4.31.1. Abbreviations. Types of abbreviations.

Abbreviations take the form of shortened words, acronyms or other abbreviations, as

shown below.
(a) Shortened words are often used without the writer being aware of the original
form. ‘Bus’ comes from ‘omnibus’, which is hardly used in modern English. However,
‘refrigerator’ is still better in written English than the informal ‘fridge’. ‘Public house’ is
now very formal (‘pub’ is acceptable), but ‘television’ or ‘TV’ should be used instead of the
idiomatic ‘telly’.
(b) Acronyms are made up of the initial letters of a name or phrase (e.g. AIDS =
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). They are pronounced as words.
(c) Other abbreviations are read as sets of individual letters. They include names of
countries, organisations and companies (USA/ BBC/ IBM), and also abbreviations that are
only found in written English (e.g. PTO means ‘please turn over’). Note that in many cases
abbreviations are widely used without most users knowing what the individual letters stand
for (e.g. DNA, DVD).
There are many standard abbreviations that have a full stop after them to show that it is a
shortened form (lt. = litre). Other examples are govt. (government), co. (company) and Oct.
(October). With acronyms and other abbreviations there is no standard pattern for using full
stops, so both BBC and B.B.C. are used. There is, however, a tendency to use full stops less.
The important thing is to employ a consistent style in your work.
Abbreviations can be confusing. PC, for example, may stand for ‘personal computer’ but
also ‘politically correct’ or ‘Police Constable’. It is useful to be aware of these potential
confusions. A good dictionary should be used to understand more unusual abbreviations.
4.31.2. Academic vocabulary: adjectives in academic writing.
Academic texts depend heavily on adjectives (which modify nouns and noun phrases) in
order to communicate meaning effectively.

4.31.3. Accuracy in writing.

Writing is a skill that is required in many contexts throughout life. However, academic
writing does many of the things that personal writing does not: it has its own set of rules and
practices. These rules and practices may be organized around a formal order or structure in
which to present ideas, in addition to ensuring that ideas are supported by author citations in
the literature.
Academic writing follows a particular ‘tone and adheres to traditional conventions of
punctuation, grammar, and spelling. In academic writing, you should always follow rules of
punctuation and grammar, especially as the end-user or consumer of your writing, unlike a
friend, is likely to be very different from you and will not always know to what you are
referring to. Hence, it is vital that you are clear. Punctuation and the conventions of grammar
are universally known systems (within English-speaking cultures) that maintain clarity and
avoid ambiguity in expression.
Accuracy is only one aspect of the total fabric of good writing. Few teachers will be
concerned by one minor mistake with a preposition or plural in a sentence. But if a student is
making mistakes in every other word there is likely to be serious confusion about meaning,
so that the teacher is unable to mark the work fairly.
Non-native users of English tend to have problems that relate to their mother tongue.
Japanese speakers, for example, find it difficult to use articles in English because these are
not found in Japanese. It is unrealistic for overseas students to expect to reach 100%
accuracy (and many native English speakers have similar difficulty). But they should aim to
steadily improve their accuracy, to make their work as clear and readable as possible.

4.31.4. Adverbs in academic writing.

Academic texts depend heavily on adverbs (which modify verbs, adjectives and other
adverbs) in order to communicate meaning effectively.
Adverbs are used in academic writing in a variety of ways. Among the most important
are:
(a) to provide more detail, with verbs and adjectives: Reasonably good data are
available for only . . . Economists traditionally argued for import controls.
(b) individually, often at the beginning of sentences, to introduce new points or link
sentences together: Currently, the Earth’s atmosphere appears to be warming up.
Alternatively, the use of non-conventional renewable energies . . .
Adverbs used individually need to be employed with care. It is dangerous to overuse
them, since they are often like the author’s ‘voice’, commenting on the topic. As the
academic writer aims to be objective, adverbs such as ‘fortunately’ or ‘remarkably’ may be
unsuitable.
Adverbs linked to verbs and adjectives usually fall into three groups:
(a) time (when?) previously published retrospectively examined
(b) degree (how much?) declined considerably contribute substantially
(c) manner (in what way?) financially complicated remotely located

