PDHonline Course S203 (8 PDH)

Calculating and Designing Wood

Framing Components for Light Frame
Construction

Instructor: George E. Thomas, PE

2012

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Calculating and Designing Wood Framing

Components for
Light Frame Construction
George E. Thomas, PE

1 General

This course will address the design of wood structural systems and construction
materials commonly used is light-frame wood construction. The course focuses on
structural design that specifies standard dimension lumber and structural wood panels
(i.e., plywood and oriented strand board sheathing, etc.). Design of the lateral force
resisting system (i.e., shearwalls and diaphragms) is approached from a system design
perspective. The basic components and assemblies of conventional wood frame
construction are shown in Figure 1.
Many elements of light frame construction work together as a system to resist
lateral and axial forces imposed on the above-grade structure and transfer them to the
foundation. The above-grade structure also helps resist lateral soil loads on foundation
walls through connection of floor systems to foundations. The issue of system
performance is most pronounced in the above-grade assemblies of light-frame
construction. Within the context of simple engineering approaches familiar to engineers,
system-based design principles are addressed in this course.
The design of the above-grade structure involves the following structural systems
and assemblies:

• Floors
• Walls
• Roofs

Each system can be complex to design as a whole; therefore, simple analysis

usually focuses on the individual elements that constitute the system. In some cases,
“system effects” may be considered in simplified form and applied to the design of
certain elements that constitute specifically defined systems.
Structural elements that make up a residential structural system include:

• Bending members
• Columns
• Combined bending and axial loaded members;
• Sheathing (i.e., diaphragm)
• Connections

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The principal method of design for wood-framed construction has been the
allowable stress design (ASD). This course will be using the ASD method, however the
load resistance factored design method (LRFD) is now available as an alternative. The
engineer should obtain the National Design Specification (NDS) commentary to develop
a better understanding of the rationale and substantiation for the National Design
Specification and National Design Specification Supplement (NDS-S).
This course will look at NDS equations in general and includes design examples that
detail the appropriate use of the equations for specific structural elements or systems in
light, wood-framed construction. The course focuses primarily on framing with
traditional dimension lumber and will give some consideration to common engineered
wood products. Other wood framing methods, such as post-and-beam construction, are
not explicitly addressed, although much of the information is relevant. System
considerations and system factors presented are only relevant to light, wood-framed
construction using dimension lumber.
No matter what structural element is to be analyzed, the engineer must first
determine nominal design loads. The loads that act on a framing member or system are
usually calculated in accordance with the applicable provisions of the locally approved
building code and past engineering practice.
While prescriptive design tables (i.e., span tables) and similar design aids
commonly used in residential applications are not included herein, the engineer can save
considerable design effort by consulting resources containing such information such as
local, state, or national model building codes. Prescriptive design aids and framing
practices can be found in various design and construction handbooks. For high wind
conditions, prescriptive guidelines for design and construction may be found in the Wood
Frame Construction Manual for One- and Two-Family Dwellings. The engineer should
also obtain design data from a variety of proprietary engineered wood products that are
suitable for many special design needs in residential construction. However, those
materials generally should not be viewed as simple “one-to-one” substitutes for
conventional wood framing and all special design and construction requirements must be
carefully considered in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendation or
applicable code evaluation reports.

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FIGURE 1 Components of a Conventional Wood-Framed Construction

2 Material Properties

It is essential that the engineer using wood materials know the natural
characteristics of wood and their effect on the engineering properties of lumber. A brief
discussion of the properties of lumber and structural wood panels follows.

2.1 Lumber

General

The engineer must consider wood’s strengths and weaknesses. Comprehensive

technical information on wood characteristics can be found in the Wood Engineering
Handbook, Second Edition (Forest Products Laboratory, 1990). The knowledge
incorporated in this handbook is reflected in the provisions of the NDS and the NDS
Supplement design data; , many aspects of wood design require good judgment by the
engineer.
Wood is a natural material, as a structural material, demonstrates unique and
complex characteristics. Wood’s structural properties can be traced back to the material’s

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natural composition. Wood is a nonhomogeneous, non-isotropic material, and thus

exhibits different structural properties depending on the orientation of stresses relative to
the grain of the wood. The grain is produced by a tree’s annual growth rings, which
determine the properties of wood along three orientations: tangential, radial, and
longitudinal.
Given that lumber is cut from logs in the longitudinal direction, the grain is
parallel to the length of a lumber member. Depending on where the lumber is cut relative
to the center of a log (i.e., tangential versus radial), properties vary across the width and
thickness of an individual member and is referred to as the slope of grain.

Wood Species

Structural lumber can be manufactured from a variety of wood species; the

various species used in a given locality are a function of the economy, regional
availability, and required strength properties. A wood species is classified as either
hardwood or softwood. Hardwoods are broad-leafed deciduous trees while softwoods are
trees with needle-like leaves and are generally evergreen.
Most structural lumber is manufactured from softwoods because of the trees’
faster growth rate, availability, and workability (i.e., ease of cutting, nailing, etc.). A
wood species is further classified into groups or combinations as defined in the NDS and
various grading organizations. Species within a group have similar properties and are
subject to the same grading rules. Douglas Fir-Larch, Southern Yellow Pine, Hem-Fir,
and Spruce-Pine-Fir are species groups that are widely used in residential design and
construction in the United States.

Lumber Sizes

Wood members are referred to by nominal sizes (e.g., 2x4); however, true
dimensions are somewhat less. The difference occurs during the dressing stage of the
lumber process, when each surface of the member is planed to its final dressed dimension
after shrinkage has occurred as a result of the drying or “seasoning” process. Generally,
there is a 1/4“to 3/4“ difference between the nominal and dressed sizes of “dry” sawn
lumber. For example, a 2x4 is actually 1.5” by 3.5”, a 2x10 is 1.5” by 9.25”, and a 1x4 is
1/2” by 3.5”. This course uses nominal member size, it is important to note that the
engineer must apply the actual dimensions of the lumber when analyzing structural
performance or detailing construction dimensions.
Based on the expected application, the tabulated values are classified by the
species of wood as well as by the nominal size of a member. These classifications follow:

• Boards are less than 2” thick.

• Dimension lumber is a minimum of 2” wide and 2 to 4 inches thick.
• Beams and stringers are a minimum of 5” thick, with the width at least 2” greater
than the thickness dimension.
• Posts and timbers are a minimum of 5” thick, and the width does not exceed the
thickness by more than 2 inches.
• Decking is 2” to 4” thick and loaded in the weak axis of bending for a roof, floor,
or wall surface.

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Wood used in light-frame residential construction takes the form of dimension

lumber.

Lumber Grades

Lumber is graded in accordance with standardized grading rules which consider

the effect of natural growth characteristics and “defects,” Mainly knots and slope of
grain, on the member’s structural properties. Growth characteristics reduce the overall
strength of the member relative to a “perfect,” clear-grained member without any natural
defects. Most lumber is visually graded, although it can also be machine stress-rated or
machine evaluated.
Visually graded lumber is graded by individuals who examine the wood members
at the mill in accordance with a approved agencies grading rules.
The grader identifies wood members that are then separated into the appropriate grade
classes. Typical visual grading classes are Select Structural, No. 1, No. 2, Stud, etc. Refer
to the NDS Supplement or a national grading agency for more information on grades of
different species of lumber. The engineer should consult local lumber suppliers or
contractors regarding available lumber species and grades.
Machine stress rated (MSR) and machine evaluated lumber (MEL) is subjected to
nondestructive testing of each piece. The wood member is then marked with the
appropriate grade stamp, which includes the allowable bending stress (Fb) and the
modulus of elasticity (E). This grading method yields lumber with more consistent
structural properties than visual grading only.
While grading rules may vary among grading agencies, the U.S. Department of
Commerce has set forth minimums for voluntary adoption by the recognized lumber
grading agencies. For more information regarding grading rules, refer to the National
Institute for Standards and Technology.

Moisture Content

Wood properties and dimensions change with moisture content (MC). Wood
contains varying amounts of free and bound water. Free water is contained between the
wood cells and is the first water to be driven off in the drying process. Its loss affects
neither volume nor structural properties. Bound water is contained within the wood cells
and accounts for most of the moisture under 30 percent; its loss results in changes in both
volume (i.e., shrinkage) and structural properties. The strength of wood peaks around 15
percent MC.
Given that wood generally has an MC of more than 30 percent when cut and may
dry to an equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of 9 percent in a protected environment, it
should be dried or seasoned before installation. Proper drying and storage of lumber
minimizes lumber shrinkage and warping. A minimum recommendation calls for using
“surface dry” lumber with a maximum 19 percent MC. In uses where shrinkage is
critical, specifications may call for “KD-15,” which is kiln-dried lumber with maximum
moisture content of 15 percent. The tabulated design values are based on moisture
content of 19 percent for dimension lumber.

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Engineers need to plan for vertical movement that may occur in a structure as a
result of shrinkage. For more complicated structural details that call for various types of
materials and systems, the engineer might have to account for differential shrinkage by
isolating members that will shrink from those that will maintain dimensional stability.
The engineer should detail the structure so that shrinkage is as uniform as possible,
thereby minimizing shrinkage effects on finish surfaces. Details minimizing the amount
of wood transferring loads perpendicular to slope of grain are preferable.
Shrink and swell can be calculated in accordance with Section 3.2 for the width
and thickness of wood members (i.e., tangentially and radially with respect to annual
rings). Shrinkage in the longitudinal direction of a wood member (i.e., parallel to grain) is
negligible.

Durability

Moisture is the primary factor affecting the durability of lumber. Fungi, which
feed on wood cells, require moisture, air, and favorable temperatures to survive. When
wood is subject to high moisture levels and other favorable conditions, decay begins to
set in. Therefore, it is important to protect wood materials from moisture, by:

• Limiting end use (e.g., specifying interior applications or isolating lumber from
ground contact)
• Using a weather barrier (e.g., siding, roofing, building wrap, flashing, etc.)
• Applying a protective coating (e.g., paint, water repellent, etc.)
• Installing roof overhangs and gutters
• Specifying preservative-treated or naturally decay-resistant wood

An exterior weather barrier (e.g., roofing and siding) protects most structural
wood, although improper design can lead to moisture intrusion and decay. Problems are
commonly associated with improper or missing flashing and undue reliance on caulking
to prevent moisture intrusion.
Wood members that are in ground contact should be preservative treated. Check
the American Wood-Preservers’ Association (AWPA) standards for types of treatments
used for applications such as sill plates located near the ground or for exterior decks. It is
important to specify the correct type and level of treatment.
Termites and other wood-destroying insects (e.g., carpenter ants, boring beetles,
etc.) attack wood materials. Some practical solutions include: the chemical treatment of
soil; the installation of physical barriers (e.g., termite shields); and the specification of
treated lumber.
Termites are a special problem in warmer climates, although they also plague
many other areas of the United States. The most common termites are “subterranean”
termites that nest in the ground and enter wood that is near or in contact with damp soil.
They gain access to above-grade wood through cracks in the foundation or through
shelter tubes (i.e., mud tunnels) on the surface of foundation walls. Since the presence of
termites lends itself to be visual to detection, wood-framed construction require periodic
inspection for signs of termites.

2.2 Structural Wood Panels

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In past construction boards have been used for roof, floor, and wall sheathing;
today, structural wood panel (plywood, OSB, etc.) products are dominating the sheathing
market. Structural wood panel products are more economical and efficient and are
considered to be stronger than traditional board sheathing.
Plywood is manufactured from wood veneers glued together under high
temperature and pressure. Each veneer or ply is placed with its grain perpendicular to the
grain of the previous layer. The outer layers are placed with their grain parallel to the
longer dimension of the panel. This allows the plywood to be stronger in bending along
the long direction and therefore should be placed with the long dimension spanning floor
and roof framing members. The number of plies ranges from 3 to 5. Oriented strand
board is manufactured from thin wood strands glued together under high temperature and
pressure. The strands are layered and oriented to produce strength properties similar to
plywood and is used for the same applications as plywood.
The engineer should specify the grade and span rating of structural wood panels
to meet the required application and loading condition (i.e., roof, wall or floor). The most
common panel size is 4’x 8’, with thicknesses typically ranging from 3/8” to over 1”.
Panels can be ordered in varying lengths for all types of applications and are stamped
with their rating.
Plywood is performance-rated according to the provisions of U.S. Department of
Commerce (USDOC ) PS-1 for industrial and construction plywood. OSB products are
performance-rated according to the provisions of USDOC PS-2. These standards are
voluntary and not all wood-based panel products are rated accordingly. The APA–
Engineered Wood Association’s (formerly American Plywood Association) rating system
or structural wood panel sheathing products and those used by other structural panel
trademarking organizations are based on the U.S. Department of Commerce voluntary
product standards.
The veneer grade of plywood is associated with the veneers used on the exposed
faces of a panel as follows:

• GradeA: The highest-quality veneer grade, which is intended for cabinet or

furniture use
• Grade B: A high-quality veneer grade, which is intended for cabinet or furniture
use with all defects repaired
• Grade C: The minimum veneer grade, which is intended for exterior use
• Grade D: The lowest-quality veneer grade, which is intended for interior use or
where protected from exposure to weather

The wood strands or veneer layers used in wood structural panels are bonded with
adhesives and differ in moisture resistance. Wood structural panels are also classified
with respect to end-use exposure as follows:

• Exterior panels are designed for applications with permanent exposure to the
weather or moisture
• Exposure 1 panels are designed for applications where temporary exposure to the
weather due to construction sequence may be expected

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• Exposure 2 panels are designed for applications with a potential for high humidity
or wetting but are generally protected during construction
• Interior panels are designed for interior applications only

Most span ratings for structural wood panels specify either the maximum
allowable center-to-center spacing of supports (e.g., 24 inches on center for roof, floor, or
wall) or two numbers separated by a slash to designate the allowable center-to-center
spacing of roof and floor supports, respectively (e.g., 48/24). Although the second rating
method does not specifically indicate wall stud spacing, the panels may also be used for
wall sheathing. The APA design and construction guide for residential and commercial
construction provides a correlation between roof/floor ratings and allowable wall support
spacing. The Load-Span Tables for APA Structural-Use Panels provides span ratings for
various standard and nonstandard loading conditions and deflection limits.

2.3 Lumber Design Values

The NDS-S provides tabulated design stress values for bending, tension parallel to
grain, shear parallel to grain, compression parallel and perpendicular to grain, and
modulus of elasticity. The NDS includes the most up-to-date design values based on test
results from an full-scale testing program that uses lumber samples from mills across the
United States and Canada.
Characteristic structural properties for use in ASD and load and LRFD are used to
establish design values. Test data collected in accordance with applicable standards
determine a characteristic strength value for each grade and species of lumber. These
values are usually the mean (average) or fifth percentile test value. The fifth percentile
represents the value that 95 percent of the sampled members exceeded. In ASD,
characteristic structural values are multiplied by the reduction factors in Table 1. The
reduction factors are implicit in the allowable values published in the NDS-S for
standardized conditions. The reduction factor normalizes the lumber properties to a
standard set of conditions related to load duration, moisture content, and other factors. It
also includes a safety factor if applicable to the particular limit state (i.e., ultimate
capacity). Therefore, for specific design conditions that differ from the standard basis,
design property values should be adjusted as described in Section 2.4.

• Fb reduction factor = (10/16 load duration factor)(10/13 safety factor)

• Ft reduction factor = (10/16 load duration factor)(10/13 safety factor)
• Fv reduction factor = (10/16 load duration factor)(4/9 stress concentration factor)
(8/9 safety factor)
• Fc reduction factor = (2/3 load duration factor)(4/5 safety factor)
• Fc⊥ reduction factor = (2/3 end position factor)

2.4 Adjustment Factors

The allowable values published in the NDS-S are determined for a standard set of
conditions. Yet, given the many variations in the characteristics of wood that affect the
material’s structural properties, several adjustment factors are available. For efficient

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design, it is important to use the appropriate adjustments for conditions that vary from
those used to derive the standard design values. Table 2 presents adjustment factors that
apply to different structural properties of wood. The following sections will briefly
discuss the adjustment factors most commonly used in residential applications. For
information on other adjustment factors, refer to the NDS, NDS-S, and the NDS
commentary.

TABLE 1 Design Properties and Associated Reduction Factors for ASD

Stress Property Basis of Estimated ASTM
Reduction
Characteristic Limit State Designation
Factor
Value
From Test Data
Extreme fiber stress in bending, Fb 1/2.1 Fifth percentile Ultimate
D1990
Capacity
Tension parallel to grain, F1 1/2.1 Fifth percentile Ultimate
D1990
Capacity
Shear parallel to grain, Fv 1/4.1 Fifth percentile Ultimate
D245
Capacity
Compression parallel to grain, Fc 1/1.9 Fifth percentile Ultimate
D1990
Capacity
Compression perpendicular to grain, 0.04”
1/1.5 Mean D245
Fc1 Deflection
Modulus of elasticity, E 1/1.0 Mean Proportional
D1990
Limit
Notes:
The characteristic design value for F c1 is controlled by a deformation limit state. The lumber will densify and carry an increasing load
as it is compressed.
The proportional limit of wood load-deformation behavior is not clearly defined because it is nonlinear. Designation of a proportional
limit is subject to variations in interpretation of test data.

TABLE 2 Adjustment Factor Applicability to Design Values for Wood

Notes:
Basic or unadjusted values for design properties of wood are found in NDS-S. See Table 1 for definitions of design properties.
Shaded cells represent factors most commonly used in residential applications; other factors may apply to special conditions.

