Summary

■ Alternating voltage varies ■ Wavelength  is the distance a wave amplitudes of these waves are
continuously in magnitude and travels in one cycle. The higher the usually measured in peak-to-peak
periodically reverses in polarity. When frequency, the shorter the value.
alternating voltage is applied across wavelength. The wavelength also ■ Harmonic frequencies are exact
a load resistance, the result is depends on the velocity at which the multiples of the fundamental
alternating current in the circuit. wave travels:   v/f , where v is frequency.
■ A complete set of values repeated velocity of the wave and f is the
frequency. ■ The ac voltage used in residences
periodically is one cycle of the ac range from 115 to 125 V rms with a
waveform. The cycle can be measured ■ Phase angle is the angular difference frequency of 60 Hz. The nominal
from any one point on the wave to in time between corresponding voltage is usually given as 120 V.
the next successive point having the values in the cycles for two
waveforms of the same frequency. ■ For residential wiring, the three-wire,
same value and varying in the same
single-phase Edison system shown in
direction. One cycle includes 360 in ■ When one sine wave has its Fig. 15–21 is used to provide either
angular measure, or 2 rad. maximum value while the other is at 120 or 240 V.
■ The rms value of a sine wave is zero, the two waves are 90 out of
■ In a motor, the rotating armature
0.707  peak value. phase. Two waveforms with a zero
phase angle between them are in connects to the power line. The
■ The peak amplitude, at 90 and 270 stator field coils provide the
in the cycle, is 1.414  rms value. phase; a 180 phase angle means
opposite phase. magnetic flux cut by the armature as
■ The peak-to-peak value is double the it is forced to rotate. A generator has
peak amplitude, or 2.828  rms for a ■ The length of a phasor arrow the opposite effect: it converts
symmetrical ac waveform. indicates amplitude, and the angle mechanical energy into electrical
corresponds to the phase. A leading output.
■ The average value is 0.637  peak phase is shown by counterclockwise
value. angles. ■ A dc motor has commutator
■ The frequency equals the number of segments contacted by graphite
■ Sine-wave alternating voltage V brushes for the external connections
cycles per second. One cps is 1 Hz. applied across a load resistance R
The audio-frequency (af ) range is to the power source. An ac induction
produces alternating current I in the motor does not have brushes.
16 to 16,000 Hz. Higher frequencies circuit. The current has the same
up to 300,000 MHz are radio waveform, frequency, and phase as ■ In three-phase power, each phase
frequencies. the applied voltage because of the angle is 120. For the Y connections
■ The amount of time for one cycle is resistive load. The amount of I  V/R. in Fig. 15–26a, each pair of output
the period T. The period and fre- terminals has an output of 120 
■ The sawtooth wave and square wave 1.73  208 V. This voltage is known
quency are reciprocals: T  1/f, or are two common examples of
f  1/T . The higher the frequency, as the line-to-line voltage.
nonsinusoidal waveforms. The
the shorter the period.

Important Terms
Alternation one-half cycle of Effective value another name for an Nonsinusoidal waveform any waveform
revolution of a conductor loop rms value. that is not a sine wave or a cosine wave.
rotating through a magnetic field. This Form factor the ratio of the rms to Octave a unit for representing a 2:1
corresponds to one-half cycle of average values. For a sine wave, range in frequencies.
alternating voltage or current. rms  1.11.
____
avg Peak value the maximum amplitude
Average value the arithmetic average of a sine wave.
of all values in a sine wave for one Frequency the number of cycles a
alternation. Average value waveform completes each second. Period the amount of time it takes to
 0.637  peak value. complete one cycle of alternating
Generator a machine or device that voltage or current. The symbol for the
Cycle one complete revolution of a converts mechanical energy into period is T for time. The unit for T is
conductor loop rotating through a electrical energy. the second (s).
magnetic field. For any ac waveform, a Harmonic frequency a frequency that
cycle can be defined to include the Phase angle the angular difference
is an exact multiple of the between two sinusoidal waveforms or
variations between two successive fundamental frequency.
points having the same value and phasors.
varying in the same direction. Hertz (Hz) the basic unit of frequency. Phasor a line representing the
1 Hz  1 cycle per second. magnitude and direction of a quantity,
Decade a unit for representing a 10:1
range in frequencies. Motor a machine or device that converts such as voltage or current, with
electrical energy into mechanical energy. respect to time.