4.31.5. Articles in academic writing.

Articles operate as limiting adjectives that help us recognize which person,
place, thing, or idea is being discussed. Notwithstanding their apparent simple rules,
articles are difficult to master for non-native English speakers. For native speakers of
English, article use evolves over time because of daily conversations in a variety of
social contexts, reading, and observation.
Articles are used to indicate whether a noun refers to a specific or a general item. There are
two types of articles, definite and indefinite. However, in your choice about whether to use
an article, or which one to use, you have four possible choices: the, a, an, or no article.
Countable nouns in English are usually those that can take a plural form (e.g. lecture,
lectures, essay, essays, student, students).
Uncountable nouns in English usually do not have a plural form. They include names for
languages, subjects (biology, economics, history), solids (iron, coal), liquids (water, oil),
gases (oxygen, hydrogen), powders (sugar, flour). However, some nouns can be both
countable and uncountable, depending on the context or meaning. This group includes words
like paper, discipline, space.
 4.31.6. Avoiding plagiarism.
Plagiarism is the use of someone else’s ideas or language without acknowledging that we did
not create them. This definition applies to ideas, words and unusual structures regardless of
where we find them—in a book, on a webpage, in an email. Whenever we include another
person’s information or wording in a document, we must acknowledge the source and
include a citation that will tell your readers where we obtained it—otherwise we are guilty of
plagiarism.
Avoiding plagiarism by summarising and paraphrasing:
Quotations should not be overused, so you must learn to paraphrase and summarise in order
to include other writers’ ideas in your work.
Paraphrasing involves rewriting a text so that the language is substantially different while
the content stays the same. Summarising means reducing the length of a text but retaining
the main points

4.31.7. Avoiding repetition and redundancy.

Repetition means repeating a word instead of using a synonym to provide variety, which
makes the text more interesting.
Redundancy, i.e. repeating an idea or including an irrelevant point, suggests that the writer is
not fully in control of the material. It gives the impression that either he does not properly
understand the language or is trying to ‘pad’ the essay by repeating the same point.
Avoiding repetition at the paper level: don’t restate points you’ve already made, don’t use
the same heading more than once, to avoid providing redundant information. 
Avoiding repetition at the sentence level: use a variety of different transition words; vary the
structure and length of your sentences; don’t use the same pronoun to reference more than
one antecedent; avoid repetition of particular sounds or words ; avoid redundancies; don’t
state the obvious.

4.31.8. Caution style.

In the academic world knowledge is socially constructed, that is to say that for new ideas or
knowledge to be widely accepted, substantial evidence has to be provided and where
possible, findings for research need to be validated with further research conducted in
different contexts. For this reason, try avoid claiming "this is true and everyone agrees" and
instead suggest "this seems to be true, but more research is needed to confirm this." This is
called cautious (or tentative) language.
A cautious style is necessary in many areas of academic writing to avoid making
statements that can be contradicted.
Areas where caution is particularly important include:
(a) Outlining a hypothesis that needs to be tested (e.g. in an introduction).
(b) Discussing the results of a study, which may not be conclusive.
(c) Commenting on the work of other writers.
(d) Making predictions (normally with may or might).
Caution is also needed to avoid making statements that are too simplistic. Caution can be
shown in several ways using modal verb, adverb, verb.
Another way to express caution is to use quite, rather or fairly before an adjective: a fairly
accurate summary; a rather inconvenient location quite; a significant discovery.
 4.31.9. Comparison in academic writing. The language cause and effect.
It is often necessary to make comparisons in academic writing. The comparison might
be the subject of the essay, or might provide evidence for the argument. In all cases it is
important to explain clearly what is being compared and to make the comparison as accurate
as possible.
Cause and effect - is a relationship between events or things, where one is the result of the
other or others. This is a combination of action and reaction.
Cause and effect can be expressed through:
nouns – cause of/reason for/source of,
verbs – to cause/lead to/result in/affect,
prepositional phrases – because of/due to/on account of/as a result of/owing to/in view of,
linking words – because, thus, therefore, so, consequently, as a result, as a consequence
The same message can be expressed differently, depending on what the focus is put
on, either the cause or the effect.
To express cause, we use because, owing to the fact that, due to the fact that, for this
reason, on the grounds that, since, as, In view of, Because of, Owing to, Seeing that…
To express effect, these linking words are useful: thus, therefore, so, consequently, as
a result, as a consequence.

