raw material for various materials of
daily use? For example, common salt is used in the formation of sodium hydroxide, baking
soda, bleaching powder, and washing soda.

Do You Know:

Sodium chloride was an important symbol in our struggle for freedom. The Salt Satyagrah
or Mahatma Gandhi’s Dandi March was a non-violent protest against the British salt tax.

Sodium hydroxide:

It is produced from an aqueous solution of sodium chloride (called Brine). Electrolysis

(passing of electricity through a solution) of brine results in the decomposition of sodium
chloride and formation of sodium hydroxide. This process is also called chlor-
alkali process (chlor for chlorine and alkali for NaOH). The reaction for the above process
can be written as follows:
Hydrogen and chlorine gas are released at thecathode and anode respectively.

Sodium hydroxide is a very useful substance. It is used in the manufacturing of paper,

soaps, detergents, and synthetic fibres. It is also useful in the manufacturing of household
bleaches and dyes.

Bleaching powder:

Chlorine gas obtained from mixing a hypochlorite(HClO) bleach with an acid(HCl), in the
electrolysis it is used for the manufacture of bleaching powder. Chlorine gas on reacting
with dry slaked lime [Ca(OH)2] produces bleaching powder (CaOCl2). The chemical
equation involved in the reaction can be represented as:

Bleaching powder is used for disinfecting water to make it germ-free. It is used in the
textile industry to produce cotton and linen materials. It is also used as an oxidizing agent
in many chemical industries.

Baking soda:

We know that baking soda is most commonly used in the kitchen for making
delicious pakoras. The chemical name of baking soda is sodium hydrogencarbonate
(NaHCO3). Baking soda is produced by using sodium chloride as one of the raw materials.
The chemical equation can be represented as follows:

Do You Know:

Sodium hydrogencarbonate is used as an ingredient in antacids. It is alkaline in nature.

Hence, it neutralizes excess acid in the stomach and provides relief.

Sodium hydrogencarbonate is also used in soda acid fire extinguishers. It is also used for
cooking and sometimes, it is added for faster cooking. The following reaction takes place
when it is heated during cooking:

Washing soda:
Washing soda is also produced from common salt. The chemical name of washing soda is
hydrated sodium carbonate and its chemical formula is Na2CO3.10H2O. It is obtained by
heating sodium hydrogencarbonate.

The re-crystallization of sodium carbonate produces washing soda.

Sodium carbonate is used in the manufacturing of glass, soap, and paper. It is also used for
the manufacturing of borax, for removing permanent hardness of water.

Calcium carbonate:

Calcium carbonate is formed when calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

Calcium Carbon Calcium
Hydroxide dioxide carbonate

It is used in the manufacture of cement and glasses. It is also used in the extraction of iron
from its ore.

Water of Crystallization
We know that washing soda is produced by mixing water and sodium carbonate. The
molecular formula of washing soda is Na2CO3.10H2O.

Sodium carbonate is obtained by heating sodium hydrogencarbonate.

The re-crystallization of sodium carbonate then produces washing soda.

Ten water molecules are present in the formula of washing soda. These water molecules
are called water of crystallization.
 Water of crystallization refers to a fixed number of water molecules present in one
formula unit of salt.

The following experiment will help in understanding the concept of water of crystallization.

Aim: To prepare crystals of copper sulphate (CuSO4)

Material required: Beaker, distilled water, copper sulphate (CuSO4) crystals, glass rod,
thread, watch glass

Theory: Water of crystallization imparts the characteristic blue colour to copper sulphate
(CuSO4) crystals. These crystals are obtained by the process of seeding. In this process
crystallization is induced with the help of small crystal of pure hydrated copper sulphate
(CuSO4.5H2O) which is added in the saturated copper sulphate solution.

Procedure:

1. Take a beaker and prepare a saturated solution of copper sulphate (CuSO4) at 80o C and
filter the solution to remove any undissolved impurity.
2. Cover the filtrate with watch glass.
3. Cool down the filtrate and leave it undisturbed for 24 hours.
4. Some crystals of copper sulphate (CuSO4.5H2O) will be formed at the bottom of the beaker.
Collect a few of them.
5. Suspend one of the well formed small crystal in the saturated solution by tying to a glass
rod using a thread.
6. Again cover the beaker with watch glass to avoid dust entering the solution.
7. Leave it undisturbed.

Observation: The suspended crystal grows in size with each passing day.

Water of crystallization is the fixed number of water molecules present in one formula
unit of salt.

 It is in chemical combination with a crystal

 It is necessary for the maintenance of crystalline properties of the crystal
 It can be removed by sufficient heat

The following experiment shows the effect of heat on solids that do not contain water of
crystallisation.

Aim: To show effect of heat on solids that do not contain water of crystallisation.
 Material required: Test tube, burner, potassium nitrate (KNO3)

Theory: Not all crystalline solids contain water of crystallisation. These solids when heated
decompose to form new compounds.

Procedure:

1. Take some potassium nitrate crystals in a test tube.

2. Heat the tube gently.

Observation: The crystals form a colourless solution giving off a gas, that bursts the
glowing splinter. It signifies that oxygen is being involved. In the end, a pale yellow residue
is left in the test tube.

Hydrated Substances

Those substances which contain water of crystallization like hydrated copper sulphate
(CuSO4.5H2O), are called hydrated substances. The water of crystallisation gives their
crystals shape and in some cases colour.

Gypsum is another salt that possesses the water of crystallization. It has a chemical formula
of CaSO4.2H2O. It is also known as hydrated calcium sulphate.

When hydrated calcium sulphate (CaSO4.2H2O) or gypsum is heated at 373K, it loses its

water molecules and forms calcium sulphate hemihydrate ( ). This

hemihydrate form of calcium sulphate is known as Plaster of Paris. It is in the form of
a white powder.

When the powder of Plaster of Paris is mixed with water, it becomes hard and solid
gypsum. Plaster of Paris is generally used to support fractured bones in their correct
positions.
 In , only half a water molecule is shown as the water of crystallization
because two formula unit of CaSO4 share one molecule of water.

Plaster of Paris is used for making toys, materials for decoration, and for making smooth
surfaces.

Determination of Water of Crystallization

Heat a known weight of a hydrated substance to a temperature above 100o C. Weigh the
residue. Repeat these two steps, till the weight of the residue becomes constant.
Use the following formula to obtain the percentage of water of crystallization in a link:

Initial weight of the hydrated substance = x g

Final constant weight of the substance after heating = y g

Anhydrous Substances

Those substances which do not contain any water of crystallization or the substances from
which the water of crystallization have been removed like sodium chloride (NaCl) are
called anhydrous substances.
The water of crystallization can be removed by using any of the following methods:

 Direct heating of the hydrated substance

 Heating the hydrated substance in dry and hot air
 Heating the hydrated substance under vacuum
 Using dehydrating/desiccating agents

Drying Agents

The substances that absorb moisture from other substances without undergoing a chemical
reaction with them are called drying agents or desiccants or desiccating agents. Examples
of drying agents are anhydrous calcium chloride, anhydrous zinc chloride etc. Most of the
hygroscopic substances are desiccating agents like concentrated sulphuric acid, silica gel
etc.

The following table illustrates the techniques used to dry certain substances.

Substance Drying technique

 By passing through concentrated sulphuric acid
Gases
 Used for drying acidic gases like HCl gas
  By passing through a drying tower or a U-tube containing anhydrous sodium
sulphate
 By passing through a drying bulb containing anhydrous calcium chloride

 By keeping them over anhydrous sodium sulphate or calcium chloride for over
a night
Liquids
 After this, solid is removed by filtration.

 By placing them in a desiccator (air-tight vessel with a drying agent like

Solids calcium chloride spread at the bottom)

Dehydrating Agents

The substances that can remove chemically bounded water from compounds are called
dehydrating agents. Concentrated sulphuric acid is a strong dehydrating agent. It can
remove water molecules from hydrated copper sulphate (CuSO4.5H2O).

The following table explains the differences between drying agents and dehydrating agents.

Drying Agents Dehydrating Agents

Removes chemically bounded water
Removes moisture from other substances
molecules from substances
Performs a chemical change in the
Performs a physical change in the substance
substance
 Metals and Non-metals

Physical Properties of Metals and Non-Metals

Do you know how many elements are there in our periodic table?

There are 118 elements in the modern periodic table. These elements can be broadly
classified as metals and non-metals depending on their properties.

Elements that lose electrons to form compounds are called metals whereas elements that
gain electrons to form compounds are called non-metals. Elements such as Si, Ge, As, Sb
and Te show the characteristic properties of both metals and non-metals. They are
called semi-metals or metalloids. Here, we will discuss metals and non-metals along with
their physical properties in detail.

Metals

These elements are electropositive and contain less than or equal to three electrons in their
valence shell. Metals such as aluminium, copper, and iron are widely used around us.
Metals are used for the construction of bridges, automobiles, airplanes, ships, trains, etc.
We will now discuss the physical properties of metals.

Physical properties of metals:

1. Metallic Lustre: The surface of most metals is shiny. The lustre associated with metals is
known as metallic lustre. For example, iron, copper, gold, and silver are very shiny. Metals
such as gold and silver are very lustrous. Therefore, they are used for making jewellery.

Silver is used for making mirrors because of its excellent shine and reflective nature.

Do you know that metals like gold, silver, platinum, paladium and rhodium are known
as noble metals. They occur in the elemental state in nature.

Some metals do not look very lustrous. This is because they either lose their lustre or their
lustre gets reduced when exposed to air for a long time. This happens due to the formation
of a layer of oxide, carbonate, and sulphide on their surface. If a metal surface is rubbed
with sand paper, then this layer gets removed and the shiny surface of the metal can be
seen. The layer formed in some cases is stable and sticks on the surface of the metal, but in
other cases, it is unstable and falls off (as in the case of rusting of iron).

2. Hardness: Metals are generally hard in nature. However, this hardness varies from
metal to metal. Most metals such as iron, aluminium, etc. are very hard and cannot be cut
 with a knife whereas some metals such as sodium and potassium are very soft and can be
cut using a knife.

3. Malleability: Metals are malleable. Most metals such as iron, copper, silver, and gold can
be hammered without breaking to form thin sheets. Aluminium, and silver are highly
malleable metals and are often used for making foils, which are extensively used in the
decoration of sweets, packing of food items, etc.

4. Ductility: Most metals are ductile, which means that they can be drawn into thin wires
without breaking. For example, iron, copper, silver, and gold can be drawn into thin wires
without breaking. For this reason, copper and aluminium are extensively used for making
electrical wires.

Gold and silver are the most malleable and ductile metals. Hence, they are extensively used in jewellery.

5. Conduction of heat: Metals are generally good conductors of heat. This means that if
one end of a metal rod is heated for some time, then the entire rod becomes hot. For
example, aluminium, copper, and silver are good conductors of heat. Hence, copper and
aluminium are generally used for making vessels. The following activity can be performed
to explain that metals can conduct heat.

6. Conduction of electricity: Metals are good conductors of electricity i.e., they allow an
electric current to pass through them easily. Silver, copper, and aluminium are the best
conductors of electricity. For this reason, most electric wires are made of copper and
aluminium. However, using silver for making electric wires is not cost effective. The
following activity can be performed to explain that metals can conduct electricity.

Activity:

Take two electric wires and attach two clips to each wire (as shown in the given figure). Then, take a bulb
fitted in a holder and connect it to a battery with the help of electric wires. Now, take pieces of iron, copper,
and aluminium and place them one by one between the clips.
Figure 2: Conduction of electricity in metals

It will be observed that the bulb glows every time when the metal pieces are used to connect the two clips.
This shows that metals are good conductors of electricity.

7. Melting and boiling points: Melting and boiling points of metals are usually high.

8. Physical state: All metals exist as solids at room temperature except mercury, which
exists as a liquid.

9. Sonority: Metals such as iron and copper produce a sound on being struck. Hence,
metals are said to be sonorous.

Non-metals

Many elements in the periodic table do not behave like metals. These elements are known
as non-metals. These elements gain electrons to form compounds. These are
electronegative and contain more than three electrons in their valence shell. Carbon,
sulphur, iodine, oxygen, etc. are some examples of non-metals. Non-metals exist in all three
physical states i.e., as solids, liquids, and gases. Bromine is the only non-metal, which exists
as a liquid.

Physical properties of non-metals:

1. Lustre: Non-metals do not have a shiny surface. However, iodine is an exception, which
has a very shiny surface.

2. Hardness: Non-metals generally exist as solids, liquids, or gases. Non-metals that exist
in a solid state are very soft. For example, sulphur, which exists in solid state, is quite soft.
Similarly, carbon, in the form of graphite, is quite soft. However, diamond, another
allotrope of carbon, is very hard. It is in fact the hardest known natural substance.

3. Malleability and ductility: Non-metals that exist in solid states are not very strong.
They are brittle and break when pressure is applied on them. Therefore, non-metals are
neither malleable nor ductile.
4. Conduction of heat and electricity: Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and
electricity. Examples include sulphur and phosphorus. However, there is an exception.
Graphite, an allotrope of carbon, is a good conductor of electricity.

5. Physical state: Non-metals exist in all three physical states at room temperature. Non-
metals such as carbon, sulphur, and phosphorus exist in solid states while oxygen, chlorine,
and nitrogen exist in gaseous states. Bromine is the only non-metal that exists in a liquid
state.

6. Melting and boiling points: Melting and boiling points of non-metals are quite low. For
example, the melting point of phosphorus is 44.2°C. However, diamond, an allotrope of
carbon, is the only non-metallic substance that has a very high melting and boiling point.
The melting point of diamond is more than 3500°C.

7. Sonority: Non-metals are not sonorous.

The given table summarizes the properties of metals and non-metals.

Metals Non-metals

Metals are very hard and strong. Solid non-metals are soft and can be easily
broken.
Metals have a shiny lustre. Non-metals are not shiny and have a dull
appearance.
Metals are sonorous. Non-metals are not sonorous.

Metals are malleable and ductile. Non-metals are neither malleable nor ductile.

Metals are good conductors of heat and Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and
electricity. electricity.

Reactions of Metals and Non-Metals with Oxygen and Water

Metals such as aluminium, copper, and iron are widely used around us. Metals are used for
the construction of bridges, automobiles, airplanes, ships, trains etc.

We have earlier studied about the physical properties of metals. Now, let us try to learn
about their chemical properties. Here, we will study about the reaction of metal with
oxygen, water, and acids.

You must have observed that when a piece of iron is kept in the open for some time, it gets
covered with a brownish substance. This brownish substance is called rust and the process
 is called rusting. Rust is formed when iron reacts with oxygen (present in air) to form iron
oxide. Also, a ribbon of magnesium burns in air to form magnesium oxide. These reactions
represent reactions of metals with oxygen. Hence, metals react with oxygen to produce
metals oxides.

Metals react with oxygen to produce metal oxides which are basic in nature. These
oxides thus turn red litmus paper blue, but have no effect on blue litmus paper.

Sulphur (S) is a non-metal. It reacts with oxygen to produce sulphur dioxide (SO2), which is
an acidic oxide. Sulphur dioxide then reacts with water to produce sulphurous acid
(H2SO3), which changes blue litmus to red. The chemical equations involved in the reaction
can be represented as:

Non-metals react with oxygen to produce their oxides, which are generally acidic in
nature.

We will now study the reaction of metals and non-metals with water.

While some metals react very vigorously with water, others react very slowly. However,
there are some metals which do not react with water at all. For example, sodium metal
reacts vigorously with water and iron reacts slowly with water.

Metals react with water to produce hydrogen gas and metal hydroxides. These metal
hydroxides are basic in nature. However, non-metals usually do not react with water.

Do You Know:

 Sodium and potassium are very reactive metals. They react vigorously with oxygen and
water to produce a lot of heat. Hence, to prevent their reaction with air and water, they are
stored under kerosene.

 Non-metals react very vigorously with air, but generally do not react with water.
Phosphorus is a very reactive non-metal, which catches fire when exposed to air. Hence,
phosphorus is stored under water to prevent contact between phosphorus and air.

1. Reaction of metals with oxygen

On heating, magnesium burns with a dazzling white flame to form magnesium oxide.
Similarly, when aluminium is heated, it reacts with oxygen present in the air to form
aluminium oxide.
 Almost all metals combine with oxygen to form metal oxides. The general reaction for the
process is:

All metals are not equally reactive. Therefore, the reactivity of metals with oxygen also
varies. Some metals such as sodium react with oxygen at room temperature. Metals such as
magnesium do not react with oxygen at room temperature and require heating. On the
other hand, metals such as zinc do not react with oxygen easily and require very strong
heating. Silver and gold do not react with oxygen even at high temperatures.

All metal oxides are basic in nature and turn red litmus paper blue. These basic oxides
react with acids to form salt and water. However, the oxides of aluminium and zinc show
the properties of both acids and bases. Chemicals that show both acidic and basic
properties are said to be amphoteric in nature. Hence, aluminium oxide and zinc oxide
are amphoteric oxides. They react with both acids and bases to give their respective salts
and water.

Almost all metal oxides are insoluble in water. However, the oxides of sodium and
potassium dissolve in water to form hydroxides.

2.
Reaction of metals with water

Do you know that sodium reacts explosively with cold water? The reaction results in
the formation of their respective hydroxides and hydrogen gas. The reaction is so violent
and exothermic that the evolved hydrogen catches fire. These metals give hydroxides with
water as their oxides are soluble in water.
On the other hand, metals such as iron do not react with cold water or hot water. However,
they react with steam to give their respective oxides and hydrogen gas.