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 Quadrature phase a phase angle of 90. or voltage in heating power. Unless rotation in the circular motion
Radian an angle equal to indicated otherwise, all sine-wave ac producing the induced voltage or
approximately 57.3. measurements are in rms values. rms current.
value  0.707  peak value. Wavelength the distance a waveform
Root-mean-square (rms) value the
value of a sine wave that corresponds Sine wave a waveform whose value is travels through space to complete one
to the same amount of direct current proportional to the sine of the angle of cycle.

Related Formulas
v  VM sin  velocity
  ________
frequency
Average value  0.637  peak value
rms value  0.707  peak value 3  1010 cm/s
 (cm)  ___________ (radio wave)
f (Hz)
1  rms  1.414  rms
Peak  _____ 1130 ft/s
0.707   ________ (sound wave)
f (Hz)
Peak-to-peak value  2.828  rms value
t_ _
1
1 1 360 f
T_ or f_
f T

Self-Test
Answers at back of book. c. 50 Hz. 10. If a sine wave has a period, T,
d. 100 Hz. of 40 s, its frequency, f,
1. An alternating voltage is one that equals
a. varies continuously in magnitude. 6. For a sine wave, the number of a. 25 kHz.
b. reverses periodically in polarity. complete cycles per second is b. 250 Hz.
called the
c. never varies in amplitude. c. 40 kHz.
a. period.
d. both a and b. d. 2.5 kHz.
b. wavelength.
2. One complete revolution of a c. frequency. 11. What is the wavelength of a
conductor loop through a d. phase angle. radio wave whose frequency is
magnetic field is called a(n) 15 MHz?
a. octave. 7. A sine wave of alternating voltage a. 20 m.
b. decade. has its maximum values at b. 15 m.
c. cycle. a. 90 and 270. c. 0.753 ft.
d. alternation. b. 0 and 180. d. 2000 m.
c. 180 and 360.
3. For a sine wave, one-half cycle is d. 30 and 150. 12. The value of alternating current or
often called a(n) voltage that has the same heating
a. alternation. 8. To compare the phase angle effect as a corresponding dc value
between two waveforms, both is known as the
b. harmonic.
must have a. peak value.
c. octave.
a. the same amplitude. b. average value.
d. period.
b. the same frequency. c. rms value.
4. One cycle includes c. different frequencies. d. peak-to-peak value.
a. 180. d. both a and b.
13. The wavelength of a 500-Hz sound
b. 360.
9. A 2-kHz sine wave has a period, T, wave is
c. 2 rad. of a. 60 km.
d. both b and c. a. 0.5 s. b. 2.26 ft.
5. In the United States, the frequency b. 50 s. c. 4.52 ft.
of the ac power-line voltage is c. 500 s. d. 0.226 ft.
a. 120 Hz. d. 2 ms.
b. 60 Hz.

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 14. In residential house wiring, 18. For an ac waveform, the period, T, c. 4 kHz.
the hot wire is usually color- refers to d. 250 Hz.
coded a. the number of complete cycles per
a. white. second. 22. In residential house wiring, the
b. green. b. the length of time required to neutral wire is always color-coded
c. black or red. complete one cycle. a. black.
d. as a bare copper wire. c. the time it takes for the waveform b. bare copper.
to reach its peak value. c. green.
15. A sine wave with a peak d. none of the above. d. white.
value of 20 V has an rms
value of 19. The wavelength of a radio wave is 23. The second harmonic of 7 MHz is
a. 28.28 V. a. inversely proportional to its a. 3.5 MHz.
b. 14.14 V. frequency.
b. 28 MHz.
c. 12.74 V. b. directly proportional to its
c. 14 MHz.
frequency.
d. 56.6 V. d. 7 MHz.
c. inversely proportional to its
16. A sine wave whose rms voltage is amplitude. 24. A sine wave has a peak voltage of
25.2 V has a peak value of d. unrelated to its frequency. 170 V. What is the instantaneous
approximately voltage at an angle of 45ⴗ?
a. 17.8 V. 20. Exact multiples of the
a. 240 V.
fundamental frequency are called
b. 16 V. b. 85 V.
a. ultrasonic frequencies.
c. 50.4 V. c. 0 V.
b. harmonic frequencies.
d. 35.6 V. d. 120 V.
c. treble frequencies.
17. The unit of frequency is the d. resonant frequencies. 25. Unless indicated otherwise, all
a. hertz. sine-wave ac measurements are in
21. Raising the frequency of 500 Hz by
b. maxwell. a. peak-to-peak values.
two octaves corresponds to a
c. radian. frequency of b. peak values.
d. second. a. 2 kHz. c. rms values.
b. 1 kHz. d. average values.