4.31.10. Conjunctions in academic writing.

Conjunctions are words or phrases which join parts of a sentence together, or link a sentence
to the next one. Effective reading and writing requires clarity about their meaning.
Conjunctions are commonly used with specific situations. Types of conjunctions: reason,
opposition.
5 examples of frequently used conjunctions:
Synonyms: Consequently, hence, so, as such.
Synonyms: Moreover, additionally, in addition.
Synonyms: While, though, although.
Synonyms: Consequently, as a result.
Synonyms: nonetheless, despite, in spite of.

4.31.11. Counter-argument.
Counter-arguments are ideas that are opposite to your ideas. In an academic
discussion, you must show that you are familiar with both sides of the argument, and provide
reasons to support your position. It is usual to deal with the counter-arguments first, before
giving your view.
Counterargument in an essay has two stages: you turn against your argument to
challenge it and then you turn back to re-affirm it. You first imagine a skeptical reader, or
cite an actual source, who might resist your argument by pointing out:
a problem with your demonstration, e.g., that a different conclusion could be drawn
from the same facts, a key assumption is unwarranted, a key term is used unfairly, certain
evidence is ignored or played down;
 one or more disadvantages or practical drawbacks to what you propose;
an alternative explanation or proposal that makes more sense.
You introduce this turn against with a phrase like One might object here that... or It
might seem that... or It's true that... or Admittedly,... or Of course,... or with an anticipated
challenging question: But how...? or But why...? or But isn't this just...? or But if this is so,
what about...? Then you state the case against yourself as briefly but as clearly and forcefully
as you can, pointing to evidence where possible. (An obviously feeble or perfunctory
counterargument does more harm than good.)

4.31.12. Dangling Modifiers.

A dangling modifier (also known as a hanging modifier or illogical participle) is a
type of ambiguous grammatical construct whereby a grammatical modifier could be
misinterpreted as being associated with a word other than the one intended. A dangling
modifier has no subject and is usually a participle. For example, a writer may have meant to
modify the subject, but word order used means that the modifier appears to modify an object
instead. Such ambiguities can lead to unintentional humor, or, in formal contexts, difficult
incomprehension.
As an adjunct, a modifier clause is normally at the beginning of the end of a sentence
and usually attached to the subject of the main clause, as in "Walking down the street
(clause), the man (subject) saw the beautiful trees (object).
Dangling modifiers don't usually lead to ambiguity because the missing term is nearly
always implicit or even mentioned, either in a recent sentence or in the form of a possessive
determiner.
To ensure you don't use a dangling modifier yourself, assume any modifier you use is
dangling until you've nailed it to the term it's modifying.

4.31.13. Definitions in academic writing.

Academic writing is the formal writing style used in colleges and universities. It’s
what students are expected to produce for classes and what professors and academic
researchers use to write scholarly materials. High schools sometimes require academic
writing style in certain classes.

A simple academic writing definition is hard to come by because there are many types and
forms of academic writing, produced for a variety of reasons. Different types of academic
writing include: abstract, annotated bibliography, academic journal article, book report,
conference paper, dissertation, essay, explication, literary criticism, research paper, research
proposal, textbook, thesis. While this is not an exhaustive list of every possible form
academic writing can take, it does contain the most common types.

While specific requirements may vary based on the particular form of academic writing or
the class or publication for which a work is produced, some characteristics are common to all
academic writing.

 formal tone - A formal tone is always used in academic writing. It is not lighthearted
or conversational in tone. Slang and clichés do not belong in this type of writing.
 precise language - In keeping with the formal tone, it’s important to choose precise
language that very clearly conveys the author’s meaning.
  point-of-view (POV) - Academic writing is usually written in third person
POV because its focus is to educate on the facts rather than to support an opinion or
give advice.
 research focus - Because most academic writing involves reporting research results, it
tends to focus on the specific research question(s) being studied.

 organization - Academic writing should be organized logically in a linear, matter-of-

fact fashion. Use headings to delineate each major section.
 source citations - Most academic writing includes at least some secondary research
sources. Be sure to properly cite all sources and include a bibliography.