Thus, metals react with water to form metal oxides and hydrogen gas. Some metal oxides
are soluble in water. These metal oxides form hydroxides by reacting with one or more
water molecules. The general reaction for the process is given as:

The vigour with which a metal reacts with water differs from metal to metal. Some metals
react with cold water, others with hot water, while some react only with steam. There are
also metals that do not even react with steam. For example, silver and gold do not react
with water at all.

Reaction of non-metals with hydrogen.

Non-metals react with hydrogen under specific conditions to form their corresponding
compounds containing hydrogen. Few examples are given below:

O2 + 2H2 → 2H2O (Water)

S + H2 → H2S (Hydrogen sulphide)

N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3 (Ammonia)

Cl2 + H2 → 2HCl (Hydrogen chloride)

Unlike metals, non-metals do not react with water or dilute acids.

Reaction of Metals and Non-Metals with Acids and Bases

You know that the substances which turn blue litmus paper to red are called acids, and the
substances which turn red litmus paper to blue are called bases. Do you how these
substances react with metals and non-metals?

Let us study how metals and non-metals react with acids.

Therefore, it can be concluded that metals react with acids to release hydrogen gas, which
burns with a ‘pop’ sound. On the other hand, non-metals do not react with acids.
 Some Interesting Facts:

 Hydrogen gas is colourless and odourless. It has no effect on moist litmus paper. It burns
with a characteristic ‘pop’ sound when a flame is introduced.

 Copper is a less reactive metal. It does not react with dilute hydrochloric acid, even on
heating.

Thus, metals react with bases to produce hydrogen gas. However, not all the metals react
with bases to produce hydrogen gas. The reactions of non-metals with bases are complex.

Metals react with hydrochloric acid in the similar fashion as they do with sulphuric acid.
Sodium reacts very vigorously with hydrochloric acid to form a salt, and hydrogen gas is
evolved in the reaction.

Magnesium reacts vigorously with hydrochloric acid, but not as vigorously as sodium and
potassium.

Zinc and iron also react with dilute hydrochloric acid to give zinc chloride and iron (II)
chloride respectively. These reactions are comparatively less vigorous than the reaction of
hydrochloric acid with aluminium metal.

Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq) → FeCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Iron Hydrochloric acid Iron (II) Chloride Hydrogen

Thus, it can be concluded that metals react with acids to give a salt and hydrogen gas. The
general equation for the process can be represented as:

However, all metals do not react with dilute hydrochloric and sulphuric acids. Also,
hydrogen gas is not evolved when a metal reacts with nitric acid. This is because nitric acid
acts as an oxidizing agent and oxidizes hydrogen gas produced in the reaction to form
 water. At the same time, nitric acid itself gets reduced to form nitrogen oxides such as
nitrous oxide (N2O), nitric oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). However, there are
some metals such as magnesium, which react with very dilute nitric acid to evolve
hydrogen gas.

Metals such as gold and silver, which are very less reactive, do not react with acids.
The only acid that dissolves gold is aqua regia. Aqua regia is the Latin name for ‘holy water’ or ‘royal
water’. It is called so because it is the only liquid that dissolves gold. It is prepared by mixing three
parts of concentrated hydrochloric acid and one part of concentrated nitric acid. It is a highly
corrosive and fuming solution having yellow or red colour. It can also dissolve platinum metal.
 Reaction of metals with bases

When metals react with base they forms hydrogen.

Corrosion: Causes and Prevention

You must have observed that when metals such as iron, silver, and copper are exposed to
air for some time, they lose their shine. For example, iron, when exposed to moist air for a
long period of time, acquires a coating of a brown-flaky substance.

This is because metals react with moisture and the different gases present in the air. The
reaction of metals with moisture and gases present in the air is known as
corrosion. Rusting of iron is the most common example of corrosion.

DO YOU KNOW?

Rust is a general term given to iron oxides, which are formed when iron reacts with oxygen
in the presence of moisture. Rust primarily consists of hydrated iron (III)
 oxides, Fe2O3 .nH2O. The number of water molecules in rust is variable. Hence, they are
represented by n.

Other examples of corrosion:

1. You must have observed that ornaments made of silver lose their shine after some time.
This is because silver reacts with sulphur present in the air to form silver sulphide, which
forms a layer over its surface.

2. Copper reacts with carbon dioxide to form copper carbonate, which is greenish in
appearance. This is the reason why a copper article loses its shiny brown surface when
exposed to air.

DO YOU KNOW?

Corrosion of aluminium metal is extremely slow. This is because of aluminium oxide, which
is formed when aluminium reacts with oxygen, is very stable and forms a protective
coating or layer on the surface of the metal. This prevents the oxidation of the remaining
metal.

Corrosion can drastically reduce the quality and strength of metals. The higher a metal lies
in the reactivity series, more readily it is corroded. Here, we will study about the rusting of
iron and the conditions necessary for the same. Let us find out about the conditions
necessary for rusting of iron to take place with the help of the following activity.

Therefore, we can say that both air and water are required for rusting to take place.

Effect of Corrosion on Other Metals based on the Reactivity Series:

1. Reactive alkali metals react with oxygen, water and carbon dioxide present in air to form
oxide, hydroxide and carbonate, respectively. Hence, they are kept immersed in kerosene
oil to prevent the corrosion.
2. Aluminium and magnesium when exposed to air form a white layer of the oxide on their
surface.
3. Iron forms hydrated ferric oxide (rust) on exposure to moisture in the air.
4. Lead forms a white deposit of lead hydroxide and lead carbonate called basic lead
carbonate on coming in contact with moist air.
5. Copper forms a green deposit of copper hydroxide and copper carbonate called basic
copper carbonate on exposure to moist air.
6. Siver forms a black coating of silver sulphide on its surface on coming in contact with
hydrogen sulphide present in the air. This phenomenon is known as tarnishing of silver.

Factors Affecting Corrosion

 Besides oxygen and moisture in the air, there are other factors that enhance the corrosion
of metals. These are:

 Reactive nature of metal: Highly reactive metals corrode easily.

 Presence of dissolved salts: They act as electrolyte and increase the rate of corrosion.
 Presence of pollutants: They increase the rate of corrosion.
 Presence of less reactive metal: If a less reactive metal is present, it will make the more
reactive metal susceptible to corrosion.

Every year our world suffers a huge monetary loss owing to the process of rusting, which
causes harm to articles made of iron. Attempts were made to prevent rusting. Here are
some ways that can prevent rusting or corrosion.

We now know that both air and water are required for rusting to take place. Thus, rusting
can be prevented by cutting off the contact of iron articles with air or water or both. There
are different methods by which rusting can be checked:

 Rusting can be prevented by electroplating, painting, oiling, and greasing of iron articles. In
fact, paints and grease should be applied regularly to prevent rusting.
 Rusting can also be prevented by applying a layer of a metal such as chromium or zinc on
the surface of iron articles. The process of depositing zinc on iron is called
galvanization.
 Rusting can also be prevented by connecting the iron object with a more reactive metal like
zinc with the help of a wire. The process of connecting iron with a more reactive metal
through a wire is called cathode protection.
 Alloying can also be used to prevent rusting or corrosion.

Do you know what alloys are?

An alloy is a homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a

metal. An alloy of a metal is made by first melting the metal and then, adding and dissolving
the element with which it is to be alloyed. This is done in a molten state so that an even
distribution of elements can take place. Usually, the resulting substance has properties
different from those of its components.

Alloy Components Properties Uses

Stainless Iron, nickel In preparation of utensils,

steel and Does not get affected by blades and surgical instruments.
chromium the action of air, water
and alkali.
 Brass Copper and In preparation of cooking
zinc Malleable, strong, utensils, parts of machines and
corrosion resistant and instruments.
can be easily shaped.

Bronze Copper and Stronger and more In preparation of statues,

tin corrosion resistant. coins and medals.

Do you know?

Pure gold is known as 24 carat gold. In India, the gold that is generally used to make
ornaments is 22 parts of pure gold alloyed with 2 parts of either silver or copper.

Do you know that alloying is a good method for improving the properties of metals?

Properties of metals can be improved by combining them with other elements i.e., by
alloying. Alloying can also be used to prevent rusting. Pure iron is not very hard and
stretches when heated. However, when it is mixed with a small amount of carbon, it
becomes very hard. This is known as steel. Even though steel is hard, it does rust. Stainless
steel is obtained when nickel and chromium are added to iron. Stainless steel contains
iron as the primary constituent, but it does not rust at all. Thus, by adding different
elements, the properties of iron can be changed.

The iron pillar near the Qutub Minar in New Delhi was made around 400 B.C. It is 8 m tall
and weighs around 6 tonnes (6000 kg). The workers who made it knew that pure iron would
rust after some time and devised a method to prevent the pillar from rusting. They painted
the surface of the pillar using a mixture of salts, followed by heating and quenching (rapid
cooling). This finishing treatment resulted in the formation of a thin layer of magnetic oxide
(Fe3O4) on the surface of the pillar and prevented the iron present in the pillar from rusting.

Even though corrosion and rusting causes much damage, but sometimes this phenomenon
has an advantage. Let us understand with the help of an example. Aluminium and zinc
articles when exposed to air form a white deposit of their respective oxides on their
surface. These oxides stick to the surface of the metal and are impervious in nature. So in a
way, this oxide prevents the next layer of metal from getting corroded. This is the reason
why objects made from aluminium and zinc do not corrode easily.

Reaction of Metals with Solution of Salts of other Metals; And The Reactivity Series
Categorisation of Metals
 Based on the positioning of metals in the periodic table, their characteristics are given
below:

Alkali Metals Alkaline Metals

Elements Li, Na, K Mg, Ca, Sr
Position Placed in IA group Placed in IIA group
Occurence Do not occur in free state Do not occur in free state
Soft Hard
Nature
Low melting and boiling point Greyish white in colour
Salts of alkaline metals
Salts of alkali metals form ionic compounds (except for some lithium
Bonding form ionic compounds
salts)
(except for beryllium)
Less reactive
Action of React rapidly
Reactivity increases
air Reactivity increases down the group
down the group
Action of M + 2H2O →→ M(OH)2 +
2M + 2H2O →→ 2MOH + H2
water H2
Action of
2 M + 2 HCl −−→ 2 MCl + H2 M + 2HCl → MCl2 + H2
acids
Low ionisation energy
Ionisation
Low ionisation energy (but higher than alkali
energy
metals)
Impart colour to the
flame
Impart characteristics colour to the flame
 Calcium − Brick red
 Crimson red − Lithium (Li)
 Strontium − Crimson
 Golden yellow − Sodium (Na)
Colour of  Barium − Apple green
 Pale violet − Potassium (K)
the flame  Mg and Be do not impart
colour because the
electrons are too
strongly bound to be
excited.

By electrolysis of their
Obtained By electrolysis of their molten salts
molten salts

Some other categories of metals:

Transition Metals:
  Elements like Fe, Zn etc. are transition metals. They are placed in the middle of the
periodic table.
 Have high melting and boiling point
 Good conductors of heat and electricity
 Show variable valencies

Inner transition metals:

 Elements like La, Ce are inner transition metals. They are placed at the bottom of the
periodic table.
 Heavy metals with high melting and boiling point
 Good conductor of heat and electricity
 Show variable valencies

In the reaction of metals with air, water, and acids, we observed that some metals react
very vigorously, some others react rather slowly, and some do not react at all.

What can you conclude from the given information? Are all elements equally
reactive?

As different metals react with the same chemicals in different ways, the reactivity of metals
cannot be similar.

If the reactivity of metals is different, then how can we determine the reactivity of
two metals?

Displacement reactions help us for this. Actually, some metals are more reactive than
others. Metals that are more reactive can displace the less reactive metals from their salts
in a solution or molten form. The general equation for such reactions is given as:

Such reactions are called displacement reactions. In displacement reactions, a more

reactive metal replaces a less reactive metal from the latter’s salt.

For example, iron can replace copper from copper sulphate solution, but copper cannot
replace iron from iron (II) sulphate solution.
When an iron nail is kept in a copper sulphate solution, the intensity of copper sulphate
solution decreases, and the iron nail gets covered with copper.

This means that iron is more reactive than copper as it can replace copper from copper
sulphate solution.

The reactivity of metals can be determined by observing their reactions with salt solutions
of other metals. When the reactivity of a metal is determined, it can be arranged in an
increasing or decreasing order of their reactivities.

The series in which various metals are arranged in the order of their decreasing
reactivity is called a Reactivity series.

This series is prepared by performing displacement reactions between various metals and
their salt solutions. The reactivity series is given as follows:

Reactivity series of metals

In the reactivity series, metals present above a particular metal are more reactive than that
metal, while the metals present below the particular metal are less reactive than it.

We know that all metals lose electrons to form positive ions. The tendency to lose an
electron can be related to the reactivity of metals. If a metal can lose electrons easily, then it
is very reactive. On the other hand, if the tendency of a metal to lose electrons is less, then it
is less reactive.

In general, we say that the metals present above hydrogen are more reactive than it, and
displace it from acids to liberate hydrogen gas. However, the metals present below
hydrogen are less reactive than it, and cannot displace it from acids to liberate hydrogen
gas.

Metals such as sodium and potassium (that lie above hydrogen) readily react with dilute
acids to evolve hydrogen gas, whereas metals such as copper, gold, and silver (that lie
below hydrogen) do not react with dilute acids.

Main Features of Reactivity Series

 Metals are arranged in the decreasing order of their electropositive character.

 Metals at the top have greater reducing power. This power decreases on moving down
the series.
 Metals at the top show greater tendency to get oxidised.
 Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series liberate hydrogen gas from mineral
acids.
 Metals at the top displace metals lower in the series from the aqueous solution of their
salts.
 Metal oxides above Al, cannot be reduced by common reducing agents, the reverse is
true for metal oxides below Al.

Let us now see the action of heat on some metallic compounds like oxides, hydroxide,
carbonates and nitrates.

Oxides:
Metal K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al Zn Fe, Pb, Cu Hg, Ag
Action
of Heat
 Stable to heat  Reduced by coke Reduced by C, CO, H2, Decompose on heating to
on Reduced by electrolysis only NH3 give metal and oxygen
metal
oxide

Hydroxides:
Metal K, Na Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu Hg, Ag
Action
 Decompose on heating to give
of Heat
 Stable to heat  Decompose on heating to give
metal, oxygen and water
on Soluble in water metal oxide and water vapour
vapour
metal
oxide

Carbonates:
Metal K, Na Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu Hg, Ag
Action
 Decompose on heating to give
of Heat
 Stable to heat  Decompose on heating to give
metal, oxygen and carbon
on Soluble in water metal oxide and carbon dioxide
dioxide
metal
oxide

Nitrates:
Metal K, Na Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu Hg, Ag
Action Decompose on heating to Decompose on heating to give Decompose on heating to
of give metal nitrite and metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide give metal, nitrogen dioxide
Heat oxygen and oxygen and oxygen
on
metal
oxide

Elementary Idea of Chemical Bonding

Chemical Bonding

Elements are rarely capable of free existence. In a compound, atoms of different elements
are held together by bonds. The types of bonds present in a compound are largely
responsible for its physical and chemical properties. The different bonds can be classified
as strong and weak.

Why do elements undergo bond formation?

Elements are made of atoms, which comprise of protons, electrons, and neutrons. The
protons and the neutrons reside in the nucleus and the electrons revolve around in definite
paths called orbits. The electrons present in the last shell are called valence electrons.
These electrons are responsible for all the chemical reactions of that element.

Every element has a tendency to attain a stable outer octet. To do so, it either gains or loses
or shares its electrons; and in this process, it forms the bonds.

Types of strong bonds:

 Ionic or electrovalent bond
 Covalent bond
 Metallic bond

Types of weak bonds:

 Bonds formed due to van der Waal’s interaction

 Hydrogen bond

This representation of elements with valence electrons as dots around elements is referred
to as Electron Dot structures for elements. The electron dot structure of some of the
elements are:

Formation of Ionic Compounds and Their Properties

We know that common salt is an important dietary mineral essential for animal life.
Common salt is chemically known as sodium chloride. The chemical formula of sodium
chloride is NaCl. It suggests that it is made up of sodium, which is a reactive metal, and
chlorine, which is a non-metal.

Do you know that sodium chloride does not exist as molecules, but aggregates as
oppositely charged ions?

An ion is a charged species, which can be negatively charged or positively charged. A

negatively charged species is called an ‘anion’ and a positively charged species is called a
‘cation’.

Sodium chloride (NaCl) is formed by the combination of sodium (Na+) and chloride (Cl-)
ions. Sodium and chloride ions are oppositely charged. Hence, they are held by a strong
electrostatic force of attraction in sodium chloride compound. But why do they react or
combine with each other? This can be explained by considering the formation of sodium
chloride.

This representation of elements with valence electrons as dots around elements is referred
to as Electron Dot structures for elements.
 Do you know what type of a compound sodium chloride is? Sodium chloride is an
ionic compound.

Ionic compounds:

These are compounds that are formed by the transfer of electrons. In other words, these
are compounds that are made up of ions.

The bonding in such compounds is called ionic bonding or electrovalent bonding. This
type of bonding is also known as electrostatic bonding as the forces that hold the ions
together are electrostatic in nature. The transfer of electrons always takes place from a
metal to a non-metal. Thus, metals and non-metals combine with each other to attain a
noble gas configuration.

We know that inert (noble) gases are very stable and almost unreactive. This is because of
their stable electronic configuration in which their valence shell is complete. Hence, they do
not take part in the formation of ionic compounds. The given table lists some elements with
their electronic configurations.

