Seismic Design Examples and Details 577

Note that Aj = effective cross-sectional area within the joint equal to the joint depth times an effective
width. The effective width is the smaller of

• Beam width + joint depth = 28 + 34 = 62 in.

• Beam width + twice the smaller distance from beam edge to column edge equal to 28 + 2 ×
3 = 34 in.

Observe the joint shear is a function of effective cross-sectional area Aj of the joint and the square root
of the concrete compressive strength fc′ only. If the net shear exceeds the nominal shear strength φVc
(equal to 20 fc′ Aj ,15 fc′ Aj , or 12 fc′ Aj , depending on the confinement provided at the joint), then the
designer has no choice but to increase fc′ of concrete and/or the size of columns.
A column face is considered confined by a beam if the beam width is equal to at least 75% of the
column width. (No mention is made in ACI 318-02 for the required depth of beam.) When joints are
confined on all four sides, transverse reinforcement within the joint required per Section 21.4.4 may
be reduced by 50%. Hoop spacing is permitted to a maximum of 6 in (see Figure 6.29).

6.11.9 SPECIAL REINFORCED CONCRETE SHEAR WALL

Given: A shear wall that is part of a lateral load-resisting system of a 10-story building located in
a high seismic zone that has the following seismic characteristics:
S1 = maximum considered earthquake, 5% damped, spectral response acceleration at a period
of 1 s = 0.85g
Ss = maximum considered earthquake, 5% damped, spectral response acceleration at short
periods = 1.80g
Site class = D (as determined by project geotechnical engineer)
Seismic design category, SDC = D
Reliability/redundancy factor, ρ = 1.0
Seismic importance factor, IE = 1.0
Specified compressive strength of concrete fc′ = 5000 psi
Specified yield strength of reinforcement fy = 60 ksi

Column vertical reinforcement

Frame column
Column hoops and
crossties
Frame beam Frame beam top reinforcement

Frame beam bottom reinforcement

Hoops and
crossties

2 in.

FIGURE 6.29 Beam–column joint; special moment frame. Transverse reinforcing in the joint is the same
as for the frame column. A 50% reduction is allowed if the joint is confined on all the four faces. Maximum
spacing of transverse reinforcement is equal to 6 in.
578 Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings

δe = horizontal elastic displacement

at roof level corresponding
3rd to code-level seismic
forces = 2.15 in.

2nd
PD = 1600 kip
PL = 300 kip Ag = 5856 in.2
Vu = VE = 1350 kip Section modulus = 3,57,216 in.3
Mu = ME = 70,000 kip-ft 1st

16 in.

366 in.

FIGURE 6.30 Design example; partial shear wall elevation and plan.

Figure 6.30 shows a partial elevation and plan of the wall along with the ultimate axial forces
and moments due to gravity and lateral loads. The dead load, P D, includes the self-weight of the
wall. P L is the reduced live load. Also shown therein are the section properties of the wall and the
horizontal displacement δe equal to 2.15 in. at the roof level. The displacement is the lateral elastic
deflection due to design basis code level earthquake loads. As will be seen presently, this displace-
ment multiplied by the Cd factor is used to determine the requirements for detailing boundary
elements.
The wall has been analyzed using the following assumptions:

• The base of the wall is fixed

• The effective section properties of the wall are based on a cracked section
• The flexural rigidity = 0.5EcIg
• The shear rigidity = 0.4Ec Aw
• The actual rigidity = Ec Ag

It should be noted that a computer analysis is almost always necessary to determine the build-
ing’s response. This is because it is mandated in recent seismic codes to consider variables such as
uncracked and cracked concrete section properties and some soil or foundation deformation beneath
the structure’s base.