Essay Questions
1. (a) Define alternating voltage. (b) Define alternating 8. Draw the sine waves and phasor diagrams to show (a) two
current. (c) Why does ac voltage applied across a load waves 180⬚ out of phase; (b) two waves 90⬚ out of phase.
resistance produce alternating current in the circuit?
9. Give the voltage value for the 60-Hz ac line voltage with
2. (a) State two characteristics of a sine wave of voltage. an rms value of 120 V at each of the following times in a
(b) Why does the rms value of 0.707 ⫻ peak value apply cycle: 0⬚, 30⬚, 45⬚, 90⬚, 180⬚, 270⬚, 360⬚.
just to sine waves?
10. (a) The phase angle of 90⬚ equals how many radians?
3. Draw two cycles of an ac sawtooth voltage waveform with (b) For two sine waves 90⬚ out of phase with each other,
a peak-to-peak amplitude of 40 V. Do the same for a square compare their amplitudes at 0⬚, 90⬚, 180⬚, 270⬚, and 360⬚.
wave.
11. Tabulate the sine and cosine values every 30⬚ from 0 to
4. Give the angle in degrees and radians for each of the 360⬚ and draw the corresponding sine wave and cosine
following: one cycle, one half-cycle, one quarter-cycle, wave.
three quarter-cycles.
12. Draw a graph of the values for (sin ␪)2 plotted against ␪
5. The peak value of a sine wave is 1 V. How much is its for every 30⬚ from 0 to 360⬚.
average value? rms value? Effective value? Peak-to-peak
value? 13. Why is the wavelength of an ultrasonic wave at
34.44 kHz the same 1 cm as for the much higher
6. State the following ranges in hertz: (a) audio frequencies; frequency radio wave at 30 GHz?
(b) radio frequencies; (c) standard AM radio broadcast
band; (d) FM broadcast band; (e) VHF band; (f ) microwave 14. Draw the sine waves and phasors to show wave V1
band. leading wave V2 by 45⬚.

7. Make a graph with two waves, one with a frequency of 15. Why are amplitudes for nonsinusoidal waveforms
500 kHz and the other with 1000 kHz. Mark the generally measured in peak-to-peak values, rather than
horizontal axis in time, and label each wave. rms or average value?

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 16. Define harmonic frequencies, giving numerical values. 19. Define the following parts in the assembly of motors:
(a) armature rotor; (b) field stator; (c) collector rings;
17. Define one octave, with an example of numerical values. (d) commutator segments.
18. Which do you consider more important for applications of 20. Show diagrams of Y and ⌬ connections for three-phase
alternating current—polarity reversals or variations in value? ac power.

Problems
SECTION 15–2 ALTERNATING-VOLTAGE 15–7 A sine wave of alternating voltage has an instantaneous
GENERATOR value of 45 V at an angle of 60⬚. Determine the peak
15–1 For a sine wave of alternating voltage, how many value of the sine wave.
degrees are included in SECTION 15–4 ALTERNATING CURRENT
a. 1⁄4 cycle? 15–8 In Fig. 15–28, the sine wave of applied voltage has a
b. 1⁄2 cycle? peak or maximum value of 10 V, as shown. Calculate
c. 3⁄4 cycle? the instantaneous value of current for the phase angles
listed.
d. 1 complete cycle?
a. 30⬚.
15–2 For a sine wave of alternating voltage, how many b. 60⬚.
radians are included in c. 90⬚.
a. 1⁄4 cycle? d. 120⬚.
b. 1⁄2 cycle? e. 150⬚.
c. 3⁄4 cycle? f. 180⬚.
d. 1 complete cycle? g. 210⬚.
15–3 At what angle does a sine wave of alternating voltage h. 240⬚.
a. reach its maximum positive value? i. 270⬚.
b. reach its maximum negative value? j. 300⬚.
c. cross the zero axis? k. 330⬚.