Key to Adjustment Factors:

• CD, Load Duration Factor. Applies when loads are other than "normal" 10-year duration (see
Section 2.4.1 and refer to NDS 2.3.2).
• Cr, Repetitive Member Factor. Applies to bending members in assemblies with multiple members
spaced at maximum 24 inches on center (see Section 2.4.2 and refer to NDS 4.3.4).
• CH, Horizontal Shear Factor. Applies to individual or multiple members with regard to horizontal,
parallel to-grain splitting (see Section 2.4.3 and refer to NDS-S).
• CF, Size Factor. Applies to member sizes/grades other than "standard" test specimens, but does not
apply to Southern Yellow Pine (see Section 2.4.4 and refer to NDS-S).
• CP, Column Stability Factor. Applies to lateral support condition of compression members (see
Section 2.4.5 and refer to NDS 3.7.1).

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• CL, Beam Stability Factor. Applies to bending members not subject to continuous lateral support
on the compression edge (see Section 2.4.6 and refer to NDS 3.3.3).
• CM, Wet Service Factor. Applies where the moisture content is expected to exceed 19 percent for
extended periods (refer to NDS-S).
• Cfu, Flat Use Factor. Applies where dimension lumber 2 to 4 inches thick is subject to a bending
load in its weak axis direction (refer to NDS-S).
• Cb, Bearing Area Factor. Applies to members with bearing less than 6 inches and not nearer than 3
inches from the members’ ends (refer to NDS 2.3.10).
• CT, Buckling Stiffness Factor. Applies only to maximum 2x4 dimension lumber in the top chord
of wood trusses that are subjected to combined flexure and axial compression (see refer to 4.4.3).
• CV, Volume Factor. Applies to glulam bending members loaded perpendicular to the wide face of
the laminations in strong axis bending (refer to NDS 5.3.2).
• Ct, Temperature Factor. Applies where temperatures exceed 100oF for long periods; not normally
required when wood members are subjected to intermittent higher temperatures such as in roof
structures (see NDS 2.4.3 and refer to NDS Appendix C).
• Ci, Incising Factor. Applies where structural sawn lumber is incised to increase penetration of
preservatives with small incisions cut parallel to the grain (refer to NDS 2.3.11).
• Cc, Curvature Factor. Applies only to curved portions of glued laminated bending members (refer
to NDS 5.3.4).
• Cf, Form Factor. Applies where bending members are either round or square with diagonal loading
(refer to NDS 2.3.8).

2.4.1 Load Duration Factor (CD)

Lumber strength is affected by the cumulative duration of maximum variable

loads experienced during the life of the structure. Strength is affected by both the load
intensity and its duration (i.e., the load history). Because of its natural composition, wood
is better able to resist higher short-term loads (i.e., transient live loads or impact loads)
than long-term loads (i.e., dead loads and sustained live loads). Under impact loading,
wood can resist approximately twice as much stress as the standard 10year load duration
(i.e., "normal duration") to which wood bending stress properties are normalized in the
NDS.
When other loads with different duration characteristics are considered, it is
necessary to modify certain tabulated stresses by a load duration factor (CD) as shown in
Table 3. Values of the load duration factor, CD, for various load types are based on the
total accumulated time effects of a given type of load during the useful life of a structure.
CD increases with decreasing load duration.
Where more than one load type is specified in a design analysis, the load duration
factor associated with the shortest duration load is applied to the entire combination of
loads. For example, for the load combination, Dead Load + Snow Load + Wind Load, the
load duration factor, CD, is equal to 1.6.

TABLE 3 Recommended Load Duration Factors for ASD

Notes:
The NDS uses a live load duration of ten years (CD = 1.0). The factor of 1.25 is consistent with the time effect factor for live load used

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in the new wood LRFD provisions.

The NDS uses a snow load duration of one month (CD = 1.15). The factor of 1.25 is consistent with the time effect factor for snow load
used in the new wood LRFD provisions.
The NDS uses a wind and seismic load duration of ten minutes (CD = 1.6). The factor may be as high as 1.8 for earthquake loads
which generally have a duration of less than 1 minute with a much shorter duration for ground motions in the design level range.

2.4.2 Repetitive Member Factor (Cr)

When three or more parallel dimension lumber members are spaced a maximum
of 24” on center and connected with structural sheathing, they comprise a structural
“system” with more bending capacity than the sum of the single members acting
individually. Therefore, most elements in a residential structure benefit from an
adjustment for the system strength effects inherent in repetitive members.
The tabulated design values given in the NDS are based on single members; an
increase in allowable stress is permitted in order to account for repetitive members. While
the NDS recommends a repetitive member factor of 1.15 or a 15% increase in bending
strength, system assembly tests have demonstrated that the NDS repetitive member factor
is conservative for certain conditions. In fact, test results from several studies support the
range of repetitive member factors shown in Table 4 for certain design applications. As
shown in Table 2, the adjustment factor applies only to extreme fiber in bending, Fb.
Later sections in this course cover other system adjustments related to concentrated loads,
header framing assemblies, and deflection (stiffness) considerations.

TABLE 4 Recommended Repetitive Member Factors for Dimension Lumber Used in

Framing Systems

Notes:
NDS recommends a Cr value of 1.15 only as shown in the table. The other values in the table were obtained from various codes,
standards, and research reports as indicated.
Dimension lumber bending members are to be parallel in orientation to each other, continuous (i.e., not spliced), and of the same
species, grade, and size. The applicable sizes of dimension lumber range from 2x4 to 2x12.
Cr values are given as a range and are applicable to built-up columns and beams formed of continuous members with the strong-axis of
all members oriented identically. In general, a larger value of Cr should be used for dimension lumber materials that have a greater
variability in strength (i.e., the more variability in strength of individual members the greater the benefit realized in forming a built-up
member relative to the individual member strength). For example, a two-ply built-up member of No. 2 grade (visually graded)
dimension lumber may qualify for use of a Cr value of 1.2 whereas a two-ply member of No. 1 dense or mechanically graded lumber
may qualify for a Cr value of 1.1. The individual members should be adequately attached to one another or the load introduced to the
built-up member such that the individual members act as a unit (i.e., all members deflect equally) in resisting the bending load. For
built-up bending members with noncontinuous plys (i.e., splices), refer to ASAE EP 559 (ASAE, 1997). For built-up columns subject
to weak axis bending load or buckling, refer to ASAE EP 559 and NDS 15.3.
Refer to NDS 4.3.4 and the NDS Commentary for additional guidance on the use of the 1.15 repetitive member factor.
The Cr values are based on wood structural panel attachment to wall framing using 8d common nails spaced at 12 inches on center. For
fasteners of a smaller diameter, multiply the Cr values by the ratio of the nail diameter to that of an 8d common nail (0.131 inch
diameter).
The reduction factor applied to Cr need not be less than 0.75 and the resulting value of Cr should not be adjusted to less than 1.15.
Doubling the nailing (i.e., decreasing the fastener spacing by one-half) can increase the Cr value by 16 percent (Polensek, 1975).

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Values in Table 4 are provided for use by the engineer as an recommended

“alternative” from the NDS. For more information on system effects, consult the
following sample of references:

"Structural Performance of Light-Frame Truss-Roof Assemblies" (Wolfe, 1996).

“Performance of Light-Frame Redundant Assemblies” (Wolfe, 1990).

“Reliability of Wood Systems Subjected to Stochastic Live Loads” (Rosowsky

and Ellingwood, 1992).

“System Effects in Wood Assemblies” (Douglas and Line, 1996).

Design Requirements and Bending Properties for Mechanically Laminated

Columns (EP 559) (ASAE, 1997).

Rational Design Procedure for Wood Stud Walls Under Bending and
Compression Loads (Polensek, 1975).

Stress and Deflection Reduction in 2x4 Studs Spaced 24 Inches On Center

Due to the Addition of Interior and Exterior Surfacings (NAHBRF, 1974).

Structural Reliability Analysis of Wood Load Sharing Systems (Bonnicksen and

Suddarth, 1965).

System Performance of Wood Header Assemblies (HUD, 1999).

Wall & Floor Systems: Design and Performance of Light-FrameStructures

(FPRS, 1983).

2.4.3 Horizontal Shear Factor (CH)

Because lumber does not dry uniformly, it is subject to warping, checking, and
splitting, all of which reduce the strength of a member. The horizontal stress values in the
NDS-S conservatively account for any checks and splits that may form during the
seasoning process and, as in the worst-case values, assume substantial horizontal splits in
all wood members. Although a horizontal split may occur in some members, all members
in a repetitive member system rarely experience such splits. Therefore, a CH of greater
than 1.0 should apply when repetitive framing or built-up members are used. For
members with no splits CH equals 2.0.
Future allowable horizontal shear values will be increased by a factor of 2 or more
because of changes in the applicable standard regarding assignment of strength
properties. The change is a result of removing a conservative adjustment to the test data
whereby a 50 percent reduction for checks and splits was applied in addition to a 4/9
stress concentration factor as described in Section 2.3. As an interim solution, a shear
adjustment factor, CH, of 2.0 should be apply to all designs that use horizontal shear
values in 1997 and earlier editions of the NDS. As shown in Table 2, the CH factor
applies only to the allowable horizontal shear stress, Fv. As an interim consideration
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regarding horizontal shear at notches and connections in members, a CH value of 1.5 is

recommended for use with provisions in NDS 3.4.4 and 3.4.5 for dimension lumber only.

2.4.4 Size Factor (CF)

Tabulated design values in the NDS-S are based on testing conducted on members
of certain sizes. The specified depth for dimension lumber members subjected to testing
is 12” for No. 3 or better, 6” for stud-grade members, and 4 inches for construction,
standard or utility grade members (i.e., CF=1.0).
The size of a member affects unit strength because of the member’s relationship
to the likelihood of naturally occurring defects in the material. Therefore, an adjustment
to certain tabulated values is appropriate for sizes other than those tested; however, the
tabulated values for Southern Yellow Pine have already been adjusted for size and do not
require application of CF. Table 2 indicates the tabulated values that should be adjusted to
account for size differences. The adjustment applies to visually graded lumber is 2” to 4”
thick or when a minimum 5” thick rectangular bending member exceeds 12” in depth.
Refer to NDS-S for the appropriate size adjustment factor.

2.4.5 Column Stability Factor (CP)

Tabulated compression design values in the NDS-S are based on the assumption
that a compression member is continuously supported along its length to prevent lateral
displacement in both the weak and strong axes. When a compression member is subject
to continuous lateral support in at least two orthogonal directions, Euler buckling cannot
occur. However, many compression members (e.g., interior columns or wall framing) do
not have continuous lateral support in two directions.
The column stability factor, CP adjusts the tabulated compression stresses to
account for the possibility of column buckling. For rectangular or nonsymmetric
columns, Cp must be determined for both the weak and strong axis bracing conditions. Cp
is based on end-fixity, effective length of the member between lateral braces, and the
cross-sectional dimensions of the member that affect the slenderness ratio used in
calculating the critical buckling stress. Given that the Euler buckling effect is associated
only with axial loads, the CP factor applies to the allowable compressive stress parallel to
grain, Fc, as shown in Table 2. Refer to the NDS for the equations used to calculate the
column stability factor.

2.4.6 Beam Stability Factor (CL)

The tabulated bending design values, Fb, given in the NDS-S are applicable to
bending members that are either braced against lateral-torsional buckling (i.e., twisting)
or stable without bracing (i.e., depth is no greater than the breadth of the member). Most
bending members in residential construction are laterally supported on the compression
edge by some type of sheathing product. The beam stability factor does apply to
conditions such as ceiling joists supporting unfinished attic space. When a member does
not meet the lateral support requirements of NDS 3.3.3 or the stability requirements of
NDS 4.4.1, the engineer should modify the tabulated bending design values by using the
beam stability factor, CL, to account for the possibility of lateral-torsional buckling. For
glued laminated timber bending members, the volume factor (CV) and beam stability
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factor (CL) are not applied simultaneously; the lesser of these factors applies. Refer to the
NDS 3.3.3 for the equations used to calculate CL.

3 Structural Evaluation

As with all structural design, the engineer should perform several checks with
respect to various design factors. This section provides an overview of checks and design
concerns for the engineer. In general, the two categories of structural design concerns are:

Structural Safety (strength) Structural Serviceability

• Bending and lateral stability • Deflection due to bending
• Horizontal Shear • Floor vibration
• Bearing • Shrinkage
• Combined bending and axial
loading
• Compression and column
stability
• Tension

The remainder of this course will address those design checks and provide
examples of different structural systems and elements in residential construction. In
addition, this course will provide instruction in the efficient design of light framed
construction, the engineer should referred to the NDS for symbol definitions, as well as
other guidance.

3.1 Structural Safety Checks

Bending (Flexural) Capacity

The following equations determine if a member has sufficient bending strength.

Notches in bending members should be avoided, but small notches are permissible. The
diameter of holes in bending members should not exceed one-third the member’s depth
and should be located along the center line of the member. Greater flexural capacity may
be obtained by increasing member depth, decreasing the clear span or spacing of the
member, or selecting a grade and species of lumber with a higher allowable bending
stress. Engineered wood products or alternative materials may also be considered.
Bending Equations (NDS 3.3)

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Horizontal Shear

Shear parallel to grain (i.e., horizontal shear) is induced by bending action. It is

known as bending shear and is greatest at the neutral axis. Bending shear is not transverse
shear; lumber will always fail in other modes before failing in transverse or cross-grain
shear owing to the longitudinal orientation of the wood fibers in structural members.
The horizontal shear force is calculated for solid sawn lumber by including the
component of all loads (uniform and concentrated) that act perpendicular to the bearing
surface of the solid member. Loads within a distance, d, from the bearing point are not
included in the horizontal shear calculation; d is the depth of the member for solid
rectangular members. Transverse shear is not a required design check, although it is used
to determine the magnitude of horizontal shear by using basic concepts of engineering
mechanics as discussed below.
The following equations for horizontal shear analysis are limited to solid flexural
members such as solid sawn lumber, glulam, or mechanically laminated beams. Notches
in beams can reduce shear capacity and should be considered. Also, bolted connections
influence the shear capacity of a beam. If required, greater horizontal shear capacity may
be obtained by increasing member depth or width, decreasing the clear span or spacing of
the member, or selecting another species with a higher allowable shear capacity. The
general equation for horizontal shear stress is discussed in the NDS and in mechanics of
materials text books. Because dimension lumber is solid and rectangular, the simple
equation for fv is most commonly used.

Horizontal Shear Equations (NDS 3.4)

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Compression Perpendicular to Grain (Bearing)

For bending members bearing on wood or metal, a minimum bearing of 1.5”is

recommended. For bending members bearing on masonry, a minimum bearing of 3
inches is advised. The resulting bearing areas may not be adequate in the case of heavily
loaded members. On the other hand, they may be too conservative in the case of lightly
loaded members. The minimum bearing lengths are considered to represent good
practice.
The following equations are based on net bearing area. Note that the NDS
provisions acknowledge that the inner bearing edge experiences added pressure as the
member bends. The added pressure does not pose a problem because the compressive
capacity, F’c ⊥, of wood increases as the material is compressed. The design value is
based on a deformation limit, not on failure by crushing. Therefore, the added pressure at
bearing edges need not be considered. The engineer should use the bearing area factor,
Cb, which accounts for the ability of wood to distribute large stresses originating from a
small bearing area not located near the end of a member. Examples include interior
bearing supports and compressive loads on washers in bolted connections.
Bearing Equations (NDS 3.10)

The above equations pertain to bearing that is perpendicular to grain. For light-
frame construction, bearing stress is rarely a limiting factor.

Combined Bending and Axial Loading

Depending on the application and the combination of loads considered, some

members such as wall studs and roof truss members, experience bending stress in
addition to axial loading. The engineer should evaluate combined bending and axial
stresses as appropriate. If additional capacity is required, the selection of a higher grade
of lumber is not always an efficient solution for overstressed compression members under
combined axial and bending loads due to the design being limited by stability rather than
by a stress failure mode. Efficiency issues will become evident when the engineer
calculates the components of the combined stress interaction equations that are given
below.
Combined Bending and Axial Loading Equations (NDS 3.9)

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Compression and Column Stability

For framing members that support axial loads only (i.e., columns), the engineer
must consider whether the framing member can withstand the axial compressive forces
on it without buckling or compressive failure. If additional compression strength is
required, the engineer should increase member size, decrease member spacing, provide
additional lateral support, or select a different grade and species of lumber with higher
allowable stresses. Improving lateral support is usually the most efficient solution when
stability controls the design (disregarding any architectural limitations). The need for
improved lateral support will become evident when the engineer performs the
calculations necessary to determine the stability factor, CP.
When a column has continuous lateral support in two directions, buckling is not an issue
and Cp = 1.0. If, however, the column is free to buckle in one or more directions, Cp must
be evaluated for each direction of possible buckling. The evaluation must also consider
the spacing of intermediate bracing, if any, in each direction.
Compression and Column Stability Equations (NDS 3.7)

Tension

Few members in light-frame construction resist tension forces only. One

exception occurs in roof framing where cross-ties or bottom chords in trusses primarily
resist tension forces. Other examples include chord and collector members in shear walls
and horizontal diaphragms. Another possibility is a member subject to excessive uplift
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loads such as those produced by extreme wind. Connection design is usually the limiting
factor in designing the transfer of tension forces in light-frame construction. Tension
stresses in wood members are checked by using the equations below.
Tension Equations (NDS 3.8)

In evaluating cross-grain tension forces values for cross-grain tension may be

approximated by using one-third of the unadjusted horizontal shear stress value, Fv. One
application of cross-grain tension in design is in the transfer of moderate uplift loads from
wind through the band or rim joist of a floor to the construction below. If additional
cross-grain tension strength is required, the engineer should increase member size or
consider alternative construction details that reduce cross-grain tension forces.
When excessive tension stress perpendicular to grain cannot be avoided, the use
of mechanical reinforcement or design detailing to reduce the cross-grain tension forces
is considered good practice (particularly in high-hazard seismic regions) to ensure that
brittle failures do not occur.

