Unit 1 Water Technology

Types of Impurities and its removal methods

1. Suspended Impurities: Impurity particles like soil sand, organic waste
in water having size of particles grater than 1000A° and visible are
suspended impurities.
Removal Method : Simple filtration or sedimientation or settlement
methods
2. Colloidal: Size of colloidal particles is 10 to 1000A° (10-5 to 10-7 cm
Finely divided organic or inorganic matter of colloidal size makes water
turbid. These are evenly distributed in water and do not get settled down.
These are negatively charged particles.
Removal Method :They are separated by coagulation followed by
sedimentation or ultrafiltration. Coagulents (agents) : FeSO4, alum, pulse
floor, sodium aluminate NaAlO2, aluminium sulphate
3. Dissolved Impurities: Different gases (Oxygen, CO2, NH3, H2S, SO2)
and salts or organic compounds such as sugars, carboxylic acids, urea
etc. Removal Method : Mechanical aeration, chemical treatments,
warming water
4. Biological impurities: These impurities include bacteria (aerobic,
anaerobic, pathogenic types) algae, fungi, other small sized aquatic living
things. Removal Method : Filtration followed by sterilization. This is
acieved by using chemicals such as bleaching powder, sodium
hypochlorite, chlorine, ozone etc. and by physical methods such as
boiling, Ultraviolet light.
 Hardness of Water
❖Definition of Hard water :
The water which does not form lather or foam easily with soap, is known as hard water
Hardness character to water is due to presence of dissolved salts of heavy metals such
as Ca++, Mg ++,, Fe ++, Al +++, etc.

❖Soft water: The water which forms lather or foam easily with soap, is known as soft
water
❖Cause of hardness in water: 1) Dissolution of minerals: When water flows or deposits
in ground salts of heavy metals get dissolved in it
2) Action of dissolved CO2: :
CaCO3 + H2 O + CO2 CaH(CO3)2 MgCO3 H2 O + CO2 MgH(CO3)2
Insoluble Soluble Insoluble Soluble

3) Action of O2: Dissolved oxygen converts insoluble minerals to soluble and hardness
causing salts.
2FeS2 + 2H2 O + 7O2 2FeSO4 + 2H2SO4
Insoluble Soluble
 Types of Hardness of Water

1) Carbonate or Temporary Hardness or alkaline Hardness:

The hardness character to water due to presence of bicarbonates and some
soluble carbonates salts of heavy metals is the temporary hardness. Such
salts are CaH(CO3)2, MgCO3, MgH(CO3)2, FeCO3,
Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling hard water which converts
soluble salts to insoluble salts.
boiling
MgH(CO3)2, Mg(OH)2 +2CO2
boiling
Mg(CO3) Mg(OH)2 +2CO2
CaH(CO3)2, CaCO3 +2CO2

2) Non Carbonate or Permanent Hardness non alkaline hardness : The hardness

character to water due to presence of dissolved salts of heavy metals other
than bicarbonates is known as the permanent hardness. Such salts are CaCl2,
MgCl2, CaSO4 ,
Mg (NO3)2, MgSO4, Ca(NO3)2
These salts can be removed by chemical treatments or membrane filtration
methods such as: sodalinme addition, sodium phosphate addition, sodium
aluminate addition, zeolite treatment, ionexcange methos, Reverse osmosis,
electrodialysis, ultrafiltration etc
(Means in 106 parts of
water)
Determination of Hardness of Water by EDTA ( Complexometric) titration method
Theory:
❖ Disodium EDTA reacts quickly with the hardness causing metal ions in water even in very
low concentration of salts ie. It is highly sensitive towards heavy metal ions present in
water.
❖ EDTA is hexadentate ligand means it can form six coordinate bonds.
During the reaction of EDTA with metal ions, H+ are formed and the PH of the reaction
decreases, so a suitable PH is maintained by adding a buffer solution of PH 10 to complete
the reaction in forward direction.
❖ The reaction between EDTA and metal ions results in the formation of cyclic co-
ordination complex (Chelate) and hence the titration known as complexometric titration.
Principle:
The hardness causing ions like Ca++,Mg++ presents in water form stable chelate
complexes with disodium EDTA ,at suitable pH, and indicators give sharp end point.
Reaction :
M++ + EBT → M-EBT + 2 H+
Wine red or pink red
M++ + EDTA → M-EDTA + 2 H+
colourless
M-EBT + EDTA → M-EDTA + EBT
sky blue
Metal EDTA Complex
Calculations: Part A) Standardization of EDTA:
MgSO4 = EDTA
M1V1 = M2V2
Part B) II) Total Hardness of water = Y/V X z X 100* X1000 =PPM CaCO3
equivalent
Hardness of water = y x Z x 100 x 1000 / V PPM CaCO3 equivalent