15–4 One radian corresponds to how many degrees? 15–9 In Fig. 15–28, do electrons flow clockwise or
counterclockwise in the circuit during
SECTION 15–3 THE SINE WAVE a. the positive alternation?
15–5 The peak value of a sine wave equals 20 V. Calculate the b. the negative alternation?
instantaneous voltage of the sine wave for the phase Note: During the positive alternation, terminal 1 is positive with
angles listed. respect to terminal 2.
a. 30⬚.
b. 45⬚. Figure 15–28
c. 60⬚.
1
d. 75⬚.
e. 120⬚.
f. 210⬚. Sine wave
VPK  10 V R1  2 k
g. 300⬚.

15–6 The peak value of a sine wave equals 100 mV. Calculate
the instantaneous voltage of the sine wave for the
phase angles listed. 2

a. 15⬚.
SECTION 15–5 VOLTAGE AND CURRENT VALUES
b. 50⬚. FOR A SINE WAVE
c. 90⬚. 15–10 If the sine wave in Fig. 15–29 has a peak value of 15 V,
d. 150⬚. then calculate
e. 180⬚. a. the peak-to-peak value.
f. 240⬚. b. the rms value.
g. 330⬚. c. the average value.

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 15–17 Convert the following values into peak values:
Figure 15–29
a. 12 V rms.
VPK b. 72 V average.
c. 50 V peak-to-peak.
d. 750 mV rms.
0° 90° 180° 270° 360°
SECTION 15–6 FREQUENCY
15–18 What is the frequency, f, of a sine wave that
completes
15–11 If the sine wave in Fig. 15–29 has a peak value of 50 V, a. 10 cycles per second?
then calculate b. 500 cycles per second?
a. the peak-to-peak value. c. 50,000 cycles per second?
b. the rms value. d. 2,000,000 cycles per second?
c. the average value.
15–19 How many cycles per second (cps) do the following
15–12 If the sine wave in Fig. 15–29 has an rms value of 60 V, frequencies correspond to?
then calculate a. 2 kHz.
a. the peak value. b. 15 MHz.
b. the peak-to-peak value. c. 10 kHz.
c. the average value. d. 5 GHz.
15–13 If the sine wave in Fig. 15–29 has an rms value of 40 V, SECTION 15–7 PERIOD
then calculate 15–20 Calculate the period, T, for the following sine wave
a. the peak value. frequencies:
b. the peak-to-peak value. a. 50 Hz.
c. the average value. b. 100 Hz.
c. 500 Hz.
15–14 If the sine wave of alternating voltage in Fig. 15–30 has
a peak value of 25 V, then calculate d. 1 kHz.
a. the peak current value. 15–21 Calculate the period, T, for the following sine wave
b. the peak-to-peak current value. frequencies:
c. the rms current value. a. 2 kHz.
d. the average current value. b. 4 kHz.
c. 200 kHz.
d. 2 MHz.
Figure 15–30
15–22 Calculate the frequency, f, of a sine wave whose
period, T, is
a. 40 s.
b. 50 s.
Vac R  150 
c. 2.5 ms.
d. 16.67 ms.

15–23 Calculate the frequency, f, of a sine wave whose

period, T, is
a. 5 ms.
15–15 If the sine wave of alternating voltage in Fig. 15–30 has
an rms value of 7.07 V, then calculate b. 10 s.
a. the rms current value. c. 500 ns.
b. the peak current value. d. 33.33 s.
c. the peak-to-peak current value. 15–24 For a 5-kHz sine wave, how long does it take for
d. the average current value. a. 1⁄4 cycle?
15–16 Convert the following values into rms values: b. 1⁄2 cycle?
a. 32 V peak. c. 3⁄4 cycle?
b. 18 V peak-to-peak. d. 1 full cycle?
c. 90.09 V average.
d. 120 mA peak-to-peak.