3.2 Structural Serviceability

Deflection Due to Bending

The engineer must defer to engineering judgment and building code specifications
for limits in deflection. With many interior and exterior finishes susceptible to damage by
large deflections, reasonable deflection limits based on design loads are recommended for
the design of specific elements.
The calculation of member deflection is based on the section properties of the
beam from NDS-S and the member’s modulus of elasticity with applicable adjustments.
Generally, a deflection check using the equations below is based on the estimated
maximum deflection under a specified loading condition. Given that wood exhibits time-
and load-magnitude-dependent permanent deflection (creep), the total long-term
deflection can be estimated in terms of two components of the load related to short and
long term deflection.

Deflection Due to Bending Equations (NDS 3.5)

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If a deflection check proves unacceptable, the engineer may increase member

depth, decrease the clear span or spacing of the member, or select a grade and species of
wood with a higher modulus of elasticity (the least effective option). Typical
denominator values used in the deflection equation range from 120 to 600 depending on
the application and engineers judgment. Table 5 provides recommended deflection limits.
If a modest adjustment to a deflection limit results in a more efficient design, the engineer
should exercise discretion with respect to a possible negative consequence such as
vibration or long-term creep. For lateral bending loads on walls, a serviceability load for
a deflection check may be considered as a fraction of the nominal design wind load for
exterior walls. A reasonable serviceability wind load criteria may be taken as 0.75W or
75 percent of the nominal design wind load.

TABLE 5 Recommended Allowable Deflection Limits

Notes:
Values may be adjusted according to designer discretion with respect to potential increases or decreases in serviceability. In some
cases, a modification may require local approval of a code variance. Some deflection checks may be different or not required
depending on the local code requirements. The load condition includes the live or transient load only, not dead load.
l is the clear span in units of inches for deflection calculations.
Floor vibration may be controlled by using l/360 for spans up to 15 feet and a 1/2-inch limit for spans greater than 15 feet. Wood I-
joist manufacturers typically recommend l/480 as a deflection limit to provide enhanced floor performance and to control nuisance
vibrations.
Floor vibration may be controlled for combined girder and joist spans of greater than 20 feet by use of a l/480 to l/600 deflection limit
for the girder.

System effects influence the stiffness of assemblies in a manner similar to that of

bending capacity (see Section 2.4.2), the system deflection factors of Table 6 are
recommended. The estimated deflection based on an analysis of an element (e.g., stud or
joist) is multiplied by the deflection factors to account for system effect. Deflection
checks on floors under uniform loading can be easily overestimated by 20% or more. In
areas where partitions add to the rigidity of the supporting floor, deflection can be
overestimated by more than 50%. When concentrated loads are considered on typical
light-frame floors with wood structural panel subflooring, deflections can be
overestimated by a factor of 2.5 to 3 due to the neglect of the load distribution to adjacent
framing members and partial composite action. Similar results have been found for
sheathed wall assemblies. When adhesives attach wood structural panels to wood
framing, even greater reductions in deflection are realized due to increased composite
action. However, if a simple deflection limit such as l/360 is construed to control floor
vibration in addition to the serviceability of finishes, the use of system deflection factors
of Table 6 is not recommended for floor system design. In this case, a more accurate
estimate of actual deflection may result in a floor with increased tendency to vibrate or
bounce.

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TABLE 6 System Deflection Adjustment Factors

Notes:
System deflection factors are not recommended when evaluating floor member deflection limits of Table .5 with the implied purpose
of controlling floor vibration.
Two sheathing layers may be used to make up a minimum thickness of 3/4-inch.
The factors may be adjusted according to fastener diameter. If fastening is doubled (i.e., spacing halved), the factors may be divided
by 1.4.

Floor Vibration

Reliable design information on controlling floor vibration to meet a specific level

of “acceptance” is not readily available; The following rules of thumb are provided for
the engineer wishing to limit vibration beyond that implied by the traditional use of an
l/360 deflection limit.

• For floor joist spans less than 15 feet, a deflection limit of l/360 considering
design live loads only may be used, where l is the clear span of the joist in inches
• For floor joist clear spans greater than 15 feet, the maximum deflection should be
limited to 0.5 inches
• For wood I-joists, the manufacturer’s tables that limit deflection to l/480 should
be used for spans greater than 15 feet, where l is the clear span of the member in
inches
• When calculating deflection based on the above rules of thumb, the designer
should use a 40 psf live load for all rooms whether or not they are considered
sleeping rooms
• As an additional recommendation, glue and mechanically fasten the floor
sheathing to the floor joists to enhance the floor system’s strength and stiffness

Floor deflections are typically limited to l/360 in the span tables published in
current building codes using a standard deflection check without consideration of system
effects. For clear spans greater than 15 feet, this deflection limit has caused nuisance
vibrations that are unacceptable to some building occupants or owners. Floor vibration is
also aggravated when the floor is supported on a bending member (e.g., girder) rather
than on a rigid bearing wall. It may be desirable to design such girders with a smaller
deflection limit to control floor vibration, particularly when girder and floor spans have
more than a 20-foot total combined span (i.e., span of girder plus span of supported floor
joist).
For metal-plate-connected wood trusses, strong-backs are effective in reducing
floor vibration when they are installed through the trusses near the center of the span. A
strong-back is a continuous bracing member, typically a 2x6, fastened edgewise to the

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base of the vertical web of each truss with 2-16d nails. For longer spans, strong-backs
may be spaced at approximately 8-foot intervals across the span. Details for strong-backs
are found in the Metal Plate Connected Wood Truss Handbook (WTCA, 1997).
Alternatively, a more stringent deflection criteria may be used for the floor truss design.

Shrinkage

The amount of wood shrinkage in a structure depends on the moisture content

(MC) of the lumber at the time of installation relative to the equilibrium moisture content
(EMC) that the wood will ultimately attain in use. It is also dependent on the detailing of
the structure such as the amount of lumber supporting loads in a perpendicular-to-grain
orientation (i.e., sill, sole, top plates, and joists). MC at installation is a function of the
specified drying method, jobsite storage practices, and climate conditions during
construction. Relatively dry lumber (15 percent or less) minimizes shrinkage problems
affecting finish materials and prevents loosening or stressing of connections. A less
favorable but acceptable alternative is to detail the structure such that shrinkage is
uniform, dispersed, or otherwise designed to minimize problems. This alternative is the
“defacto” choice in simple residential buildings.
Shrink and swell across the width or thickness of lumber can be calculated by the
equation below for typical softwood structural lumber. Shrinkage in the longitudinal
direction of the member is practically negligible.
Shrinkage Equation (ASTM 1990)

4 Floor Framing

The objectives of floor system design are:

• To support occupancy live loads and building dead loads adequately;

• To resist lateral forces resulting from wind and seismic loads and to transmit the
forces to supporting shear walls through diaphragm action;
• To provide a suitable subsurface for floor finishes;

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• To avoid owner complaints (e.g., excessive vibration, noise, etc.);

• To serve as a thermal barrier over unconditioned areas (e.g., crawl spaces); and
• To provide a one- to two-hour fire rating between dwelling units in multifamily
buildings (refer to local building codes).

4.1 General

Wood floor systems include joists, girders, and sheathing. Traditionally these systems
have been built of solid sawn lumber, parallel chord wood trusses and wood I-joists are
now being use, and offer advantages for dimensional consistency, and spans. Floor joists
are horizontal, repetitive framing members that support the floor sheathing and transfer
the live and dead floor loads to the walls, girders, or columns below. Girders are
horizontal members that support floor joists not otherwise supported by interior or
exterior load-bearing walls. Floor sheathing is a horizontal structural element, usually
plywood or oriented strand board panels, that directly supports floor loads and distributes
the loads to the framing system below. Floor sheathing also provides lateral support to
the floor joists. As a structural system, the floor provides resistance to lateral building
loads resulting from wind and seismic forces. See Figure 2 for an illustration of floor
system structural elements.

FIGURE 2 Structural Elements of the Floor System

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The design approach in this course addresses solid sawn lumber floor systems in
accordance with the procedures specified in the National Design Specification for Wood
Construction (NDS), with appropriate modifications as noted. For more information
regarding wood I-joists, trusses, and other materials, consult manufacturer’s
specifications and applicable code evaluation reports.
Section 3 discusses the general design equations and design checks. The present
section provides detailed design examples that apply the equations in Section 3, while
tailoring them to the design of the elements in a floor system. The following sections
make reference to the span of a member (for this course span is defined as the clear span
between bearing points).
When designing any structural element, the engineer must first determine the
loads acting on the element. Load combinations used in this course are listed below.

Load Combinations used for the design of Components and Systems

Given that only the dead loads of the floor system and live loads of occupancy are present
in a typical floor system, the controlling design load combination for a simply-supported
floor joist is D+L. For joists with more complicated loading, such as cantilevered joists
supporting roof framing, the following load combinations may be considered.

D+L
D + L + 0.3 (Lr or S)
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D + (Lr or S) + 0.3L

4.2 Floor Joist Design

Readily available tables in residential building codes provide maximum allowable

spans for different species, grades, sizes, and spacing of lumber joists. Therefore, it is
usually not necessary to design conventional floor joists for residential construction. To
obtain greater economy or performance engineers may want to create their own span
tables or spreadsheets for future use in accordance with the methods shown in this course.
The grade and species of lumber is often a regional choice governed by
economics and availability; some of the most common species of lumber for floor joists
are Hem-Fir (HF), Spruce-Pine-Fir (SPF), Douglas-Fir (DF), and Southern Yellow Pine
(SYP). The most common sizes for floor joists are 2x8 and 2x10, although 2x12s are also
frequently used. The design examples provided in this course illustrate the design of
typical floor joists in accordance with the principles discussed earlier:

• simple span joist (Examples 1 and 2); and

• cantilevered joist (Example 3).

For different joist applications, such as a continuous multiple span, the engineer
should use the appropriate beam equations (see Appendix A) to estimate the stresses
induced by the loads and reactions. Other materials such as wood I-joists and parallel
chord floor trusses are also commonly used in light-frame residential and commercial
construction; refer to manufacturer’s data for span tables for wood I-joists and other
engineered wood products. For additional information on wood floor trusses that can be
ordered to specification with engineering certification (i.e., stamped shop drawings), see
Section 6.3 on roof trusses. Cold-formed steel floor joists or trusses may also be
considered. Figure 3 illustrates some conventional and alternative floor joist members.

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FIGURE 3 Conventional and Alternative Floor Framing Members

Notes:
Trusses are also available with trimmable ends. Cold-formed steel is also used to make floor trusses.

For typical floor systems supporting a concentrated load at or near center span,
load distribution to adjacent joists can substantially reduce the bending stresses or
moment experienced by the loaded joist. A currently available design methodology may
be beneficial for certain applications such as wood-framed garage floors that support
heavy concentrated wheel loads. Under such conditions, the maximum bending moment
experienced by any single joist is reduced by more than 60 percent. A similar reduction in
the shear loading (and end reaction) of the loaded joist also results, with exception for
“moving” concentrated loads that may be located near the end of the joist, thus creating a
large transverse shear load with a small bending moment. The abovementioned design
methodology for a single, concentrated load applied near midspan of a repetitive member
floor system is essentially equivalent to using a Cr factor of 1.5 or more (see Section
2.4.2). The system deflection adjustment factors in Table 6 are applicable as indicated for
concentrated loads.

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Bridging or cross-braces is thought to provide necessary lateral torsional bracing

of dimension lumber floor joists and stiffer floor systems. However, testing of different
floor systems of residential structures has conclusively demonstrated that bridging or
cross-bracing provides little benefit to either the load-carrying capacity or stiffness of
typical residential floors with dimension lumber framing (sizes of 2x6 through 2x12) and
wood structural panel subflooring. These findings are not proven to apply to other types
of floor joists (i.e., I-joists, steel joists, etc.) or for dimension lumber joists greater than
12” in depth. Bridging may be considered necessary for 2x10 and 2x12 dimension lumber
joists with clear spans exceeding about 16 feet and 18 feet, respectively (based on a 50
psf total design load and L/360 deflection limit). However, most codes require bridging
to be spaced at intervals not exceeding 8 feet along the span of 2x10 and 2x12 joists.
Engineering judgment and local codes should be considered when requiring bridging and
cross-bracing of floors.

4.3 Girder Design

The decision to use one girder over another is a function of cost, availability, span
and loading conditions, clearance or head-room requirements, and ease of construction.
Figure 4 illustrates girder types. Girders in residential construction are usually one of the
following types:

• Built-up dimension lumber

• Steel I-beam
• Engineered wood beam
• Site-fabricated beam
• Wood I-joist
• Metal plate connected wood truss

Built-up beams are constructed by nailing together two or more plys of dimension
lumber. Since load sharing occurs between the plys (i.e., lumber members), the built-up
girder is able to resist higher loads than a single member of the same overall dimensions.
The built-up member can resist higher loads only if butt joints are located at or near
supports and are staggered in alternate plys. Each ply may be face nailed to the previous
ply with 10d nails staggered at 12” on center top to bottom. The design method and
equations are the same as those in Section 4.2 for floor joists; however, the adjustment
factors applying to design values and loading conditions are different. The engineer shall
keep the following in mind:

• Although floor girders are not typically thought of as “repetitive” members, a

repetitive member factor is applicable if the floor girder is built-up from two or
more members
• Girders supporting floor framing, lateral support is considered to be continuous
and CL = 1. Example 4 illustrates the design of a built-up floor girder.

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FIGURE 4 Examples of Beams and Girders

Steel I beams are often used in residential construction because of their greater
spanning capability. Compared with wood members, they span longer distances with a
shallower depth. A 2x4 or 2x6 is usually attached to the top surface with bolts to provide
a fastening surface for floor joists and other structural members. Steel beam shapes are
commonly referred to as Ibeams, however a typical 8-inch-deep W-shaped beam is
commonly considered a house beam. Alternatively, built-up cold-formed steel beams
(i.e., back-to-back C shapes) may be used to construct I-shaped girders. Refer to the Steel
Construction Manual and the American Iron and Steel Institute’s publication RG-936 for
the design of and span tables for residential applications of hot-rolled steel sections.
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Structural steel floor beam span tables are also found in the Beam Series. The
Prescriptive Method for Cold-Formed Steel in Residential Construction should be
consulted for the design of built-up coldformed steel sections as headers and girders.
Engineered wood beams include I-joists, wood trusses (i.e., girder trusses) glue-
laminated lumber, laminated veneer lumber, parallel strand lumber, etc. This course does
not address the design of engineered wood girders because product manufacturers
typically provide span tables or engineered designs that are considered proprietary.
Consult the manufacturer for design guidelines or completed span tables.
Site-fabricated beams include plywood box beams, plywood I-beams, and flitch
plate beams. Plywood box beams are fabricated from continuous dimension lumber
flanges (typically 2x4s or 2x6s) sandwiched between two plywood webs; stiffeners are
placed at concentrated loads, end bearing points, plywood joints, and maximum 24-inch
intervals.
Plywood I-beams are similar to box beams except that the plywood web is
sandwiched between dimension lumber wood flanges (typically 2x4s or 2x6s), and
stiffeners are placed at maximum 24” intervals.
Flitch plate beams are fabricated from a steel plate sandwiched between two
pieces of dimension lumber to form a composite section. Thus, a thinner member is
possible in comparison to a built-up wood girder of similar strength. The steel plate is
typically 1/4” to 1/2” thick and about 1/4” less in depth than the dimension lumber. The
sandwich construction is usually assembled with through-bolts staggered at about 12” on
center. Flitch plate beams derive their strength and stiffness from the composite section
of steel plate and dimension lumber. The lumber also provides a medium for fastening
other materials using nails or screws.
Span tables for plywood I-beams, plywood box beams, steel-wood Ibeams, and
flitch plate beams are provided in NAHB's Beam Series publications. Refer to the APA’s
Product Design Specification and Supplement for the design method used for plywood
box beams. The International One- and Two-Family Construction Code, provides a
simple prescriptive table for plywood box beam headers.

4.4 Subfloor Design

Typical subfloor sheathing is nominal 5/8”or 3/4” thick 4x8 panels of plywood or
oriented strand board (OSB) with tongue and groove edges at unsupported joints
perpendicular to the floor framing. Sheathing products are generally categorized as wood
structural panels and are specified in accordance with the prescriptive span rating tables
published in a building code or are made available by the manufacturer. Example 5 uses
the Design and Construction Guide: Residential and Commercial to specify sheathing.
The prescriptive tables provide maximum spans (joist spacing) based on sheathing
thickness and span rating. It is important to note that the basis for the prescriptive tables
is the standard beam calculation. If loads exceed the limits of the prescriptive tables, the
engineer may be required to perform calculations; however, such calculations are rarely
necessary. In addition, the APA offers a plywood floor guide for residential garages that
assists in specifying plywood subflooring suitable for heavy concentrated loads from
vehicle tire loading.
The APA also recommends a fastener schedule for connecting sheathing to floor
joists. Generally, nails are placed a minimum of 6”on center at edges and 12”on center
along intermediate supports. See Table 7 for recommended nail sizes based on sheathing
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thickness. Nail sizes vary with nail type (e.g., sinkers, box nails, and common nails), and
various nail types have different characteristics that affect structural properties. For
information on other types of fasteners, consult the manufacturer. In some cases, shear
loads in the floor diaphragm resulting from lateral loads (i.e., wind and earthquake) may
require a more stringent fastening schedule and should be determine by the engineer.
Regardless of fastener type, gluing the floor sheathing to the joists increases floor
stiffness and strength.