There is considerable variation in the format of academic writing required

by different schools and departments. Your teachers may give you guide-
lines, or you should ask them what they want. But some general features
apply to most formats.

4.31.14. Simple and complex definitions in academic writing.

Definitions are usually found in introductions. They are not needed in every case, but
if the title includes an unfamiliar phrase, or if the writer wants to use a term in a special way,
it is important to make clear to the reader exactly what is meant in this context.
Basic definitions are formed by giving a category and the application:
Word: An agenda
The category: is a set of issues
Application: to be discussed in a meeting
or
Word: A master’s degree
The category: is an academic award
Application: for postgraduate students, given on completion of a dissertation

4.31.15. Describing charts, graphs and tables.

In many assignments, it is essential to support your arguments with statistics. Visual
devices such as graphs and tables are a convenient way of displaying large quantities of
information in a form that is easy to understand.
A table is a set of facts and figures arranged in columns and rows. A table is a very
useful way of organising numerical information.
A chart is a diagram that makes information easier to understand by showing how two
or more sets of data are related.There are two common types of chart, a pie chart and a bar
chart. A pie chart is a circle divided into segments. It is usually used to show percentages. A
bar chart is a diagram containing bars or columns that makes information easier to
understand by showing the difference between two or more sets of numbers or
measurements.
A graph is a diagram containing lines or curves, which shows the trends of two or
more sets of numbers or measurements.
Although visuals do largely speak for themselves, it is common to help the reader
interpret them by briefly commenting on their main features.
• When referring to visual information in the text, the word ‘figure’ is used for almost
everything (such as maps, charts and graphs) except tables (see examples above).
 • Figures and tables should be numbered and given a title. Titles of tables are written
above, while titles of figures are written below the data.
• As with other data, sources must be given for all visual information.
• If you are writing a lengthy work such as a dissertation you will need to provide lists
of tables and figures, showing numbers, titles and page numbers after the contents page.

4.31.16. Designing and reporting surveys.

Surveys, in which people are asked questions about their behavior or opinions are a
common feature of academic work.
When designing your questionnaire:
(a) Limit the number of questions so the respondent can answer them in a minute or
two. Long and complicated questionnaires will not receive accurate replies.
(b) Keep questions clear and simple, and not too personal.
(c) Closed questions
(bii) are easier to process, but open questions
(bi) will collect a wider range of responses.
(d) You should try putting the questions before beginning the full survey, and be ready
to modify any that were not clear.
The background information of your survey research may need to be fine-tuned into a
structured report format for a polished presentation. Survey research reports typically have
the following components: title page, table of contents, executive summary, methodology,
findings, survey conclusions, and recommendations.

4.31.17. Essays. Researching essays.

Essay – The most common type of written work, with the title given by the teacher,
normally 1000–5000 words. When preparing to write an essay you have to search for
information and ideas relevant to your subject. Therefore the key points that you select
must relate to that topic. At the end of an essay or report there must be a list of all the
sources cited in the writing.
A research essay is a type of essay that involves a writer reading about someone’s else
researches, analyzing them, and also comparing them with their ideas. Often, people mistake
the research essay for the term paper. This is not correct. The research essay is meant to lead
people to the research of others, and make them compare that research to the research that
they are currently reading.

4.31.18. Examples in academic writing.

Examples are used in academic writing for support and illustration. Suitable examples
can strengthen the argument, and they can also help the reader to understand a point.
Generalizations are commonly used to introduce a topic. But if the reader is given an
example for illustration the idea becomes more concrete. The example may also support the
point the writer is making. Phrases to introduce examples
(a) for instance, for example (with commas)
(b) such as, e.g.
(c) particularly, especially (to give a focus)
(d) a case in point (for single examples)