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 SECTION 15–8 WAVELENGTH a. 30?
15–25 What is the velocity of an electromagnetic radio wave in b. 45?
a. miles per second (mi/s)? c. 60?
b. centimeters per sec (cm/s)? d. 90?
c. meters per sec (m/s)?
15–36 For two waveforms with a frequency of 50 kHz, how
15–26 What is the velocity in ft ⁄s of a sound wave produced much time corresponds to a phase angle difference of
by mechanical vibrations? a. 15?
b. 36?
15–27 What is the wavelength in cm of an electromagnetic
radio wave whose frequency is c. 60?
a. 3.75 MHz? d. 150?
b. 7.5 MHz? SECTION 15–11 ALTERNATING CURRENT CIRCUITS
c. 15 MHz? WITH RESISTANCE
d. 20 MHz? 15–37 In Fig. 15–31, solve for the following values: RT, I, V1, V2,
P1, P2, and PT.
15–28 Convert the wavelengths in Prob. 15–27 into meters (m).

15–29 What is the wavelength in meters of an electromag- Figure 15–31

netic radio wave whose frequency is 150 MHz?

15–30 What is the wavelength in ft of a sound wave whose

frequency is R1  100 
a. 50 Hz?
b. 200 Hz? VT  10 Vac
c. 750 Hz?
R2  150 
d. 2 kHz?
e. 4 kHz?
f. 10 kHz?
15–38 In Fig. 15–32, solve for the following values: I1, I2, IT, REQ,
15–31 What is the frequency of an electromagnetic radio wave P1, P2, and PT.
whose wavelength is
a. 160 m?
Figure 15–32
b. 10 m?
c. 17 m?
d. 11 m?

15–32 What is the frequency of a sound wave whose

wavelength is VA  24 Vac R1  100  R2  150 
a. 4.52 ft?
b. 1.13 ft?
c. 3.39 ft?
d. 0.226 ft?

15–39 In Fig. 15–33, solve for the following values: RT, IT, V1, V2,
SECTION 15–9 PHASE ANGLE
V3, I2, I3, P1, P2, P3, and PT.
15–33 Describe the difference between a sine wave and a
cosine wave.
Figure 15–33
15–34 Two voltage waveforms of the same amplitude, VX and
VY, are 45 out of phase with each other, with VY lagging R 1  180 
VX. Draw the phasors representing these voltage
waveforms if
a. VX is used as the reference phasor.
b. VY is used as the reference phasor.
VT  36 Vac R 2  1.2 k R 3  1.8 k
SECTION 15–10 THE TIME FACTOR IN FREQUENCY
AND PHASE
15–35 For two waveforms with a frequency of 1 kHz, how
much time corresponds to a phase angle difference of

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 Figure 15–34

 50 V  20 V

Volts

Volts
0V 0V

 10 V
2 ms
 50 V T
50 s (b)
T
(a)

Volts  100 V

0V
400 s
T

(c)

15–40 In Fig. 15–33, find the following values: 15–45 Lowering the frequency of 3 kHz by two octaves
a. the peak-to-peak current through R1. corresponds to what frequency?
b. the average voltage across R2. 15–46 Raising the frequency of 300 Hz by three octaves
c. the peak voltage across R3. corresponds to what frequency?
d. the average current through R3.
15–47 What is the frequency two decades above 1 kHz?
SECTION 15–12 NONSINUSOIDAL AC WAVEFORMS
15–41 Determine the peak-to-peak voltage and frequency for SECTION 15–14 THE 60-Hz AC POWER LINE
the waveform in 15–48 What is the frequency of the ac power line in most
a. Fig. 15–34a. European countries?
b. Fig. 15–34b. 15–49 What device or component is used to step up or step
c. Fig. 15–34c. down an ac voltage in the distribution of ac power to
our homes and industries?
SECTION 15–13 HARMONIC FREQUENCIES
15–42 List the first four harmonics of a 3.8-MHz radio signal. 15–50 What is the main reason for using extremely high
voltages, such as 500 kV, on the distribution lines for ac
15–43 List the first seven harmonics of a 1-kHz sine wave. power?
Label each harmonic as either an even or odd harmonic.

15–44 Raising the frequency of 250 Hz by one octave

corresponds to what frequency?

Critical Thinking
15–51 The electrical length of an antenna is to be one-half 15–53 The total length of an antenna is 120 ft. At what
wavelength long at a frequency f of 7.2 MHz. Calculate frequency is the antenna one-half wavelength long?
the length of the antenna in (a) feet; (b) centimeters.
15–54 A cosine wave of current has an instantaneous
15–52 A transmission line has a length l of 7.5 m. What is its amplitude of 45 mA at   /3 rad. Calculate the
electrical wavelength at 10 MHz? waveform’s instantaneous amplitude at   3/2 rad.