TABLE 7 Fastening Floor Sheathing to Structural Members

Notes:
Codes generally require common or box nails; if pneumatic nails are used, as is common, refer to the nail manufacturer’s data. Screws
are also commonly substituted for nails.

Boards may also be used as a subfloor (i.e., board sheathing). Floor sheathing
boards are typically 1x6 or 1x8 material laid flat and diagonally (or perpendicular) on the
floor joists. They should be designed using accepted engineering practice.

5 Wall Framing

The objectives of wall system design are

• To resist snow, live, and dead loads and wind and seismic forces;
• To provide an adequate subsurface for wall finishes and to provide openings for
doors and windows;
• To serve as a thermal and weather barrier;
• To provide space and access for electrical and mechanical equipment, where
required; and
• To provide a one- to two-hour fire barrier if the wall separates individual dwelling
units in attached or multifamily buildings.

5.1 General

A wall is a vertical structural system that supports gravity loads from the roof and
floors above and transfers the loads to the foundation below and it will resist lateral loads
resulting from wind and earthquakes. A typical wood-framed wall is composed of the
following elements as shown in Figure 5:

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• Studs, including wall, cripple, jack, and king studs;

• Top and bottom (sole) plates;
• Headers;
• Sheathing; and
• Diagonal let-in braces, if used.

Residential wall systems have traditionally been constructed of dimension lumber,

usually 2x4s or 2x6s, engineered wood studs and cold-formed steel studs are now being
use as well. Wall studs are vertical, repetitive framing members spaced at regular
intervals to support the wall sheathing. They span the full height of each story and
support the building loads above. King and jack studs (also known as jamb studs and by
other names) frame openings and support loads from a header. Cripple studs are placed
above or below a wall opening and are not full height. Built-up wall studs that are
assembled on the jobsite may be used within the wall to support concentrated loads. Top
and bottom plates are horizontal members to which studs are fastened. The top and
bottom plates are then fastened to the floor or roof above and either to the floor below or
directly to the foundation. Headers are beams that transfer the loads above an opening to
jack studs at each side of the opening.

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FIGURE 5 Structural Elements of the Wall System

Structural wall sheathing (plywood or oriented strand board, etc.) distributes

lateral loads to the wall framing and provides lateral support to both the wall studs (i.e.,
buckling resistance) and the entire building (i.e., racking resistance). Interior wall finishes
also provide significant support to the wall studs and the structure. In low-wind and low-
hazard seismic areas, metal ‘T’ braces or wood let-in braces may be used in place of wall
sheathing to provide resistance to lateral (i.e., racking) loads. About 50 percent of
residential construction now use wood structural panel braces, and many of those homes
are fully sheathed with wood structural panels. These bracing methods are substantially
stronger than the let-in brace approach. Wood let-in braces are typically 1x4 wood
members that are “let-in” or notched into the studs and nailed diagonally across wall
sections at corners and specified intervals. Their use is generally through application of

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conventional construction provisions found in most building codes for residential

construction in combination with interior and exterior claddings.
The design procedures, in this course, addresses dimension lumber wall systems
and provides standard design equations and design checks. Detailed design examples
illustrate the application of the equations by tailoring them to the design of the elements
that make up residential wall systems.
Wall systems are designed to withstand dead and live gravity loads acting parallel
to the wall stud length, as well as lateral loads, primarily wind and earthquake loads,
acting perpendicular to the face of the wall. Wind also induces uplift loads on the roof;
when the wind load is sufficient to offset dead loads, walls and internal connections must
be designed to resist tension or uplift forces. The outcome of the design of wall elements
depends on the degree to which the engineer uses the “system strength” inherent in the
construction. Recommendations on system design are in Sections 2 and 3.
When designing wall elements, the engineer needs to consider the load
combinations, particularly dead, live, snow, and wind loads:

1. D + L + 0.3 (Lr or S)
2. D + (Lr or S) + 0.3 L
3. D+W
4. D + 0.7E + 0.5L + 0.2S

A wall system may support a roof only or a roof and one or more stories above.
The roof may or may not include an attic storage live load. A 10 psf attic live load used
for the design of ceiling joists and is intended primarily to provide safe access to the attic,
not storage. The controlling load combination for a wall that supports only a roof is the
second load combination listed above. If the attic is not intended for storage, the value for
L should be 0. The controlling load combination for a wall that supports a floor, wall, and
a roof should be either the first or second load combination depending on the relative
magnitude of floor and roof snow loads.
The third load combination provides a check for the out-of-plane bending
condition due to lateral wind loads on the wall. For tall wood-frame walls that support
heavy claddings such as brick veneer, the engineer should consider out-of-plane bending
loads resulting from an earthquake load combination, although the other load
combinations above usually control the design. The third and fourth load combinations
are essentially combined bending and axial loads that may govern stud design as opposed
to axial load only in the first two load combinations.
In many cases, certain design load combinations or load components can be
dismissed or eliminated through practical consideration and inspection. They are a matter
of the engineer’s judgment, experience, and knowledge of the critical design conditions.

5.2 Load-Bearing Walls

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Exterior load-bearing walls support both axial and lateral loads. For interior load-
bearing walls, only gravity loads are considered. A serviceability check using a lateral
load of 5 psf is sometimes applied independently to interior walls but should not normally
control the design of load-bearing framing. This section focuses on the axial and lateral
load-bearing capacity of exterior and interior walls.
Exterior walls are not necessarily load-bearing walls. Load-bearing walls support
gravity loads from either the roof, ceiling, or floor joists or the beams above. A gable-end
wall is typically considered to be a nonload-bearing wall in that roof and floor framing
generally runs parallel to the gable end; however, it must support lateral wind and seismic
loads and even small dead and live loads. Exterior load-bearing walls must be designed
for axial loads as well as for lateral loads from wind or seismic forces. They must also act
as shear walls to resist racking loads from lateral wind or seismic forces on the overall
structures. Example 6 demonstrates the design of an exterior bearing wall.
When calculating the column stability factor for a stud wall column capacity is
determined by using the slenderness ratio about the strong axis of the stud (le/d)x. The
reason for using the strong axis slenderness ratio is that lateral support is provided to the
stud by the wall sheathing and finish materials in the stud’s weak-axis bending or
buckling direction. When determining the column stability factor, Cp, for a wall system
rather than for a single column, the engineer must exercise judgment with respect to the
calculation of the effective length, le, and the depth or thickness of the wall system, d. A
buckling coefficient, Ke, of about 0.8 is reasonable for sheathed wall assemblies and
studs with square-cut ends (i.e., not a pinned joint).
In cases where continuous support is not present (e.g., during construction), the
engineer may want to consider stability for both axes. Unsupported studs generally fail
due to weak-axis buckling under a significantly lower load than would otherwise be
possible with continuous lateral support in the weak-axis buckling direction.
Interior walls may be either load-bearing or nonload-bearing. Nonload-bearing
interior walls are often called partitions (see section 5.3). In either case, interior walls
should be solidly fastened to the floor and ceiling framing and to the exterior wall
framing where they abutt. It may be necessary to install extra studs, blocking, or nailers
to the outside walls to provide for attachment of interior walls and installation of
plywood, OSB, and gypsum wallboard. Interior load-bearing walls typically support the
floor or ceiling joists above when the clear span from exterior wall to exterior wall is
greater than the spanning capability of the floor or ceiling joists. Interior walls, unlike
exterior walls, seldom experience large transverse (i.e., out of plane) lateral loads;
however, some building codes require interior walls to be designed for a minimum lateral
load, such as 5 psf, for serviceability. If the interior wall is required only to resist axial
loads, the engineer may follow the design procedure demonstrated in Example 6 for the
axial-load-only case. Generally, axial load design provides more than adequate resistance
to a nominal lateral load.
If local code requirements do require wall studs to be designed to withstand a
minimum lateral load, it is recommended that the engineer design load-bearing walls in
accordance with the previous requirements for exterior load bearing walls. (Note that the
load duration factor, CD, of 1.6 is used for exterior load bearing walls when wind or
earthquake loads are considered, whereas a load duration factor of 1.0 to 1.25 may be
used for interior load-bearing walls and exterior walls analyzed for live and snow loads;
refer to Section 2.4.1.)

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5.3 NonLoad-Bearing Partitions

Interior partitions are not a support for structural loads. Standard 2x4 or 2x3 wood
stud interior partition walls are well proven in standard practice and do not require
analysis. Openings within partitions do not require headers or trimmers and are
commonly framed with single studs and horizontal members of the same size as the
studs. Particularly in the case of closets, or other “tight” spaces, builders may frame
certain partitions with smaller lumber, such as 2x3 or 2x4 studs turned flatwise to save
space.
Where a minimum 5 psf lateral load check for serviceability is required in a
nonload-bearing partition, the stud may be designed as a bending member or system
similar to a simply supported floor joist, except that the only load is a 5 psf load
uniformly distributed. The design approach and system factors in sections 2 and 3 apply
as appropriate.

5.4 Headers

Load-bearing headers are horizontal members that carry loads from a wall,
ceiling, floor, or roof above and transfer the combined load to jack and king studs on each
side of a window or door opening. The span of the header may be taken as the width of
the rough opening measured between the jack studs supporting the ends of the header.
Headers are usually built up from two nominal 2-inch-thick members.
Load-bearing header design and fabrication is similar to that for girders (see Section 4.3).
Headers consisting of double members to be considered repetitive members; a repetitive
member factor, Cr, of 1.1 to 1.2 should apply (see Table 4), along with a live load
deflection limit of l/240 (see Table 6). Large openings or especially heavy loads may
require stronger members such as engineered wood beams, hot-rolled steel, or flitch plate
beams.
Headers are generally designed to support all loads from above, residential
construction requires a double top plate above the header. When an upper story is
supported, a floor band joist and sole plate of the wall above are also spanning the wall
opening below. These elements are all part of the resisting system. Tests have shown that
a system factor or repetitive member factor is valid for headers constructed of only two
members as shown in Table 4 and that additional system effects produce large increases
in capacity when the header is overlaid by a double top plate, band joist and sole plate as
shown in Example 7. An overall system factor of 1.8 is a simple, conservative design
solution. That system factor is applicable to the adjusted bending stress value, Fb’, of the
header member only. While this example covers only a very specific condition, it
exemplifies the magnitude of potential system effect in similar conditions. In this case,
the system effect is associated with load sharing and partial composite action.
Table 8 are recommended allowable bending stress adjustment factors for use in
the specific header design conditions related to the discussion above. For other
conditions, see Table 4. Example 7 demonstrates the design approach for a typical header
condition.

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TABLE 8 Recommended System Adjustment Factors for Header Design

Notes:
For other applications and lumber sizes or grades, refer to the Cr factors in Table 4 of Section 2.4.2.
Apply Cr in lieu of Section 3 (Table 4) to determine adjusted allowable bending stress, Fb’.
Use Cr = 1.35 when the header is overlaid by a minimum 2x4 double top plate without splices.
Refer to Example 7 for an illustration of the header system.

Headers are not required in nonload-bearing walls. Openings can be framed with
single studs and a horizontal header block of the same size. It is common practice to use a
double 2x4 or triple 2x4 header for larger openings in nonload-bearing walls. In the
interest of added rigidity and fastening surface some builders use additional jamb studs
for openings in nonload-bearing walls, however such studs are not required.

5.5 Columns

Columns are vertical members placed where an axial force is applied parallel to
the longitudinal axis. Columns may fail by either crushing or buckling. Longer columns
have a higher tendency than shorter columns to fail due to buckling. The load at which
the column buckles (Euler buckling load) is directly related to the ratio of the column’s
unsupported length to its depth (slenderness factor). The equations provided in Section 3
account for the slenderness factor.
Figure 6 illustrates three ways to construct columns using lumber. Simple columns
are columns fabricated from a single piece of sawn lumber; spaced columns are
fabricated from two or more individual members with their longitudinal axes parallel and
separated with blocking at their ends and midpoint; built-up columns are solid columns
fabricated from several individual members fastened together. Spaced columns are not
normally used in residential structures and have not been addressed here.
Steel jack posts are also commonly used in residential construction. Jack post
manufacturers typically provide a rated capacity, therefore designing steel jack posts are
not required except for the specification of the design load requirements and the selection
of a suitable steel jack post that meets or exceeds the required loading. Typical 8-foot tall
steel jack posts are made of pipe and have adjustable bases for floor leveling. The rated
(design) capacity generally ranges from 10,000 to 20,000 lbs depending on the steel pipe
diameter and wall thickness.
Simple columns are fabricated from one piece of sawn lumber. In residential
construction, simple columns such as a 4x4 are common. The equations in Section 3 are
used to design simple columns as demonstrated in Example 8.
Built-up columns are fabricated from several wood members fastened together
with nails or bolts. They are commonly used in residential construction because smaller
members can be easily fastened together at the jobsite to form a larger column with
adequate capacity.
The nails or bolts used to connect the plys (i.e., the separate members) of a built-
up column do not rigidly transfer shear loads; the bending load capacity of a built-up
column is less than a single column of the same species, grade, and cross-sectional area
when bending direction is perpendicular to the laminations (i.e., all members bending in
their individual weak-axis direction). The coefficient, Kf, accounts for the capacity

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reduction in bending load in nailed or bolted built-up columns. It applies only to the
weak-axis buckling or bending direction of the individual members and should not be
used to determine Cp for column buckling in the strong-axis direction of the individual
members.
The above is not an issue when the built-up column is sufficiently braced in the
weak-axis direction (i.e., embedded in a sheathed wall assembly). In this typical
condition, the built-up column is actually stronger than a solid sawn member of
equivalent size and grade because of the repetitive member effect on bending capacity
(see Table 4). However, when the members in the built-up column are staggered or
spliced, the column bending strength is reduced. Design methods and nailing
requirements for spliced columns are ready available.

FIGURE 6 Wood Column Types

6 Roofs

The objectives of roof framing design are

• To support building dead and snow loads and to resist wind and seismic forces
• To resist roof construction and maintenance loads
• To provide a thermal and weather barrier
• To provide support for interior ceiling finishes
• To provide attic space and access for electrical and mechanical equipment or
storage

6.1 General

A roof in a residential structure is typically a sloped structural system that

supports gravity and lateral loads and transfers the loads to the walls below. Generally,
the four options for wood roof construction are

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• Roof trusses
• Rafters and cross-ties
• Rafters with ridge beams (i.e. cathedral ceiling); and
• Timber framing

Most residential roof construction use light-frame trusses, rafters, or a mix of

these depending on roof layout. Figure 7 shows conventional roof construction and roof
framing elements. Rafters are repetitive framing members that support the roof sheathing
and typically span from the exterior walls to a nonstructural ridge board (i.e., reaction
plate). Rafter pairs may also be joined at the ridge with a gusset, thereby eliminating the
need for a ridge board. Rafters may also be braced at or near mid-span using intermittent
2x vertical braces and a 2x runner crossing the bottom edges of the rafters. Ceiling joists
are repetitive framing members that support ceiling and attic loads and transfer the loads
to the walls and beams below. They are not normally designed to span between exterior
walls and therefore require an intermediate bearing wall. Overhangs, where used, are
framed extensions of the roof that extend beyond the exterior wall of the home, typically
by 1 to 2 feet. Overhangs protect walls and windows from direct sun and rain and
therefore offer durability and energy efficiency benefits.
Ceiling joists are typically connected to rafter pairs to resist outward thrust
generated by loading on the roof. Where ceiling joists or cross-ties are eliminated to
create a cathedral ceiling, a structural ridge beam must be used to support the roof at the
ridge and to prevent outward thrust of the bearing walls. Ceiling joists and roof rafters are
bending members that are designed similarly; therefore, they are grouped together them
under one section.

FIGURE 7 Structural Elements of a Conventional Roof System

Roof trusses are pre-engineered components. They are constructed from 2” thick
dimension lumber connected with metal truss plates. They are more efficient than stick
framing and are usually designed to span from exterior wall to exterior wall with no
intermediate support. In more complex portions of roof systems, it is still common to use
rafter framing techniques.

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Roof sheathing is a structural element, usually plywood or oriented strand board,

that supports roof loads and distributes lateral and axial loads to the roof framing system.
Roof sheathing also provides lateral support to the roof framing members and serves as a
membrane or diaphragm to resist and distribute lateral building loads from wind or
earthquakes.
Roof systems are designed to withstand dead, live, snow, and wind uplift loads
and are designed to withstand lateral loads, such as wind and earthquake loads, transverse
to the roof system. The design procedure discussed here address dimension lumber roof
systems. Section 3 summarizes the general design equations and design checks of roof
systems.
When designing roof elements or components, the engineer needs to consider the
following load combinations:

• D + (Lr or S)
• 0.6 D + Wu
• D+W

The following refers to the span of the member. A span of a member is the clear
span of the member plus one-half the required bearing at each end of the member. For
simplicity, the clear span between bearing points is used in this course.
Roofs exhibit system behavior that is in many respects similar to floor framing
(see Section 4); sloped roofs also exhibit unique system behavior. For example, the
sheathing membrane or diaphragm on a sloped roof acts as a folded plate that helps resist
gravity loads. The effect of the folded plate becomes more pronounced as roof pitch
becomes steeper. Such a system effect is usually not considered in design but explains
why light wood-framed roof systems may resist loads several times greater than their
design capacity. Research on trussed roof assemblies with wood structural panel
sheathing has show a system capacity increase factor of 1.1 to 1.5 relative to the design of
an individual truss. A conservative system factor of 1.15 is used in this course and is to
be considered by the engineer for chord bending stresses and a factor of 1.1 is to be
considered for chord tension and compression stresses.