4.31.19. Formal letters.

Although less common than before electronic communication became available, letters are
still important for formal matters, or when an email address is unknown. They are also
considered to be more reliable than emails.
A formal letter is one written in an orderly and conventional language and follows a specific
stipulated format. These letters are written for official purposes only, such as writing a letter
to the manager. Formal Letter So Important because it is as Acts as a Representative,
Subjects Linked with Business, Valuable Evidence, Reference to Future Transaction,
Sustains Goodwill, Motivates People, Expands Business.
A formal letter generally uses the family name in the greeting (Dear Ms Tan). Certain
organisations may, however, use a first name with a family name or even a first name alone
(Dear Jane Tan, Dear Jane)There are relevant elements that should be noted in the letter. You
can use not all, depending on the type of letter: Return address, The date, Reference,
Delivery, Recipient, Salutation, Introductory part, Main part, Conclusion, Closing, Signature,
Preparation line, Enclosures, Copies of courtesy or SS abbreviation, Logo and contact
information

4.31.20. E-mails and faxes.

The following forms are acceptable ways to begin an email if you know the recipient:
Hi Sophie, Dear Sophie, Hello Sophie
If you have not met the recipient it may be safer to use: Dear Sophie Gratton, Dear
Ms. Gratton, Dear Dr. Gratton
If you need to send an email to a large group (e.g. colleagues) you may use: Hi
everyone, Hello all
In all cases to close the message, you can use: Regards, Best wishes, Best regards
You may also add a standard formula before this: Look forward to meeting next week/
Let me know if you need further information.
The main text
Here you can use common contractions (I’ve, don’t) and idiomatic
language, but the normal rules for punctuation should be followed to
avoid confusion. Spelling mistakes are just as likely to cause misunderstanding in
emails as elsewhere. Always check for spelling and grammar problems before pressing the
‘send’ key. Note that emails tend to be short, although longer documents may be added as
attachments.

4.31.21. Generalisation in academic writing.

Generalization is a situation when people may miss a lot of details to make a simple
claim. In particular, it is a case when people make a general judgment on a specific concept.
However, the process leads to missing a lot of details since only important points are
covered. As a result, the whole representation of elements can be changed while critical
thinking develops the understanding of it. Therefore, the generalization process means
summing up general aspects to make a judgment.Firstly, generalization leads to a wrong
understanding. For example, it narrows the understanding abilities of some ideas. In
conclusion, generalization hinders active learning. Basically, people who generalize concepts
have a narrow understanding of various ideas. Through generalization, they assume that
related objects are similar in all traits. However, actual examples teach persons to appreciate
that things may have minor differences. Hence, the approach prevents people from
 simplifying concepts. Moreover, training people to be critical thinkers can prevent this
problem. In particular, they can relate objects and seek to find similarities and differences.
Along these lines, they develop a deeper understanding of the situation and avoid
simplifying knowledge. Therefore, generalizing experience makes people miss ideas, but we
can solve the problem through critical thinking.

4.31.22. Morphology: word-formation, prefixes and suffixes.

Morphology is the study of words and their parts. Morphemes, like prefixes, suffixes and base
words, are defined as the smallest meaningful units of meaning. Morphemes are important for
phonics in both reading and spelling, as well as in vocabulary and comprehension. Teaching
morphemes unlocks the structures and meanings within words. It is very useful to have a strong
awareness of prefixes, suffixes and base words. These are often spelt the same across different
words, even when the sound changes, and often have a consistent purpose and/or meaning.
There are four main kinds of word formation: prefixes, suffixes, conversion and compounds.
A prefix is a group of letters which we add to the beginning of a word to make a new
word with a different meaning. Prefixes can, for example, create a new word opposite in
meaning to the word the prefix is attached to. The list below shows common prefixes in
English that you should know.  
A suffix is a group of letters placed at the end of a word to make a new word. In this
article, you will find a list of suffix with their meaning and examples in English.