y = Mean burette reading V= Volume of sample

z= Molarity of EDTA used for titration

ALKALINITY
Alkalinity is defined as the capacity of a water to neutralize an acid. In
most natural and treated waters, alkalinity is imparted to the water by the
carbonate system.Total alkalinity,T, and phenolphthalein alkalinity, P, are
defined as follows:
T = (HCO3)- + (CO3)-- + (OH)-
P = ½(CO3) + (OH)
where (HCO3), (CO3 ), and (OH) are the bicarbonate, carbonate, and
hydroxide ion concentrations, respectively, expressed as equivalents per liter
or as mg/L as CaCO3. Accordingly,T* and P are the respective alkalinity
concentrations expressed as equivalents per liter or as mg/L as CaCO3.
Alkalinity is determined by titration of a sample with an acid of known concentration.
For P alkalinity, titration is carried out to the P endpoint (pH ~8.3) or the
disappearance of the pink phenolphthalein color, if present. The T* alkalinity is
determined by titration to an endpoint pH value of ~4.5, as determined by the methyl
orange color change from yellow to rose red or orange red
Determination of Alkalinity
Principle
•All OH⁻and ½ of CO32-gets neutralized first.–Indicated by phenolphthalein,
pink to colorless .
•Remaining ½ ofCO32– (now present as HCO3¯) & complete
HC03¯ (present in sample water) is neutralized on further titration.
– Indicated by methy orange, yellow to orange RED OR ROSE RED
Reactions occurring are
OH⁻+H⁺→ H2O⁻……….(1)
CO3–2+H⁺→ HCO3¯.…(2)
HCO3¯+H⁺→ H2O…….(3)
Procedure
1) Take 10ml of sample in conical flask
2) add Phenolphthalein in same solution if colour of solution is pink then titrate
against .1N HCl till solution become colorless.This is first end point.(if colour of
the solution never turns pink then, continue by addition of adding methyl
orange).Then add methyl orange in same conical flask continue with titration till
you get colour change from yellow to rose red , this is second endpoint
Calculation:
P Alkalinity = Alkalinity obtained at the first end point
M alkalinity= alkalinity obtained at the second end point
P ‘Alkalinity’=V1/V X N X 50* X1000** =PPM CaCO3 equivalent
V1= means burette reading at the first end point , v= volume of sample,
n= normality of the acid used for titration
*equivalent weight of CaCo3 ** whole equiation is multiplied by 1000 so as to convert in to
ppm or mg/l
M ‘alkalinity’= V2/V X N X 50* X1000 ** =PPM CaCO3 equivalent
V2= means burette reading at the first end point , v= volume of sample, n= normality of the
acid used for titration
*equivalent weight of caco3, ** whole equation is multiplied by 1000 so as to convert in to
ppm or mg/l
Numericals:
1)Water sample is not alkaline to phenolphthalein, However 25ml of this water
Sample on titration required 4.5ml 0.02N HCl for methyl orange end point.
Determine the type & amount of alkalinity present in water. ( 3 Marks)
Ans: Volume of water taken for titration ( V ) = 25ml
( V2 ) Volume of acid for methyl orange end point = 4.5ml.
Normality of acid =Z=N = 0.02N
P= 0, so only Bicarbonate alkalinity is present
ie=M
M = V2 X 2 X 50 X 1000ppm/ V
= 4.5 X 0.02 X 50 X 1000/ 25 M =180ppm
Bicarbonate alkalinity present is 180 PPM CaCO3 equivalent