6.2 Conventional Roof Framing

This section addresses the design of conventional roof rafters, ceiling joists
(cross-ties), ridge beams, and hip and valley rafters. The design procedure for a rafter and
ceiling joist system is similar to that of a truss, except that the assembly of components
and connections are built in place at the site. It is common practice to use a standard pin-
joint analysis to determine axial forces in the members and shear forces at their
connections. The ceiling joists and rafters are sized according to their individual applied
bending loads taking into account that the axial load effects on the members themselves
can be dismissed by the engineers judgment based on the large system effects in sheathed
roof construction. Frequently, intermediate rafter braces that are similar to truss web
members are also used. Standard construction details and span tables for rafters and
ceiling joists can be found in the International One- and Two-Family Dwelling Code.
These tables generally provide allowable horizontal rafter span with disregard to any
difference that roof slope may have on axial and bending loads experienced in the rafters.

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This approach is generally considered as standard practice. Example 9 demonstrates two

design approaches for a simply-supported, sloped rafter as illustrated in Figure 8.
Structural ridge beams are designed to support roof rafters at the ridge when there
are no ceiling joists or cross-ties to resist the outward thrust of rafters that would
otherwise occur. A repetitive member factor, Cr, is applicable if the ridge beam is
composed of two or more members (see Table 4). It should be noted that any additional
roof system benefit, such as the folded plate action of the roof sheathing diaphragm, goes
ignored in its structural contribution to the ridge beam, particularly for steep-sloped roofs.
Example 10 demonstrates the design approach for ridge beams.
Roofs with hips and valleys are constructed with rafters framed into a hip or
valley rafter as appropriate and, in practice, are typically one to two sizes larger than the
rafters they support, e.g., 2x8 or 2x10 hip for 2x6 rafters. While hip and valley rafters
experience a unique tributary load pattern or area, they are generally designed much like
ridge beams. The folded plate effect of the roof sheathing diaphragm provides support to
a hip or valley rafter in a manner similar to that discussed for ridge beams. Beneficial
system effect generally goes ignored because of the lack of definitive technical guidance.
The use of engineering judgment should not be ruled out. Example 11 demonstrates the
design of a hip rafter.

6.3 Roof Trusses

Roof trusses incorporate rafters (top chords) and ceiling joists (bottom chords)
into a structural frame fabricated from 2” thick dimension lumber, usually 2x4s or 2x6s.
A combination of web members are positioned between the top and bottom chords,
usually in triangular arrangements that form a rigid framework. Many different truss
configurations are possible, including open trusses for attic rooms and cathedral or
scissor trusses with sloped top and bottom chords. The wood truss members are
connected by metal truss plates punched with barbs (i.e., teeth) that are pressed into the
truss members. Roof trusses are able to span the entire width of a structure without
interior support walls, allowing complete freedom in partitioning interior living space.
The Metal Plate Connected Wood Truss Handbook contains span tables for typical truss
designs.

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FIGURE 8 Design Methods and Assumptions for a Sloped Roof Rafter

Roof truss manufacturers normally provide the required engineering design based
on the loading conditions specified by the engineer. The engineer is responsible for
providing the following items to the truss manufacturer for design:

• Design loads
• Truss profile
• Support locations
• Any special requirements

The engineer should also provide for permanent bracing of the truss system at
locations designated by the truss designer. In general, such bracing may involve vertical
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cross-bracing, runners on the bottom chord, and bracing of certain web members. In
typical light-frame residential roof construction, properly attached roof sheathing
provides adequate overall bracing of the roof truss system and ceiling finishes normally
provide lateral support to the bottom chord of the truss. The only exception is long web
members that may experience buckling from excessive compressive loads. Gable end
wall bracing is discussed separately in Section 6.6 as it pertains to the role of the roof
system in supporting the walls against lateral loads, particularly those produced by wind.
For more information and details on permanent bracing of trusses, refer to
Commentary for Permanent Bracing of Metal Plate Connected Wood Trusses.
Temporary bracing during construction is usually the responsibility of the contractor and
is important for worker safety.
The National Design Standard for Metal Plate Connected Wood Truss
Construction governs the design of trusses. Available from the Truss Plate Institute
includes the structural design procedure as well as requirements for truss installation and
bracing and standards for the manufacture of metal plate connectors. Computer programs
are also available for a detailed finite element analysis. Truss plate manufacturers and
truss fabricators generally have proprietary computerized design software tailored to their
particular truss-plate characteristics.
The engineer should note that cracking and separation of ceiling finishes may
occur at joints between the walls and ceiling of roofs. In the unfavorable condition of
high attic humidity, the top chord of a truss may expand while the lower roof members,
buried under attic insulation, may not be similarly affected. This may bow the truss
upward slightly. Other factors that commonly cause interior finish cracking are not in any
way associated with the roof truss, including shrinkage of floor framing members,
foundation settlement, or heavy loading of a long-span floor resulting in excessive
deflection that may “pull” a partition wall downward from its attachment at the ceiling.
To reduce the potential for cracking of ceiling finishes at partition wall intersections, 2x
wood blocking should be installed at the top of partition wall plates as a backer for the
ceiling finish material (i.e., gypsum board). Ceiling drywall should not be fastened to the
blocking or to the truss bottom chord within 16” to 24” of the partition. Proprietary clips
are available for use in place of wood blocking and resilient metal “hat” channels may
also be used to attach the ceiling finish to the roof framing. Details that show how to
minimize partition-ceiling separation problems can be found on the WTCA website at
www.woodtruss.com.
Trusses are also frequently used for floor construction to obtain long spans and to
allow for the placement of mechanical systems (i.e., ductwork and sanitary drains) in the
floor cavity. Trusses have been used to provide a complete residential frame. One
efficient use of a roof truss is as a structural truss for the gable end above a garage
opening to effectively eliminate the need for a garage door header.

6.4 Roof Sheathing

Roof sheathing thickness is typically governed by the spacing of roof framing

members and live or snow loads. Sheathing is normally in accordance with prescriptive
sheathing span rating tables published in a building code or manufacturers literature. If
the limit of the prescriptive tables is exceeded, the engineer may need to perform
calculations; however, such calculations are rarely necessary for residential structures.

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The process of selecting rated roof sheathing is similar to that for floor sheathing in
Example 5.
The fasteners used to attach sheathing to roof rafters are primarily nails. The most
popular nail types are sinker, box, and common, of which all have different
characteristics that affect structural properties. Proprietary power-driven fasteners (i.e.,
pneumatic nails and staples) are also used extensively. The building codes and APA
tables recommend a fastener schedule for connecting sheathing to roof rafters. Generally,
nails are placed at a minimum 6 inches on center at edges and 12” on center at
intermediate supports. A 6” fastener spacing should also be used at the gable-end framing
to help brace the gable-end. Nail size is typically 8d, particularly since thinner power
driven nails are most commonly used. Roof sheathing is commonly 7/16” to 5/8” thick on
residential roofs. Note that in some cases shear loads in the roof diaphragm resulting
from lateral loads (i.e., wind and earthquake) may require a more stringent fastening
schedule. More importantly, large suction pressures on roof sheathing in high wind areas
will require a larger fastener and/or closer spacing. In hurricane-prone regions, it is
common to require an 8d deformed shank nail with a 6” on center spacing at all framing
connections. At the gable end truss or rafter, a 4” spacing is common.

6.5 Roof Overhangs

Overhangs are projections of the roof system beyond the exterior wall line at
either the eave or the rake (the sloped gable end). Overhangs protect walls from rain and
shade windows from direct sun. When a roof is framed with wood trusses, an eave
overhang is typically constructed by extending the top chord beyond the exterior wall.
When a roof is framed with rafters, the eave overhang is constructed by using rafters that
extend beyond the exterior wall. The rafters are cut with a “bird-mouth” to conform to the
bearing support. Gable end overhangs are usually framed by using a ladder panel that
cantilevers over the gable end for either stick-framed or truss roofs. See Figure 9 for
illustrations of various overhang constructions.
The protection afforded by overhangs extends the life of the wall below,
particularly if the wall is constructed of wood materials. As a reasonable guideline
(given that in many cases no overhang is provided), protective overhang widths should be
12” to 24” in moist, humid climates and more if practicable. A reasonable practice is to
provide a minimum of 12” of overhang width for each story of protected wall below.
However, overhang width can significantly increase wind uplift loads on a roof,
particularly in high wind regions. The detailing of overhang framing connections
(particularly at the rake overhang on a gable end) is a critical consideration in hurricane-
prone regions. Often, standard metal clips or straps provide adequate connection. The
need for special rake overhang design detailing depends on the length of the overhang,
the design wind load condition, and the framing technique that supports the overhang
(i.e., 2x outriggers versus cantilevered roof sheathing supporting ladder overhang
framing).

6.6 Gable-End Wall Bracing

Roof framing provides lateral support to the top of the walls where trusses and
rafters are attached to the wall top plate. Floor framing provides lateral support to the top
and bottom of walls, including the top of foundation walls. At a gable end the top of the
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wall is not directly connected to roof framing members; instead, it is attached to the
bottom of a gable-end truss and lateral support at the top of the wall is provided by the
ceiling diaphragm. In higher-wind regions, the joint may become a “hinge” if the ceiling
diaphragm becomes overloaded. It is common practice to brace the top of the end wall (or
bottom of the gable end roof framing) with 2x4 or 2x6 framing members that slope
upward to the roof diaphragm to attach to a blocking or a ridge “beam” as shown in
Figure 9. Braces may be laid flat wise on ceiling joists or truss bottom chords and angled
to the walls that are perpendicular to the gable-end wall. Given that braces must transfer
inward and outward forces resulting from positive wind pressure or suction on the gable-
end wall, they are commonly attached to the top of the gable-end wall with straps to
transfer tension forces that may develop in hurricanes and other extreme wind conditions.
The need for and special detailing of gable-end wall braces depends on the height and
area of the gable end (i.e., tributary area) and the design wind load. The gable endwall
can also be braced by the use of a wood structural panel attached to the gable end framing
and the ceiling framing members.
As an alternative to the above strategy, the gable-end wall may be framed with
continuous studs that extend to the roof sheathing at the gable end (i.e., balloon-framed).
If the gable-end wall encloses a two-story room–such as a room with a cathedral ceiling,
it is especially important that the studs extend to the roof sheathing; otherwise, a hinge
may develop in the wall and cause cracking of wall finishes (even in a moderate wind)
and could easily precipitate failure of the wall in an extreme wind. Depending on wall
height, stud size, stud spacing, and the design wind load condition, taller, full-height
studs may need to be increased in size to meet deflection or bending capacity
requirements. Some engineering judgment should be exercised in this framing application
with respect to the application of deflection criteria. The system deflection adjustment
factors of Table 6 may assist in dealing with the need to meet a reasonable serviceability
limit for deflection (see section 3.2).
As an alternative that avoids the gable-end wall bracing problem, a hip roof may
be used. The hip shape is inherently more resistant to wind damage in hurricane-prone
wind environments and braces the end walls against lateral wind loads by direct
attachment to rafters.

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Figure 9 Typical Roof Overhang Construction

Design Examples

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Below are a number of design examples illustrate the design of various elements
discussed in this course. The examples ended to provide practical advice and reference.
The examples include notes and recommendations to improve the practicality and
function of various possible design solutions. They are also intended to promote the
engineer’s creativity in arriving at the best possible solution for a particular application

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EXAMPLE 1 Simple Span Floor Joist Design

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EXAMPLE 2 Simple Span Floor Joist Design (Optimize Lumber)

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EXAMPLE 3 Cantilevered Floor Joist

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EXAMPLE 4 Built-Up Floor Girder Design

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EXAMPLE 5 Subfloor Sheathing Design

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EXAMPLE 6 Exterior Bearing Wall Design

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EXAMPLE 7 Header System Design

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EXAMPLE 8 Column Design

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EXAMPLE 9 Simply Supported Sloped Rafter Design

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EXAMPLE 10 Ridge Beam Design

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EXAMPLE 11 Hip Rafter Design

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Appendix A

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Shear and Moment Diagrams and Beam Equations

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TABLE 1.1 Typical Load Combinations Used for the Design of Components and Systems

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Component or System ASD Load Combinations LRFD Load Combinations

Foundation wall (gravity and soil D+H 1.2D + 1.6H
lateral loads) D + H + L + 0.3 (Lr + S) 1.2D + 1.6H + 1.6L + 0.5(Lr + S)
D + H + (Lr or S) + 0.3 L 1.2D + 1.6H + 1.6(lr or S) + 0.5L
Headers, girders, joists, interior load- D + L + 0.3 (Lr + S) 1.2D + 1.6L2 + 0.5(Lr + S)
bearing walls and columns, footings D + (Lr or S) + 0.3 L 1.2D + 1.6(lr or S) + 0.5L
(gravity loads)
Exterior load-bearing walls and Same as immediately above plus Same as immediately above plus
columns (gravity and transverse D+W 1.2D + 1.5W
lateral load) D + 0.7E + 0.5L + 0.2S 1.2D + 1.0E + 0.5L + 0.25
Roof rafters, trusses, and beams: roof D + (Lr or S ) 1.2D + 1.6(Lr or S)
and wall sheathing (gravity and wind 0.6D + Wu 0.9D + 1.5Wu
loads) D+W 1.2D + 1.5W
Floor diaphragms and shear walls (in-
place lateral and overturning loads) 0.6D + (W or 0.7E) 0.9D + (1.5W or 1.0E)

1.3 Dead Loads

Dead loads are made up of the permanent construction material loads composing the roof, floor,
wall, and foundation systems, including claddings, finishes, and fixed equipment. The values for dead loads
in Table 1.2 are for commonly used materials and construction in light-frame residential buildings. Table
1.3 provides values for common material densities and may be useful to calculate dead loads more
accurately. The design examples in this course will demonstrate a straightforward process of calculating
dead loads.

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TABLE 1.2 Dead Loads for Common Residential Construction

Roof Construction 15 psf
Light-frame wood roof with wood structural panel
sheathing and 1/2-inch gypsum board ceiling (2 psf)
with asphalt shingle roofing (3 psf)
- with conventional clay/tile roofing 27 psf
- with light-weight tile 21 psf
- with metal roofing 14 psf
- with wood shakes 15 psf
- with tar and gravel 18 psf

Floor Construction
Light-frame 2x12 wood floor with 3/4-inch wood
structural panel sheathing and 1/2-inch gypsum 10 psf2
board ceiling (without 1/2-inch gypsum board,
subtract 2 psf from all values) with carpet, vinyl, or
similar floor covering
- with wood flooring 12 psf
- with ceramic tile 15 psf
- with slate 19 psf
Wall Construction
Light-frame 2x4 wood wall with 1/2-inch wood 6 psf
structural panel sheathing and 1/2-inch gypsum
board finish (for 2x6, add 1 psf to all values)

- with vinyl or aluminum siding 7 psf

- with lap wood siding 8 psf
- with 7/8-inch portland cement stucco siding 15 psf
- with thin-coat-stucco on insulation board 9 psf
- with 3-1/2-inch brick veneer 45 psf
Interior partition walls (2x4 with 1/2-inch gypsum 6 psf
board applied to both sides)
Foundation Construction Masonry Concrete
Hollow Solid or Full Grout
6-inch-thick wall 28 psf 60 psf 75 psf
8-inch-thick wall 36 psf 80 psf 100 psf
10-inch-thick wall 44 psf 100 psf 123 psf
12-inch-thick wall 50 psf 125 psf 145 psf

6-inch x 12-inch concrete footing 73 plf

6-inch x 16-inch concrete footing 97 plf
8-inch x 24-inch concrete footing 193 plf

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TABLE 1.3 Densities for Common Residential Construction Materials

Aluminum 170 pcf
Copper 556 pcf
Steel 492 pcf

Concrete (normal weight with light reinforcement) 145–150 pcf

Masonry, grout 140 pcf
Masonry, brick 100–130 pcf
Masonry, concrete 85–135 pcf

Glass 160 pcf

Wood (approximately 10 percent moisture content)2

- spruce-pine-fir (G = 0.42) 29 pcf
- spruce-pine-fir, south (G = 0.36) 25 pcf
- southern yellow pine (G = 0.55) 38 pcf
- Douglas fir–larch (G = 0.5) 34 pcf
- hem-fir (G = 0.43) 30 pcf
- mixed oak (G = 0.68) 47 pcf

Water 62.4 pcf

Structural wood panels 36 pcf

- plywood
- oriented strand board 36 pcf

Gypsum board 48 pcf

Stone
- Granite 96 pcf
- Sandstone 82 pcf

Sand, dry 90 pcf

Gravel, dry 105 pcf

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1.4 Live Loads

Live loads are created by the use and occupancy of a building. Loads include human occupants,
furnishings, moveable equipment, storage, and construction and maintenance activities. Table 1.4 provides
recommended design live loads for residential buildings. Example 1.1 will demonstrate the use of those
loads and the load combinations specified in Table 1.1, along with other factors discussed here. To
adequately define the loading condition, loads are presented in terms of uniform area loads (psf),
concentrated loads (lbs), and uniform line loads (plf). The uniform and concentrated live loads should not
be applied simultaneously in a structural evaluation. Concentrated loads should be applied to a small area
or surface consistent with the application and should be located or directed to give the maximum load effect
possible in end-use conditions. For example, the stair concentrated load of 300 pounds should be applied to
the center of the stair tread between supports. The concentrated wheel load of a vehicle on a garage slab or
floor should be applied to all areas or members subject to a wheel load, using a loaded area of about 20
square inches.