4.31.23. Nouns in academic writing.

A noun is a word that names something, such as a person, place, thing, or idea. In a sentence,
nouns can play the role of subject, direct object, indirect object, subject complement, object
complement, appositive, or adjective. Nouns form a large proportion of English vocabulary
and they come in a wide variety of types. Nouns can name a person. Nouns can also name
things, although sometimes they might be intangible things, such as concepts, activities, or
processes. Some might even be hypothetical or imaginary things. One important distinction
to be made is whether a noun is a proper noun or a common noun. A proper noun is a
specific name of a person, place, or thing, and is always capitalized. The opposite of a proper
noun is a common noun, sometimes known as a generic noun. A common noun is the
generic name of an item in a class or group and is not capitalized unless appearing at the
beginning of a sentence or in a title. Common or generic nouns can be broken down into
three subtypes: concrete nouns, abstract nouns, and collective nouns. A concrete noun is
something that is perceived by the senses; something that is physical or real. Every sentence
must have a subject, and that subject will always be a noun. The subject of a sentence is the
person, place, or thing that is doing or being the verb in that sentence. Nouns can also be
objects of a verb in a sentence. An object can be either a direct object (a noun that receives
the action performed by the subject) or an indirect object (a noun that is the recipient of a
direct object). Another type of noun use is called a subject complement. In this example,
the noun teacher is used as a subject complement. An appositive noun is a noun that
immediately follows another noun in order to further define or identify it. Plural nouns,
unlike collective nouns, require plural verbs. Many English plural nouns can be formed
by adding -s or -es to the singular form, although there are many exceptions. Countable
nouns are nouns which can be counted, even if the number might be extraordinarily
high (like counting all the people in the world). Countable nouns can be used with a/an,
the, some, any, a few, and many. Uncountable nouns are nouns that come in a state or
quantity which is impossible to count; liquids are uncountable, as are things that act like
liquids (sand, air). They are always considered to be singular, and can be used with
some, any, a little, and much. Possessive nouns are nouns which possess something;
i.e., they have something. You can identify a possessive noun by the apostrophe; most
nouns show the possessive with an apostrophe and an s.

4.31.24. Numbers and figures in academic writing.

The rules for using numbers in academic writing vary among academic disciplines. The
conventions described here are for non-technical academic prose where numbers are not a
significant focus. Scientific and technical writing will have their own conventions and
students should consult a manual dedicated to those standards. The main rules about the use
of numbers in standard academic writing are about: When to write numbers in words?
Write in words all numbers under one hundred, rounded numbers and ordinal numbers
For general academic writing, you need to write these numbers in words: all numbers under
one hundred (e.g. ninety-nine) rounded numbers (e.g. four hundred, two thousand, six
million) and ordinal numbers (e.g. third, twenty-fifth). Exceptions: see below, When to write
numbers in digits. Write in words numbers beginning a sentence
Either write the number in words or, if that’s awkward, then rewrite the sentence to avoid
beginning the sentence with a numeral. Exception: You can begin a sentence with a date.
Write in words approximate numbers and some times of the day
In non-technical academic writing, write in words the number for approximate figures
(including fractions) and for full, half and quarter hour times.

How to avoid confusion with numbers in a sentence

Avoid confusion when using two numbers together (run-on numbers) or when dealing with
several numbers in a single sentence by:
  using digits and words to distinguish run-on numbers
 being consistent in style within the sentence

How to write numbers correctly

There are particular conventions which apply, depending on whether you are required to
express numbers using digits or words.

Expressing numbers using digits

1. Numbers 1–9999 do not use spaces or commas (e.g. 3333 – no spaces for four-digit

numbers).
2. Numbers 10 000–999 999 have a single space between the hundreds and thousands
(e.g. There were 287 701 participants in the survey.).
3. Numbers from 1 000 000 have a single space between millions and thousands, and
between thousands and hundreds (e.g. The population of this Australian city was 2 467
789 on the 3 December 2008.).

Expressing numbers using words

1. Numbers greater than 999 have a comma after the word thousand and after the
word million (e.g. 3 206 411 = three million, two hundred and six thousand, four
hundred and eleven).
2. Two-digit numbers and fractions use hyphens (e.g. 94 = ninety-four; ¾ = three-
quarters).

Figures (e.g. diagrams, graphs, photographs, maps) may be used as evidence to support
academic argument. They are mostly used in report writing. It is important that figures are
used purposefully (i.e. with good reason) and referenced correctly.

For ALL tables and figures:

 Labelling—put the label ABOVE for tables and BELOW for figures (e.g. diagrams,
graphs, photographs, maps)
 Numbering—make sure that tables and figures (e.g. diagrams, graphs, photographs,
maps) are numbered sequentially. There should be two numbering series: one for tables
and one for figures (e.g. Table 1., Table 2. AND Figure 1., Figure 2.)
 Positioning—place tables and figures immediately below the paragraph/relevant text
 In-text referencing—refer to the table or figure by number in your writing (e.g. Table 6
shows that …)
 Diagram referencing—provide a reference to an authority if the table or figure is from
or adapted from an outside source. If you have created the table or image yourself from
your own data collection, you must still use a number and label, but no reference is
required
 Larger tables and figures—place large (one page and over) tables or figures in the
appendices (see ASO Factsheet: Appendices )

4.31.25. Peculiarities of academic style.

 Features of academic writing

Introduction

Try this exercise.