S.No. Type of Element Symbol Atomic Electronic Number

element number configuration of
KLMN valence
electrons
1. Noble 1. Helium He 2 2 2
gases 2. Neon Ne 10 2, 8 8
3. Argon Ar 18 2, 8, 8 8
2. Metals 1. Sodium Na 11 2, 8, 1 1
2. Potassium K 19 2, 8, 8, 1 1
3. Magnesium Mg 12 2, 8, 2 2
4. Calcium Ca 20 2, 8, 8, 2 2
5. Aluminium Al 13 2, 8, 3 3

3. Non- 1. Nitrogen N 7 2, 5 5
metals 2. Phosphorus P 15 2, 8, 5 5
3. Oxygen O 8 2, 6 6
4. Sulphur S 16 2, 8, 6 6
5. Fluorine F 9 2, 7 7
6. Chlorine Cl 17 2, 8, 7 7

Let us now see the formation of magnesium chloride, which is also an ionic compound.

The atomic number of magnesium is 12. Thus, its electronic configuration is 2, 8, 2. Since it
contains two more electrons than a stable noble gas configuration, it loses these two
electrons to form Mg2+. On the other hand, the atomic number of chlorine is 17. Thus, its
electronic configuration is 2, 8, 7. It requires one more electron to complete its octet. For
this, two chlorine atoms accept two electrons that were lost by Mg atom to form two
chloride (Cl-) ions. The chemical equations involved in the process are given below:

The reaction between magnesium and chlorine can be represented as follows:

On the similar basis, the formation of sodium chloride (NaCl) and calcium oxide (CaO) is
depicted in the table below:

Compound Formation

Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Calcium oxide (CaO)

Potassium oxide (K2O) is also an ionic compound. It is made of two potassium atoms and
one oxygen atom.

Can you draw the Electron Dot structure of potassium and oxygen atoms? Can you show
the formation of potassium oxide?

Let us now try to find out the properties of ionic compounds by performing the following
activities.

1) Take samples of sodium chloride, potassium iodide, and barium chloride and observe
their physical state.

2) After that, take a small amount of a sample on a metal spatula and heat it directly on a
flame. Observe what happens to the sample.

3) Now, try to dissolve each sample in water, petrol, and kerosene and observe the
solubility of compounds.

4) Now, take a container and fill it with distilled water. Take two electrodes and place them
in water. Then, connect the electrodes to a bulb and a battery through electric wires (as
shown in figure 1). When the switch is closed, the bulb will not glow as distilled water does
not conduct electricity. Now, instead of distilled water, take a solution of an ionic
compound and observe.

Figure 1: Conductivity of salt

We will observe that

 all compounds are solids
 all have high melting and boiling points
 all samples are soluble in water but insoluble in kerosene and petrol
 the solution of all samples can conduct electricity

When the switch is closed, the bulb starts glowing. This shows that solutions of ionic
compounds conduct electricity.

Hence, we can summarize the properties of ionic compounds as follows:

Ionic compounds are hard and brittle crystalline solids: The electrostatic force holding
the ions present in ionic compounds are very strong. Therefore, these compounds are quite
hard, as they are made up of small crystals.

Ionic compounds have high melting and boiling points: A lot of energy is required to
overcome the strong electrostatic force of attraction, which holds the ions present in ionic
compounds together. Thus, these compounds have high melting and boiling points.

Table 1: Melting and boiling points of some ionic compounds

Ionic compound Melting point (K) Boiling point (K)

NaCl 1074 1686

LiCl 887 1600

CaCl2 1045 1900

CaO 2850 3120

MgCl2 981 1685

 Ionic compounds dissolve only in polar solvents: Ionic compounds are polar in nature
due to the presence of opposite charges. Therefore, these compounds dissolve only in polar
solvents such as water. These compounds are insoluble in organic solvents such as
kerosene, alcohol, and petrol.

Ionic compounds conduct electricity in a solution or molten state: Ionic compounds

consist of small ions, which can conduct electricity.

Extraction and Refining of Metals

Elements on earth are found in different forms from the different parts of the earth:

Lithosphere: This part of earth is made up of sand, clay, stone and elements such as
aluminium, copper, iron, calcium, sodium etc. which are found in the form of sulphides or
oxides.

Hydrosphere: This part of the earth includes water of seas, lakes and ice of polar regions.
In this part, many non-metals and metals are obtained in combined forms such as, chlorine,
flourine, sodium, potassium, magnesium and calcium.

Atmosphere: The blanket of air around the earth is called atmosphere. Non-metallic gases
like nitrogen, carbon dioxide and oxygen are present majorly.

We know that metals are highly reactive. Therefore, they do not occur in the free state. For
example, sodium, potassium, etc. are never found in the free state and occur in nature in
chemically combined forms known as minerals.

Elements or compounds, which occur naturally in the Earth’s crust, are known as
minerals. Most minerals found in the earth’s crust contain metals. Some metals are also
found in the oceans in the form of salts such as sodium chloride, magnesium chloride, etc.

There are some minerals which contain a large amount of a particular metal and from
them, metals can be extracted profitably (using practically possible techniques).

The minerals from which metals can be extracted commercially are known as ores.

The process by which a pure metal is obtained from its ore is known as extraction.

Do you know that metals are classified into three groups on the basis of their
reactivity series? The three groups are as follows:

1. Metals of low reactivity

 2. Metals of medium reactivity

3. Metals of high reactivity

Reactivity series

The reactivity series is a list of metals arranged in the order of their decreasing reactivity (as shown in Figure
1).

The metals at the bottom of the reactivity series are less reactive and they often exist in nature in the free
state. For example, gold, silver, and platinum are less reactive metals.

The metals at the top of the reactivity series are very reactive. Hence, they never occur in nature in the free
state. For example, sodium, potassium, calcium, etc. are highly reactive but do not occur in nature in the free
state.

The metals in the middle of the reactivity series are moderately reactive. For example, zinc, iron, and lead are
moderately reactive.

Now, let us study how these metals are extracted. A number of steps are involved in the
extraction of metals. They can be summarized in the form of a figure as follows.
Figure 1: Reactivity series and steps involved in the extraction of metals from ores.

An ore is found in nature along with a large number of impurities such as sand, silt, soil,
and gravel. The impurities are called gangue.

Hence, before the process of extracting a metal from its ore begins, these impurities, called
gangue, have to be removed. When the gangue is removed from the ore, the enriched or
concentrated ore is obtained.

Thus, the process of removing gangue from the ore is known as the enrichment of ore.
The process that is employed to separate the gangue from the ore depends upon the
physical and chemical properties of both the gangue and the ore.

Now, let us see how metals at the bottom of the reactivity series can be extracted. These
metals are unreactive. The oxides of these metals can be reduced easily on heating as
follows:

Step I: In the first step, cinnabar (an ore of mercury, HgS) is converted into mercury (II)
oxide. Sulphur dioxide is also released in the process.
 Step II: In the second step, mercury (II) oxide obtained by heating the cinnabar is reduced
to mercury metal on further heating.

Concentration (or Dressing or Benefaction) of ores

 Removal of unwanted materials such as sand and clay from ores

Some Important Procedures

Hydraulic washing

 Based on gravity differences between the ore and the gangue particles

 In one such process, the lighter gangue particles are washed away by a stream of water,
leaving behind the heavier ore.

Magnetic separation

 Based on differences in magnetic properties between the ore and the gangue particles

 Magnetic field is applied to separate magnetically attractive particles from magnetically

non-attractive particles.

 Schematic diagram of magnetic separation is as follows:

 Froth-Floatation method

 Applied to remove gangue from sulphide ores

 Mineral and gangue particles are separated by first wetting the mineral particles with oil,
and gangue particles with water, and then the mineral particles are carried out by forming
froth.

Sometimes, depressants are used for separating two sulphide ores by selectively
preventing one ore from forming froth. For example, NaCN is used as a depressant for
separating two sulphide ores, ZnS and PbS.

Leaching

 It is applied for extracting metals like gold, silver and aluminium.

 It is based on the difference in the solubility of the ore and gangue in a particular type of
solution.
 In this method, the ore is soaked in a solution in which the ore dissolves whereas the
gangue particles remain insoluble.
 So, the gangue particles and the ore can be separated easily.
 For example: Aluminium is extracted from its ore, bauxite, by soaking bauxite in an
aqueous solution of NaOH or Na2CO3.

DO YOU KNOW?

Metals such as mercury and copper, which lie quite low in the reactivity series, exist in
nature as sulphides. These ores when heated react with oxygen present in the air and get
converted into oxides. When these oxides are further heated, pure metals are obtained. The
process in which a sulphide ore is heated in the presence of air is known as roasting.
 Metals of medium reactivity i.e., metals that are present in the middle of the reactivity
series such as zinc, iron, lead, and manganese are quite reactive and exist in nature as
oxides, sulphides, and carbonates. These metals are extracted from their ores by first
converting ores to oxides and then by the reduction of these oxides, mostly using carbon.

There are two methods by which ores are converted into their respective oxides:

1. Roasting

2. Calcination

Roasting: It is used to convert sulphide ores into oxides. Roasting involves strong heating of
iron ore in the presence of excess air. For example, copper sulphide in copper glance ore is
converted into copper (I) oxide by heating it in the presence of oxygen.

Calcination: It is used to convert carbonate ores into oxides. Calcination involves strong
heating of the ore in the absence of air. For example, calamine ore, which is chemically zinc
carbonate, is converted into zinc oxide by heating it in the absence of air.

After obtaining metal oxides from the ores, reduction of these metal oxides is done to
obtain pure metals. Mostly, carbon in the form of coke is used for this.

However, the oxides of metals, which are present relatively higher in the reactivity
series such as manganese, cannot be reduced with coke. To reduce these oxides of
metals, more reactive metals than manganese such as sodium, calcium, and aluminium are
used. For example, iron is also a very reactive metal and cannot be reduced using carbon.
Hence, it is reduced using aluminium metal. The reaction is highly exothermic. The heat
evolved is so large that the metals are produced in the molten form. This reaction is known
as thermite reaction and is used to join railway tracks or cracked machine parts.
Similarly, manganese cannot be reduced using carbon. Hence, it is also reduced by
aluminium metal.

Metals present at the top of the series such as sodium, potassium, calcium,
manganese, and aluminium are very reactive. These metals cannot be reduced using coke
as their affinity for oxygen is much more than that of carbon. Therefore, these metals are
reduced by passing an electric current through their molten salts. This process is known
as electrolytic reduction.

For example, sodium metal is extracted from sodium chloride. To extract the metal,
electrolytic reduction of molten sodium chloride is carried out. When an electric current is
passed, sodium ions which have positive charge move towards the cathode and get
deposited over it after accepting electrons. The chloride ions have a negative charge and
move towards the anode, lose their extra electrons, and escape out of the solution as
chlorine gas.

Reaction at the cathode (negative electrode):

Reaction at the anode (positive electrode):

Do you know that the metals obtained by various reduction processes, except
electrolytic reduction, contain many impurities and require purification? How are
these metals purified?

The method that is most commonly used to purify metals is electrolytic refining.
Many metals such as copper, zinc, gold, etc. are refined electronically.

Refining:
This method is used for the metals with low melting points i.e, which melt easily. A furnace
with a slope in it, temperature is kept slightly higher than the melting point of the metal.
When the impure metal is passed through the furnace, the pure metal is melted there and
collected in the vessel. However, the melting points of the impurities is higher than the the
metal so that they can be found solid on the slope.

Zone Refining:
This method works on the principle of fractional distillation and trace impurities are
removed from the metal using this method. The impurities remain more soluble in molten
form which upon cooling the molten metal, decreases the solubility of impurities and
separates in the from crystals. Semi-metals such as boron, silicon are refined by this
method.
 Life Processes

Modes of Nutrition

We know that all living organisms require food to survive. You may wonder what is
there in food which helps in the survival of organisms? Well, the answer is nutrients.
Organisms consume nutrients, which enable them to carry out various body functions.

The process by which an organism consumes food is called nutrition, which are then
utilized by the body for various functions.

Autotrophic Nutrition: The term ‘autotroph’ is derived from the Greek word
‘Auto’ meaning self and ‘trophos’ meaning nutrition.

In this mode of nutrition, organisms prepare or synthesize their own food with the
help of inorganic raw materials in the presence of sunlight. These organisms are
known as autotrophs. All green plants and some bacteria are autotrophs.

Heterotrophic Nutrition: The term ‘heterotroph’ is derived from the Greek words
‘Heteros’ meaning different or other, and ‘trophos’ meaning nutrition.

In this mode of nutrition, organisms obtain energy from the intake of complex organic
substances, generally from plant and animal sources. These organisms are known
as heterotrophs. All fungi and animals and some bacteria are heterotrophs.

Let us study about various types of heterotrophs.

Herbivores: These are the animals that feed directly on plants. For example, cow,
goat, rabbit etc.

Carnivores: The animals that feed on herbivores are known as carnivores. For
example, tiger, lion etc.

Omnivores: This includes the animals which eat both plants and animals. For
example, humans etc.

Saprophytes: These are the organisms that feed on dead and decayed organic matter.
For example, bacteria, mushroom etc.

Parasites: These are the organisms that live inside or on the body of other living
organisms called the Host and obtain food from them. For example, Cuscuta plant that
obtains food from green plants, Ascaris that lives in the intestine of humans etc.
Insectivorous plants: Some plants live in the areas where the soil is deficient in
nitrogen. These plants trap insects and obtain nitrogen from them. These plants are
called as insectivorous plants

Summary of differences between autotrophs and heterotrophs

Autotrophs Heterotrophs

They obtain energy by preparing food from They obtain energy from complex
inorganic substances such as CO2 and organic substances by consuming
water in the presence of sunlight. plants or other animals.
These organisms are called producers as These organisms utilize the food
they manufacture their own food. manufactured by producers. Hence,
they are called consumers.
Green plants, algae are autotrophs. Animals and fungi are heterotrophs.

Do You Know?
Plants do not always have an autotrophic mode of nutrition. They can be parasitic,
carnivorous, or saprophytic.
Rafflesia is a root parasite. It draws water and minerals from the roots of other
plants.
Cats are purely obligate carnivores. They cannot digest fruits, vegetables, pulses,
grains etc. They need a high level of protein in their diet. They lack an efficient
system for digesting plant products. A cat’s digestive system is specialized to suit a
carnivorous eating habit.

Autotrophic Nutrition in Plants

We know that all living organisms consume some form of nutrients to sustain life.
Animals consume plants or other animals. Plants consume carbon dioxide and water
from the environment to produce food.

Therefore, the process of taking in a source of energy (food) from outside the body of
an organism to inside is known as nutrition.

Do you know what mode of nutrition is carried out in plants? Plants have
an autotrophic mode of nutrition. The term ‘autotrophic’ is derived from the Greek
word ‘Auto’ meaning self and ‘troph’ meaning nutrition.

In this mode of nutrition, plants prepare or synthesize their own food with the help of
inorganic raw materials. Thus, they are known as autotrophs.

Let us explore how plants prepare their own food.

 Photosynthesis

Energy is essential for all life processes. All living organisms require nutrition.
What is the ultimate source of nutrition on Earth?

The sun is the ultimate source of energy on Earth. Energy from the sun is captured by
plants and converted into usable form. Thus, the origin of all foods is the food
prepared by plants. This food is also consumed by animals.

Autotrophs such as green plants and some bacteria prepare or synthesize their own
food. They are capable of trapping solar energy with the help of a green pigment
called chlorophyll. This trapped solar energy is then converted into chemical energy
of food using CO2 and H2O.

Photosynthesis is the process by which chlorophyll-containing cells present in leaves

synthesize food in the form of carbohydrates by using carbon dioxide, water and
sunlight.

Therefore, the raw materials required for photosynthesis are CO2 and H2O and the
products formed are carbohydrates and O2.

Hence, the process can be represented as:

How are raw materials consumed by plants?

The raw materials required for photosynthesis are CO2 and H2O and the products
formed are carbohydrates and O2.

Entry of raw materials

 Plants obtain water through their roots. Water is then transported to all plant parts
with the help of the xylem.
 Exchange of gases (entry of CO2 and release of O2) occurs through the stomata.

Stomata are tiny pores present mainly on the surface of leaves. They are also present
on the surface of young stems and roots.
 Stomata consist of a stomatal opening or stoma, which is surrounded by two distinct
epidermal cells known as guard cells. The opposing inner walls of the guard cells are thick and
inelastic. The remaining walls are thin and elastic.

Theories behind Stomatal Opening and Closing

Two phases of photosynthesis

The process of photosynthesis occurs in two phases – Photochemical

Phase and Biosynthetic Phase.

Photochemical Phase - A series of chemical reactions take place in the presence of

light, as light behaves as catalyst is called as photochemical phase. The light reactions
take place in thylakoids of the chloroplasts.
Light reactions – As the name suggests, this reaction takes place in the presence of
 light. Light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll molecules and is utilized for splitting
water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. Additionally in this phase, assimilatory
power in the form of ATP and NADPH2 are produced.

Light reactions occur in the membranes of thylakoids.

Events occurring during light reactions:

 Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll molecules

 Splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen atoms
 Formation of ATP and NADPH2

Reactions involved in Photolysis:-

Biosynthetic Phase - It includes the reactions that are not dependent on light (but
may happen during day time as well). It results in synthesis of carbohydrates, or
'food', using the energy produced through light reactions.
Dark reactions – This reaction does not require direct light and occurs in the stroma
of chloroplasts. During this phase, ATP and NADPH2 (formed during light reactions)
are utilized for the reduction of CO2 to carbohydrates (food).