TABLE 1.4 Live Loads for Residential Construction

Application Uniform Load Concentrated Load
Roof
Slope ≥ 4:12 15 psf 250 lbs
Flat to 4:12 slope 20 psf 250 lbs
Attic
With limited storage 10 psf 250 lbs
With storage 20 psf 250 lbs
Floors
Bedroom areas 30 psf 300 lbs
Other areas 40 psf 300 lbs
Garages 50 psf 2,000 lbs (vans, light tucks)
1,500 lbs (passenger cars)
Decks 40 psf 300 lbs
Balconies 60 psf 300 lbs
Stairs 40 psf 300 lbs
Guards and handrails 20 plf 200 lbs
Grab bars N/A 250 lbs

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The floor live load on any given floor area may be reduced in accordance with Equation 14.1. The
equation applies to floor and support members, such as beams or columns that experience floor loads from
a total tributary floor area greater than 200 square feet. This equation is different from what is found in
most engineering manual since it is based on data that applies to residential floor loads rather than
commercial buildings.

Equation 1.4.1

⎡ 10.6 ⎤
L=Lo ⎢0.25 + ⎥ ≥ 0.75
⎣ At ⎦

where,

L = the adjustment floor live load for tributary areas greater than 200 square feet
At = the tributary from a single-story area assigned to a floor support member (i.e.,
girder, column, or footing)
Lo = the unreduced live load associated with a floor area of 200 ft2 from Table 1.4

The nominal design floor live load in Table 1.4 includes both a sustained and transient load
component. The sustained component is that load typically present at any given time and includes the load
associated with normal human occupancy and furnishings. For residential buildings, the mean sustained
live load is about 6 psf and can very from 4 to 8 psf. The mean transient live load for dwellings is also
about 6 psf but could very to a high of 13 psf. A total design live load of 30 to 40 psf is conservative.

1.5 Soil Lateral Loads

Lateral pressure exerted by the earth backfill against a residential foundation wall (basement wall)
can be calculated with reasonable accuracy on the basis of theory and for conditions that rarely occur in
practice. Theoretical analyses are usually based on homogeneous materials that demonstrate consistent
compaction and behavioral properties. These conditions are rarely experienced in residential construction
projects. A more common method of determining lateral soil loads on residential foundations is the
Rankine’s (1857) theory of earth pressure and uses the Equivalent Fluid Density (EFD) method shown in
Figure 1.1, where pressure distribution is assumed to be triangular and increases with depth. In the EFD
method, the soil unit weight W is multiplied by an empirical coefficient Ka to account for soil not actually
being fluid and that the pressure distribution is not necessarily triangular. The coefficient Ka is known as
the active Rankine pressure coefficient. Thus, the equivalent fluid density (EFD) is determined as follows:

Equation 1.5.1

q = Ka w

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Figure 1.1, Triangular Pressure Distribution on a Basement Foundation Wall

For the triangular pressure distribution shown in Figure 1.1, the pressure at depth, h, in feet is

Equation 1.5.2
P = qh

The total active soil force (pounds per lineal foot of wall length) is

Equation 1.5.3

1 1
H= (qh)(h) = qh 2
2 2

where,

h = the depth of the unbalanced fill on a foundation wall

H = the resultant force (plf) applied at a height of h/3 from the base of the unbalanced fill
since the pressure distribution is assumed to be triangular

The EFD method is subject to judgment as to the appropriate value of the coefficient Ka. The
values of Ka in Table 1.5 are recommended for the determination of lateral pressures on residential
foundations for various types of backfill materials placed with light compaction and good drainage. Given
the long time use of a 30 pcf equivalent fluid density in residential foundation wall prescriptive design
tables, the values in Table 1.5 are considered somewhat conservative for typical conditions. A relatively
conservative safety factor of 3 to 4 is typically applied to the design of unreinforced or nominally
reinforced masonry or concrete foundation walls. Therefore, at imminent failure of a foundation wall, the
30 psf design EFD would correspond to an active soil lateral pressure determined by using an equivalent
fluid density of about 90 to 120 pcf or more.

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TABLE 1.5
Values of Ka , Soil Unit Weight, and Equivalent Fluid Density by Soil Type
Type of Soil Active Pressure Soil Unit Weight (pcf) Equivalent Fluid
(unified soil classification) Coefficient (Ka) Density (pcf)
Sand or gravel
(GW, GP, GM, SW, SP) 0.26 115 30
Silty sand, silt, and sandy silt
(GC, SM) 0.35 100 35
Clay-silt, silty clay
(SM-SC, SC, ML, ML-CL) 0.45 100 45
Clay
(CL, MH, CH) 0.6 100 60

Depending on the type and depth of backfill material and how it is placed, it is common practice in
residential construction to allow the backfill soil to consolidate naturally by providing an additional 3” to
6” of fill material. The additional backfill ensures that surface water drains away from the foundation
remains adequate (i.e., the grade slopes away from the building). It also helps avoid heavy compaction that
could cause undesirable loads on the foundation wall during and after construction. If soils are heavily
compacted at the ground surface or compacted in lifts to standard Proctor densities greater than about 85
percent of optimum (ASTM, 1998), the standard 30 pcf EFD assumption may be inadequate. In cases
where exterior slabs, patios, stairs, or other items are supported on the backfill, some amount of compaction
is required unless the structures are supported on a separate foundation bearing on undisturbed ground.

1.6 Wind Loads

1.6.1 General

Wind is the source of non-static loads on a structure at highly variable magnitudes. The variation
in pressures at different locations on a building is very complex that pressures may become too analytically
intensive for precise consideration in design. Wind load specifications attempt to simplify the design
problem by considering basic static pressure zones on a building representative of peak loads that most
likely are to be experienced. The peak pressures in one zone for a given wind direction may not occur
simultaneously with peak pressures in other zones. For some pressure zones, the peak pressure depends on
a narrow range of wind direction. Therefore, the wind directionality effect must also be factored into
determining risk-consistent wind loads on buildings. In fact, most modern wind load specifications take
account of wind directionality and other effects in determining nominal design loads in some simplified
form. This course provides simplified wind load design specifications to provide an easy and effective
approach for designing typical residential buildings.

Because wind loads vary substantially over the surface of a building, they are considered at two
different scales. On a large scale loads, the loads produced on the overall building, or major structural
systems that sustain wind loads from more than one surface of the building, are considered the main wind
force-resisting system (MWFRS). The MWFRS of a home includes the shear walls and diaphragms that
create the lateral force-resisting system (LFRS) as well as the structural systems such as trusses that
experience loads from two surfaces (or pressure regimes) of the building. The wind loads applied to the
MWFRS account for the large-area averaging effects of time-varying wind pressures on the surface or
surfaces of the building.

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On a smaller scale, pressures are somewhat greater on localized surface areas of the building,
particularly near abrupt changes in building geometry (e.g., eaves, ridges, and corners). These higher wind
pressures occur on smaller areas, particularly affecting the loads borne by components and cladding (e.g.,
sheathing, windows, doors, purlins, studs). The components and cladding (C&C) transfer localized time-
varying loads to the MWFRS, at which point the loads average out both spatially and temporally since, at a
given time, some components may be at near peak loads while others are at substantially less than peak.

The next section presents a simplified method for determining both MWFRS and C&C wind
loads. Since the loads in Section 1.6.2 are determined for specific applications, the calculation of MWFRS
and C&C wind loads is implicit in the values provided. Design Example 1.2 demonstrates the calculation of
wind loads by applying the simplified method of the following Section 1.6.2 to several design conditions
associated with wind loads and the load combinations presented in Table 1.1.

1.6.2 Determination of Wind Loads on Residential Structures

The method for the design of residential buildings in this course is based on a simplification of the
ASCE 7-98 wind provisions (ASCE, 1999); however, wind loads listed in ASCE 7-89 are not exact
duplicate. Lateral loads and roof uplift loads are determined by using a projected area approach. Other wind
loads are determined for specific components or assemblies that comprise the exterior building envelope.
Five steps are required to determine design wind loads on a residential building and its components.

Step 1: Determine site design wind speed and basic velocity pressure

From the wind map in Figure 1.2 (refer to ASCE 7 for maps with greater detail), select a design
wind speed for the site. The wind speeds may appear higher than those used in older design wind maps.
The difference is due solely to the use of the “peak gust” to define wind speeds rather than an averaged
wind speed as represented by the “fastest mile of wind” used in older wind maps. Nominal design peak gust
wind speeds are typically 85 to 90 mph in most of the United States; however, along the hurricane-prone
Gulf and Atlantic coasts, nominal design wind speeds range from 100 to 150 mph for the peak gust.

If relying on either an older fastest-mile wind speed map or older design provisions based on
fastest-mile wind speeds, the engineer should convert wind speed in accordance with Table 1.6 for use with
this simplified method, which is based on peak gust wind speeds.

TABLE 1.6 Wind Speed Conversions

Fastest mile (mph) 70 75 80 90 100 110 120 130
Peak gust (mph) 85 90 100 110 120 130 140 150

Once the nominal design wind speed in terms of peak gust is determined, the engineer can select
the basic velocity pressure in accordance with Table 1.7. The basic velocity pressure is a reference wind
pressure to which pressure coefficients are applied to determine surface pressures on a building. Velocity
pressures in Table 1.7 are based on typical conditions for residential construction, namely, suburban terrain
exposure and relatively flat or rolling terrain without topographic wind speed-up effects.

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FIGURE 1.2 Basic Design Wind Speed Map from ASCE 7-98

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TABLE 1.7 Basic Wind Velocity Pressures (psf) for Suburban Terrain
Design Wind Speed, V One-Story Building Two-Story Building Three-Story Building
(mph, peak gust) (Kz = 0.6) (Kz = 0.67) (Kz = 0.75)
85 9.4 10.5 11.8
90 10.6 11.8 13.2
100 13.1 14.6 16.3
110 15.8 17.6 19.7
120 18.8 21.0 23.5
130 22.1 24.6 27.6
140 25.6 28.6 32.0
150 29.4 32.8 36.7

Step 2: Adjustments to the basic velocity pressure

If appropriate, the basic velocity pressure from Step 1 should be adjusted in accordance with the
factors below. The adjustments are cumulative.

Open exposure. The wind values in Table 1.7 are based on typical residential exposures to the
wind. If a site is located in generally open, flat terrain with few obstructions to the wind in most directions
or is exposed to a large body of water (i.e., ocean or lake), the designer should multiply the values in Table
1.7 by a factor of 1.4. The factor may be adjusted for sites that are considered intermediate to open
suburban exposures. It may also be used to adjust wind loads according to the exposure related to the
specific directions of wind approach to the building. The wind exposure conditions used in this guide are
derived from ASCE 7 with some modification applicable to small residential buildings of three stories or
less.

• Open terrain. Open areas with widely scattered obstructions, including shoreline
exposures along coastal and non-coastal bodies of water.
• Suburban terrain. Suburban areas or other terrain with closely spaced obstructions that
are the size of single-family dwellings or larger and extend in the upwind direction a
distance no less than ten times the height of the building.

Protected exposure. If a site is generally surrounded by forest or densely wooded terrain with no
open areas greater than a few hundred feet, smaller buildings such as homes experience significant wind
load reductions from the typical suburban exposure condition assumed in Table 1.7. If such conditions exist
and the site’s design wind speed does not exceed about 120 mph peak gust, the engineer may consider
multiplying the values in Table 1.7 by 0.8. The factor may be used to adjust wind loads according to the
exposure related to the specific directions of wind approach to the building. Wind load reductions
associated with a protected exposure in a suburban or otherwise open exposure have been shown to
approximate 20 percent. In densely treed terrain with the height of the building below that of the treetops,
the reduction factor applied to Table 1.7 values can approach 0.6. The effect is known as shielding;
however, ASCE 7 does not currently permit it. Two considerations require judgment: Are the sources of
shielding likely to exist for the expected life of the structure? Are the sources of shielding able to withstand
wind speeds in excess of a design event?

Wind directionality. As noted, the direction of the wind in a given event does not create peak
loads (which provide the basis for design pressure coefficients) simultaneously on all building surfaces. In
some cases, the pressure zones with the highest design pressures are extremely sensitive to wind direction.
In accordance with ASCE 7, the velocity pressures in Table 1.7 are based on a directionality adjustment of
0.85 that applies to hurricane wind conditions where winds in a given event are multidirectional but with

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varying magnitude. However, in “straight” wind climates, a directionality factor of 0.75 has been shown to
be appropriate. Therefore, if a site is in a nonhurricane-prone wind area (i.e., design wind speed of 110 mph
gust or less), the engineer may also consider multiplying the values in Table 1.7 by 0.9 (i.e., 0.9 x 0.85
≅ 0.75) to adjust for directionality effects in non-hurricane-prone wind environments.

Topographic effects. If topographic wind speed-up effects are likely because a structure is located
near the crest of a protruding hill or cliff, the engineer should consider using the topographic factor
provided in ASCE 7. Wind loads can be easily doubled for buildings sited in particularly vulnerable
locations relative to topographic features that cause localized wind speed-up for specific wind directions.

Step 3: Determine lateral wind pressure coefficients

Lateral pressure coefficients in Table 1.8 are composite pressure coefficients that combine the
effect of positive pressures on the windward face of the building and negative (suction) pressures on the
leeward faces of the building. When multiplied by the velocity pressure from Steps 1 and 2, the selected
pressure coefficient provides a single wind pressure that is applied to the vertical projected area of the roof
and wall as indicated in Table 1.8. The resulting load is then used to design the home’s lateral force-
resisting system. The lateral wind load must be determined for the two orthogonal directions on the
building (i.e., parallel to the ridge and perpendicular to the ridge), using the vertical projected area of the
building for each direction. Lateral loads are then assigned to various systems (e.g., shear walls, floor
diaphragms, and roof diaphragms) by use of tributary areas.

TABLE 1.8 Lateral Pressure Coefficients for Application to Vertical Projected Areas
Application Lateral Pressure Coefficients
Roof Vertical Projected Area (by slope)
Flat 0.0
3/12 0.3
6/12 0.5
≥ 9/12 0.8
Wall Projected Area 1.2

Step 4: Determine wind pressure coefficients for components and assemblies

The pressure coefficients in Table 1.9 are based on the assumption that the building is enclosed
and not subject to higher internal pressures that may result from a windward opening in the building. The
use of the values in Table 1.9 greatly simplifies a more detailed methodology described in most engineering
manuals; as a result, there is some “rounding” of numbers. With the exception of the roof uplift coefficient,
all pressures calculated with the coefficients are intended to be applied to the perpendicular building
surface area that is tributary to the element of concern. Thus, the wind load is applied perpendicular to the
actual building surface, not to a projected area. The roof uplift pressure coefficient is used to determine a
single wind pressure that may be applied to a horizontal projected area of the roof to determine roof tie-
down connection forces.

For buildings in hurricane-prone regions subject to wind-borne debris, the GCp values in Table
1.9 must be increased in magnitude by ±0.35 to account for higher potential internal pressures due to the
possibility of a windward wall opening (i.e., broken window).

Step 5: Determine design wind pressures

Once the basic velocity pressure is determined in Step 1 and adjusted in Step 2 for exposure and
other site-specific considerations, the engineer can calculate the design wind pressures by multiplying the
adjusted basic velocity pressure by the pressure coefficients selected in Steps 3 and 4. The lateral pressures
based on coefficients from Step 3 are applied to the tributary areas of the lateral force-resisting systems

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such as shear walls and diaphragms. The pressures based on coefficients from Step 4 are applied to
tributary areas of members such as studs, rafters, trusses, and sheathing to determine stresses and
connection forces.

TABLE 1-9 Wind Pressure Coefficients for Systems and Components (enclosed building)
Application Pressure Coefficients (GCp)2
Roof
Trusses, roof beams, ridge and hip/valley rafters -0.9, +0.4
Rafters and truss panel members -1.2, +0.7
Roof sheathing -2.2, +1.0
Skylights and glazing -1.2, +1.0
Roof uplift
- hip roof with slope between 3/12 and 6/12 -0.9
- hip roof with slope greater than 6/12 -0.8
- all other roof types and slopes -1.0
Windward overhang +0.8
Wall
All framing members -1.2, +1.1
Wall sheathing -1.3, +1.2
Windows, doors, and glazing -1.3, +1.2
Garage doors -1.1, +1.0
Air-permeable claddings -0.9, 0.8

1.6.3 Special Considerations in Hurricane-Prone Environments

1.6.3.1 Wind-Borne Debris

The wind loads determined in the previous section assume an enclosed building. If glazing in
windows and doors is not protected from wind-borne debris or otherwise designed to resist potential
impacts during a major hurricane, a building is more susceptible to structural damage owing to higher
internal building pressures that may develop with a windward opening. The potential for water damage to
building contents also increases. Openings formed in the building envelope during a major hurricane or
tornados are often related to unprotected glazing, improperly fastened sheathing, or weak garage doors and
their attachment to the building. Section 3.9 briefly discusses tornado design conditions.

Recent years have focused much attention on wind-borne debris but with comparatively little
scientific direction and poorly defined goals with respect to safety (i.e., acceptable risk), property
protection, missile types, and reasonable impact criteria. Conventional practice in residential construction
has called for simple plywood window coverings with attachments to resist the design wind loads. In some
cases, homeowners elect to use impact-resistant glazing or shutters. Regardless of the chosen method and
its cost, the responsibility for protection against wind-borne debris has traditionally rested with the

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homeowner. However, wind-borne debris protection has recently been mandated in some local building
codes.

Just what defines impact resistance and the level of impact risk during a hurricane has been the
subject of much debate. Surveys of damage following major hurricanes have identified several factors that
affect the level of debris impact risk, including

• wind climate (design wind speed);

• exposure (e.g., suburban, wooded, height of surrounding buildings);
• development density (i.e., distance between buildings);
• construction characteristics (e.g., type of roofing, degree of wind resistance); and
• debris sources (e.g., roofing, fencing, gravel, etc.).