Academic writing in English is linear, which means it has one central point or theme with
every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetitions. Its
objective is to inform rather than entertain. As well as this it is in the standard written form
of the language.There are ten main features of academic writing that are often discussed.
Academic writing is to some extent: complex, formal, objective, explicit, hedged, and
responsible. It uses language precisely and accurately. It is also well organised and planned.

Complexity

Written language is relatively more complex than spoken language. Written language has
longer words, it is lexically more dense and it has a more varied vocabulary. It uses more
noun-based phrases than verb-based phrases. Written texts are shorter and the language has
more grammatical complexity, including more subordinate clauses and more passives.

Complexity

Formality

Academic writing is relatively formal. In general this means that in an essay you should
avoid colloquial words and expressions.

Formality

Precision

In academic writing, facts and figures are given precisely.

Precision

Objectivity

Written language is in general objective rather than personal. It therefore has fewer words
that refer to the writer or the reader. This means that the main emphasis should be on the
information that you want to give and the arguments you want to make, rather than you. For
that reason,  academic writing tends to use nouns (and adjectives), rather than verbs (and
adverbs).

Objectivity

Explicitness

Academic writing is explicit about the relationships int he text. Furthermore, it is the
responsibility of the writer in English to make it clear to the reader how the various parts of
the text are related. These connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling
words.

Explicitness

Accuracy

Academic writing uses vocabulary accurately. Most subjects have words with narrow
specific meanings. Linguistics distinguishes clearly between "phonetics" and "phonemics";
general English does not.

Accuracy

Hedging

In any kind of academic writing you do, it is necessary to make decisions about your stance
on a particular subject, or the strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer
to do this in different ways.

A technique common in certain kinds of academic writing is known by linguists as a

‘hedge’.

Hedging

Responsibility

In academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and
justification for, any claims you make. You are also responsible for demonstrating an
understanding of any source texts you use.

Responsibility

Organisation

Academic writing is well organised. It flows easily from one section to the next in a logical
fashion. A good place to start is the genre of your text. Once you have decided on the genre,
the structure is easily determined..

Organisation

Planning

Academic writing is well planned. It usually takes place after research and evaluation,
according to a specific purpose and plan.

4.31.26. Prepositions in academic writing.

Prepositions are small words that show a relationship between one word and another
word in English. They may not exist in another language, or they may be used differently.
We use on because it is the basis for something. Here are the prepositions most commonly
used in academic writing, with some explanations for their use:
about - around something or enclosing something
at - connected to a location
for - with a purpose or giving a reason
from - the origin of something
in - completely or partly enclosed by something
of - belonging to something or someone; contained in something
on - the basis for something
to - in a direction
with - connected to something and near something; using something
Often there are clues that tell us which preposition to use. For example, in often
follows a word with the prefix in or en - involved in; instructing us in; engaging them in. The
preposition with often follows a word with the prefix com or con.