2) 50 ml of alkaline water sample requires 9.2 ml of N/50 HCl upto

phenolphthalein end point and total 13.1 ml of the acid for complete
neutralization. Find the types and amounts of alkalinities in the water sample.
Ans: V1 = 9.2 ml, V2 = 13.1 ml Z = N/50 = 0.02N V = volume of water sample = 50
ml
Phenolphthalein alkalinity Methyl Orange alkalinity
P = V1 XZ X 50 X 1000 / V M = V2 XZ X 50 X 1000/ 50
P = 9.2 X 0.02 X50 X 1000 / 50 M = 13.1 X0.02X 50 X 1000/ 50
P = 184 PPM CaCO3 eq. M = 262 PPM CaCO3 eq.
Here P > ½ M , the water sample contains following alkalinities:
Quantity of OH - = (2P –M) = 2 X 184 – 262 = 106 PPM CaCO3 eq.
Quantity of CO 3- - = 2(M-P) = 2 (262 – 184) = 156 PPM CaCO3 eq.
2) 25 ml of water sample required 8.8 ml of 0.01m EDTA to reach the end
point.
25ml of the same water sample after boiling & filtration required 6.5 ml of
same EDTA solution to reach the end point. Calculate total, temporary &
permanent hardness of the water sample.( 3Marks)

Ans: V= Vol. of water sample titrated = 25 ml

Z = Molarity of EDTA solution = 0.01
y = Vol. ofEDTA (Burette reading) = 8.8 ml

Step- I : Total Hardness = y x Z x 100 x 1000/ V ppm CaCO3 eq.

= 8.8 x 0.01 x100 x 1000 / 25
= 352 ppm CaCO3 eq.

Step- II : Permanent Hardness(after boiling & filtration)

V= Vol. of water sample titrated = 25 ml
Z = Molarity of EDTA solution = 0.01M
y = Vol. of EDTA (Burette reading) =6.5 ml
Permanent Hardness = y x Z x 100 x 1000/ V ppm CaCO3 eq.
= 6.5 x 0.01 x100 x 1000 / 25
= 260 ppm CaCO3 eq.
Temporarry hardness = Total – permanent
=352- 260
=92 ppm CaCO3 eq.
 ill effects of using hard water in boilers
If hard water is used in boiler it leads to damage of boiler and it increases the repairing
maintenance cost during steam generation. Depending upon type of boiler, water of
specific quality is required to use for better use of boiler for generating steam for various
applications.
Ill effects of using hard water in boilers are as follows: 1) Boiler corrosion 2)
Priming and Foaming in boiler 3) Sludges and scales: 4) Caustic embrittlement
1) Boiler corrosion:
The degradation of boiler metal due to chemical or electrochemical attack is called as
boiler corrosion.
Causes- I) Due to acids from dissolved salt-
Water containing dissolved magnesium salts liberates acid on hydrolysis
MgCl2 + 2H2O → Mg (OH)2 + 2HCl
This acid slowly attack the inner surface of boiler according to following reaction
Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2
II) Due to dissolved carbon dioxide
The produced carbon dioxide reacts with water to give carbonic acid
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3
III) Due to dissolved oxygen :
Water usually contains about 8ml. of dissolved oxygen per litre at room temperature.
Dissolved oxygen in water in the presence of prevailing high temperature, attack the
boiler materials.
2Fe +2H2O + O2 → 2Fe (OH)2 ↓
4Fe(OH) ↓ +O2 →2(Fe2O3 . 2H2O) ↓
Disadvantages- I) It shorten the life of boiler II) Joints and rivets are attacked by acids which
begin to leak. III) Cost of repairs and maintenance is increased.
Preventions- I) By adding suitable amount of alkali in order to neutralize acids. II) Dissolved
gases are removed by aeration and certain chemicals(Oxygen: using sodium sulphite and
hydrazine, for removal of Carbon dioxide gas 1 to 4 ppm liquid ammonia is added ).

2) Priming and Foaming:

Priming
Definition: When the steam formation is rapid, some water droplets are also
carried along with the steam. This ‘ wet steam’ formation process is called
priming
Causes of Priming: Disadvantages of Primi
1.Presence of excessive foam 1.Salt deposit on machine parts thereby
2.Faulty boiler design 2.decrease life of machinery.
3.High speed of steam generation 3.It also causes corrosion.
4.High steam velocity
Prevention
1.Use of softened & filtered water
2.Use steam purifier
3.Rapid changes in steam rate should be avoided
4. Maintain low water level.
Priming Foaming
Foaming
Formation of continuous foam or bubbles on the surface of water.
Priming & foaming occur usually together

Causes of Foaming: Disadvantages of Foaming

1. High concentration of dissolved salts in Difficult to maintain the constant pressure

boiler feed water
of steam in the presence of foaming.
2. Presence of oil droplets & alkali
3.Presence of finely dispersed suspended
Actual height of water level can’t be
materials judged well.
4.Violet agitation of boiler water. Foaming causes wet steam formation.