Current standards for selecting impact criteria for wind-borne debris protection do not explicitly
consider all of the above factors. Further, the primary debris source in typical residential developments is
asphalt roof shingles, which are not represented in existing impact test methods. These factors can have a
dramatic effect on the level of wind-borne debris risk; moreover, existing impact test criteria appear to take
a worst-case approach. Table 1.10 presents an example of missile types used for current impact tests.
Additional factors to consider include emergency egress or access in the event of fire when impact-resistant
glazing or fixed shutter systems are specified, potential injury or misapplication during installation of
temporary methods of window protection, and durability of protective devices and connection details
(including installation quality) such that they themselves do not become a debris hazard over time.

TABLE 1.10 Missile Types for Wind-Borne Debris Impact Tests

Description Velocity Energy
2-gram steel balls 130 fps 10 ft-lb
4.5-lb 2x4 40 fps 100 ft-lb
9.0-lb 2x4 50 fps 350 ft-lb

Wind-borne debris regions are areas within hurricane-prone regions that are located (1) within one
mile of the coastal mean high water line where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater than 110 mph or
in Hawaii or (2) where the basic wind speed is equal to or greater than 120 mph. As outlined in Section
1.6.2 higher internal pressures are to be considered for buildings in wind-borne debris regions unless glazed
openings are protected by impact-resistant glazing or protective devices proven as such by an approved test
method. Approved test methods include ASTM E1886 and SSTD 12-97 (ASTM, 1997; SBCCI, 1997).

The wind load method described in Section 1.6.2 may be considered acceptable without wind-
borne debris protection, provided that the building envelope (i.e., windows, doors, sheathing, and especially
garage doors) is carefully designed for the required pressures. Most homes that experience windborne
debris damage do not appear to exhibit more catastrophic failures, such as a roof blow-off, unless the roof
was severely under designed in the first place (i.e., inadequate tie-down) or subject to poor workmanship
(i.e., missing fasteners at critical locations). Those cases are often the ones cited as evidence of internal
pressure in anecdotal field studies. Garage doors that fail due to wind pressure more frequently precipitate
additional damage related to internal pressure. Because of these internal pressures, in hurricane regions,
garage door reinforcement or pressure rated garage doors should be specified and their attachment to
structural framing carefully considered.

1.6.3.2 Building Durability

Roof overhangs increase uplift loads on roof tie-downs and the framing members that support the
overhangs. They provide a reliable means of protection against moisture and the potential decay of wood

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building materials. The engineer should consider the trade-off between wind load and durability,
particularly in the moist, humid climate zones associated with hurricanes.
For buildings that are exposed to salt spray or mist from nearby bodies of salt water, the engineer
should also consider a higher-than-standard level of corrosion resistance for exposed fasteners and
hardware. Truss plates near roof vents have shown accelerated rates of corrosion in severe coastal
exposures. The engineer should advise the building owner to consider a building maintenance plan that
includes regular inspections, maintenance, and repair.

1.6.3.3 Tips to Improve Performance

The following design and construction tips are simple options for reducing a building's
vulnerability to hurricane damage:

• One-story buildings are much less vulnerable to wind damage than two- or three-story buildings.
• On average, hip roofs have demonstrated better performance than gable-end roofs.
• Moderate roof slopes (i.e., 4:12 to 6:12) tend to optimize the trade-off between lateral loads and roof
uplift loads (i.e., more aerodynamically efficient).
• Roof sheathing installation should be inspected for the proper type and spacing of fasteners, particularly
at connections to gable-end framing.
• The installation of metal strapping or other tie-down hardware should be inspected as required to ensure
the transfer of uplift loads.
• If composition roof shingles are used, high-wind fastening requirements should be followed (i.e., 6 nails
per shingle in lieu of the standard 4 nails). A similar concern exists for tile roofing, metal roofing, and other
roofing materials.
• Consider some practical means of glazed opening protection in the most severe hurricane-prone areas.

1.7 Snow Loads

Within the design process, snow is treated as a simple uniform gravity load on the horizontal
projected area of a roof. The uniformly distributed design snow load on residential roofs can be easily
determined by using the unadjusted ground snow load. This simple approach represents standard practice in
some regions of the United States; however, it does not account for a reduction in roof snow load that may
be associated with steep roof slopes with slippery surfaces (refer to ASCE 7). To consider drift loads on
sloped gable or hip roofs, the design roof snow load on the windward and leeward roof surfaces may be
determined by multiplying the ground snow load by 0.8 and 1.2 respectively. The drifted side of the roof
may have a 50% greater snow load than the non-drifted side of the roof. However, the average roof snow
load is still equivalent to the ground snow load.

Design ground snow loads may be obtained from the map in Figure 1.3; however, snow loads are
most likely defined by the local building department. Typical ground snow loads range from 0 psf in the
South to 50 psf in the northern United States. In mountainous areas, the ground snow load can surpass 100
psf. Local snow data should be carefully considered by the engineer. In areas where the ground snow load
is less than 15 psf, the minimum roof live load (see to section 1.4) is usually the controlling gravity load in
roof design. For a larger map with greater detail, refer to ASCE 7.

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FIGURE 1.3 Ground Snow Loads (ASCE 7-98)

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1.8 Earthquake Loads

1.8.1 General

This section provides a simplified earthquake load analysis procedure appropriate for use in
residential light-frame construction of not more than three stories above grade. The lateral forces associated
with seismic ground motion are based on fundamental Newtonian mechanics (F = ma) expressed in terms
of an equivalent static load. The method provided in this section is a simplification of the seismic design
provisions found in NEHRP, 1997a and b. It is also similar to a simplified approach found in the ICC.

Most residential designs use a simplified approach similar to that in older seismic design codes.
The approach outlined in the next section follows the older approach in terms of its simplicity while using
the newer seismic risk maps and design format of NEHRP as incorporated into recent building code
development efforts (ICC); see Figure 1.4. It should be noted, however, that the newer maps are not
without controversy relative to seismic risk predictions, particularly in the eastern United States. For
example, the maps are considered to overstate significantly the risk of earthquakes in the New Madrid
seismic region around St. Louis, MO. Based on research and the manner of deriving the NEHRP maps for
the New Madrid seismic region, the design seismic loads may be conservative by a factor of 2 or more. The
engineer should bear in mind these uncertainties in the design process.

Wood-framed residential structures have performed well in major seismic events due to there their
light-weight and resilient construction, the strength provided by nonstructural systems such as interior
walls, and their load distribution capabilities. Only in the case of gross absence of good engineering
judgment or misapplication of design for earthquake forces have severe life-safety consequences become
an issue in light-frame, low-rise structures experiencing extreme seismic events.

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FIGURE 1.4 Seismic Map of Design Short-Period Spectral Response

Acceleration (g) (2 percent chance of exceeding a 50 year or 2,475-year return period)

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1.8.2 Determination of Earthquake Loads on Houses

Total lateral force at the base of a building are called seismic base shear. The lateral force
experienced at a particular story level is called the story shear. The story shear is greatest in the ground
story and least in the top story. Seismic base shear and story shear (V) are determined in accordance with
the following equation:

Equation 1.8.1

1.2 SDS
V= W
R

where,
SDS = the design spectral response acceleration in the short-period range determined by
Equation 1.8.2 (g)
R = the response modification factor (dimensionless)
W = the total weight of the building or supported by the story under consideration (lb);
20 percent of the roof snow load is also included where the ground snow load exceeds
30 psf
1.2 = factor to increase the seismic shear load based on the belief that the simplified
method may result in greater uncertainty in the estimated seismic load

In calculating story shear for a given story, the engineer will apply to that story one-half of the
dead load of the walls on the story under consideration and the dead load supported by the story. Dead
loads used in determining seismic story shear or base shear are found in section 1.3. For housing, the
interior partition wall dead load is effectively accounted for by the use of a 6 psf load distributed uniformly
over the floor area. When applicable, the snow load may be determined in accordance with section 1.7. The
inclusion of any snow load is based on the assumption that the snow is always frozen and adhered to the
building such that it is part of the building mass during the entire seismic event.

The design spectral response acceleration for short-period ground motion SDS is used since light-
frame buildings such as houses have a short period of vibration in response to seismic ground motion (i.e.,
high natural frequency). Nondestructive tests of existing houses have confirmed the short period of
vibration, although once ductile damage has begun to occur in a severe event, the natural period of the
building will increase. There are no valid methods available to determine the natural period of vibration for
use in the seismic design of light-frame houses. Therefore, the short-period ground motion is used in the
interest of following traditional practice.

Values of Ss are obtained from Figure 1.7. The value of SDS should be determined in
consideration of the mapped short-period spectral response acceleration Ss and the required soil site
amplification factor Fa as follows:

Equation 1.8.2

SDS = 2/3(Ss)(Fa)

The value of Ss ranges from practically zero in low-risk areas to 3g in the highest-risk regions of
the United States. A typical value in high seismic areas is 1.5g. It is to be noted that, wind loads control the
design of the lateral force-resisting system of light-frame houses when Ss is less than about 1g. The 2/3
coefficient in Equation 1.8.2 is used to adjust to a design seismic ground motion value from that
represented by the mapped Ss values (i.e., the mapped values are based on a “maximum considered

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earthquake” generally representative of a 2,475-year return period, with the design basis intended to
represent a 475-year return period event).

Table 1.11 provides the values of Fa for a standard “firm” soil condition used for the design of
residential buildings. Fa will decrease with increasing ground motion because the soil begins to dampen the
ground motion as shaking intensifies. Because of this, the soil can have a moderating effect on the seismic
shear loads experienced by buildings in high seismic risk regions. Dampening will also occur between a
building foundation and the soil and will have a moderating effect. However, the soil-structure interaction
effects on residential buildings have had little study; therefore, precise design procedures have not been
developed. If a site is located on fill soils or “soft” ground, a different value of Fa should be considered. It
has been learned, through experience, that soft soils do not affect the performance of the above ground
house structure as much as they affect the site and foundations (e.g., settlement, fissuring, liquefaction,
etc.).

TABLE 1.11 Site Soil Amplification Factor Relative to Acceleration (short period, firm soil)
Ss ≤ 0.25g 0.5g 0.75g 1.0g ≥ 1.25g
Fa 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.1 1.0

The seismic response modifier R has a long history in seismic design, but with little in the way of
scientific underpinnings. In recognition that buildings can effectively dissipate energy from seismic ground
motions through ductile damage, the R factor was developed to adjust the shear forces from that which
would be experienced if a building could exhibit perfectly elastic behavior without some form of ductile
energy dissipation. This has served a major role in standardizing the seismic design of buildings even
though it has come about in the absence of a repeatable and generalized evaluation methodology with a
known relationship to actual building performance.

Those structural building systems that are able to withstand greater ductile damage and
deformation without substantial loss of strength are assigned a higher value for R. The R factor also
incorporates differences in dampening that occur for various structural systems. Table 1.12 provides some
values for R that should be used in residential design.

TABLE 1.12 Seismic Response Modifiers for Residential Construction

Structural System Seismic Response Modifier, R
Light-frame shear walls with wood structural panels used as bearing 6.0
walls
Light-frame shear walls with board/lath and plaster 2.0
Reinforced concrete shear walls 4.5
Reinforced masonry shear walls 3.5
Plain concrete shear walls 1.5
Plain masonry walls 1.25

Design Example 1.3 demonstrates the calculation of design seismic shear load based on the simplified
procedures.

1.8.3 Seismic Shear Force Distribution

The vertical distribution of seismic forces to separate stories on a light-frame building is assumed
to be in accordance with the mass supported by each story. Design codes vary in the requirements related to
vertical distribution of seismic shear. There is no clear body of evidence to confirm any particular method

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of vertical seismic force distribution for light-frame buildings. So the engineer must keep with the
simplified method given in Section 1.8.2, the approach used in this course reflects what is considered
conventional practice. The horizontal distribution of seismic forces to various shear walls on a given story
also varies in current practice for light-frame buildings. Several existing approaches to the design of the
lateral force-resisting system of light-frame houses address the issue of horizontal force distribution with
varying degrees of sophistication. Until methods of vertical and horizontal seismic force distribution are
better understood and developed for application to light-frame buildings, the importance of engineering
judgment cannot be overstated.

1.8.4 Special Seismic Design Considerations

What is considered the single most important principle in seismic design is to ensure that the
structural components and systems are adequately tied together to perform as a structural unit. Underlying
this principle are a host of analytic challenges and uncertainties in actually defining what “adequately tied
together” means in a repeatable, accurate, and theoretically sound manner.

Seismic building code developments have introduced several factors and provisions that attempt to
address various problems or uncertainties in the design process. Unfortunately, these factors appear to
introduce as many uncertainties as they address. Codes have tended to become more complicated to apply
or understand, perhaps taking away some important basic principles in seismic design that, when
understood, would provide guidance in the application of engineering judgment. Many of the problems
stem from the use of the seismic response modifier R which is a concept first introduced to seismic design
codes some time in the 1950s. Some of the issues and concerns are briefly described below.

Also known as “reserve strength,” the concept of over-strength is a realization that a shear
resisting system’s ultimate capacity is usually significantly higher than required by a design load as a result
of intended safety margins. At the same time, the seismic ground motion (load) is reduced by the R factor
to account for ductile response of the building system, among other things. The actual forces experienced
on various components (i.e. connections) during a design level event can be substantially higher, even
though the resisting system may be able to effectively dissipate those forces. Over-strength factors have
been included in the newer seismic codes with recommendations to assist in designing components that
may experience higher forces than determined otherwise for the building lateral force resisting system
using methods similar to Equation 1.8.1. Over-strength factors should not be considered an exact by the
engineer and that actual values of over-strength can vary substantially.

The over-strength concept is an attempt to address the principle of balanced design. It strives to
ensure that critical components, such as connections, have sufficient capacity so that the overall lateral
force-resisting system is able to act in its intended ductile manner and absorb higher-than design forces so
that a restraining connection failure is avoided. An exact approach requires near-perfect knowledge about
various connections, details, safety margins, and system component response characteristics that are
generally not available. However, the concept is extremely important and experienced engineers have
exercised this principle through a blend of judgment and rational analysis.

The redundancy factor was postulated to address the reliability of lateral force-resisting systems
by encouraging multiple lines of shear resistance in a building. It is now included in some seismic design
provisions. Since it appears that redundancy factors have little technical basis and insufficient verification
relative to light-frame structures, they are not explicitly addressed in this course. Residential buildings are
generally recognized for their inherent redundancies that are systematically overlooked when designating
and defining a lateral force resisting system for the purpose of executing a rational design. However, this
principle is important to consider. For example, it would not be wise to rely on one or two shear-resisting
components to support a building. In most applications of light-frame construction, even a single shear wall
line has several individual segments and numerous connections that resist shear forces. At a minimum,
there are two such shear wall lines in either orientation of the building, not to mention interior walls and
other nonstructural elements that contribute to the redundancy of typical light-frame homes. Redundancy is
an area where exact guidance does not exist and the engineer must exercise reasonable care in accordance
with or in addition to the applicable building code requirements.

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Deflection amplification has been used in past and current seismic design codes to adjust the
deflection and/or story drift determined by use of the design seismic shear load (as adjusted downward by
the R factor) relative to that actually experienced without allowance for modified response (i.e., load not
adjusted down by the R factor). For wood-framed shear wall construction, the deflection calculated at the
nominal seismic shear load (Equation 1.8.1) is multiplied by a factor of 4. The estimate of deflection or
drift of the shear wall (or entire story) based on the design seismic shear load would be increased four-fold.
The conditions that lead to this level of deflection amplification and the factors that may affect it in a
particular design are not exact (and are not obvious to the engineer). As a result, conservative drift
amplification values are usually selected for code purposes. Regardless, deflection or drift calculations are
rarely applied in a residential (low-rise) wood-framed building design for the following.

• A methodology is not generally available to predict the drift behavior of light-frame buildings reliably
and accurately.
• The current design values used for shear wall design are relatively conservative and are usually
assumed to provide adequate stiffness (i.e., limit drift).
• Code required drift limits have not been developed for specific application to light-frame residential
construction. Deformation amplification is an area where exact guidance does not exist and predictive
tools are unreliable. Therefore, the engineer must exercise reasonable care in accordance with the
applicable building code requirements.

Another issue that relates to seismic design provisions is irregularities. Irregularities are related to
special geometric or structural conditions that affect the seismic performance of a building and either
special design attention or should be altogether avoided. In essence, the presence of limits on structural
irregularity speaks indirectly of the inability to predict the performance of a structure in a reliable, self-
limiting fashion on the basis of analysis alone. Many of the irregularity limitations are based on engineering
judgment from problems experienced in past seismic events.

Irregularities are generally separated into plan and vertical structural irregularities. Plan structural
irregularities include torsional imbalances that result in excessive rotation of the building, re-entrant
corners creating “wings” of a building, floor or roof diaphragms with large openings or non-uniform
stiffness, out-of-plane offsets in the lateral force resistance path, and nonparallel resisting systems. Vertical
structural irregularities include stiffness irregularities (i.e., a “soft” story), capacity irregularities (i.e., a
“weak” story), weight (mass) irregularity (i.e., a “heavy” story), and geometric discontinuities affecting the
interaction of lateral resisting systems on adjacent stories.