Event occurring during dark reaction:

Reduction of CO2 to form carbohydrates

Transformation of glucose molecules to 1 mole of Starch is called polymerisation.
 Some interesting facts:

 Do you know that the total amount of O2 produced by an acre of trees per year is
equal to the amount consumed by around 18 people annually!

 One tree produces nearly 260 pounds of O2 annually.

 Hydrogen is a clean fuel. Some green algae such as Chlamydomonas reinhardtii are
being cultured to convert water into O2 and H2. This mass production of hydrogen
could prove to be beneficial, but is still under research.

End Results of Products Of Photosynthesis

 Glucose: Simple glucose is utilised by plants in the following ways:

 For consumption by plant cells
 For storage as insoluble starch
 For conversion into sucrose
 For synthesis of fats, proteins, etc
 Water: It can be re-utilised in the continuance of photosynthesis.
 Oxygen: Some of it is used in respiration of leaves and rest diffuses out.

Global warming

Do you know that global warming can be reduced by growing more plants?
 Green plants, as we know, utilize CO2 and water to produce food and in the process,
release O2 gas. Thus, green plants help in reducing the amount of CO2 in the
atmosphere. CO2 is a green house gas, which is one of the reasons for global warming.

Experiments Related to Photosynthesis

We know that raw materials are utilized by plants to prepare food. Do plants
prepare food at all times? Are there any essential conditions required for
photosynthesis?

1. Sunlight is essential for photosynthesis

Place a healthy green potted plant in a dark room for 1-2 days. This is done to ensure
that the plant consumes all its reserve food and the leaves do not contain any starch.
Then, cover a portion of a leaf of this plant on both sides with two uniform pieces of
black paper, fixed in position with two paper clips.

Now, expose this plant to bright light. After a few hours, remove the leaf, decolourize
it with alcohol, and test the presence of food (starch) with iodine solution.

You will observe that the portion of the leaf covered with black paper does not show
any presence of starch (food).

Explanation of the activity:

The food prepared by plants (carbohydrates) through the process of photosynthesis is

stored as starch. This starch reacts with the iodine solution to change to blue-black
colour. Only those portions of the leaf that were exposed to sunlight could
photosynthesise and hence, change to blue-black colour when tested with iodine.

2. Chlorophyll is essential for photosynthesis

Place a variegated plant (i.e., a plant which has both green and non-green areas, for
e.g., croton or money plant) in a dark room for 2 – 3 days. This is done to ensure that
all the reserve food (starch) is utilized.
Place this plant in sunlight for six hours to allow photosynthesis to take place.

Then, pluck a leaf from this plant and trace the green areas on a sheet of paper.

Now, decolourize the leaf using alcohol and dip it in a dilute solution of iodine for a
few minutes. Wash this leaf with water and compare it with the tracings of the leaf
done earlier.

It will be observed that only the green areas of the leaf could photosynthesize.

Explanation:

The leaf is treated with alcohol so that it loses its green colour (chlorophyll pigment)
and blue-black colour (in presence of starch) obtained after treatment with iodine.

The green parts of a variegated leaf contain chlorophyll. Therefore, only these parts
could photosynthesize and manufacture food. Thus, the change in colour was
observed only in these parts.

3. CO2 is essential for photosynthesis

Select two healthy potted plants of nearly the same size and label them
as A and B. Place them in a dark room for 2-3 days. Then, place two glass plates under
both the plants. Place a watch-glass containing potassium hydroxide besides pot A.
Cover both the plants by inverting separate bell jars over them. Potassium hydroxide,
as we know, is used to absorb CO2. Therefore, CO2 is not available for plant A.

Now, seal the bottom of the jars to the glass plates with the help of Vaseline. This
prevents the entry of CO2 into the set up. Then, place the plants under sunlight for 2 –
3 hours. Test one leaf each from both plants for the presence of starch, using alcohol
and iodine (as explained in the previous activity). It will be observed that plant B has
a higher amount of starch as compared to plant A.

Explanation of the activity:

This happens because potassium hydroxide present besides plant A absorbs all the
CO2. Therefore, plant A is not able to photosynthesize and manufacture food. Hence,
the amount of starch present in plant B is higher than plant A.

Photosynthesis in a laboratory

Place an aquatic plant (hydrilla) in a beaker filled with water. Cover the plant with a
transparent funnel. Then, invert a test tube over the open end of the funnel.

While inverting the test tube, make sure it does not contain any air bubbles. Place this
apparatus in sunlight and observe the changes.

It will be observed that after sometime, air bubbles (O2) emerge in the test tube.

Human Alimentary Canal

We eat food daily, but have you ever wondered what happens to food once it
enters our body? What organs form the digestive system and how is the process
of digestion carried out?
Human digestive system consists of two components: alimentary canal (that include
mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestine and large intestine), and digestive glands
(that include salivary glands, liver and pancreas).

Let us explore this in detail by studying the various organs of the digestive system and
the roles they play in digestion.

The Mouth

In holozoic nutrition, food is taken inside the body through mouth. This process is
known as ingestion. Inside the mouth, teeth, tongue and salivary glands are present.
Each of them play significant role in the digestion of food.

Teeth

The mouth or the buccal cavity has teeth, which mechanically break down the food
into smaller pieces. Teeth are rooted in separate sockets in the gums.

Do you think we have teeth from birth?

No. Babies do not have teeth. Humans grow with two sets of teeth. The first set of
teeth begins to grow during infancy. This set of teeth is called milk teeth. These fall
off between the ages of six and eight. The second set of teeth, which replaces the milk
teeth, is called the permanent teeth. This set lasts throughout our life, unless it falls
off during old age.

Look in a mirror and count your teeth. How many types of teeth do you
have? Eat different food items to find out which type of teeth is being used to eat, bite,
and chew these food items. Count each type. You can compare the number of teeth
present in your mouth with the number of teeth others have.

If you look in a mirror, you will observe that all teeth are not similar. Have you
wondered why? This dissimilarity arises from the fact that each tooth performs a
different function. Let us understand the positions and functions of each type of tooth.
1. Incisors are the teeth present at the front portion of the mouth. There are four
incisors in each jaw. They are used for biting and cutting food.

2. Canines are located next to the incisors. There are two canines in each jaw. They are
used for tearing and piercing food.

3. Premolars lie next to the canines. There are four premolars in each jaw. They are
used for chewing and grinding food.

4. Molars lie next to the premolars at the end of the jaw. There are six molars in each
jaw. They are also used for chewing and grinding food.

 In herbivores, canine teeth are absent and the incisors are sharp to cut the grass.
 In carnivores the incisors are strong and pointed while canines are enlarged.
 In omnivores, all four kinds of teeth are well developed.

Dental Formula

 Dental formula for milk teeth in humans is 2120/2120. It means that each half of
upper jaw and lower jaw has 2 incisors, 1 canine and 2 premolars. Molars are absent
in milk teeth. There are 20 teeth in the milk teeth set.

 Dental formula for permanent teeth in human is . It means that each half of
upper jaw and lower jaw has 2 incisors, 1 canine, 2 premolars, and 3 molars.

 The dental formula in dogs (carnivore) is

 The dental formula in rabbits (herbivore) is

Structure of Tooth
 The vertical section of tooth shows the following parts

 The crown − the part lying above the gums

 The neck − it connects the crown with the root
 The root − it lies buried inside the gums and supports the tooth

The white part of the tooth is called the enamel, it consists of calcium salts.

Inner to the enamel is the dentine which is a solid tissue and contains microscopic
tubules/tubes.

The dentine encloses a cavity known as the pulp cavity. This cavity supplies the tooth
with nerves and blood capillaries.

At the root of the tooth is a bone like material called the cement which holds the tooth
firmly to the socket.

We all love to eat sweets. However, you might have heard people saying that
sweets damage our teeth. Do you know if this is true? Let us understand it
further.

Tooth decay

A number of bacteria are present in our mouth, though not all of them are harmful.
However, irregular and improper cleaning of teeth can lead to the growth of several
harmful bacteria in our mouth. These bacteria form a yellow coloured film on the
tooth-surface, called plaque. Also, they break down the sugar present in leftover food
particles and release acids in the mouth, which damage the teeth and form cavities
(caries). The bacteria can enter the tooth pulp through these caries and cause
infection. This is known as tooth decay. This condition can lead to severe toothache.
It can also result in untimely loss of teeth. Can you name few food items that cause
tooth decay? Tooth decay can occur because of consuming chocolates, sweets, cold
drinks, and other sugar products. How can tooth decay be prevented?
Tooth decay can be prevented by maintaining oral hygiene, which includes the proper
cleaning of teeth. Teeth must be brushed twice a day after meals using dantun or
dental floss.

Tongue

Tongue is a muscular organ present in the buccal cavity. What role does it play in
digestion? The tongue mixes food with saliva during chewing. It also aids in
swallowing food.

How do we taste the food we eat? We are able to taste the food we eat with the help
of our tongue. The tongue has a large number of taste buds, which tell us the taste of
different types of food items. The different regions of the tongue are shown in the
given figure.

What’s on my tongue?

Take a sample of sugar solution, salt solution, lemon juice, and a paste of
crushed Neem leaves. Blindfold your classmate and ask him/her to take out his/her
tongue. Now, with the help of a clean toothpick, keep different samples on different
areas of the tongue. Ask your friend to identify the areas of the tongue in which
he/she feels sweet, salty, sour, and bitter.

An interesting fact:

Did you know that our mouth warms or cools the food according to the need of the
body!

Why do you think we can feel different types of tastes?

Salivary glands

Apart from the tongue and the teeth, the buccal cavity also has salivary glands, which
secrete saliva.
What is the function of saliva? The enzymes present in saliva break down or digest
the starch present in the food we eat.

Let us perform an activity to test the action of saliva.

Did you know that humans produce about 1.7 litres of saliva everyday!

Pharynx

It is a common passageway for food and air. It opens into the oesophagus (which leads
to the stomach) and trachea (which leads to the lungs).

The food pipe or the oesophagus

We know that the tongue helps in swallowing

food. Where does the swallowed food go from
the mouth? The swallowed food passes into the
oesophagus from the mouth. The oesophagus or
the food pipe runs along the neck and chest. The
walls of the food pipe move to push the food down
into the stomach.

Digestion in Mouth

Saliva contains enzymes salivary amylase, lysozyme, and electrolytes. Salivary

amylase basically helps in starch digestion up to 30%.

Two of the basic functions performed by buccal cavity are mastication of food and
facilitation of swallowing.

From buccal cavity, food reaches the stomach through a process called peristalsis.
Peristalsis is the process of wave-like muscle contractions of the alimentary tract that
moves food along.

What happens when food goes down the trachea instead of the oesophagus?

If food goes down the trachea or wind pipe instead of the food pipe or oesophagus, the
person is not able to breathe and starts choking.

Our trachea (wind pipe) and oesophagus ( food pipe) are joined near the top and
separate as we go down towards the diaphragm. A thin flap of cartilage called the
epiglottis usually covers the trachea while we are swallowing, so that food does not
move inside the wind pipe.

However under certain conditions like swallowing too fast, talking or not chewing the
food properly, some of it may enter the trachea. This may cause the airways to get
partially blocked, which is called as choking. Total blockage may result in the death of
the individual.

Our nervous system responds immediately to the situation by trying to eject the food.
This is done by tightening the muscles between the ribs, above the oesophagus and by
expanding the cavity of the throat.

Try to breathe when you are in the midst of swallowing, is it possible?

You won't be able to breathe as trachea is shut off by the epiglottis during this time.

Did you know that the human oesophagus is approximately 25 cm long?

The stomach

After the food pipe, the food enters the stomach. The stomach is a thin-walled bag. It is
flattened, J- shaped, and is the widest part of the alimentary canal. It opens into the
small intestine.

Digestion in Stomach

Food is stored in the stomach for about 4-5 hours. During its stay in the stomach, it is
mixed with acidic gastric juices by churning movement of muscular wall and is called
chyme at this stage.
 Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid. It also contains two enzymes - pepsin and
rennin. The function of the acid is to convert inactivated form of pepsin into the
activated form.

Small amount of protein digestion (by pepsin) occurs in the stomach.

Rennin (proteolytic enzyme) in infants helps in milk digestion.

What is the function of the stomach?

The inner lining of the stomach secretes hydrochloric acid, mucous, and digestive
juices such as pepsin and rennin.

Why are they secreted? Do they have any importance? The mucous secreted by
the stomach protects its inner lining. The hydrochloric acid secreted by the stomach
kills the bacteria that enter the stomach through food. It also makes the medium of
the stomach acidic. The digestive juices secreted by the stomach take part in the
process of digestion by breaking down the food into smaller substances for example,
pepsin breaks proteins into polypeptides, rennin changes soluble milk proteins into
curd which is insoluble. The production of chymosin in the human body begins to
diminish as one grows old.

Some interesting facts:

 Did you know that the human stomach can hold up to 1.5 litres of material?
 On an average, the stomach produces 2 litres of acid everyday.
 Food stays in the stomach for 4-5 hours.

The small intestine

The stomach empties its contents into the small intestine. The small intestine is a highly coiled,
tube-like structure. It is about 7.5 metres in length. It receives secretions from the liver and the
pancreas in the form of bile and pancreatic juice. Apart from this, the wall of the small intestine also
secretes juices.

The secretions are poured into the small intestine. Can you say why?
 When the partly digested food reaches the small intestine, the juices secreted by the small intestine
complete the process of digestion. The secreted juices in the small intestines consists of maltase,
sucrase, lactase, peptidase and lipase.

Digestion in Small Intestine

The digestion of food takes place in duodenum, which is the first part of small
intestine.

The small intestine receives digestive juices from liver (bile juice) and pancreas
(pancreatic juice). Small intestine itself also secretes digestive juices.

The bile juice is secreted by the liver. It does not contain any enzyme, but still is
essential for digestion since it breaks the fats into smaller droplets so that the
enzymes could act on them efficiently.

Three of the major enzymes present in the pancreatic juice are − trypsin, amylase and
lipase.

Action of pancreatic juice results in:

After being partially digested, the food moves to the second part of small intestine
where it is acted upon by enzymes such as maltase, sucrase, and lactase.

Action of intestinal juice results in:

What is the function of the liver in the digestive system? The liver is the largest
gland of the body. It is a reddish-brown gland situated on the right side of the upper
 part of the abdomen. The main function of the liver is to secrete bile juice. Bile juice is
stored in a sac-like structure called the gall bladder.

What is the function of bile? Bile takes part in the digestion of fats present in the
ingested food.

What is the pancreas? Does it perform the same function as the liver?

The pancreas is a large cream-coloured gland. It is situated just below the stomach. It
secretes pancreatic juice, which consists of protease, amylase and lipase enzymes.
These juices take part in the digestion of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins by
breaking them into simpler substances for example, amylase breaks starch into
maltose, while lipase breaks complex fats into simple fats.

Hence, it is the small intestine where

 carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugar such as glucose

 fats are broken down into fatty acids and glycerol
 proteins are broken down into amino acids

What happens to the digested food? Nutrients from the digested food pass into
blood vessels, which are present in the walls of the small intestine. This process is
known as absorption.

Does the small intestine have special structures that aid in the absorption of
digested food?
 Some interesting facts:

 The human liver weighs around 1.6 kg.

 Do you know that the liver is the only organ of the body which has the capacity to
regenerate itself?
 Do you know that pancreas also regulates the level of sugar in our blood?

The large intestine

The digested food gets absorbed into the blood

vessels in the small intestine and is transported to all
parts of the body by these blood vessels. This process
is known as assimilation.

What happens to the undigested and unabsorbed

food material? The undigested food material from
the small intestine enters the large intestine. The
large intestine is wider than the small intestine, but is
shorter in length. It is 1.5 metres long.

What is the function of the large intestine? The large intestine absorbs water and
remaining salts from the undigested food material.

The remaining waste material then enters the rectum. It is stored there in the form of
semi-solid faeces. The faecal material is finally removed from the body through
the anus. This process is known as egestion.

The digestion of food involves several organs and processes that occur
internally. How was this discovered? Who was the first person to study the
process of digestion?

The discovery of the working of the stomach was an accident. In 1822, a man named
Alexis St. Martin was badly injured by a gun shot. The bullet that hit him made a hole
in his stomach. The doctor treating him, named William Beaumont, was able to save
his life, but was unable to close the wound properly. The doctor utilized this
opportunity to study the inside of his stomach and made some wonderful
observations. He found that the stomach churns the food and its walls secrete a fluid
that helps in the digestion of food. He also observed that the end of the stomach
opens into the intestine only after the digestion of the food inside the stomach is
completed.

Therefore, the digestion of food starts in the mouth. The process of digestion
continues in the stomach and small intestine. The absorption of nutrients occurs in
the small intestine through diffusion, active transport and facilitated transport.

Let us understand diffusion through an activity.

Importance of diffusion

Take two tubes made of a membrane of parchment paper or bladder of a pig. Fill these
tubes, one with starch paste, and the other with grape sugar solution.

Then, hang the tubes in separate vessels containing pure water (like shown below).

Set-up A Set-up B

Experimental set-up

After 3 – 4 hours, taste the water of both the vessels.

You will notice that the water in the vessel containing sugar solution turns sweet,
while the water of the other vessel shows no change.

Explanation of the activity: We know that starch is insoluble in water, while sugar is
soluble. Therefore, sugar is able to pass through the membrane into the vessel turning
the water sweet. On the other hand, starch does not pass through the membrane.

This activity proves that the food we eat is insoluble, so it must be converted into
soluble form (or should be digested) to make it pass through the alimentary canal. In
the above experiment, the parchment tubes represent the alimentary canal, while the
surrounding water represents blood.