Prevention
1. Adding antifoaming agents like alcohol ,castor oil .
2. Use blow down operation.
3. Removing oil from water by adding sodium aluminate
3) Scales and sludges :
Sludges: Water evaporates continuously in the boiler and the concentration of salts
left behind, goes on increasing and they get precipitated.
If ppt. is loose, soft & slimy & does not stick permanently to the boiler is called
sludge.
Formation :
It is normally formed where flow rate of water is lower than other part of boiler. Loose
& slimy precipitate of salt in boiler water due to hard water. Formed at cooler portions of
boiler parts like edges, bends, valves, near bending of pipe.
Disadvantages of sludge
1.Wastage of some heat .
2.May choke up the boiler pipe
3. Reduce water flow rate in boiler .
Preventions- I) Total dissolved solid in water should be very low in water
II) by blow down operation i.e. replacing salt rich water with fresh water.

Scales: - Water evaporates continuously in the boiler and the concentration of

salts left behind, goes on increasing and they get precipitated.
Scale-The hard and strong coating formed inside the boiler due to chemical
reactions, which is bad conductor of heat is called as scales
Scale- Causes
I) Decomposition of bicarbonates-
At high temperature bicarbonates decomposes into precipitate.
Ca(HCO3 )2 → CaCO3 ↓ + CO2 + H2O

II) Hydrolysis of Mg salts-

At high temperature Mg salts under go hydrolysis to Mg (OH)2
MgCl2 + 2H2O → Mg (OH)2 +2HCl

III) Presence of Silica- silica may in the form of collidal particals and it can deposit as
calcium/magnesium silicate as a scale.

IV) Decreased solubility of CaSO4 –

CaSO4 has a lesser solubility at high temperature. Hence at high temperature CaSO4 will
precipitate as a hard scale.

Disadvantages- I) Wastage of fuel- scale is bad conductor of heat. Therefore heat can’t
pass through it from fire to water. This results in wastage of fuel.
II) Overheating of boiler- Due to formation of scale heat available to water is reduced and
hence more heat is required to regulate the steam supply.This causes overheating of boiler
plates and shorten its life or explosion of boiler takes place.
Preventions- I) Use softened water II) Adding sodium phosphate to water. III) Frequent blow
down operation IV) By adding Lignin and Tannin it will form the coating on scale. This
matter easily removed by blow down operation.
 Comparision between Scales and sludges

Scales Sludges
Loose slimy deposit Hard coating.
Easily removed. Difficult to remove.
Formed at cooler part of boiler Formed at hotter part of boiler.
where flow rate is low.
Heat transfer is slightly Heat transfer is greatly affected.
affected.

It leads to Choke the pipe. It leads to bulging or bursting or explosion of pipe

Formed due to increase in salt Formed due to increase in concentration of

concentration silicates, Magnesium hydroxide, calcium sulphate
4) Caustic embrittlement:
Definition :
It is the fast corrosion of boiler caused by alkaline condition of water, during
steam generation, especially high pressure steam boilers.
Boiler material becomes brittle due to accumulation of caustic substances.

Causes – 1.High tensile stress in the metal.

2. Leakages in the joints.
3. Presence of NaOH in boiler feed water
Caustic embrittlement is a type of boiler corrosion caused by using highly alkaline
water in the boiler. It is most likely to takes place in boilers which operates under
high pressure. During softening process free Na2CO3 is present in small amount. In
high pressure boilers Na2CO3 decomposes to give NaOH and CO2.
Na2CO3 + H2O → 2NaOH + CO2
This makes boiler water caustic. This NaOH containing water flows into the minute
cracks always present in the inner side of the boilers. Here water gets evaporated
and dissolved caustic soda con. Increases .The caustic soda attacks the
surrounding area, thereby dissolving iron of boiler into sodium ferroate.

2Fe +2NaOH + O2 → 2NaFeO2 + H2

Disadvantages- I) It shorten the life of boiler II) Joints and revets are attacked by
acids which begin to leak.III) Cost of repairs and maintenance is increased.