The concept of irregularities is associated with ensuring an adequate load path and limiting
undesirable (i.e., hard to control or predict) building responses in a seismic event. Again, experienced
designers generally understand the effect of irregularities and effectively address or avoid them on a case-
by-case basis. For typical single-family housing, all but the most serious irregularities (i.e., “soft story”) are
generally of limited consequence, particularly given the apparently significant system behavior of light-
frame homes (provided the structure is reasonably “tied together as a structural unit”). For larger structures,
such as low and high-rise commercial and residential construction, the issue of irregularity and loads
becomes more significant. Given that structural irregularities raise serious concerns and have been
associated with building failures or performance problems in past seismic events, the engineer must
exercise reasonable care in addition to applying the requirements of the applicable building code
requirements.

A main issue related to building damage involves deformation compatibility of materials and
detailing in a constructed system. This issue may be handled through specification of materials that have
similar deformation capabilities or by system detailing that improves compatibility. For example, a
relatively flexible hold-down device installed near a rigid sill anchor causes greater stress concentration on
the more rigid element as evidenced by the splitting of wood sill plates in the Northridge Earthquake. The
solution can involve increasing the rigidity of the hold-down device (which can lessen the ductility of the
system, increase stiffness, and effectively increase seismic load) or redesigning the sill plate connection to
accommodate the hold-down deformation and improve load distribution. As a nonstructural example of
deformation compatibility, gypsum board interior finishes crack in a major seismic event well before the
structural capability of the wall’s structural sheathing is exhausted. Conversely, wood exterior siding and

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similar resilient finishes tend to deform compatibly with the wall and limit observable or unacceptable
visual damage (HUD, 1994). A gypsum board interior finish may be made more resilient and compatible
with structural deformations by using resilient metal channels or similar detailing; however, this
enhancement has not yet been proven. Unfortunately, there is little definitive design guidance on
deformation compatibility considerations in seismic design of wood-framed buildings and other structures.

It should be understood that the general objective of current and past seismic building code
provisions has been to prevent collapse in extreme seismic events such that “protection of life is reasonably
provided, but not with complete assurance. It is believed that damage can be controlled by use of a smaller
R factor or a larger safety factor.

It has also been suggested using a higher design event. Either approach may indirectly reduce
damage or improve performance. It does not necessarily improve the predictability of building performance
and may have uncertain benefits in many cases. Some practical considerations as discussed above may lead
to better performing buildings, at least from the perspective of controlling damage.

1.9 Other Load Conditions

In addition to the loads covered in Sections 1.3 through 1.8 that are typically considered in the
design of a home, other “forces of nature” may create loads on buildings. Some examples include

• frost heave;
• expansive soils;
• temperature effects; and
• tornadoes.

In certain cases, forces from these phenomena can drastically exceed reasonable design loads for
residential buildings. For example, frost heave forces can easily exceed 10,000 pounds per square foot.
Similarly, the force of expanding clay soil can be impressive. In addition, the self-straining stresses induced
by temperature-related expansion or contraction of a member or system that is restrained against movement
can be very large, although they are not typically a concern in wood-framed housing. Finally, the
probability of a direct tornado strike on a given building is much lower than considered practical for
engineering and general safety purposes. The unique wind loads produced by an extreme tornado (i.e., F5
on the Fujita scale) may exceed typical design wind loads by almost an order of magnitude in effect.
Conversely, most tornadoes have comparatively low wind speeds that can be resisted by attainable design
improvements. However, the risk of such an event is still significantly lower than required by minimum
accepted safety requirements.

Common practice avoids the above loads by using sound design detailing. For example, frost
heave can be avoided by placing footings below a frost depth, building on nonfrost-susceptible materials, or
using other frost protection methods. Expansive soil loads can be avoided by isolating building foundations
from expansive soil, supporting foundations on a system of deep pilings, and designing foundations that
provide for differential ground movements. Temperature effects can be eliminated by providing
construction joints that allow for expansion and contraction. While such temperature effects on wood
materials are practically negligible, some finishes such as ceramic tile can experience cracking when
inadvertently restrained against small movements resulting from variations in temperature. Unfortunately,
tornadoes cannot be avoided; therefore, it is not uncommon to consider the additional cost and protection of
a tornado shelter in tornado-prone areas. A tornado shelter guide is available from the Federal Emergency
Management Agency (FEMA).

As noted earlier, this course does not address loads from flooding, ice, rain, and other exceptional
sources. The engineer should refer to other resources for information regarding special load conditions.

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Design Examples
EXAMPLE 1.1 Design Gravity Load Calculations and Use of ASD Load Combinations

Given

• Three-story conventional wood-framed home

• 28’ x 44’ plan, clear-span roof, floors supported at mid-span
• Roof dead load = 15 psf (Table 1.2)
• Wall dead load = 8 psf (Table 1.2)
• Floor dead load = 10 psf (Table 1.2)
• Roof snow load = 16 psf (Section 1.7)
• Attic live load = 10 psf (Table 1.4)
• Second- and third-floor live load = 30 psf (Table 1.4)
• First-floor live load = 40 psf (Table 1.4)

Find

1. Gravity load on first-story exterior bearing wall

2. Gravity load on a column supporting loads from two floors

Solution
1. Gravity load on first-story exterior bearing wall

• Determine loads on wall

Dead load = roof DL + 2 wall DL + 2 floor DL

= 1/2 (28 ft)(15 psf) + 2(8 ft)(8 psf) + 2(7 ft)(10 psf)
= 478 plf
Roof snow = 1/2(28 ft)(16 psf) = 224 plf
Live load = (30 psf + 30 psf)(7 ft)= 420 plf (two floors)
Attic live load = (10 psf)(14 ft - 5 ft*)= 90 plf
*edges of roof span not accessible to roof storage due to low clearance

• Apply applicable ASD load combinations (Table 1.1)

(a) D + L + 0.3 (Lr or S)

Wall axial gravity load = 478 plf + 420 plf + 0.3 (224 plf)
= 965 plf*
*equals 1,055 plf if full attic live load allowance is included with L

(b) D + (Lr or S) + 0.3L

Wall axial gravity load = 478 plf + 224 plf + 0.3 (420 plf)
= 828 plf

Load condition (a) controls the gravity load analysis for the bearing wall. The same load applies to the
design of headers as well as to the wall studs. Of course, combined lateral (bending) and axial loads on the
wall studs also need to be checked (i.e., D+W); refer to Table 1.1 and Example 1.2. For nonload-bearing
exterior walls (i.e., gable-end curtain walls), contributions from floor and roof live loads may be negligible
(or significantly reduced), and the D+W load combination likely governs the design.

2. Gravity load on a column supporting a center floor girder carrying loads from two floors (first and
second stories)

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• Assume a column spacing of 16 ft

• Determine loads on column

(a) Dead load = Second floor + first floor + bearing wall supporting second floor
= (14 ft)(16 ft)(10 psf) + (14 ft)(16 ft)(10 psf) + (8 ft)(16 ft)(7 psf)
= 5,376 lbs
(b) Live load area reduction (Equation 1.4.1)
- supported floor area = 2(14 ft)(16 ft) = 448 ft2 per floor
⎡ 10.6 ⎤
- reduction = ⎢0.25 + ⎥ = 0.75 ≥ 0.75 OK
⎣ 448 ⎦
- first-floor live load = 0.75 (40 psf) = 30 psf
- second-floor live load = 0.75 (30 psf) = 22.5 psf

(c) Live load = (14 ft)(16 ft)[30 psf + 22.5 psf]

= 11,760 lbs

• Apply ASD load combinations (Table 1.1)

The controlling load combination is D+L since there are no attic or roof loads supported by the column.
The total axial gravity design load on the column is 17,136 lbs (5,376 lbs + 11,760 lbs).

Note. If LRFD material design specifications are used, the various loads would be factored in accordance
with Table 1.1. All other considerations and calculations remain unchanged.

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EXAMPLE 1.2 Design Wind Load Calculations and Use of ASD Load Combinations

Given

• Site wind speed−100 mph, gust

• Site wind exposure−suburban
• Two-story home, 7:12 roof pitch, 28’ x 44’ plan (rectangular), gable roof, 12-inch overhang

Find

1. Lateral (shear) load on lower-story end wall

2. Net roof uplift at connections to the side wall
3. Roof sheathing pull-off (suction) pressure
4. Wind load on a roof truss
5. Wind load on a rafter
6. Lateral (out-of-plane) wind load on a wall stud

Solution

1. Lateral (shear) load on lower-story end wall

Step 1: Velocity pressure = 14.6 psf (Table 1.7)

Step 2: Adjusted velocity pressure = 0.9* x 14.6 psf = 13.1 psf
*adjustment for wind directionality (V<110 mph)
Step 3: Lateral roof coefficient = 0.6 (Table 1.8)
Lateral wall coefficient = 1.2 (Table 1.8)
Step 4: Skip
Step 5: Determine design wind pressures
Wall projected area pressure = (13.1 psf)(1.2) = 15.7 psf
Roof projected area pressure = (13.1 psf)(0.6) = 7.9 psf

Now determine vertical projected areas (VPA) for lower-story end-wall tributary
loading (assuming no contribution from interior walls in resisting lateral loads)

Roof VPA = [1/2 (building width)(roof pitch)] x [1/2 (building length)]

= [1/2 (28 ft)(7/12)] x [1/2 (44 ft)]
= [8.2 ft] x [22 ft]
= 180 ft2

Wall VPA = [(second-story wall height) + (thickness of floor) + 1/2 (first story wall height)] x [1/2
(building length)]
= [8 ft + 1 ft + 4 ft] x [1/2 (44 ft)]
= [13 ft] x [22 ft]
= 286 ft2
Now determine shear load on the first-story end wall

Shear = (roof VPA)(roof projected area pressure) + (wall VPA)(wall projected area pressure)
= (180 ft2)(7.9 psf) + (286 ft2)(15.7 psf)
= 5,912 lbs

The first-story end wall must be designed to transfer a shear load of 5,169 lbs. If side-wall loads were
determined instead, the vertical projected area would include only the gable-end wall area and the
triangular wall area formed by the roof. Use of a hip roof would reduce the shear load for the side and end
walls.

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2. Roof uplift at connection to the side wall (parallel-to-ridge)

Step 1: Velocity pressure = 14.6 psf (as before)

Step 2: Adjusted velocity pressure = 13.1 psf (as before)
Step 3: Skip
Step 4: Roof uplift pressure coefficient = -1.0 (Table 1.9)
Roof overhang pressure coefficient = 0.8 (Table 1.9)
Step 5: Determine design wind pressure
Roof horizontal projected area (HPA) pressure = -1.0 (13.1 psf)
= -13.1 psf
Roof overhang pressure = 0.8 (13.1 psf) = 10.5 psf (upward)

Now determine gross uplift at roof-wall reaction

Gross uplift = 1/2 (roof span)(roof HPA pressure) + (overhang)(overhang pressure coefficient)
= 1/2 (30 ft)(-13.1 psf) + (1 ft)(-10.5 psf)
= -207 plf (upward)

Roof dead load reaction = 1/2 (roof span)(uniform dead load)

= 1/2 (30 ft)(15 psf*)
*Table 1.2
= 225 plf (downward)

Now determine net design uplift load at roof-wall connection

Net design uplift load = 0.6D + Wu (Table 1.1)

= 0.6 (225 plf) + (-207 plf)
= -54 plf (net uplift)

The roof-wall connection must be capable of resisting a design uplift load of 54 plf.
Generally, a toenail connection can be shown to meet the design requirement depending on the nail type,
nail size, number of nails, and density of wall framing lumber. At appreciably higher design wind speeds or
in more open wind exposure conditions, roof tie-down straps, brackets, or other connectors should be
considered and may be required.

3. Roof sheathing pull-off (suction) pressure

Step 1: Velocity pressure = 14.6 psf (as before)

Step 2: Adjusted velocity pressure = 13.1 psf (as before)
Step 3: Skip
Step 4: Roof sheathing pressure coefficient (suction) = -2.2 (Table 1.9)
Step 5: Roof sheathing pressure (suction) = (13.1 psf)(-2.2)
= -28.8 psf
The fastener load depends on the spacing of roof framing and spacing of the fastener.
Fasteners in the interior of the roof sheathing panel usually have the largest tributary area and therefore are
critical. Assuming 24” on center roof framing, the fastener withdrawal load for a 12” on center fastener
spacing is as follows:

Fastener withdrawal load = (fastener spacing)(framing spacing) (roof sheathing pressure)

= (1 ft)(2 ft)(-28.8 psf)
= -57.6 lbs

This load exceeds the allowable capacity of minimum conventional roof sheathing connections (i.e., 6d
nail). Therefore, a larger nail (i.e., 8d) would be required for the given wind condition. At appreciably
higher wind conditions, a closer fastener spacing or higher capacity fastener (i.e., deformed shank nail) may
be required.

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4. Load on a roof truss

Step 1: Velocity pressure = 14.6 psf (as before)

Step 2: Adjusted velocity pressure = 13.1 psf (as before)
Step 3: Skip
Step 4: Roof truss pressure coefficient = -0.9, +0.4 (Table 1.9)
Step 5: Determine design wind pressures

(a) Uplift = -0.9 (13.1 psf) = -11.8 psf

(b) Inward = 0.4 (13.1 psf) = 5.2 psf

Since the inward wind pressure is less than the minimum roof live load (i.e., 15 psf, Table
1.4), the following load combinations would govern the roof truss design while the D+W
load combination could be dismissed (refer to Table 1.1):

D + (Lr or S)
0.6D + Wu*
*The net uplift load for truss design is relatively small in this case (approximately
3.5 psf) and may be dismissed by an experienced designer.

5. Load on a rafter

Step 1: Velocity pressure = 14.6 psf (as before)

Step 2: Adjusted velocity pressure = 13.1 psf (as before)
Step 3: Skip
Step 4: Rafter pressure coefficient = -1.2, +0.7 (Table 1.9)
Step 5: Determine design wind pressures

(a) Uplift = (-1.2)(13.1 psf) = -15.7 psf

(b) Inward = (0.7)(13.1 psf) = 9.2 psf

Rafters in cathedral ceilings are sloped, simply supported beams, whereas rafters that are framed with
cross-ties (i.e., ceiling joists ) constitute a component (i.e., top chord) of a site built truss system. Assuming
the former in this case, the rafter should be designed as a sloped beam by using the span measured along
the slope. By inspection, the minimum roof live load (D+Lr) governs the design of the rafter in comparison
to the wind load combinations (see Table 3.1). The load combination 0.6 D+Wu can be dismissed in this
case for rafter sizing but must be considered when investigating wind uplift for the rafter-to-wall and rafter-
to-ridge beam connections.

6. Lateral (out-of-plane) wind load on a wall stud

Step 1: Velocity pressure = 14.6 psf (as before)

Step 2: Adjusted velocity pressure = 13.1 psf (as before)
Step 3: Skip
Step 4: Wall stud pressure coefficient = -1.2, +1.1 (Table 1.9)
Step 5: Determine design wind pressures

(a) Outward = (-1.2)(13.1 psf) = -15.7 psf

(b) Inward = (1.1)(13.1 psf) = 14.4 psf

Obviously, the outward pressure of 15.7 psf governs the out-of-plane bending load design of the wall stud.
Since the load is a lateral pressure (not uplift), the applicable load combination is D+W (refer to Table 1.1),
resulting in a combined axial and bending load. The axial load would include the tributary building dead
load from supported assemblies (i.e., walls, floors, and roof). The bending load would the be determined by
using the wind pressure of 15.7 psf applied to the stud as a uniform line load on a simply supported beam
calculated as follows:

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Uniform line load, w = (wind pressure)(stud spacing)

= (15.7 psf)(1.33 ft*)
*assumes a stud spacing of 16 inches on center
= 20.9 plf

Of course, the following gravity load combinations would also need to be considered in the
stud design (refer to Table 1.1):

D + L + 0.3 (Lr or S)
D + (Lr or S) + 0.3 L

It should be noted that the stud is actually part of a wall system (i.e., sheathing and interior finish) and can
add substantially to the calculated bending capacity.

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EXAMPLE 1.3 Design Earthquake Load Calculation

Given

• Site ground motion, Ss = 1g

• Site soil condition = firm (default)
• Roof snow load < 30 psf
• Two-story home, 28’ x 44’ plan, typical construction

Find

Design seismic shear on first-story end wall assuming no interior shear walls or contribution from partition
walls

Solution

1. Determine tributary mass (weight) of building to first-story seismic shear

Roof dead load = (28 ft)(44 ft)(15 psf) = 18,480 lb

Second-story exterior wall dead load = (144 lf)(8 ft)(8 psf) = 9,216 lb
Second-story partition wall dead load = (28 ft)(44 ft)(6 psf) = 7,392 lb
Second-story floor dead load = (28 ft)(44 ft)(10 psf) = 12,320 lb
First-story exterior walls (1/2 height) = (144 lf)(4 ft)(8 psf) = 4,608 lb
Assume first-story interior partition walls are capable of at least supporting the
seismic shear produced by their own weight

Total tributary weight = 52,016 lb

2. Determine total seismic story shear on first story

SDS = 2/3 (Ss)(Fa) (Equation 1.8.2)

= 2/3 (1.0g)(1.1) (Fa = 1.1 from Table 1.11)
= 0.74 g

1.2SDS
V = W
R
1.2(0.74 g )
= (52,016 lb) (R = 5.5 from Table 1.12)
5.5
= 8,399 lb

3. Determine design shear load on the 28-foot end walls

Assume that the building mass is evenly distributed and that stiffness is also reasonably balanced between
the two end walls.
With the above assumption, the load is simply distributed to the end walls according to tributary weight (or
plan area) of the building. Therefore,

End wall shear = 1/2 (8,399 lb) = 4,200 lb

Note that the design shear load from wind (100 mph gust, exposure B) in Example
1.2 is somewhat greater (5,912 lbs).

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