Required:

• The calculation of ultimate design loads and moments using ASCE 7-05 load combinations.
• The preliminary sizing of the wall using a rule-of-thumb approach.
• The design of wall for shear.
• The design of wall for combined axial load and bending moment.
• The determination of boundary element requirements using both stress index and displace-
ment-based methods.
• The design of boundary elements.
• The schematics showing reinforcement layout.
• The design shall be in accordance with ACI 318-05.
Seismic Design Examples and Details 579

Solution:
Load Combinations:

1. 1.2D + 1.0E + f1L = f 2S

2. 0.9D = 1.0E

For compression check, E = ρQ E + 0.25DSD

For tension check, E = ρQ E − 0.25DSD
ρ = 1 and SS = 1.80 as given in the statement of the problem
SMS = Fa SS, Fa = 1.0 for site class D with S ≥ 1.25 = 1.0 SS = 1.80
SDS = 2/3SMS = 2/3 × 1.80 = 1.20
Factored axial load, Pu, for compression check
Pu = 1.2 (1600) + 1.0 (1 × 0 × 0.2 × 1.20 × 1600) + 300 + 0 = 2604 kip
Factored axial load, Pu, for tension check
Pu = 0.9 × 1600 − 1 × 0 − 0.2 × 1.2 × 1600 =1056 kip
The two sets of design forces and moments for the example are
Pu = 2604 kip Pu = 1056 kip
Mu = 71,000 kip-ft Mu = 71,000 kip-ft
Vu = 1400 kip Vu = 1400 kip

6.11.9.1 Preliminary Size Determination

Since the length of the wall has been set at 30.5 ft, only the thickness t is adjusted to limit shear
stress. The maximum shear stress allowed per Section 21.7.4.4 is 8 fc′ , but experience has shown
that limiting shear stress between 3 fc′ and 5 fc′ usually results in an economical wall design.
For the example walls, using 4 fc′ = 4 5000 = 283 psi as the limiting shear stress, the required
wall thickness equals t = 135,000/(30 × 12 × 283) = 13.25 in.
However, because of boundary element considerations we will use 16 in. as the wall thickness.
A few thoughts about preliminary sizing of shear walls. An estimate of wall length and thickness
based on a reasonable shear stress using only the base shear may not be adequate for resisting design
moments. The resulting area of vertical boundary reinforcement may be too high, quickly leading to
unworkable details. Thus, it is prudent to verify that the wall thickness determined on the basis of
shear stress is also thick enough to allow room for placement of reinforcing steel and concrete.

6.11.9.2 Shear Design

Shear design using ACI 318-05 requirements is quite straightforward. Typically, the shear demand
is taken directly from the lateral analysis without having to go through load combinations because,
most often, horizontal shear resulting from gravity loads is negligible unless, of course, the building
is highly irregular with built-in PΔ effects. For the example wall, Vu = VE = 1350 kip as obtained
from a lateral analysis performed by using the ultimate earthquake loads.
Next, the required horizontal reinforcement is calculated from the usable shear capacity equation

φVn = φACV (α c fc′ + ρn fy )

where
Vn is the nominal shear capacity
φ is the strength-reduction factor = 0.6 (see Section 9.3.4)
ACV is the gross area of wall equal to its length times the thickness
580 Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings

αc is the coefficient defining the relative contribution of concrete strength to wall strength,
typically taken as equal to 2.0. (Note that Section 21.7.4.1 permits αc = 3.0 for squat walls
with hw /lw ≤ 2.0, and a linear variation between 3.0 and 2.0 for intermediate values of hw /lw.
The controlling ratio for the design of wall pier is based on the larger of overall dimensions
of the wall or a segment of the wall. It is permitted to use αc = 2.0 in all cases.)
ρn is the ratio of area horizontal reinforcement to gross concrete area perpendicular to it
fc′ is the specified compressive strength of concrete, psi
fy is the specified yield strength of reinforcement, psi

For the example wall, the shear demand

Vu = VE = 1350 kip

Assuming #5 at 15 horizontal reinforcement, each face

ρn = 0.31 × 2 × 12/16 × 12 × 15 = 0.0026

φVn = 0.6 × 16 × 366/1000 (2 5000 + 0.0026 × 60,000)

= 1045 kip < 1350 kip NG

Try #6 at 12 horizontal, each face

ρn = 0.44 × 12/16 × 12 = 0.0046

φVn = 0.6 × 16 × 366/1000 (2 5000 + 0.0046 × 60,000)