Preventions- I) Alkali carbonate in feed water should be avoided. II) Add tannin or
lignin to boiler water, which will block the minor cracks.III) To neutralize alkalinity
salt like NaNO3 should be added.
Softening of hard water by various methods
1)Zeolite Method:
Removal of hardness causing salts (eg. Carbonates, bicarbonates, nitrates,
sulphates etc.) from water is known as softening of water.

Principle- sodium zeolite has the property of exchanging metal ions from
water with loosely held Na+ ions on zeolite.
The chemical formula for permutit is Na2O, Al2O3.xSiO2 yH2O.
In short it is written as Na2Z

Process- The chemical formula for permutit is Na2O, Al2O3SiO2 6H2O. In short it is
written as Na2Z.
Plant consists of steel tank containing a thick layer of sodium zeolite. The tank is
also the inlet for passing the brine.
Raw water is introduced through an inlet. When it passes through a layer of zeolite,
equilibrium is formed between sodium ions from zeolite & cations present in the
water, then cations from hard water taken by zeolite & eq. amount of Na ions are
released in exchange.
Reactions involved in zeolite process for removing metal ions in water

Ca ++ + Na2-Z → Ca-Z + 2Na+

Mg+++ Na2Z → Mg-Z + 2Na+

Regeneration- When permutit is completely converted into calcium & magnesium

permutit & it ceases to soften the water. It gets exhausted. At this stage, the supply of
hard water is stopped & the exhausted permutit is regenerated by treating the bed
with Con. 10% NaCl solution.
Ca-Z + 2NaCl → Na2-Z + CaCl2
Mg-Z + 2NaCl → Na2-Z + MgCl2

Advantages
Hardness can be completely removed
Easy operation. No experts required
Less time and sludge 4. Small area requires

Disadvantages
Only Ca+ and Mg+ ions can be removed
Large amount of Na ions present in treated water.
Water should be free from suspended impurities to prevent clogging on Zeolite beds.
 Numerical on zeolite:
1) The hardness of water sample50000 litres of water sample was
removed by passing it through a zeolite bed. The zeolite bed then required
2) Ionliters
200 exchange/demineralization
of NaCl solution,containing / Deionisation process
100g/liter of NaCl for regeneration.
Calculate When
Principle: the hardness of watercations
water containing sample. ( 3Marks)passed through the resins,
&anions,is
Ans:- exchanger
cation Hard water resin
= 50000 lit., Vol.of
captures NaCl solution
all cations(in = 200oflit.,
exchange H+)gm/lit of NaCl
& anion =
exchanger
100g/lit
resin captures all anions((in exchange of OH-),to give pure & all ions free water.
Step-I
A) cationmg of NaCl resin
exchanger = gm/lit
-RH2 x Vol. of NaCl x 1000
= anion
B) 200 x 1000resin –R’(OH)2
100 xexchanger
= 2 x 107 mg NaCl
Step-II Quantity of NaCl in terms of CaCO3 (y)
= mg NaCl x 50/ 58.5 = 2 x 107x 50 / 58.5
= 1.7094x 107mg CaCO3
OR = 170940107.1mg CaCO3
Step-III Hardness
Hardness of water x Liter of water = y
Hardness of water = y/ Liter of water
= 1.7094 x 107/50000
= 341.88 ppm CaCO3 eq.
2) A zeolite bed gets exhausted on softening of 5000 liters of water of hardness 250 PPM
CaCO3 eq. Calculate he number of liters of 10% NaCl solution required for its generation.
Ans: Let the litters f NaCl solution be V
Here 10% NaCl means in 100 ml water 10gm NaCl
Therefore in one litre it will be 100 gm
Step 1: mg of NaCl quantity = gm NaCl per litre x Litre of NaCl x 1000
=100 x V X1000
= 105 V
Step 2) Quantity of NaCl in CaCO3 eq. = mg NaCl x 50 /58.5
= 105 V x 50 /58.5
= V x 8.547 X104