Feeding And Digestion In Amoeba

Amoeba is a single-celled organism found in puddles, lake water, pond water etc. It
has a cell membrane, a round nucleus, and many small vacuoles.

We know that animals eat through their mouth. But how does a small organism
like Amoeba feed itself?

Amoeba can constantly change its shape. It forms finger-like projections

called pseudopodia (meaning false feet). Pseudopodia help Amoeba in moving and
capturing food.

When
an Amoeba senses its
prey, it pushes out its
pseudopodia around
its prey and engulfs it.
The food thus gets
trapped in the food
vacuole. An Amoeba feeds on algae, rotifers, protozoans, and even other
small Amoeba.

How does the digestion of food occur in Amoeba?

Digestive juices such as amylase and protease are secreted inside the food vacuole
in Amoeba. These juices act on the food and break it down into smaller components.
Amylase breaks down complex carbohydrates into simple sugars, while protease
breaks down proteins to simpler substances. The digested food is later absorbed
by Amoeba for growth, maintenance, and multiplication. The waste material or
undigested food is then expelled out of the body using pseudopodia.

Respiration and Its Types

We know that there is a constant exchange of atmospheric gases. Oxygen is inhaled

and carbon dioxide is exhaled. If oxygen is inhaled, then it must be used for some
activity in the body. Similarly, if carbon dioxide is exhaled out of the body, then it must
be because it is not required. This important life process is called respiration.

What is the role of oxygen in the body? Why is carbon dioxide thrown out of the
body?
Respiration is the bodily process of inhalation and exhalation. It is the process of
taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide. The process involves the consumption
of oxygen and liberation of carbon dioxide and water.

The oxygen inhaled is used to burn/oxidize/break down the food (glucose). This
reaction produces energy required for all activities. Water and carbon dioxide are by-
products of this reaction. This process occurs inside the mitochondria and is
called cellular respiration. It is exactly opposite to the process of photosynthesis. It
can be represented as:

Thus, cellular respiration is the process by which energy is released from the
breakdown of organic substances (glucose).

Is oxygen the only molecule used to burn food and produce energy? What
happens to the organisms living in regions with no oxygen?

Respiration can occur both in the presence and absence of O2. On this basis, it can be
classified into two types: aerobic and anaerobic.

Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

It occurs in the presence of O2. It occurs in the absence

of O2.
It involves the exchange of gases between an organism and Exchange of gases is
outside environment. absent.
It occurs in the cytoplasm and mitochondria. It occurs only in the
cytoplasm.
It always releases CO2 and H2O. End products may vary.

It yields 38 ATP. It yields 2 ATP.

Is glucose the only carbohydrate which is broken down? Are not proteins and
lipids utilized to produce energy?

Glucose is the simplest molecule that enters a series of reactions called Glycolysis and
the Krebs cycle to produce energy.
Proteins and fatty acids are broken down and enter the cycle at different regions.
Amino acids, depending upon the length of the carbon chain, enter the Krebs cycle at
different places.

Lipids are fist converted into fatty acids and then into acetyl-CoA, which enters the
Krebs cycle.

Aerobic respiration: It involves four main steps:

Step 1: The first step is called glycolysis. It occurs in the cytoplasm of a cell. It does
not require oxygen. Here, the 6-carbon molecule glucose is partially broken down into
a 3-carbon molecule, pyruvate or pyruvic acid. In this step, one glucose molecule
produces 2 molecules of pyruvate.

Glucose 2 Pyruvate

Step 2: The two pyruvic acid molecules are converted into acetyl CoA, which can
easily enter the mitochondria, which is the site for further reactions.

Step 3: These acetyl CoA molecules enter the mitochondrial matrix and take part in
the Krebs cycle. This occurs in the presence of O2.

Step 4: In this step, the energy released in all the above steps is converted to ATP by
ATP synthase enzyme.
 In aerobic respiration, a total of 38 ATP molecules are produced from one molecule of
glucose.

Anaerobic respiration: It is a two step process.

Step 1: The first step, glycolysis, is the same as that of aerobic respiration.

Glucose 2 pyruvic acid

Step 2: Pyruvic acid is not transported to the mitochondria. It remains in the

cytoplasm. It is then broken down into waste products that can be removed from the
cell. This entire process occurs in the absence of oxygen.

Glucose Pyruvic acid

Anaerobic respiration occurs in the roots of some species of water logged plants,
parasitic worms, yeast, animal muscles, and microorganisms.

In some microorganisms such as yeasts, anaerobic respiration is called fermentation.

In the process of fermentation, ethanol is formed as a by-product. This is represented
in the above reaction.

Illustration of anaerobic respiration

Aerobic respiration produces large amounts of energy. What about regions where
energy is required, but oxygen is not available? In muscle cells, when there is a
lack of oxygen, anaerobic respiration occurs where pyruvic acid is converted into
lactic acid. This accumulation of lactic acid causes muscle cramps.

Brewing is an industrial application of fermentation.

Do you know that brewing industries utilize yeast?

Alcoholic fermentation is the conversion of sugar into ethyl alcohol and CO2. One of
the by-products, CO2, dissipates into air whereas the other by-product, ethyl alcohol,
remains in the medium. This alcohol is processed in the brewing industry and is
utilized commercially.

Some interesting facts:

 Do you know that fermentation predigests foods and improves the availability of
nutrients present in them?
 Fermentation adds nutrients such as B-vitamin.

Is CO2 a product of respiration? Let us find out.

Take freshly prepared lime water in two test tubes and label them as A and B. Use a
syringe to pass air in test tube A and blow air in test tube B through a straw.

You will observe that limewater turns milky in both test tubes. However, it was faster
in test tube B.

Explanation:

Limewater is the common name for saturated calcium hydroxide solution.

Its chemical formula is Ca (OH) 2.

When CO2 is passed through lime water, it turns milky due to the formation of calcium
carbonate. This reaction can be denoted as:

Ca (OH) 2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

In test tube B, lime water turned milky faster because the air we exhale is CO2. In
comparison, the introduced air is atmospheric air in test tube A, which contains only
0.03% CO2.

Exchange of gases in plants

Plants exchange gases through stomata. This exchange of gases occurs through the
process of diffusion.
When CO2 is present in high concentration inside the plant body, it moves out into the
atmosphere (where its concentration is low) and allows O2 to enter the plants.

Respiration in Humans
How does the oxygen inhaled reach all the cells of the body? And how is carbon
dioxide collected from the cells and exhaled out?
To answer these questions, we have to understand the human respiratory system.

The human respiratory system supplies our body with O2 and also helps in
removing CO2, which is a waste product formed during cellular respiration. The intake
of O2 and exit of CO2 involves two processes:

1) Inhalation: It involves bringing in air from outside the body into the lungs. When
we breathe in, the size of our chest increases.
This happens because when air enters, the lungs expand and the ribs move outwards.
Simultaneously, the diaphragm contracts and becomes flat. Thus, the size of our chest
increases.

2) Exhalation: It involves removal of CO2 from the body. When we breathe out, the
size of our chest decreases. This happens because when air moves out of our lungs,
the lungs contract, the ribs move back, and the diaphragm curves upwards into the
chest decreasing the size of the chest.

Organs involved in respiration:

The organs of the respiratory system extend from the nose to lungs. They include
the nose, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and lungs.

1) Nostrils: The air from outside first enters the nostrils, which is divided into the left
and the right nostril. These nostrils lead to open spaces in the nose called the nasal
passage. This passage contains hair and mucus, which perform the functions of
filtering, moistening, and warming the air entering the nasal passage.

2) Pharynx: Air travels from the nasal passage to the pharynx, which is commonly
known as throat. The pharynx is lined with a protective mucus membrane and cilia,
which removes the impurities entering with air.

3) Larynx: The air from the pharynx enters the larynx or voice box. It contains two
true vocal cords, which are made up of cartilage and fibres. When air passes through
this area, the vocal cords vibrate and this produces different sounds. Human beings
can control this vibration. Thus, they can make various sounds and are capable of
speech.

4) Trachea: From the larynx, the inhaled air moves into the wind pipe or trachea.
The trachea is a long narrow tube, which is lined with ciliated mucus membrane. The
trachea branches into two tubes, the left and right bronchi. The cilia move the mucus
containing dust particles back to the pharynx, where it is swallowed.

Do you know that tobacco contains harmful components? These components do

not allow proper supply of oxygenated blood and results in many diseases.

Why is it so?
Let us perform the following activity to understand the harmful effects of smoking.

Take a clean, empty squeezable ketchup bottle.

Place a few cotton balls in the lid of the bottle and close its mouth with the help of the
cap. Fit two or more cigarettes on the tip of the bottle.
Then, light the cigarette and simultaneously squeeze and release the body of the
bottle slowly, till the cigarette burns out completely. Repeat this process with two or
more cigarettes.
Open the cap of the bottle and remove the cotton balls. You will observe that the
colour of the cotton balls change from white to brown or black.

Explanation of the activity:

Tar, a component of cigarettes, is collected in the cotton balls. This activity shows how
tar accumulates in the lungs and coats the lungs. It does not allow proper supply of
oxygenated blood required by the body.

5) Bronchi and bronchioles: The air from the trachea moves into the bronchi,
which are formed because of the division of the trachea. Each bronchus enters one of
the lungs. Inside the lungs, the bronchi further divide into bronchioles. The air moves
through these bronchioles.

6) Lungs: The lungs are bag-like structures situated on either sides of the ribcage.
They are the chief respiratory organs in the human body. In the lungs, the bronchiole
divides many times to create smaller branches. These branches ultimately terminate
into tiny air-sacs known as alveoli. These cells are surrounded by many blood
capillaries. Alveoli provide surface for the exchange of gases.

Do you know that each lung contains 300 – 350 million units called alveoli,
making a total of 700 million in both lungs?
Alveoli transfers O2 into the blood cells. Let us discuss how alveoli help in the
exchange of gases.
Gases are exchanged in the lungs during respiration. Are lungs the only
respiratory organs? Is the process of respiration similar in all animals?

In aquatic animals, gas exchange takes place by the process by diffusion, directly
through the body wall.
However, complex aquatic animals have gills for the diffusion of gases. For example, in
fishes, the water enters through their mouths and quickly moves to the gills. In the
gills, O2 gets mixed with blood. The blood then transports this oxygen to all the body
cells for respiration.

Which organism exhibits faster rate of breathing – terrestrial or aquatic

animals?

The oxygen source i.e., water is about 800 times denser than air. It contains less O2 as
compared to air. Since the content of O2 in water is low, aquatic animals breathe faster
to get as much oxygen as possible, resulting in a faster rate of breathing. Therefore,
aquatic animals breathe faster than terrestrial animals and also show different
adaptations for better gaseous exchange.
Transportation In Plants

Transportation is a life process where substances synthesised or absorbed in one

part of the body are carried to other parts of the body.

Water absorbed by roots is to be transported to the rest of the plant body. Food
produced in the leaves is to be transported to its place of storage. Therefore,
there is a requirement for a transport system in plants. How does the transport
system in plants function?

The transportation system in plants moves the energy stored in leaves to different
parts. It also helps in moving raw materials absorbed from the roots to various organs
of the plant. However, these are entirely different pathways.

These two pathways are explained in the following discussion.

The transportation system in plants consists of two different types of conducting

tissues.

Xylem conducts water and minerals obtained from soil (via roots) to the rest of the
plant. Phloem transports food materials from the leaves to different parts of the plant
body.

Transport of water

Components of the xylem tissue (tracheids and vessels) of roots, stems, and leaves are
interconnected to form a continuous system of water-conducting channels, which
reaches all parts of the plant.

Root hair with adhering soil particles

Roots absorb water and mineral salts from the soil. Each soil particle is surrounded by
a continuous film of water, loosely held to it by a force known as capillary force. This
is known as capillary water. Therefore, water molecules adhere to soil particles with
the capillary force. The capillary water is also present in spaces between the soil
particles. This capillary water, along with the minerals dissolved in it, is absorbed by
the cells in the root hair.

Absorption of water from the soil

The cells in the root hair are deficient in water because they continuously supply the
absorbed water to the stems and leaves. Thus, the concentration of water in the root
 hair is less than the water present in soil particles. This creates a concentration
gradient, which allows the root hair cells to uptake water actively. As a result, there is
a steady movement of water into the root xylem creating a column of water, which is
steadily pushed upwards. This upward movement of water and minerals is
called ascent of sap.
Due to the continuous inflow of water, a pressure is developed inside the root cells.
This root pressure helps in pushing the plant cell sap upwards through xylem
vessels.

However, this pressure by itself cannot move the water over greater heights. In order
to fulfil this requirement, plants utilise some other stronger force such
as transpiration pull or suction pressure. Let us explore what transpiration pull is.

Some interesting facts:

 Do you know that only 1% of the water absorbed by plants is used in photosynthesis?
The rest 99% is lost through transpiration.
 In one growing season, a corn plant transpires more than 200 litres of water.

The water thus absorbed by the roots and transported into the plant body plays
various vital functions, some of which are:

 transportation of soluble substances from one plant part to the other,

 production of food through photosynthesis,
 cooling the plant through transpiration.

Translocation of Food

Transportation of food

The transportation of food from the leaves to other parts of the plant occurs in the
vascular tissue, namely the phloem. This process of transporting food is known
as translocation. The phloem also transports amino acids and other substances to
storage organs of the plant (along with the growing organs) such as roots, fruits, and
seeds. The phloem consists of companion cells, sieve tubes, phloem parenchyma, and
fibres.

The translocation of food occurs in the sieve tubes with the help of companion cells.

Translocation in the phloem, unlike the xylem, is achieved by utilizing energy from
ATP. For example, a food material such as sucrose is transported into the phloem
tissue using ATP energy. As a result, the osmotic pressure in the tissue increases,
causing the water to move into it. This pressure moves the material in the phloem to
the tissues, which have less pressure. This is helpful in moving materials according to
the requirements of the plant.
Circulatory System

Nutrients are required for living. For example, oxygen is required by all cells in the
body. How does atmospheric oxygen reach the cells? The waste materials that are
produced are thrown out of the body. Is there a system that transports nutrients
and collects wastes materials in the body?

The system that transports nutrients and collects waste materials for disposal in the
body is the circulatory system. The circulatory system consists of the central organ
i.e., the heart, blood vessels, and circulating fluid i.e., blood. Another system, called
the lymphatic system, transports immune cells.

Let us explore the components of the circulatory system and how each component
functions for the efficient transport of materials in the body.

Blood vessels

Arteries are tough, elastic tubes that carry blood from the heart and supply it to
various organs of the body. As the arteries move away from the heart (i.e., on reaching
organs and tissues), they divide into smaller vessels. The smallest vessels
called capillaries have very thin walls. Arteries are red in colour because they carry
oxygenated blood.

Capillaries (in organs and tissues) join together to form veins. Veins collect blood
from different organs and tissues. Veins are thin-walled as compared to arteries. This
is because they bring back blood from the organs to the heart and blood is no longer
under pressure. These veins carry deoxygenated blood into the heart.

Components of blood:

Blood consists of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets (present in the blood
plasma).

Blood is red because of the presence of haemoglobin. What is its function in

blood?
The main function of haemoglobin molecule is to transport oxygen molecules to body
cells for cellular respiration. When we breathe in, we take in O2, which reaches the
lung alveoli. O2 then diffuses into blood of the surrounding capillaries from the alveoli,
which has a high concentration of O2. The haemoglobin pigment present in the blood
gets attached to four O2 molecules and forms oxyhaemoglobin, oxygenating the blood.

This oxygenated blood is then distributed to all the body cells by the heart.

After supplying O2 to the body cells, the blood collects CO2, which is produced after
cellular respiration in the cells. Thus, the blood becomes deoxygenated.

The haemoglobin pigment has less affinity for CO2. Therefore, it is mainly transported
in the dissolved form. This deoxygenated blood brings back CO2 to lung alveoli.

The lungs have a high concentration of O2. Therefore, it diffuses into the blood. Blood,
on the other hand, has more concentration of CO2, which moves into the area of its
lower concentration in the lung alveoli. Thus, the exchange of gases occurs in the
alveoli. The oxygen inhaled is transported to all parts of the body while the
CO2 produced in the cells is collected from the cells and exhaled out.

How does the heart distribute oxygenated blood?

In human beings, the heart is a

muscular organ. It is divided into four
chambers – right auricle, right
ventricle, left auricle, and left ventricle.
The walls of these chambers are made
up of a special muscle
called myocardium, which contracts
continuously and rhythmically to
distribute blood to all the body cells.
 Flow of blood in the human heart

 The heart has superior and inferior vena cava. They carry deoxygenated blood from
the upper and lower regions of the body respectively and supply the deoxygenated
blood to the right auricle of the heart.

 The right auricle contracts and passes the deoxygenated blood to the right ventricle,
through an auriculo-ventricular aperture (tricuspid valve).

 The right ventricle contracts and passes the deoxygenated blood into the two
pulmonary arteries, which pumps it to the lungs where the blood is oxygenated. From
the lungs, the pulmonary veins transport the oxygenated blood to the left atrium of
the heart.

 The left atrium contracts and through the auriculo-ventricular aperture (bicuspid
valve), the oxygenated blood enters the left ventricle.
 The blood passes to aorta from the left ventricle. The aorta gives rise to many arteries
that distribute the oxygenated blood to all the regions of the body.

Since the blood goes twice through the heart, it is known as double circulation.
Warm-blooded animals such as mammals have this type of blood circulation.