= 1467 > Vu = 1350 kip

Use #6 at 12 horizontal, each face

Check for minimum horizontal reinforcement
ρn ≥ 0.0025
Check for maximum allowable nominal shear strength

Vn ≯ 8 ACV fc′

8 ACV fc′ = 8 × 16 × 366/1000 5000 (Section 21.7.2)

= 3312 kip > 1350/0.6 = 2250 kip (Section 21.7.4.4)

6.11.9.3 Shear Friction (Sliding Shear)

The shear design performed in the previous section is intended to prevent diagonal tension failures
rather than direct shear transfer failures. Direct shear transfer failure, also referred to as sliding
shear failure, can occur by the sliding of two vertical segments of a wall at weak sections such as at
construction joints. The shear resistance is verified by using the equation

Vn = Avf fy μ (11.25)
Seismic Design Examples and Details 581

where
Avf is the area of shear friction reinforcement, in.2 that crosses the potential sliding plane
μ is the coefficient of friction = 1.0 for a normal weight concrete surface roughened to 1/4 in.
amplitude.

Additionally, ACI 318-05 permits permanent net compression across the shear plane as additive
to the resistance provided by shear friction reinforcement. For the example shear wall, we will con-
servatively ignore the beneficial effect of compression.
As will be seen presently, the vertical reinforcement, Avf, required to satisfy the governing axial
load and moment combination is equal to

Avf = 32 # 11 plus 36 # 7

= 32 × 1.56 + 36 × 0.60

= 71.5 in.2

The sliding shear resistance Vn = 71.5 × 60 × 1 = 4290 kip

φVn = 0.65 × 4290 = 2788 kip > 1350 kip

Therefore, the wall is acceptable for sliding shear

Section 11.7.5 limits the shear friction strength to 0.2 fc′ Ac or 800Ac in.-lb, where Ac is the area of
concrete resisting shear transfer.
For the example wall

Vn = 0.2fc′ Ac = 0.2 × 5000 × 16 × 366/1000 = 5836 kip

Vn = 800 Ac = 800 × 16 × 366/1000 = 4685 kip ← controls

φVn = 0.65 × 4685 = 3045 kip > 1350 kip

6.11.9.4 Longitudinal Reinforcement

The design of vertical reinforcement to resist a given set of axial loads and bending moments is
typically a trial-and-error procedure. Give a wall section and an assumed reinforcement layout, the
section is checked from the governing axial load and bending moment combinations. Although hand
calculations and spreadsheet approaches are possible, the most desirable and expedient method is
to use a computer program such as PCACOL developed by Portland Cement Association.
Figure 6.31 shows an interaction diagram for the wall with 16 #11 placed near the wall boundaries
and #7 at 9, each face, in between the boundaries for a total Avf —71.5 in.2. Figure 6.31 is a printed
screen output of the PCACOL run. Points 1 and 2 that lie within the interaction curve represent the
governing loads. Point 1 is for Pu = 2604 kip and Mu = 71,000 kip-ft, and point 2 is for Pu = 1056 kip
and Mu = 71,000 kip-ft. Since both points lie within the interaction curve, the example wall is acceptable
for the ultimate axial load and moment combinations.

6.11.9.5 Web Reinforcement

Section 21.7.2.1 requires a uniform distribution of both horizontal shear reinforcement, Pn, and
vertical reinforcement, Pv. Further, to control the width of inclined cracks due to shear, a minimum
582 Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings

P (klp)
25,000

fs = 0
fs = 0.5f y
+1
+2
100,000
My (k-ft)

–10,000
(a)

366 × 16 in.
(b)

FIGURE 6.31 (a) Shear wall load/moment interaction diagram and (b) cross section of wall.

reinforcement ratio equal to 0.0025 and a maximum spacing of 18 in. is specified for both Pn and
Pu. However, a reduction in the reinforcement ratio is permitted if the design shear force, Vu, is less
than Ac fc′ .
The minimum ratios of Pu if Vu ≤ Ac fc′ (see Section 14.3) are