Step 3) Hardness of Water x litres of water = V x 8.547 X104

250 x 5000 = V x 8.547 X104
V = 250 x 5000 / 8.547 X104 = 14.625 litres of NaCl

3) An exhausted zeolite was regenerated by 150 litres of NaCl having strength 150 mg /litre.
How many litres of hard water having hardness400PPM as CaCO3 eq. can be softened by this
softener?
Step 1: Amount of NaCl in mg = gm NaCl per litre x Litre of NaCl x 1000
=150 x 150 X1000
= 2.25 X 107
Step 2) Quantity of NaCl in CaCO3 eq. = mg NaCl x 50 /58.5
= 2.25 X 107 x 50 /58.5 = 1.923 X 107
Step 3) Hardness of Water x litres of water = 1.923 X 107
400 x Litres of water = 1.923 X 107
Litres of water = 1.923 X 107 / 400 = 48075 litres of Water sample
 2) Ion exchange/demineralization /Deionisation process:
Principle: When water containing cations &anions,is passed through the resins,
cation exchanger resin captures all cations(in exchange of H+) & anion exchanger
resin captures all anions (in exchange of OH-),to give pure & all ions free water.
A) cation exchanger resin -RH2
B) anion exchanger resin –R’(OH)2
The hard water is first allowed to pass through a column containing cation
exchange resins. Which remove all the cations like Ca+2, Mg+2 etc. and release
H+ions. Reaction in first column takes place as under.
R-H2 + CaCl2 → Ca-R + 2HCl
R-H2 + CaSO4 → Ca-R -- H2SO4
The anions like chloride & sulphates are converted into acid like HCl & H2SO4.
Which is passed through another column containing anion exchanger i.e. R-
(OH)2 resin where the following reaction takes place.
R-(OH)2 + 2HCl → R-Cl2 + 2H2O
R-(OH)2 + H2SO4 → R-SO4 + 2H2O
Water thus obtained is free from all cations and anions & is called soft water or
distill water.

Regeneration:
When both resins get fully exhausted then they are regenerated. The cation resin
is regenerated by passing dilute acid solution (in first column). While anion resin
is regenerated by passing dilute NaOH solution (in second column), followed by
washing with water.
Ca-R + 2HCl → R-H2 + CaCl2 in firstcolumn
R-Cl2 + 2NaOH → R-(OH)2 + 2NaCl in second column
The regenerated acidic and basic resins are again reused for softening of hard
water.
Advantages:
1.Water of zero hardness & no ionic impurities
2.Gaseous impurities like CO2,O2 expelled ,to get water of ‘Distilled water
standard’.
3.Equipment occupies small space.
4.Easy to operate.
5. Self adjusts with water of any hardness.

Limitations
1 . Initial high investment.
2.Only for small scale purification of water

Electrodialysis
Principle /Definition Process of removing dissolved ionic impurities
(salts, ionic dyes) from water by using membrane & electric field ,is known as
electrodialysis
Construction
Electrodialysis cell consist of a large number of paired sets of plastic membranes
Membranes are ion selective i) Cation selective membrane will allow only cations
to pass through it , which repel anions & do not allow to go through.ii) Anion
selective membrane will allow only anions to pass through it , which repel cations &
do not allow to go through.
When electric field applied ,the cations get attracted towards cathode electrode &
pass though cation selective membrane in the neighboring compartment.
Similarly ,anions get attracted towards anode electrode & pass though anion
selective membrane in the neighboring compartment.
Result will be alternate compartments with salts rich water and neighboring
compartment with pure water.
Electrodialysis
Applications
Removal of ionic pollutants (toxic salts , ionic dyes).
Removal of salts from sea water ,to get pure water.
Removal of limited quantity of salts from sea water to get drinking water.
Salts rich water used to recover salts
.
Limitations:
Does not remove dissolved organic matter.
Does not remove colloidal impurities
Membrane replacement is costly

REVERSE OSMOSIS
Principle /Definition
The reversal of solvent flow, from higher concentration solution to lower
conc. solution through a semi permeable membrane ,by applying an external
pressure slightly higher than osmotic pressure of higher conc. solution ,is
known as reverse osmosis
Process:
1. Sea water /polluted /ionic pollutants is filled
in RO cell.
2.A pressure of 200psi is applied on it to force
solvent to pass through SPM.
3. SPM has such porosity that it allows only
small molecules of water.
4.Treated water comes out from the bottom
outlet.
5.Thus, in RO we separate water from its
contaminants rather than contaminants from
water .
Advantages: RO removes all ionic ,colloidal,
non-ionic, impurities from water.
Simple to operate
Low cost
SPM is specially prepared such that it allows
limited quantity of salts to pass through it
along with water .