The body temperature of cold-blooded animals is the same as that of their

surroundings. In hot environments, their blood becomes warm and in colder
environments, their blood becomes cold.

Therefore, they do not require energy to maintain their body temperature. Hence,
cold-blooded animals such as fishes, amphibians, and many reptiles can tolerate some
amount of mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Therefore, they have two or
three chambered hearts.

Two chambered heart of fishes:

Circulatory system of fishes: The oxygenated blood from the gills does not enter the
heart. It is directly distributed in the entire body. Only the deoxygenated blood enters
the auricle and then the ventricle. The deoxygenated blood enters the gills for
oxygenation from the ventricle.

Thus, in fishes, the blood passes through the heart only once during one cycle of
passage. This type of circulation is referred to as single circulation.

Blood pressure

Rohan visited a doctor with his grandfather.

The doctor measured his blood pressure using a sphygmomanometer. Rohan

observed that the doctor placed the sphygmomanometer cuff around his upper arm
 and attached a fastening belt by folding the leftover flap. Then, he placed a
stethoscope at his elbow joint and inflated the squeezable ball to make the pressure
go above 180mm Hg (observed in the attached column of mercury).

The doctor then released the air by opening the air valve and carefully observed the
pressure drop.

Explanation of the activity:

When the sphygmomanometer is inflated, the major artery of the arm collapses and
this makes us feel uncomfortable. Then, when air is slowly released, a sound is heard
using the stethoscope. This sound is the systolic blood pressure. It is the pressure of
blood inside the artery during contraction of ventricles of the heart. When no sound is
heard any longer, it is diastolic blood pressure. The diastolic pressure is the pressure
of blood inside the artery during relaxation of the ventricles. The normal systolic
pressure is about 120mm of Hg and normal diastolic pressure is 80mm of Hg.

Some interesting facts:

 Do you know that the pressure created by the human heart to pump blood is enough
to eject blood up to a distance of around 30 feet?

 Aorta is the largest artery in the human body.

Lymphatic system

Lymph is another fluid connective tissue, which helps in the process of transportation.

In addition to blood vessels, the body contains lymphatic vessels. Some pores are
present in the walls of the capillaries and through these pores, small amounts of
plasma, proteins, and blood cells flow out in intercellular spaces in the tissues.

This forms the tissue fluid or lymph. It is a colourless fluid that contains less protein.
The lymph enters into tiny vessels situated in intercellular spaces. These capillaries
join to form the lymph vessels.
 Functions of the lymph:

 It acts as a reservoir of water, salts, and digested food.

 It carries digested food and fats from the small intestine. Lymphatic vessels present in
the intestinal villi absorb fatty acids.
 It contains phagocytes that can engulf and destroy bacteria and other foreign
particles.

Do you know what causes a heart attack? High blood pressure, smoking,
consuming food items with high cholesterol, being overweight, etc. are some causes
that can result in a heart attack. Most heart attacks are caused when blood vessels
that bring blood and oxygen to the heart muscles are blocked.

Excretory System in Humans

Kidneys

They eliminate nitrogenous wastes from the body and are helpful in maintaining the
water balance of the body by removing excess fluids.

The various nitrogenous wastes such as urea, uric acid etc. are supplied from the
blood to the kidneys (this is similar to the removal of CO2 from the blood to the lungs).
Thus, the basic filtration unit of the excretory system lies in the kidneys.

Structure of kidneys:

Kidneys are reddish brown bean shaped structures which are found in pairs. Each
kidney is divided into two parts - an outer dark region called cortex and inner lighter
region called medulla. Each kidney has several microscopic tubular structures called
nephrons.

The kidneys consist of a cluster of very thin-walled capillaries. Each cluster is

associated with a cup-shaped end of a tube, in which filtered urine is collected. These
basic filtering units of the kidneys are called nephrons. Each kidney possesses a large
number of nephrons (approximately 1- 1.5 million).
 Structure of a nephron

The main components of a nephron are the glomerulus, Bowman’s capsule, and a
long renal tube. The blood enters the kidneys through the renal artery, which
branches into many capillaries associated with the glomerulus. Water and solutes are
transferred to the nephron at the Bowman’s capsule.

In the proximal tubule, some substances such as amino acids, glucose, and salts are
selectively reabsorbed and unwanted molecules are added in the urine. The filtrate
then moves down into the loop of Henle, in which more water is reabsorbed. From
here, the filtrate moves upwards into the distal tubule, and finally to the collecting
duct. This duct collects urine from many nephrons.

The urine formed in each kidney then enters a long tube called the ureter. The ureters
move the urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder. The urinary bladder is under
the control of the nervous system. This helps us to control the urge to urinate.

Some Interesting Facts:

 Do you know that blood passes through the kidneys 300 times in a day?

 The urinary bladder can hold up to 600ml of urine!

Artificial kidneys

Do you know what will happen if your kidneys fail?

Healthy kidneys remove excess of fluid, wastes, and minerals from the body. They also
make hormones that keep the bones strong and healthy. If the kidneys fail to function,
wastes may accumulate in the body, the body may retain excess fluid, and blood
pressure may rise. This can even lead to death.

In such a case, an artificial kidney or hemodialysis is useful.

In hemodialysis, only a few drops of blood are allowed to flow, through a special filter
that removes wastes and extra fluid. The detoxified blood is then returned to the
body.

The special filter used in dialysis consists of a number of tubes with semi-permeable
lining, suspended in a tank filled
with the dialysis fluid.

Dialysis

What is dialysis? When is it performed? It performs the function of which

organ?

Sometimes, kidney(s) stops functioning because of an infection or an injury. This

leads to the accumulation of harmful wastes in the body, which can even cause death.
In such a condition, blood is filtered artificially. This process is known as dialysis. A
dialysis machine performs the function of a normal kidney, and thus helps an
individual to survive.

Do you know that the human bladder can stretch to hold up to 400 mL of urine?!

Excretion in Plants

The process by which wastes are thrown out of the body is called excretion and the
organs that help in excretion are called excretory organs.

Excretion in Plants

Plants do not have specialized structures for the elimination of wastes like humans
have kidneys, lungs, etc. Plants use a variety of techniques to remove waste materials.
Oxygen, a by-product of photosynthesis is removed through stomata. The excess
 water absorbed from roots is also lost through stomata via transpiration. Cell
vacuoles, gum, resin etc. are stored in old xylem tissues. Waste products may be
stored in leaves that fall. Plant roots also sometimes excrete wastes materials.

Have you ever wondered how plants get rid off the waste products then?

Plants have specialized mechanisms for elimination of wastes. Some of these

mechanisms are given below.

 Plants get rid of the wastes by combining them with inorganic salts. The insoluble
crystals are formed in the product. These crystals are harmless. They get deposited
on the bark, dead wood, old leaves, etc of plants.
 Some of the waste products of plants are useful for human beings and we utilize such
products in our daily life. For example − tannins, resins, gums, essential oils, latex, etc.
 Stomata also serve as an excretory organ. During photosynthesis, oxygen is produced
as a waste product while in respiration, CO2 acts as waste products. Both of these
gases are eliminated through stomata.

Tannins are present in tea leaves and impart a slightly bitter taste to the tea.

Resins are used for making varnishes. Latex oozes out from the stems through cuts or
abrasions and is utilized in making rubber.

Excretion in Simple Organisms and Animals

Unicellular organisms like Amoeba, Hydra excrete the waste produced in their cells
directly into the surroundings by cell membrane with he help of the process of
diffusion.

Multicellular organisms have specific excretory parts for excreting wastes out of their
body. Earthworm excrete with the help of excretory tubules known as
nephridia. Planaria excrete with the help of flame cells and insects through
malphigian tubules.
 Light - Reflection and Refraction

Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors

Light travels in a straight line and can change its direction when incident on a shiny
surface.

Jatin looks inside a polished steel bowl and gets surprised to find his face appearing
inverted inside the bowl. Furthermore, the image of his face changes its size as the bowl is
moved towards or away from him. However, when he looks on the outer side of the same
bowl, he finds his image to be erect. Why does this happen? This happens because the
curved surface of the bowl acts as special kind of mirror, known as a spherical mirror. A
spherical mirror can be made from a spherical ball.

Take a tennis ball and cut it into two equal halves.

The inner surface of each half is known as the concave

surface, while the outer surface is called the convex
surface.

There are two types of spherical mirrors

i) Concave mirrors

ii) Convex mirrors

Concave mirrors
A concave mirror is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved inwards. In a
concave mirror, reflection of light takes place from the inner surface. This mirror resembles
the shape of a ‘cave’. A Painted surface is a non-reflecting surface.

Convex mirrors

A convex mirror is a spherical mirror whose reflecting surface is curved outwards. In a

convex mirror, the reflection of light takes place from its outer surface. A Painted surface is
a non-reflecting surface.

Hence, the inward surface of the steel bowl or a spoon acts as a concave mirror, while its
outer surface acts as a convex mirror.

There are some definitions associated with spherical mirrors, which will prove helpful in
the discussion of spherical mirrors. But, before going into the definitions, let us understand
the terms clearly.

So, the definitions of the terminologies are as follows:

Pole of a spherical mirror

The central point of the reflecting surface of a spherical mirror is termed as the pole. It lies
on the mirror and is denoted by the letter (P).

Centre of curvature

The centre of curvature as the centre of a sphere from which the given spherical mirror
(convex or concave) is obtained. It is denoted by the letter (C).

Radius of curvature

The distance between the centre of curvature and pole (PC) is known as the radius of
curvature.

Principal axis of the spherical mirror

The imaginary straight line passing through the pole (P) and the centre of curvature (C) is
termed as the principal axis.

Focus
The focus (F) is the point on the principal axis of a spherical mirror where all the incident
rays parallel to the principal axis meet or appear to diverge from after reflection.

For concave mirrors, the focus lies on the same side of the reflecting surface.

For convex mirrors, the focus is obtained on the opposite side of the reflecting surface by
extrapolating the rays reflected from the mirror surface.

Radius of curvature (R) and the focal length (f) of a spherical mirror are related as

R = 2f

Where, R is the distance between the centre of curvature and the pole of the mirror,
while f is the distance between the focus and the pole of the mirror.

The focus of a spherical mirror always lies between the pole (P) and the centre
of curvature (C).

Reflection by spherical mirrors

The laws of reflection are also followed by spherical mirrors, same as the plane mirrors.
The laws of reflection are:
1) The angle of incidence of light is always equal to angle of reflection of light.
2) The incident ray, the normal and the reflected ray, all lie in the same plane.

The different ways in which a ray of light is reflected from a spherical mirror are:

Case I: When the incident light ray is parallel to the principal axis.

In this case, the reflected ray will pass through the focus of a concave mirror, or it appears
to pass through the focus of a convex mirror.

Case II: When the incident light ray passes through the focus of a concave mirror, or
appears to pass through the focus of a convex mirror.

In this case, the reflected light will be parallel to the principal axis of the spherical mirror.
Case III: When the incident ray passes through or appears to pass through the centre
of curvature.

In this case, light after reflecting from the spherical surface moves back in the same path.
This happens because light is incident perpendicularly on the mirror surface.

Case IV: When the incident ray is normal to the reflecting surface

In this case, the incident light ray will be reflected back by the reflecting surface of the
spherical mirror, as in the case of plane mirror.

Case V: When the ray incident obliquely to the principal axis.

In this case, the incident ray will be reflected back by the reflecting surface of the spherical
mirror obliquely. And making equal angles with the principal axis.
 Four spherical mirrors of radius of curvature R1, R2, R3, and R4 (R1 > R3 > R2 > R4) are placed
against the sunlight. Try to obtain the bright spot on a paper sheet for each mirror. Which
mirror forms the brightest spot at a maximum distance from the pole of the
mirror? Explain.

Do You Know:

Radio telescope is a reflecting telescope that

tends to reflect all parallel rays coming from
distant stars, galaxies, deep space etc. to a
single point. This is because the reflecting
surface acts as a large concave mirror. The
point where the reflected rays meet is its
focus. A receiver is placed at the focus, which
receives light rays and sends these rays to a
computer in the form of electrical signals. As a
result, images of a light source can be obtained
on the monitor.

Images Formed by Spherical Mirrors

Images formed by spherical mirrors

Spherical mirrors form images of an object that may be smaller, larger, or of the same size,
erect or inverted, depending on their type and their distance from the object. In general,
images formed by any type of mirrors can be classified in two types: real images and virtual
images.

Difference between a real image and a virtual image

 S. Real Image Virtual Image
No.
1. Can be obtained on a screen or Cannot be obtained on a screen or wall
wall
2. Can be touched Cannot be touched
3. Formed in front of the mirror Formed behind the mirror
4. Formed by concave mirrors Formed by all types of mirrors i.e., plane, convex,
only and concave
5. These images are always These images are always erect
inverted

You can distinguish between real and virtual images by checking the orientation (erect or
inverted) of images and also by touching them.

Let us learn about the images formed by different spherical mirrors.

So, you have seen that

 the image formed by a convex mirror is virtual, erect, and of a smaller size.
 the image formed by a concave mirror is virtual, erect and of a larger size when placed
near the surface of the mirror; and inverted and may be smaller or larger than the object
when placed at a distance from the surface.

Concave mirrors form larger, smaller and of same size real images and also larger
virtual images. On the other hand, convex mirrors always form smaller virtual
images.

Take a concave mirror and a sharpener. Now, try to see the image of the sharpener in the
mirror. Make sure that the sharpener is at a large distance from the concave mirror.
Observe the size and the orientation of the image. Now, reduce the distance between the
sharpener and the mirror and again notice the size and the orientation of the image. Repeat
the observation by reducing the distance and try to complete the following table.

Distance between the sharpener and Size of the Character of the

the concave mirror image image
20 cm Smaller Inverted

15 cm Equal

10 cm

5 cm

Replace the concave mirror with a convex mirror and follow the same steps. Make a similar
table for the convex lens too.
Collect some objects that have shiny surfaces and classify them as plane, convex, or
concave mirrors.

Reflection by Spherical Mirrors

The different ways in which a ray of light is reflected from a spherical mirror are as follows:

Case I: When the incident light ray is parallel to the principal axis

In this case, the reflected ray will pass through the focus of a concave mirror, or will appear
to pass through the focus of a convex mirror.

Case II: When the incident light ray passes through the focus of a concave mirror, or
appears to pass through the focus of a convex mirror

In this case, the reflected light will be parallel to the principal axis of the spherical mirror.

Case III: When the incident ray passes through or appears to pass through the centre
of curvature
In this case, after reflecting from the spherical surface, light moves back in the same path.
This happens because light is incident perpendicularly on the mirror surface.

Case IV: When the incident ray is normal to the reflecting surface

In this case, the incident light ray will be reflected back by the reflecting surface of the
spherical mirror, as in the case of a plane mirror.

Case V: When the ray incident obliquely to the principal axis.

In this case, the incident ray will be reflected back by the reflecting surface of the spherical
mirror obliquely. And making equal angles with the principal axis.
 Four spherical mirrors of radius of curvature R1, R2, R3 and R4 (R1 > R3 > R2 > R4) are placed
against sunlight. A bright spot is obtained on a paper sheet for each mirror. Which mirror
forms the brightest spot at a maximum distance from the pole of the mirror? Explain.

Images formed by Concave Mirrors

A concave mirror can produce both real and virtual images. The nature of an image
depends primarily on the distance of the object from the mirror.

Let us consider the following cases:

I. When the object is at infinity

The light rays coming from infinity are parallel. When parallel light rays
are incident on the reflecting surface of a concave mirror, they tend to
meet at its focus after reflection. In this case, the image is formed at the
focus, and is point-sized. It is also real and inverted.

II. When the object is behind the centre of curvature

 In this case, the image is formed
between the focus (F) and the
centre of curvature (C). This
image is real, inverted and
diminished.

III. When the object is at the centre of curvature

In this case, the image is formed at the centre of curvature. This image is
real, inverted and of the same size as the object.

IV. When the object is between the centre of curvature (C) and the focus (F)

In this case, the image is formed

behind the centre of curvature.

V. When the object is at the focus (F)

 In this case, the image is formed at infinity. This image is real,
inverted and highly enlarged.

VI. When the object is placed between the focus (F) and the pole (P)

In this case, the image is formed

behind the mirror. This image is
virtual, erect and magnified.

The discussion is summarised in the table given below.

Object position Image position Size of image Nature of image

At infinity At F Point-sized Real and inverted

Beyond C Between F and C Small Real and inverted

At C At C Same as that of the object Real and inverted

Between C and F Behind C Enlarged Real and inverted

At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted

Between F and P Behind the mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

Images Formed by Convex Mirrors

A convex mirror always produces virtual and erect images of very small size. The images
formed by a convex mirror are primarily classified in two ways.

I. When the object is at infinity

In this case, the image appears to form at the focus. This image is virtual, erect and very
small in size.

II. When the object is between the pole (P) and a point X (X lies beyond C)

In this case, the image is formed between the pole (P) and the focus (F), behind the mirror.
This image is virtual, erect and small in size.

These results are summarised in the following table.

 Object position Image position Size of image Nature of image

At infinity At F Extremely small Virtual and erect

Between P and X (X lies beyond C) Between P and F Small Virtual and erect

Uses of Spherical Mirrors

Sanjay went to a dentist’s clinic to get his decaying tooth examined. While
sitting on the dentist’s chair, he observed that the doctor was using a
special type of mirror to examine his tooth. He wondered why the dentist
had to use a different mirror for the examination.

The special mirrors used by dentists are known as dentist’s mirror. This
mirror is actually a concave mirror and thus, capable of producing a larger
image of an object (teeth, in this case). In this section, we will discuss the uses of the
properties of concave and convex mirrors in our daily life.