Answers to Self-Reviews 15–1 a. true 15–3 a. 85 V

b. false b. 120 V
c. true c. 170 V

15–2 a. 10 V 15–4 a. 0.707 A

b. 360 b. 0.5 A

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 15–5 a. 120 V rms 15–11 a. 30 
b. 14.14 V peak b. 6.67 
c. 2.83 V p-p c. 30 

15–6 a. 4 Hz 15–12 a. 2 s
b. 1.605 MHz b. 15 V

15–7 a. 400 Hz 15–13 a. 48 MHz

b. 1⁄400 s b. 440 Hz

15–8 a. true 15–14 a. false

b. false b. true
c. true c. true
d. true
15–9 a. 90
b. 60 15–15 a. true
c. 0 b. true
c. false
15–10 a. 1⁄240 s
b. 0.1 s 15–16 a. 120
b. 208 V

Laboratory Application Assignment

Figure 15–35
In this lab application assignment you will use an oscilloscope to
measure the amplitude, frequency, and period of a sine-wave ac
voltage. You will also use a DMM to measure the voltage and
current values in an ac circuit. As an aid in understanding the
operation and use of the oscilloscope, refer to App. E. However, it
8 VPP
is expected that your instructor will assist you with the operation
of both the function generator and the oscilloscope when doing
this experiment.

Equipment: Obtain the following items from your instructor. Period, T

• Function generator
• Assortment of carbon-film resistors
waveform’s rms value. Vrms  With your DMM set
• Oscilloscope
• DMM to measure ac voltage, measure and record the rms voltage at
the output of the function generator. Vrms  How
Using the Oscilloscope and Function Generator does this value compare to the calculated value?
Connect the channel 1 probe of the oscilloscope to the output of What is the Sec./div. setting of the oscilloscope? Sec. ⁄div. 
the function generator. Set the function generator to produce a How many horizontal divisions does one cycle
sine-wave output. Next, while viewing the oscilloscope, adjust the occupy?
function generator and oscilloscope controls to view one cycle of From this information, what is the measured period, T, of the
a 100-Hz, 8-Vpp sine wave. The displayed waveform should be displayed waveform? T 
similar to the one shown in Fig. 15–35. Have your instructor Calculate and record the period, T, of the 100-Hz waveform as
check the displayed waveform. If it is correct, proceed as follows. T  1/f. T 
How do the calculated and measured values compare?
What is the Volts/div. setting of the oscilloscope? Volts ⁄div. 
How many vertical divisions does the displayed Adjust the Sec. ⁄div control of the oscilloscope until two cycles
waveform occupy? are displayed on the screen. What is the Sec. ⁄div. setting with
From this information, what is the measured peak-to-peak value two cycles displayed? Sec. ⁄div. 
of the displayed waveform? Vpp 
Have either your instructor or lab partner adjust the function
What is the peak value of the displayed waveform? VP  generator controls to change the frequency and amplitude of the
Using this value, calculate and record the sine wave. Determine the period, T, frequency, f, and peak-to-peak

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 value of the displayed waveform. Repeat this procedure several
times until you become proficient in using the oscilloscope. Figure 15–36
R1  1 k
AC Circuit Measurements
Refer to Fig. 15–36. Calculate and record the following circuit
values:
RT  , Irms  ,
V1(rms)  , V2(rms) 
VT  5 Vrms
R2  1.5 k
Construct the circuit in Fig. 15–36. Using your DMM, measure f  100 Hz
and record the following rms values: Irms  ,
V1(rms)  , V2(rms) 
Using the oscilloscope, measure and record the following peak-
to-peak values. (You will need to use both channels and the
math mode to measure V1.)
VT(pp)  , V1(pp)  ,
V2(pp) 
With your DMM set to measure dc voltage, measure and record
Convert the peak-to-peak values to rms values, and record your the following values in Fig. 15–36:
answers.
VT(rms)  , V1(rms)  , VT(DC)  , V1(DC)  ,
V2(rms)  V2(DC) 

How do these values compare to the values measured with the Are these measurements what you expected?
DMM?