• 0.0020 for #5 and smaller bars, with fy ≥ 60,000 psi

• 0.0025 for other bars
• 00020 for welded fabric not larger than W31 or D31

The minimum ratios of Pv (vertical reinforcement) for the same condition are

• 0.0012 for #5 and smaller bars, with fy ≥ 60,000 psi

• 0.0015 for other bars
• 00010 for welded wire fabric not larger than W31 or D31

In seismic design, the vertical reinforcement at the bottom few stories of a shear wall is typically
controlled by bending requirements. The upper levels are likely to be controlled by the ACI 318-02
minimum reinforcement ratio of 0.0025.
For the example wall,

ACV fc′ = 2 × 366 × 16/1000 5000/1000 = 414 kip < Vu = 1400 kip

The minimum horizontal reinforcement

= 0.0025 × b × t

= 0.0025 × 16 × 12

= 0.48 in.2
Seismic Design Examples and Details 583

Use #5 at 15 giving a steel area = 2 × 0.31 × 12/15 = 0.496 in.2

>0.48 in.2
Section 21.7.2.2 requires at least two curtains of reinforcement if the factored shear force Vu
exceeds 2ACV fc′ .
For the example wall,

2 ACV fc′ = 2 × 366 × 16/1000 5000 /1000 = 828 kip

Since Vu = 1350 kip is greater than 828 kip, we use two layers of #5 at 15. The reason for two layers
of reinforcement is to place web reinforcement close to the wall surface to inhibit fragmentation of
concrete in the event of a severe cracking of concrete during an earthquake.

6.11.9.6 Boundary Elements

6.11.9.6.1 Stress Index Procedure
This method is quite straightforward (Section 21.7.6.3). A stress index of 0.2 fc′ is used as a bench-
mark for the maximum extreme fiber compressive stress corresponding to factored forces that
include gravity and earthquake effects. If the calculated compressive stress is less than the index
value, special boundary elements are not required. If not, detailing of boundary elements in accordance
with Section 21.7.6.4 is required. The compressive stresses are calculated for the factored axial
forces and bending moments using a linear elastic model and gross-section properties.
For the example wall,

Ag = 366 × 16 = 5856 in.2

I g = 16 × 3663/12 = 65,370,528 in.4

Syy = 65,370,528/183 = 357,216 in.3

Pu /Ag + M u /Syy = 2604/5856 + 71,000 × 12/357,216

= 0.445 + 2.385 = 2.83 ksi > 0.2fc′

= 0.2 × 5000

= 1.0 ksi

Therefore, boundary elements are required by the stress-index procedure.

6.11.9.6.2 Displacement-Based Procedure

In this procedure (Section 21.7.6.2), the neutral axis depth c, which is directly related to the strain at
the extreme compression fiber, is used as an index to determine whether or not boundary elements
are required. Boundary zone detailing is required if

c > lw /600 (δ u /hw) (21.8)

where
c is the distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis
lw is the length of entire wall or wall-pier (segment)
584 Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings

δu is the design displacement at the top of a wall or segment equal to elastic displacement, δc,
due to code level seismic forces multiplied by Cd, the deflection amplification factor given in
governing codes
hw is the height of entire wall or wall segment

The displacement-based approach is founded on the assumption that the inelastic response of
the wall is due to flexural yielding at a critical section, typically at its base. Given this proviso, the
method of determining whether or not boundary elements are required is as follows:

• Analytically displace the wall at the top equal to the design displacement, δu. This dis-
placement is equal to the elastic displacement, δc, calculated for code seismic loads,
multiplied by a deflection amplification factor, Cd. Thus, δu = δc × Cd.
• Calculate the strain in the extreme compression fiver of the wall corresponding to the
horizontal displacement of δu. Since the strain is related to the depth of neutral axis, c, it is
used indirectly for evaluating the strain. Equation 21.8 of ACI 318/05 is used to calculate c.
The depth c may be considered, in a conceptual sense, as an index depth of neutral axis
for comparing against the actual depth calculated for the largest ultimate load, Pu, and the
corresponding moment, Mn.
• Next, compute the neutral axis depth c, using a linear strain distribution (Section 10.2),
or by assuming yielding of all vertical reinforcement in compression or tension. The lat-
ter is recommended by the 1999 Blue Book of the Structural Engineers Association of
California (SEAOC). The depth c is calculated for the factored axial force and nominal
moment strength consistent with the displacement, δu, at the top of the wall resulting in the
largest neutral axis depth.
• If the calculated value of c is greater than the index value, then special boundary elements
detailed are similar to those of a ductile column.