4.31.27. Punctuation in academic writing.

By punctuation we mean the use of standard marks and signs in writing and printing to separate words into
sentences, clauses, and phrases in order to clarify meaning. The use of punctuation marks may seem
secondary compared to grammar or vocabulary. However, this seems to cause difficulties to students in their
written academic work. Firstly, because the inappropriate use of the punctuation marks may affect the way
your reader understands what you have written, so it affects meaning. Secondly, because inappropriate use
also affects the overall impression of your work.
A full-stop (.) is used to separate sentences.
A question mark (?) is used when the sentence is actually asking a question. In academic writing, direct
questions are usually rarely used, but can be particularly useful at a key point in an argument.
An exclamation mark (!) is used to close an emphatic declaration, interjection, or command. However, the
exclamation mark is rarely used in academic writing.
In conversational English, an exclamation mark is sometimes used to mark the end of an imperative.
Imperatives are also used in academic writing, but a full stop is used.
The comma, semicolon, colon and apostrophe are mid-sentence punctuation marks.
A comma is used in a series, except between two items separated by and or between three items separated
from one another by ands. Remember to place a comma before the coordinating conjunction joining the last
two elements of the series. Without it, the intended meaning of the sentence may be misunderstood.
A comma is used to coordinate adjectives: between equal adjectives with no coordinating conjunction
between them. A comma is used to separate compound elements and sentences: between Independent
Clauses in Compound Sentences.A comma is used after introductory phrases such as long prepositional
phrases or a succession of prepositional phrases.
A comma is used after participial phrases. A comma is used after adverbial infinitives and adverbial clauses.
A comma is used after interrupters, and parenthetical expressions.
A comma is used after a name followed by Jr., Sr., Ph.D., M.D.
A semicolon (;) is used between independent clauses not joined by coordinating conjunctions such as for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so, in other words it is used instead of a conjunction:
 A semicolon is used to separate items in a list where the items have internal punctuation, and are themselves
long and/or complicated. A semicolon is used between independent clauses containing internal punctuation.
A colon (:) is used before a list, or to introduce a quotation, data, a figure or diagram, etc.
A colon is used between two independent clauses when the second explains the first one:
An apostrophe (‘‘) is used:
 To show ownership
 To show joint ownership
 To show individual ownership
 Sometimes, to form the plural of letters, numbers, and signs, and of words referred to as words.
Brackets (parentheses) are used to indicate extra information in a sentence which is marginal to the sentence.
In academic writing, the most common use of brackets is for referencing. In this case, the year of
publication, or both the name of the author and the year of publication, should be placed between brackets.
Brackets are also used to add additional information or to provide examples.
It is easy to check whether the brackets are necessary or not: if the information between brackets can be left
out, and the sentence makes sense without it, then they are necessary.

Quotation marks, either single (‘ ‘) or double (“ “) are used similarly, but you should use them consistently
throughout your text. They are used when you directly quote from another text or to show that you are using
a word or expression in a special way.
Dashes (–) are used to separate parts of a sentence in informal writing, or for dramatic effect in some genres.
In academic writing, it is better to avoid them.

4.31.28. Punctuation: commas in academic writing.

Comma- the symbol , used in writing to separate parts of
a sentence showing a slight pause, or to separate the single things in a list
Using in Academic Writing:
• To separate conjunctions
• To separate spoken part from the unspoken
• To enclose non-defining relative clauses, non
essential details and comments
• An explanatory introductory phrase in
highlighted
with commas on both sides
• To separate items in a series or list
• To distinguish all place names, dates,
addresses and headings in names
• To separate phrases and clauses
• To separate questions tags from the rest
of the sentence
• To separate introductory words
Not using in Academic Writing:

• When words or phrase are used in

direct address
 • After the words like yes, no,oh,ah.

4.31.29. Reference words.

"Reference words" are one of the rhetorical devices that allow a writer to create
cohesion throughout a text. They constitute a large group of mostly "pronouns" and "noun
phrases," less frequently other parts of speech. Reference words represent other elements in a
text and allow the writer to manipulate these elements in different ways.
An examination of the highlighted words in the paragraph will reveal two notable
features about them: they cannot stand alone; rather, they need to connect with other words
to complete their meanings; they are used when new information is added about the things
that they refer to, hence, the name "reference words".

4.31.30. References and quotations.

A reference is a short record clearly referring to a title listed in the bibliography. It is
directly associated with a quotation as regards content as well as form. A reference specifies
how a source can be found in your bibliography. Sometimes sources are quoted entirely in
footnotes, at least when mentioning them for the first time. When quoting the same source
again, it is common to indicate author, year of publication and abbreviated title.
Depending on your citation, it is possible to refer to sources in the running text, in a
footnote, at the end of a chapter or paper. It doesn't really matter which option is preferred
unless a certain way of quotation is explicitly required.
Quotations
Quotations repeat another author's words exactly and are used in case : these words are
followed by an interpretation,
a technical term is used for the first time, or this quotation is the gist of the matter and
supports your own arguments.
Quotations from other sources are put in quotation marks along with final characters,
usually in their original language.