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 Parent cell is always largest because it stores

organelles and DNA for two daughter cells.
 Daughter cells are smallest because two new cells
share the contents of one cell (parent cell)
 Adult cell is the normal stage

a) Interphase/ Resting phase

-First growth phase (G-1)
-Synthesis phase (S)
-Second growth phase (G-2)
b) Nuclear division
-Mitosis
-Meiosis
c) Cytokinesis/Cytoplasm division

Q:1 How is Cell Cycle controlled?

Ans: Cell divides in a sequence of events known as the cell cycle which involves several different phases. The cell cycle is
controlled by a number of chemical signals made in response to different genes. This control is brought about at a
number of checkpoints where cell cycle moves from one phase to the next. The control chemicals are the small proteins
called cyclins. This build up and attach to the enzymes called cyclic dependent kinases (CDKs). CDK complex formed
adds a phosphate group to other proteins, changing their shape and bring about the next stage in the cell cycle. For
example when phosphate are added to chromatin fibers they become denser and chromosomes become visible, while
when some nuclear membranes are phosphorylated the membrane breaks down.

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Interphase: It occupies most of the cell cycle and is also called the resting phase. In this phase the cell
develops and matures to become parent cell. It is divided into further 3 stages:-
 First growth phase (G-1), synthesis of new cell organelles to form adult cell
 Synthesis phase (S), replication of DNA starts to increase chromatid for cell division
 Second growth phase (G-2), synthesis of new cell organelles to form parent cell it also stores
energy for cell division.
Nuclear division: It is a process by which the nucleus divides
There are two types of nuclear division:
 Mitosis, results in two daughter cells having diploid number of chromosomes. The nuclei formed
are normally genetically identical to parent one.
 Meiosis, results in four daughter cells having haploid number of chromosomes. The nuclei
formed have a genetic composition different from the parent one.
Cytokinesis: It is the process by which the whole cell divides by the division of cytoplasm

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Mitosis results in formation of two genetically identical diploid daughter cells. It is divided into 4
stages.
Prophase
It is the longest stage of mitosis. It includes:
 The chromosomes condense and become
visible as long thin fibers
 The chromosomes coil up becoming
shorter and thicker
 In animal cells, the centrosome breaks
and the centrioles move to opposite end of
cells protein microtubules develop from
each centrioles forming spindle fibers. In
plant cells, there are no centrioles and
spindle fibers from independently
 Each chromosome splits into two
chromatids Figure 1: Prophase
 At the end of prophase or the start of
metaphase nucleolus disappears and nuclear membrane breaks down. The chromosomes now lie free in
cytoplasm
Metaphase
It is relatively a short phase in mitosis. It includes:
 The chromosomes move towards the equator of cell
 The chromosomes attach themselves to the spindle fiber
by means of their centromere.
Anaphase
It is a short phase of mitosis as well. It includes:
 Each chromosomes splits into two chromatids and the
chromatids move to opposite poles. This movement
results from contracting of spindle fibers.
Telophase
Another short stage of mitosis. It includes: Figure 2: Metaphase

 The chromatids have now moved to opposite poles and

can now be regarded as
distinct chromosomes
 Telophase can be
called reverse of
prophase. The nuclear
membrane reforms
around each group of
chromosomes and
nucleolus reappears
 The
chromosomes uncoil to
form diffuse chromatin
Figure 3: Anaphase
Figure 4: Telophase

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Cytokinesis in animal cells:
Before cytokinesis the other cell organelles are evenly distributed around each nucleus. In animal cells the process is
sometimes called cleavage, since a furrow called division furrow deepens, the cell membrane on each side joins up and
two separate cells results.
Cytokinesis in plant cells:
It is different in plant cells. Vesicles produces by Golgi body collected on the equator of cell. These vesicles contain
carbohydrates such as pectin and hemi cellulose. The vesicles fuse together to form a cell plate/ middle lamella.
Cellulose builds up on each side of lamella to form cell walls of two new plant cells

In diploid organisms one set of chromosomes (23 chromosomes) will have come from male and the other from female
parent, so that chromosomes occur in pairs in the cells. These pairs of chromosomes are called homologous pairs.

Members of a pair have following characteristics:

 They are exactly same length
 They have centromere in same position
 They contain same number of genes
 The genes are arranged in same liner order

Meiosis involves two division of cells called meiosis- I and meiosis-II

Meiosis –II is SIMILAR (NOT SAME) to Mitosis.

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Prophase-I:

It Includes:
 Chromosomes condense and split into two chromatids
 Chromosomes shorten and thicken by coiling
 Paternal and maternal chromosomes come together in homologous pairs. These pairing is called a bivalent. So
a bivalent consists of four chromatids
 As they pair up, chromosomes shorten and twisted around each other and forms chiasmata between non-sister
chromatids
 At end of prophase- I, the nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear
Metaphase-I

It includes:
 At start of metaphase-I spindle forms
 Homologous pairs of chromosomes assembles at the
equator of spindle by means of centromere
Anaphase-I
It includes:
 chromosomes in each bivalent separates and crossing
over occurs
 Each poles receives a haploid number of chromosomes
but with a diploid number of chromatid

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Telophase –I
It includes:
 Chromosomes reach opposite poles of spindle
 The nucleolus reappears and nuclear Membrane forms around each
set of haploid chromosomes
 Cytokinesis occurs to produce two haploid cells

Prophase-II
It includes:
 New spindle fibers develop at right angles to old spindle
fiber
Metaphase-II
It includes:
 Each chromosomes
arranges itself on the equator of the
spindle by means of centromere

Anaphase-II
It includes:
 The centromere divides and the spindle pulls the two
chromatids to opposite poles
Telophase-II
It includes:
 On reaching the poles the chromatids lengthens and become
distinct chromosomes
 Spindle disappears and nucleolus and nuclear membrane
reforms.
 Cytokinesis takes place resulting in four haploid cells

In Meiosis-I the two cells of Meiosis-I divides each forms two new cells
giving a total of four cells but in drawing, division of only one cell is shown.

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Importance of Mitosis:
 Growth
 Repair
 Regeneration
 Fragmentation
 Asexual reproduction  Binary fission
 Producing Spores
 Producing Buds
Importance of Meiosis:
 Halves the number of chromosomes in gametes, so when two gametes fuse the diploid number
is restored
 Independent assortment of chromosomes. There are more than 8 million potential genetic
combinations within sperm or ova this alone guarantees great variety in gametes.

Cell, the basic unit of life

Tissue, groups of specialized cell produced from same source and perform same job. There are 4 main
types:
i) Epithelial tissue
ii) Muscles tissue
iii) Nervous tissue
iv) Connective tissue
Organ, made up of group of tissue that are grouped into a structure so that they can work effectively
together
Organ system, number of organs work together as a system to carry out large scale functions in the
body

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