For the example wall, we have the following two load combinations:

Pu = 2470 kip Pu = 1056 kip

M u = 70,000 kip-ft M u = 70,000 kip-ft

Vu = 1350 kip Vu = 1350 kip

Using the PCACOL column design program, the depth of the neutral axis was found to be 108 in.
The term δu is design displacement defined as the lateral displacement expected for the design-
based earthquake. It is invariably larger than the elastic displacement, δe, calculated for code-level
forces applied to a linear elastic model. Although the analysis may consider the effects of cracked
sections, torsion, PΔ forces, and foundation flexibility, it does not account for the expected inelastic
response. Thus, δu is calculated by multiplying δe by a deflection amplification factor Cd given in
the governing codes or standards. For example, ASCE 7-05 and IBC-06 specify Cd = 5.5 and 6.5
for special reinforced concrete moment fames and dual systems consisting of SMRF and special
reinforced concrete walls. For the example problem, having a building system of special reinforced
concrete wall, Cd = 5.0, by both ASCE and IBC.
The elastic deflection δe of the shear wall at the roof level = 2.15 in., as obtained from a linear
elastic analysis of the building under code-prescribed seismic forces. This is given in the statement
of the problem.
Seismic Design Examples and Details 585

Therefore

Cd δ e 5 × 2.15
δu = = = 10.75 in.
IE 1

δ u 10.75
= = 0.0076 > 0.007(min)
hw 18 × 12

lw
c= = 366/(600 × 0.0076) = 80.26 in. < 108 in.
⎛ hw ⎞
600 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ lw ⎠

Special boundary elements are therefore required. It is interesting to note that for the example wall, both
the stress index and the strain index methods lead to the same conclusion, namely, that boundary
elements are required. This may not be the case in all designs. A more likely scenario would be for the
stress index method to show that boundary elements are required, while the strain method does not.
Although ACI 318-05 does not require both criteria to be satisfied, many engineers choose to detail the
boundary zones as required by the stress index method. Keep in mind, in seismic design, more is less!

6.11.9.6.3 Reinforcement Details

Irrespective of the method used to determine whether or not special boundary elements are required, the
detailing is performed according to Sections 21.6.6.4 through 21.6.6.6, and is summarized as follows:

• The required width of boundary element is given by the larger of c − 0.1lw and c/2
• Where required, special boundary elements are extended from the critical section a distance
not less than lw or Mu /4Vu

For the example wall, the width of boundary element is the larger of
C = 0.1 lw = 108 − 0.1 × 366 = 71.4 in. ← controls
c/2 = 108/2 = 54 in.
Considering the placement of vertical bars, detail a boundary element for a width of 75 in.
(Figure 6.32).

15 ft 3 in. CL

8 -#11Vertea face #7 at 9 in. Vertea face

3 in. 9 in. typ. 9 in. typ.

typ. #5 @ 4 in.
16 in.
3 in.
typ.

75 in.
Width of boundary element

FIGURE 6.32 Shear wall example; schematic reinforcement.

586 Reinforced Concrete Design of Tall Buildings

The vertical extension of the boundary element must not be less than
lw = 366 in. or ← controls
Mu /4Vu = 71,000 × 12/1400 = 608.6 in.
The confinement of 16 × 75 in. boundary elements:
Confinement perpendicular to the wall: The maximum allowable spacing of hoops and crossties,
assuming #5 bars,
Smax = 0.25 × minimum member dimensions
= 0.25 × 16 = 4 in. (Controls)
= 6 × diameter of longitudinal bar
= 6 × 1.41 = 8.5 in.
= sx = 4 + (14 − bx /3) = 4 + (14 − 10/3) = 5.33 in.