Cumulative Review Summary (Chapters 13–15)

• Iron, nickel, and cobalt are magnetic • The motion of flux cutting across a • Phase angle  is the angular difference
materials. Magnets have a north pole perpendicular conductor generates an between corresponding values in the
and a south pole at opposite ends. induced voltage. cycles for two sine waves of the same
Opposite poles attract; like poles repel. • Faraday’s law of induced voltage states frequency. The angular difference can
• A magnet has an invisible, external that v  N ddt. be expressed in time based on the
magnetic field. This magnetic flux is frequency of the waves.
• Lenz’s law states that an induced
indicated by field lines. The direction of voltage must have the polarity that • Phasors, similar to vectors, indicate the
field lines outside the magnet is from a opposes the change causing the amplitude and phase angle of
north pole to a south pole. induction. alternating voltage or current. The
• An electromagnet has an iron core length of the phasor is the amplitude,
• Alternating voltage varies in
that becomes magnetized when and the angle is the phase.
magnitude and reverses in polarity.
current flows in the coil winding. • The square wave and sawtooth wave
• One cycle includes the values between
• Magnetic units are defined in are common examples of
points having the same value and
Table 13–1. nonsinusoidal waveforms.
varying in the same direction. The
• Continuous magnetization and cycle includes 360, or 2 rad. • Direct current motors generally use
demagnetization of an iron core by commutator segments with graphite
• Frequency f equals cycles per second
alternating current causes hysteresis brushes. Alternating current motors
(cps). One cps  1 Hz.
losses that increase with higher are usually the induction type without
frequencies. • Period T is the time for one cycle. It brushes.
equals 1/f. When f is in cycles per
• Current in a conductor has an • House wiring uses three-wire, single-
second, T is in seconds.
associated magnetic field with circular phase power with a frequency of
lines of force in a plane perpendicular • Wavelength  is the distance a wave 60 Hz. The voltages for house wiring
to the wire. travels in one cycle.   vf. are 120 V to the grounded neutral
• The rms, or effective value, of a sine and 240 V across the two high sides.
• Motor action results from the net force
of two fields that can aid or cancel. wave equals 0.707  peak value. Or • Three-phase ac power has three legs
The direction of the resultant force is the peak value equals 1.414  rms 120 out of phase. A Y connection
from the stronger field to the weaker. value. The average value equals with 120 V across each phase has
0.637  peak value. 208 V available across each two legs.

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 Cumulative Self-Test
Answers at back of book. (a) 5 lines of flux; (b) 5000 Mx of flux; 8. Two waves of the same frequency are
(c) flux density of 5000 G; (d ) flux opposite in phase when the phase
1. Which of the following statements is
density corresponding to 25,000 A. angle between them is (a) 0; (b) 90;
true? (a) Alnico is commonly used for
(c) 360; (d )  rad.
electromagnets. (b) Paper cannot 4. If 10 V is applied across a relay coil
affect magnetic flux because it is with 100 turns having 2  of 9. A 120-V, 60-Hz power-line voltage is
not a magnetic material. (c) Iron is resistance, the total force producing applied across a 120- resistor. The
generally used for permanent magnetic flux in the circuit is current equals (a) 1 A, peak value;
magnets. (d ) Ferrites have lower (a) 10 Mx; (b) 50 G; (c) 100 Oe; (b) 120 A, peak value; (c) 1 A, rms
permeability than air or vacuum. (d ) 500 At. value; (d ) 5 A, rms value.
2. Hysteresis losses (a) are caused 5. The ac power-line voltage of 120 V 10. When an alternating voltage reverses
by high-frequency alternating current rms has a peak value of (a ) 100 V; in polarity, the current it produces
in a coil with an iron core; (b) 170 V; (c) 240 V; (d ) 338 V. (a) reverses in direction; (b) has a
(b) generally increase with direct steady dc value; (c) has a phase angle
6. Which of the following can produce
current in a coil; (c) are especially of 180; (d ) alternates at 1.4 times
the most induced voltage? (a) 1-A
important for permanent magnets the frequency of the applied voltage.
direct current; (b) 50-A direct current;
that have a steady magnetic field;
(c) 1-A 60-Hz alternating current;
(d ) cannot be produced in an iron
(d ) 1-A 400-Hz alternating current.
core because it is a conductor.
7. Which of the following has the
3. A magnetic flux of 25,000 lines
highest frequency? (a) T  1⁄1000 s;
through an area of 5 cm2 results in
(b) T  1⁄60 s; (c) T  1 s; (d ) T  2 s.

Alternating Voltage and Current 469

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