1. Concave mirror

A concave mirror has the capability of forming images that can be smaller or larger in size
and virtual or erect, depending on the position of the object.

These mirrors are used in various medical practices. For example, doctors use this mirror
for obtaining a relatively larger image of teeth, ear, skin etc.
Concave mirrors are also used in reflectors for torches and headlights in vehicles. This is
because these mirrors can reflect rays of light beams as very powerful light rays.

2. Convex mirror

A convex mirror always produces a smaller, virtual, and erect image of an object.

In convex mirror, the length of the image is shorter than that of the object. Hence, it is used
as a side view mirror in vehicles because the viewed area must be larger than the surface
area of the mirror. The convex mirror forms images of vehicles that are spread over a
relatively larger area.

Owing to this property, convex mirrors are also used in security mirrors that we often see
in shops, malls, etc.
Sign Convention in the Mirror Formula and Magnification

Amit takes a concave mirror of radius of curvature of 30 cm. He places a candle 22 cm away
from its reflecting surface. Now, he wants to find out the correct position of the image. How
can he find out its correct position?

To solve such problems, we use a set of sign conventions applicable for reflection of light by
spherical mirrors. These conventions are known as the New Cartesian Sign Conventions.
Here, the pole (P) of the mirror is considered as the origin.

Sign Conventions for spherical Mirrors:

I. Objects are always placed to the left of the mirror i.e. light must fall on the mirror from
left to right.

II. All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror.

III. Distances along the direction of the incident ray (along positive x- axis) are taken as
positive, while distances along the direction of the reflected ray (along negative x-axis) are
taken as negative.

IV. Heights measured perpendicular to and above the principal axis (along positive y-axis)
are taken as positive.
 V. Heights measured perpendicular to and below the principal axis (along negative y-axis)
are taken as negative.

These sign conventions can also represented in the following diagram:

Mirror formula

 The distance of an object from the pole of a mirror is termed as the object
distance denoted by ‘u’.
 The distance of an image from the pole of a mirror is termed as the image
distance denoted by ‘v’.

The formula relating the object distance (u), image distance (v), and the focal length (f) of a
spherical mirror is given by:

The following table summarizes the sign conventions for concave and convex mirrors.

Mirror
Object Image distance (v) Focal Height of Height of images(HI)
distance length (f) object
(u) (Ho)
Real Virtual Real Virtual
Image Image Image Image
Convex Negative Image does Positive Positive Positive Image does Positive
not form not form

Concave Negative Negative Positive Negative Positive Negative Positive

Magnification

Take a spherical mirror and place an object in front of it. Try to observe the image formed
by the mirror. You will observe that the height of the image changes as the object is moved
towards or away from the pole.

This change in height and position of the image by changing the object position gives the
magnification of a spherical mirror. The magnification of a spherical mirror gives the
relative extent to which the image of an object is magnified with respect to the object
size.

Magnification is expressed by the ratio of the image height (HI) to the object height (HO).

Magnification (m) =

Magnification (m) is also related to the object distance (u) and the image distance (v) by the
relation

This equation holds true for both concave and convex mirrors.

Also, magnification remains the same for virtual and real images.

Magnification produced by a plane mirror is +1. Can you explain why?

Example: A convex mirror is used as a safety mirror in a shop. It has a focal length of 15 m.
A person is standing 12 m away from this mirror. Find the position of his image.

Solution:
For the given convex mirror,

Using sign conventions

Focal length (f) = + 15 m

Object distance (u) = – 12 m

Image distance (v) =?

On applying the mirror formula, we get

Therefore, the image is formed 6.67 m behind the mirror.

Example: An object of height 6 cm is placed 18 cm away from a concave mirror. The image
is formed 12 cm before the mirror. Find out the following:

(i) Focal length of the mirror (f)

(ii) Radius of curvature (R)

(iii) Image height (HI)

(iv) Magnification of the mirror (m)

Solution:

For the given concave mirror,

Using sign conventions

Object distance (u) = – 18 cm

Image distance (v) = – 12 cm

Height of object = 6 cm

Focal length (f) =?

Radius of curvature =?

Image height =?

Magnification =?

(i) On applying the mirror formula, we get

Thus, the focal length of the given concave mirror is 7.2 cm.

(ii) Radius of curvature is given by

R = 2f

= 2 × 7.2 = 14.4 cm
Thus, the radius of curvature is 14.4 cm.

(iii) Magnification (m) =

(iv) Height,

Here, the negative sign indicates that the image formed is real and inverted.

Hence, height of the image is 4 cm.

Laws of Refraction

Laws of refraction

There are two laws of refraction.

First law of refraction

The incident ray, the refracted ray, and the normal to the interface of two media at the
point of incidence – all lie in the same plane.

Second law of refraction

The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is
constant, for the light of a given color and for given pair of media. This is known as Snell’s
law. Mathematically, it can be given as follows:
 Here, is the relative refractive index of medium b with respect to medium a.

So, what are the key points of the experiment?

 When a light ray enters from air (rarer medium) to glass (denser medium), it bends
towards the normal.
 When a light ray emerges from the glass (denser medium) to air (rarer medium), it bends
away from the normal.

Hence, when a light ray is incident on a rectangular glass slab, the light emerges parallel to
the incident ray from the opposite side of the slab.

And when a light ray is incident on a glass slab normally, it gets out straight without any
deflection i.e., i = 0, r = 0.

Example: A ray of light is incident on a glass surface in such a way that it makes an angle of
60° with the normal (as shown in the given figure). Determine the angle of refraction
(Given that the relative refractive index, = 1.34).

Solution:

Angle of incidence, i = 60°

Angle of refraction, r =?

Using Snell’s law of refraction,

Hence, the angle of refraction is approx. 40°.

Relation between refractive index of a medium and the speed of light

The refractive index of a medium (μμ) and the speed of light in it are related as:

Refraction of Light by Spherical Lenses (Concave And Convex)

Ankit went to an optician and noticed different types of spectacles there. He observed that
while the glasses of some spectacles were relatively thicker in the middle, other glasses
were thicker on the edge. The glasses of these spectacles are examples of lenses.

A lens is a transparent material bound by two curved surfaces. Lenses are broadly
classified into two categories depending on their surfaces.
However, we will discuss only double spherical lenses here.

Convex lens

A convex lens is made by joining two spherical surfaces in such a way that it is thicker at
the centre. Its thickness gradually reduces as we move towards the edge.

A convex lens has the ability to converge the light rays to a point that are incident on it.
Thus, it is called a converging lens.

Concave lens
A concave lens is made by joining two curved surfaces in such a way that it is thinner at the
centre. Its thickness gradually increases as we move towards the edge.

A concave lens has the ability to diverge a beam of light rays incident on it. Thus, it is called
a diverging lens.

Differences between a spherical mirror and a lens

The following table lists some common differences between spherical mirrors and lenses

Spherical mirror Spherical lens

Image is formed by reflection of light. Image is formed by refraction of light.

A spherical mirror has only one focus. A spherical lens has two foci.

The centre of the spherical mirror is The centre of the spherical lens is termed
termed as its pole. as its optical centre.

The second difference arises due to the fact that a lens has two spherical surfaces (i.e. it can
be made from the arc of two spheres of equal radius).Therefore, light is refracted twice
before it comes out of the lens.

Terms Associated with Lenses:

Optical centre

Optical centre is a point at the centre of the lens. It always lies inside the lens and not on
the surface. It is denoted by ‘O’.

Centre of curvature

It is the centre point of arcs of the two spheres from which the given spherical lens
(concave or convex) is made. Since a lens constitutes two spherical surfaces, it has two
centers of curvature.

The distance of the optical centre from either of the centre of curvatures is termed as
the radius of curvature.

Principal axis

The imaginary straight line joining the two centers of curvature and the optical
centre (O) is called the principal axis of the lens.

Hold a convex lens and direct it against the sunlight. You will find a bright spot appear on
the wall. Can you explain the formation of this bright spot? Light, after refracting
through the lens, converges at a very sharp point. Try to obtain the brightest possible spot.
Now, place a paper on the wall and observe what happens in the next few minutes.

Focus

The focus (F) is the point on the principal axis of a lens where all incident parallel rays,
after refraction from the lens meet or appear to diverge from. For lenses there are two foci
(F1 and F2) depending on the direction of incident rays.

The distance between the focus (F1 or F2) and the optical centre (O) is known as the focal
length of the lens.

Refraction by Spherical Lenses

Refraction by a spherical lens can be categorized into three cases.

Case I. When the incident light ray is parallel to the principal axis

In this case, the refracted ray will pass through the second focus F2 for a convex lens, and
appear to diverge from the first focus F1 for a concave lens.
Case II. When the incident light ray emerges from the first focus F1 of a convex lens,
or appears to emerge from the second focus F2 of a concave lens

In this case, light after refraction from both the lenses will move parallel to the principal
axis.

Case III. When the light ray passes through the optical centre (O) of a lens

In this case, the light ray will pass through both the lenses without suffering any deviation.

Image Formed by Spherical Lenses

 Take a convex lens of known focal length. Draw five
equidistant points on a table and put the lens on the
central line. Mark the lines as 2F1, F1, O, F2, 2F2 (as
shown in the figure).

Take a candle and placed it behind 2F1. Observe the nature and size of the image formed on
a screen placed on the other side of the lens. An inverted image of the candle flame can be
seen easily. Now, repeat the process by changing the position of the candle by bringing it
towards the lens, and list your observations.

Lenses are able to form images by refracting incident light rays. Although, a light source
emits infinite number of light rays in all possible directions, we will consider only two light
rays for the sake of convenience. It allows us to show clearly the nature and position of the
image formed on a screen.

Images Formed by a Convex Lens

A convex lens can produce real as well as virtual images. The nature of the images formed
depends primarily on the position of the object on the principal axis.

Consider the following cases:

The ray diagrams for all the cases are as follows:

I. When the object is at infinity.

II. When the object is beyond the centre of 2F1.

III. When the object is at the centre of curvature 2F1.

IV. When the object is placed between the focus F1 and 2F1.

V. When the object is placed at focus F1.

VI. When the object is placed between the focus F1 and optical centre O.

The position, size, and nature of the image formed by a convex lens can be summarized in
the table below.

Object position Image position Size of image Nature of

image
At infinity At F2 Extremely small Real and
inverted
Behind 2F1 Between F2 and 2F2 Small Real and
inverted
At 2F1 At 2F2 Same as that of the Real and
object inverted
Between 2F1 and Beyond 2F2 Enlarged Real and
F1 inverted
At F1 At infinity Highly enlarged Real and
inverted
Between F1 and O Same side of the Enlarged Virtual and erect
lens

Images Formed by a Concave Lens

A concave lens always produces virtual and erect images that are extremely small in size.

The images formed by a concave lens are divided into two cases.

The ray diagrams for all the cases are as follows:

I. When the object is placed at infinity.

II. When the object is placed beyond 2F1.

The position, size, and nature of the image formed can be summarized in the table as
follows:

Object position Image Size of image Nature of

position image
At infinity At focus F1 Extremely Virtual and
small exact
Between O and X (X lies Between O and Small Virtual and
beyond 2F1) F1 exact

Jai places a sharp edge in front of a spherical lens. He observes that the image formed is
inverted and extremely small in size. Can you guess the nature of the lens used and the
position of the edge? Where should he place this edge to obtain an erect image?

Lens Formula, Magnification, and Power

Usually in image formation, we are interested in calculating the distance of the image
formed from the lens, size of the image, power of the lens etc. These problems can be
solved with the help of a lens formula. For this, we use a set of sign conventions applicable
for refraction of light by spherical lenses. In this convention, the optical centre (O) is
treated as the origin.
Sigh Convention for Lenses

I. Object is always placed to the left of the lens i.e., the light must fall on the lens from left to
right.

II. All distances parallel to the principal axis are measured from the optical centre of the
lens.

III. Distances along the direction of incident rays (along positive x-axis) are taken as
positive, while distances opposite to the direction of incident rays (along negative x-axis)
are taken as negative.

IV. Distances measured above the principal axis (along positive y-axis) are taken as
positive.

V. Distances measured below the principal axis (along negative y-axis) are taken as
negative.

These sign conventions are represented in the following diagram:

The following table summarizes the sign conventions of concave and convex lenses:

Types of Object Image distance Focal Height of Height of image

lens distance (v) length (f) object (HI)
(u) (Ho)
Real virtual Real Virtual

Convex Negative Positive Negative Positive Positive Negative Positive

Concave Negative * Negative Negative Positive * Positive

* A Concave lens always forms a virtual image.

Lens Formula:

The lens formula is given by

Here,

f → focal length of the spherical lens

v→ distance of the image from the optical centre

u → distance of the object from the optical centre

Deepak takes a magnifying

glass and tries to look at
some objects through it. He
observes that the objects
look bigger than their
actual size. How is this
possible?

The apparent change in the size of the object is because of the magnification produced by
the lens.

Magnification

The magnification of a spherical lens gives the relative extent to which the image of an
object is magnified with respect to the object size.

Magnification is expressed by the ratio of the image height (HI) to the object height (HO).

Magnification (m) is also related to the object distance (u) and image distance (v) by the
relation
 Hence, the magnification formula can be written as

 If magnification is positive, the image will be virtual and erect.

 If magnification is negative, the image will be real and inverted.

Power of a Lens

The degree of converge/diverge a beam of light rays by a lens is expressed in terms of

its power (P). It is the inverse of focal length, f (in metres).

Hence, power of a lens is given by the relation

The SI unit of power is dioptre (D).

Power of Combination of Thin Lenses in Contact

When two or more lenses are placed in contact with each other the net power (P) of the
combination is given by the algebraic sum of the individual powers of the lenses.

Net power, P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ...

Example 1: A convex lens has a focal length of 10 cm. If the image produced by it is 15 cm
behind from the optical centre, then determine the distance at which the object is placed?
Also, find the magnification produced by the lens.

Solution:

For the given convex lens,

Focal length (f) = 10 cm

Image distance (v) = 15 cm

Object distance (u) =?

Using the lens formula:

Here, the negative sign indicates that the object was placed to the left of the lens.

Now magnification,

Hence, the image size will be half of the object size. The negative sign of magnification
implies that the image formed is real and inverted.

What will be the image distance if an object is placed at a distance of 30 cm before a

concave lens of focal length 10 cm?

Example 2: What is the power of a convex mirror whose focal length is 25 cm?

Solution:

Power =

Given that focal length, f = 25 cm

= = 0.25 m

Hence, power of the given lens is 4 D.

Note that if the lens was concave, then the focal length would have been, f = −25 cm = −0.25
m

In this case, power will be −4 D.

 The Human Eye and the Colourful World

Human Eye

We are able to see things with the help of our eyes. The Eye is one of the most important
sense organs. Let us see the structure of our eye.

The Shape of the eye is roughly spherical with an average diameter of around 2.3 cm. The
outer part of the eye is quite tough and white in colour. This white part of the eye is known
as sclera. The transparent, front outer covering of the eye is known as the cornea. Behind
the cornea, there is a colored membrane known as the iris. It regulates the amount of light
entering the eye. It also gives colour to the eye. In the iris, there is a variable sized, black
circular opening known as the pupil. Its size is controlled by the iris. It appears to be black
in colour because most of the light entering it is absorbed by the tissues, which are present
in the pupil.

The size of the pupil depends on the brightness of light. It opens and closes in order to
regulate and control the amount of light entering the eye. When we enter a dimly lit room,
it takes the iris some time to expand the pupil to allow more light to enter the eye. For this
reason, it takes us a few seconds to clearly see objects in a dimly lit room

Behind the pupil there is a lens which is thicker at the centre. It is made up of living cells.
Two Ciliary muscles hold the lens within the eye-ball. The eye lens being convex in nature
converges the light rays’ incident on it. Hence, it focuses the light falling on it on a thin layer
of nerve cells called the retina. The retina is made up of a large number of nerve cells. Light
falling on these nerve cells stimulate two kinds of sensitive cells known as cones and rods.
Rods are sensitive to low light levels. Cones are sensitive to bright light, but they sense
colours. Sensation felt by them is transmitted to the brain in the form of electrical signals
through the optic nerve. This allows us to see.

The point where the retina and the optical nerve meet each other is devoid of any
sensory cells. Hence, vision is not possible from this point. This point is known as the
blind spot.

Take a white sheet of paper and write the

alphabets ‘A’ and ‘Z’ on it (as shown in the give figure). Make
sure that both alphabets are separated by atleast 8 cm. Now,
close your right eye and look continuously at ‘Z’.
Simultaneously, move the paper sheet slowly towards your
eye. You will observe that the letter ‘A’ disappears at some
point. What does this indicate?

It indicates that there exists a spot on the retina where no images are formed. Perform the
same activity by closing your left eye and looking at letter ‘A’. This time the
alphabet ‘Z’ would disappear. This implies that the blind spot is situated rightward in the
right eye and leftward in the left eye.

The natural tendency of the iris and the pupil to contract and expand respectively, when
exposed to bright light is used to check an unconscious person. Paramedics use this by
shining a torch light in the eyes of an unconscious person to observe whether his/her iris
or pupil is showing any change or not.

Persistence of an image

The image formed on the retina persists for about of a second. This means that if you
are shown still pictures of a moving object at a rate faster than 16 pictures per second, then
the object will appear to be moving. This is because, the image of a picture stays on your

retina for of a second and you will not be able to recognize the time taken to change
these pictures. This method is used in motion pictures where a large number of pictures
are flashed at a rate of 24 images per second! Hence, they appear to be moving.