The required cross-sectional area of confining reinforcement Ash, in the 16 × 75 in. boundary
elements, using s = 4 in., is given by

Ash = 0.09shc fc′ / fy

where hc is the cross-sectional dimension of boundary element measured center-to-center of confin-

ing reinforcement.
In our case, hc = 16 − (3 + 3) + 1.41 + 0.625 = 12 in.

Ash = 0.09 × 4 × 12 × 5/60 = 0.36 in.2

No. 5 hoops with two legs provide Ash = 2 × 0.31 = 0.62 in.2 > 0.36 in.2

Confinement parallel to the wall:

hc = 75 − (3 + 3) + 1.41 + 0.625 = 71in.

Ash = 0.09 × 4 × 71 × 5/60 = 2.14 in.2

With two hoops consisting of two legs each, and five crossties,
Ash provided = 9 × 0.31 = 2.79 in.2 > 2.13 in.2
In most designs, special boundary elements may not be required by calculations for the entire
height of walls. However, to prevent the buckling of boundary longitudinal elements even in cases
where they are not done by design, Section 21.7.6.5 requires transverse ties not exceeding a vertical
spacing of 8 in., if the vertical reinforcement ratio is greater than 400/fy. The transverse reinforce-
ment shall consist of either single or overlapping hooks. As in ductile columns, crossties are per-
mitted. For calculating the ratio 400/fy, only the reinforcement within the wall boundary element is
included.
Using the most common value of fy = 60,000 psi, the ratio 400/fy = 400/60,000 = 0.0067. If the
ratio of vertical reinforcement is greater than this value, then hoops supplemented with crossties
are required. What if the ratio of vertical bars placed in between the boundary zones is greater
than 0.0067? Do they also need to be tied? Yes, but only if the vertical reinforcement ratio is
greater than 0.01, or where the vertical reinforcement is required as a compression reinforcement
(see Section 14.3.6). A schematic placement of reinforcement is shown in Figure 6.33.
Seismic Design Examples and Details 587

30 ft 6 in.

16 in.
Roof

10th floor

9th floor

8th floor
9 @ 13 ft 0 in. = 17 ft 0 in.

7th floor
133 ft 0 in.

6th floor

5th floor Provide confinement reinforcement

max spacing of 8 in., if vertical
reinforcement ratio of boundary
4th floor
reinforcement > 400/fy

3rd floor No lap splices permitted

#7 @ 9 in. in the region of anticipated
vert. 16 -#11 plastic hinge. Mechanical
2nd floor E.F. vert. splices OK. Outside of
16 ft 0 in.

16 -#11 #6@12 in. plastic hinge regions,

vert horiz. stagger splices to avoid
1st floor ea face weak sections. See 1999
Blue Book Commentary,
section C 402.7 for lap
splice recommendations.

FIGURE 6.33 Wall elevation showing schematic placement of reinforcement.

6.11.10 SPECIAL REINFORCED CONCRETE COUPLED SHEAR WALLS

Given: A 40-ft-long by 16-in.-thick shear wall with openings as shown in Figure 6.34. The shear
wall forms part of a lateral load-resisting system of a 10-story concrete building located in a high
seismic zone. A computer analysis has been performed for the building using code-prescribed
lateral forces and gravity loads. The analysis typically has provided moment and shear forces for
each coupling beam, and moments, shear forces, and axial forces for each wall segment commonly
referred to as wall pier. In modeling the shear walls, effective section properties, rather than gross
properties, are used as required by most current codes.
The first step in design is the determination of ultimate design values, generally the Pu, Mu,
and Vu using code-specified load combinations. Typically, the design of an element such as a wall
pier or a coupling beam is verified for a number of design load combinations. This is because
several lateral load analyses are performed to account for changes in load directions, minimum
eccentricities in each direction, uplift and downward effects of seismic loads, etc. The computa-
tion of design values using different load combinations that includes several lateral load analyses
is indeed a major task invariably necessitating the use of computers. Without dwelling on this