Do You Know:
 Animals use their eyes in a special way. Crabs have very small eyes,
which are located on the head. This helps a crab to look behind.
Butterflies have a large number of eyes. An Owl’s eye is composed
of a large numbers of rod cells and a very few number of cones on
the retina. Hence, it is not able to see in daylight.

Do you know what happens if the image of an object does not form on the retina of an
eye?

One will not be able to see clearly. The retina consists of photosensitive cells, which sends
electrical pulses to the brain via the optic nerve. This enables us to see and sense objects.

Eye defects

We can see distant objects as well as the objects near us. The minimum distance up to
which an eye can see clearly and distinctly without any stress is called the least distance
of distinct vision.

The least distance of distinct vision for a normal eye is 25 cm.

The least distance of distinct vision varies as we grow older or because of some disease.
This leads to many eye defects. For example, some people are able to see distant objects
clearly; however they face problems in looking at objects close to them. On the other hand,
some people can clearly see objects close to them, but face problems in looking at distant
objects. These eye defects can be corrected by using suitable lenses (convex lens for the
first defect, and concave lens for the second defect).

Sometimes with the passing of age, the eye lens can become cloudy
and opaque. Due to this, the person’s eyesight becomes foggy. This
defect is known as cataract. In this defect, a white spot can be seen in
the eye lens. This type of a defect is corrected by surgery, by
removing the opaque lens and installing an artificial lens.

Defects of Vision
Have you wondered why the eye is able to focus the images of objects lying at various
distances?
 It is made possible because the focal length of the human lens can change i.e., increase or
decrease, depending on the distance of objects. It is the ciliary muscles that can modify the
curvature of the lens to change its focal length.

To see a distant object clearly, the focal length of the lens should be larger. For this, the
ciliary muscles relax to decrease the curvature and thereby increase the focal length of the
lens. Hence, the lens becomes thin. This enables you to see the distant object clearly.

To see the nearby objects clearly, the focal length of the lens should be shorter. For this, the
ciliary muscles contract to increase the curvature and thereby decrease the focal length of
the lens. Hence, the lens becomes thick. This enables you to see the nearby objects clearly.

The ability of the eye lens to adjust its focal length accordingly as the object distances is
called power of accommodation.

 The minimum distance of the object by which clear distinct image can be obtained on the
retina is called least distance of distinct vision. It is equal to 25 cm for a normal eye. The
focal length of the eye lens cannot be decreased below this minimum limit of object
distance.

 Let us see what happens when an object is at a distance less than 25 cm from the eye lens.

 The far point of a normal eye is infinity. It is the farthest point up to which the eye can see
objects clearly.

The range of vision of a normal eye is from 25 cm to infinity.

Have you ever thought why animals’ eyes are positioned on their heads?
 This is because it provides them with the widest possible field of view. Our eyes are located
in front of our face. One eye provides 150° wide field of view while both eyes
simultaneously provide 180° wide field of view. It is the importance of the presence of two
eyes as both eyes together provide the three-dimensional depth in the image.

The loss of power of accommodation of an eye results in the defects of vision.

There are three defects of vision called refractive defects. They are myopia,
hypermetropia, and presbyopia. In this section, we will learn about these defects of vision
in detail.

1. Myopia (short sightedness)

Myopia is a defect of vision in which a person clearly sees all the nearby objects, but is
unable to see the distant objects comfortably and his eye is known as a myopic eye. A
myopic eye has its far point nearer than infinity. It forms the image of a distant
object in front of its retina as shown in the figure.

Myopia is caused by

1. increase in curvature of the lens

2. increase in length of the eyeball

Since a concave lens has an ability to diverge incoming rays, it is used to correct this
defect of vision. The image is allowed to form at the retina by using a concave lens of
suitable power as shown in the given figure.
Power of the correcting concave lens

The lens formula can be used to calculate the focal length and hence the power of
the myopia correcting lens.

In this case,

Object distance, u =

Image distance, v = person’s far point

Focal length, f =?

Hence, lens formula becomes

In case of a concave lens, the image is formed in front of the lens i.e., on the same side of the
object.

∴ Focal length, f = −- Far point

Now,

Power of the required lens (P) =

Example: A person can clearly see up to a maximum distance of 100 cm only. Calculate the
power of the required lens that can correct his defect?

Solution:

Since the person is not able to see farther than 100 cm, he is suffering from myopia. Hence,
a concave lens of suitable power is required to correct his defect. The focal length of the
lens is given by his far point i.e.,

Focal length = Far point

= 100 cm

∴ Power of the lens =

Hence, a concave lens of power 1 D is required to correct the given defect of vision.

2. Hypermetropia (Long sightedness)

Hypermetropia is a defect of vision in which a person can see distant objects clearly and
distinctively, but is not able to see nearby objects comfortably and clearly.

You know the definition; now let us see what actually happens in case of a hypermetropic
eye and its corrective measure.

So, now you can easily represent the problem with a hypermetropic eye with the help of a
diagram. It is shown in the given figure.

A hypermetropic eye has its least distance of distinct vision greater than 25 cm.
 Hypermetropia is caused due to

1. reduction in the curvature of the lens

2. decrease in the size of the eyeball

Since a convex lens has the ability to converge incoming rays, it can be used to correct
this defect of vision, as you already have seen in the animation. The ray diagram for the
corrective measure for a hypermetropic eye is shown in the given figure.

Power of the correcting convex lens

Lens formula, can be used to calculate focal length f and hence power P of the
correcting convex lens, where

Object distance, u = –25 cm, normal near point

Image distance, v = defective near point

Hence, the lens formula is reduced to

 Now,

Power of the required lens (P) =

Example:The defective near point of an eye is 150 cm. Calculate the power of the
correcting convex lens that would correct this defect of vision.

Solution:

Given that, hypermetropic near point = 150 cm

Hence, image distance, v = – 150 cm

We have the correction formula,

∴ Power of the correcting convex lens,

P=

Hence, a convex lens of power 3.3 D is required to correct the given defect of vision.

3. Presbyopia (Ageing vision defect)

Presbyopia is a common defect of vision, which generally occurs at old age. A person
suffering from this type of defect of vision cannot see nearby objects clearly and
distinctively. A presbyopic eye has its near point greater than 25 cm and it gradually
increases as the eye becomes older.

Presbyopia is caused by the

1. weakening of the ciliary muscles

2. reduction in the flexibility of the eye lens

Let us see how a presbyopic eye is actually different from a normal eye.

A person with presbyopia cannot read letters without spectacles. It may also happen
that a person suffers from both myopia and hypermetropia. This type of defect can be
corrected by using bi-focal lenses. A bifocal lens consists of both convex lens (to correct
hypermetropia) and concave lens (to correct myopia).

It is a common misconception among people that the use of spectacles “cures” the defects
of vision. However, this is not true as spectacles only “restore” the defects of vision to the
normal value.

Cataract

It is also one of the eye defects found commonly in people of older ages. In this defect, the
crystalline lens becomes milky and cloudy. This condition is also known as cataract. This
causes partial or complete loss of vision. This loss of vision can be restored by removing the
cataract by means of a cataract surgery. The use of any kind of spectacle lenses does not
provide any help against this defect of vision.

Dispersion of White Light in Prism

When a ray of light is incident on a rectangular glass slab, after refracting through the slab,
it gets displaced laterally. As a result, the emergent ray comes out parallel to the incident
ray. Does the same happen if a ray of light passes through a glass prism?

Unlike a rectangular slab, the sides of a glass prism are inclined at an angle called the angle
of prism. Therefore, a ray of light incident on its surface, after refraction, will not emerge
parallel to the incident light ray (as seen in the case of a rectangular slab).

Prism

A transparent refracting medium which is bounded by five plane surfaces and having a
triangular cross section is known as prism.

Refraction of light through a glass prism

To observe the refraction of light through a glass prism, we can perform the following
activity.

Take a triangular glass prism, paper sheet, and a few drawing pins. Fix the sheet on a
drawing board with the help of drawing pins. Now, place the glass prism on the sheet and
draw the outline MNP of the prism on the sheet (as shown in the figure). Draw a straight
line AB on the sheet in such a way that it makes some angle with the face MN of the prism.
Now, fix two pins on this line and mark them as R and S respectively.

Now, observe the pins R and S through the other side of the prism. Move your head
laterally to see the two pins R and S in a straight line. Fix a pin on the sheet near the prism
on your side and mark it as T.

Repeat the same step and try to observe the three pins R, S, and T in a straight line. Fix
another pin on the sheet so that all four pins appear to be in a straight line when looked
through the prism. Draw a straight line CD that passes through the third and the fourth pin
i.e., T and W respectively (see figure).
Now, remove the prism and join points B and C. The straight line AB, BC, and CDshows the
path of the light ray. It is clear that the path of light is not a straight line since light bends
towards the base NP.

What causes the light to bend when passed through a prism?

Light bends because of refraction that takes place at points B and C respectively, when it
tries to enter and emerge from the prism.

Now, draw a straight line normal to side MN and let it pass through point B. Similarly,
draw a straight line normal to side MP and let it pass through point C.

Here, line AB = Incident ray

Line BC = Refracted ray

Line CD = Emergent ray

Angle i = Angle of incidence

Angle r = Angle of refraction

Angle e = Angle of emergence

Angle = Angle of deviation

Hence, you will get the path of light ray AB when it travels through a glass prism. The
ray AB will bend towards the normal HI at point B and follow the path BC. Again, it bends
away from the normal GI at C, when it tries to emerge from the prism. This is because the
refractive index of air is less than that of glass. Thus, the incident ray AB will not follow a
straight line BE.

The extent of deviation of the light ray from its path BE to path CD is known as the
angle of deviation ( ).

Do you know what happens when you take white light as incident ray instead of
single ray?

A beam of white light will split into a band of seven colours. The splitting of a beam of white
light into its seven constituent colours, when it passes through a glass prism, is called
the dispersion of light.

Dispersion of white light by a prism

Isaac Newton was one of the greatest mathematicians and physicists the world ever saw. In
1665, with the help of an experiment he showed that white sunlight is actually a mixture of
seven different colours. These constituent colours of white light can be separated with the
help of a glass prism.

Take a glass prism and allow a narrow beam of sunlight to fall on one of its rectangular
surfaces. You will obtain a coloured spectrum with red and violet colour at its extreme. Try
to obtain a sharp coloured band on the screen by slightly rotating the prism. Count the
colours of the band and write the sequence of the colours.
Do you know why white light gets dispersed into seven colours?

When a beam of white light AB enters a prism, it gets refracted at point B and splits into its
seven constituent colours, viz. violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red. The
acronym for the seven constituent colours of white light is VIBGYOR. This splitting of the
light rays occurs because of the different angles of bending for each colour. Hence,
each colour while passing through the prism bends at different angles with respect to the
incident beam. This gives rise to the formation of the colour spectrum.

Can you say which colour undergoes maximum deviation?

Violet light bends the most whereas red colour deviates least.

However, Newton did not stop at this point. He thought that if seven colours can be
obtained from a white light beam, is it possible to obtain white light back from the
seven colours?

For this, he placed an inverted prism in the path of a colour band. He was amazed to see
that only a beam of white light comes out from the second prism. It was at this point that
Newton concluded that white light comprises of seven component colours.
Formation of a rainbow

The rainbow is a natural phenomenon in which white sunlight splits into beautiful colours
by water droplets, which remain suspended in air after the rain.

Let us see how a rainbow is actually formed.

If we stand with our back towards the sun, then we can see the spectrum of these seven
colours.

Do you know why a rainbow is shaped similar to an arc?

This is because the rainbow is formed by the dispersion of white light by spherical water
droplets. It is the shape of the water droplets that gives the rainbow an arc shape.

A rainbow appears arc-shaped for an observer on ground.

However, if he sees the rainbow from an airplane, then he will
be able to see a complete circle. This is because he can observe
the drops that are above him as well as below him.

Atmospheric Refraction
Raj has read in his science book that like the sun, stars are composed mainly of gases. He
has also read that most of the stars are bigger than the sun. This makes him wonder how
stars appear to twinkle at night. Do you know what causes the stars to twinkle? Why
does not the sun twinkle?

A Star appears to twinkle because of temperature variation of atmospheric air that results
in a variation in the refractive index of air.

In this section, we will discuss about some natural phenomenon that occur as a
consequence of atmospheric refraction.

Flickering of objects

Observe an object that is placed near a rising flame or fire. It will appear to be flickering.
This is because the air above the fire is relatively hotter than the air further up in the
atmosphere. Hence, hot air rises up and cold air moves in to fill the space. This process
results in the variation of refractive index of air, present in the vicinity of fire. The
refractive index of hot air is less than that of cool air. The physical condition of the
atmosphere changes continuously, thereby bringing a continuous change in the refracting
index of air. Hence, the apparent position of the object seems to fluctuate when seen
through hot air (see figure B).

Twinkling of stars

Light coming from the stars undergoes refraction on entering the Earth’s atmosphere. This
refraction continues until it reaches the Earth’s surface. This happens because of
temperature variation of atmospheric air. Hence, the atmospheric air has changing
refractive index at various altitudes. In this case, starlight continuously travels from a rarer
medium to a denser medium. Hence, it continuously bends towards the normal.
The refractive index of air medium gradually increases with a decrease in altitude. The
continuous bending of starlight towards the normal results in a slight rise of the apparent
position of the star.

Since the physical conditions of the Earth’s atmosphere keeps changing, the apparent
position of the star is not stationary. The star changes its position continuously, which
makes it twinkle. This happens because starlight travels a very large distance before
reaching the observer. However, the path varies continuously because of uneven
atmospheric conditions. Hence, the stars seem to be fluctuating, sometimes appearing
brighter and sometimes fainter. All this together, gives rise to the twinkling effect of stars.

The sun and the other planets of the solar system are relatively closer to the Earth. Thus,
these are not seen as point sources like stars, but are considered as extended sources. Any
variation or fluctuation of light coming from any part cancels out with each other. This
results in zero fluctuation. Hence, the sun and the planets do not twinkle.

There is no twinkling effect of the sun as seen from the Earth’s surface. What happens to
its apparent position as observed from the Earth?

Early sunrise and delayed sunset

As viewed from the Earth, the sun rises 2 minutes before the actual sunrise and sets 2
minutes after the actual sunset.

So, you see how we get to see sunrise 2 minutes before the actual sunrise. Similarly, after 2
minutes of sunset, we can still see the sun. Hence, atmospheric refraction lengthens a day
by 2 + 2 = 4 minutes every day.

We define the phenomenon of sunrise as the rise of the sun above the horizon.
Similarly, sunset is defined as the phenomenon of setting of the sun below the
horizon.

Scattering of Light

Do you know why the sky appears blue in colour? What causes the water, which is
colourless, to appear blue in the ocean? What do you think about the red colour of
the sun at sunrise and sunset?

These natural phenomena are governed by the scattering of sunlight through suspended
air particles present in it from random directions. Scattered sunlight may be white or of
any component of the seven colours, depending on the size of the particles that cause the
scattering. This phenomenon is governed by the Tyndall effect.

Tyndall effect
 The Tyndall effect is caused by the scattering of light by very small air particles, which are
suspended in the Earth’s atmosphere. To observe the Tyndall effect, the particles diameter

should be less than th of the wavelength of the light used.

This effect can be seen when light enters through a hole in a dark room filled with dust
particles. Have you looked at light rays coming through clouds, holes, or headlight
beams during a foggy night? These are some well known examples of the Tyndall effect.

Do You Know:

John Tyndall (1820-1893) was one of the most distinguishing physicists of

the 19th century. He was the first person to explain the reason behind the
appearance of sky as blue. The Tyndall effect, named after him, shows that
light is scattered by the particles of the medium. His other contributions
are in the field of geology and physics.

Take few mL of milk in a transparent glass and dilute it with water to make it appear
cloudy. Now, take a laser torch and point the beam through the solution. Observe the
solution. Does the path of laser beam become visible in the solution? Why?

You are able to see the path of laser light because of the scattering of laser beam by the
suspended particles of milk in the solution. This is another example of the Tyndall effect.

The colour of the scattered light depends on the particle size.

 Fine particles mainly scatter blue light.

 Large particles scatter red light.

 It is observed that blue colour light scatters more easily than red colour light. This is
because red colour light is of a longer wave length.
Some natural phenomena related to the Tyndall effect

If there was no atmosphere on the Earth, there would no scattering of light. Hence, in
deep space, the sky will appear to be dark.

The least scattering red colour light finds its application in various fields. For example, in
marking red light, danger signals etc. red colour is preferred because it is scattered least by
fog, smoke, and dust particles present in air.

2. Sunrise and sunset

At sunrise or sunset, the sun is located near the horizon of the Earth. Hence, light has to
travel a long distance through the Earth’s atmosphere. At the time of sunrise or sunset,
when white sunlight falls on suspended atmospheric particles, blue colour light scatters out
in deep space, while red colour light scatters less, and reaches the observer on the surface
of the Earth. Hence, when this less scattered red light reaches our eyes, the sun and its
surroundings appear to be reddish.

When located overhead, why does not the sun appear reddish in colour?

This is because light travels a relatively shorter distance when located overhead. Because
of this reason, scattering of blue as well as red light is much less when the sun is located
overhead.

Do You Know:
 When there is no impurity present in air, the colour of the sun at sunrise and sunset
appears to be yellowish. Due to the presence of salt particles in air over seas and oceans,
the colour of the sun at sunrise or sunset appears to be orange.

 Due to the presence of red iron-rich dust, the sky appears red from the Martian surface. All
these natural phenomena take place due to the scattering of sunlight