Chapter 2A

Primemovers in the Agricultural and

Bio-production Systems

ABE 131
AB MACHINERY AND MECHANIZATION

REYNOLD M. CAOILI, PhD

Mariano Marcos State University
College of Engineering
Department of Agricultural and
Biosystems Engineering
OUTLINE
A. Sources of Power in the Farm
B. Human Power
C. Animal Power
D. Electric Motors
E. Internal Combustion Engines
F. Tractors and their Transmission Systems
Learning Objectives
At the end of the chapter, the student must be able to:

• identify and describe the different sources of power in the

farms;

• identify the main construction of the different primemovers in

the agricultural and bio-production systems;

• identify the main construction of tractor and their

transmission systems; and

• compute problems involving testing and operations of these

primemovers.
Agricultural Mechanization
• A system of production of food and fiber that
embraces the use of tools, implement and machines
for agricultural land development, production,
harvesting, and on- farm processing.

• It is the use of any machine to accomplish a task or

operation involved in agricultural production.
Agricultural mechanization
• It employs a combination of three main sources of
power; human, animal and mechanical/engine.

• Natural power (solar, water, and wind) are included in

mechanical power because a mechanical device is
needed to transfer this power into useful work.
Agricultural mechanization
• It covers the manufacture, distribution, utilization
and the provision of after sales service of tools,
implements, and machines for land development,
agricultural production and primary post production
(FAO, 1979).
Objectives of Mechanization
a. Reduce drudgery of farm works

b. Increase the productivity of farm workers

c. Increase the timeliness and quality of farm

operations
A. Sources of Power in the Farm
• Human Power
• Animal Power
• Electric Motors
• Internal Combustion Engines
• Renewable Sources (BIGSHOW)
- Biomass/Biofuel
- Geothermal Power
- Solar Energy
- Hydro Power
- Ocean (Tidal, Wave, Thermal)
- Wind Power
B. Human Power
• Oldest sources of power in the farm

o Man used his muscles to walk long distances,

hunt animals and till the soil.

o Man learned to tame animals he hunted for food to

work for him by providing pulling power.
B. Human Power
 Man learned the use of sleds for transporting
cargoes; use of rollers underneath the sleds; and
finally the use of wheels.

Sled

Sled with rollers

B. Human Power
 While fire is considered the
greatest discovery of man;
the wheel is the considered
the greatest invention of man

Evolution of the
WHEEL
B. Human Power
➢ Today, still considered the major sources of power
in the farm because of:

- Size of farm
- Topography
- Crops grown
- High cost of equipment
- High cost and non-availability of fuel
- Availability of low cost labor.
B. Human Power
➢ Poor source of power.

➢ Develops only 0.1 hp working continuously under

favorable conditions (good health, well fed, and
favorable environment).

➢ Considering that there are 3M farms, 12M hectares of

agricultural lands, and assuming 5 farmers per farm,
human power contribution is about 0.125 hp/ha.

➢ Man is suited to farm operations requiring judgment

rather than simple power.
 B. Human Power
Human energy output in rice production
OUTPUT
TASK/TECHNOLOGY
HP MAN-DAYS/HA
Land preparation
Plowing with carabao 0.06 5.80
Plowing with hand tractor 0.05 1.69
Harrowing with carabao 0.05 2.05
Harrowing with hand tractor 0.08 0.51
Planting
Hand transplanting (dapog) 0.08 12.84
Broadcasting 0.11 0.39
Mechanical (IRRI drum seeder) 0.20 0.53
Weeding
Hand 0.10 9.75
Push-type rotary 0.10 3.72
Power 0.14 1.48
Herbicide broadcasting 0.12 0.19
Harvesting
Cutting with sickle 0.07 8.84
Hauling and piling 0.08 5.80
Threshing
Table thresher 0.05 3.70
Frame thresher (hampasan) 0.07 3.93

Source: Beeghy, W. 1972. Nutrition, Employment and Working Efficiency: Toward Measuring Human Activity in the Rural
Tropics. Cornell Agricultural Economics Staff Paper No. 72-73, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
 Hand Tool Technology
• A person can cultivate only 1 ha of land
using hand tools.
• Adopts a working mode that
incorporates appropriate rest period.
 Hand Tool Technology
• Makes instantaneous decisions as to how
much force to exert to accomplish a task,
thereby conserving energy.

• Chooses the appropriate tools for a given

production unit operation.

• Changes from one task to another readily and

rationally, exhibiting a versatility that no other
power source is capable of.
 Hand Tool Technology
• Human being operates essentially like a heat
engine, with built-in overload controls or
regulators

• For approximation of power available in a

household
Women= 75%(Men)
Child=50% (Men)
 Hand Tool Technology

• Approximate Power in a Household

Hand Tool Technology
Hand Tool Technology
 Rest Period

• The rest period required can be estimated using

the formula,

Tr = 60 (1 – 250/P)

where,
Tr = required rest period, min/h of work, and
P = actual rate of energy consumption in
watts.
Problem Set 1

Four farmers cooperatively take care of a 2

hectare farm that was awarded to them through the
Agrarian Reform Program of the government. Initially,
they have to clear the land of bushes and shrubs/
scrubs, make ridges, before finally planting cassava.
How many days would they need to complete each
tasks? How much power would be consumed in every
activity (KW-hr)? Assume that the farmers work 8
hours a day including rest periods.
C. Animal Power
• In the Philippines, the Carabao is the major beast of
burden.

• It can generate 1 hp walking continuously under favorable

conditions.

• Its work is confined mostly to pulling operations such as

plowing, harrowing, cultivating and transport.
C. Animal Power
Draft animal population in the Philippines (in thousand heads).

YEAR CARABAO CATTLE

1960 3,696 1,111
1965 3,346 1,560
1970 4,432 1,679
1974 5,233 3,237
1976 2,725 1,737
1980 2,870 1,883
1985 2,983 1,786
1990 2,765 1,629
1995 2,480 1,659

Source: 1994 Philippine Yearbook. National Statistics Office. Republic of the

Philippines. Manila
C. Animal Power
• This population reduction was due :
- lifting of the carabao slaughter ban,
- hoof-and-mouth disease epidemic in 1975
- naturally low birth rate of carabaos.

• Today, the population of carabaos is maintained at

the level of about 2.5 million heads.

• About 70-75% is used for draft work with the rest

used for milk production.

• The contribution of animal power in the farm is

about 0.16 hp/ha.
C. Animal Power
Performance of draft animals under varying pulling loads.
Draft (kg) Speed (kph) Power (hp)
Load
Carabao Cattle Carabao Cattle Carabao Cattle
50 24 20 4.8 4.4 0.42 0.32
100 55 40 4.6 4.0 0.92 0.58
150 75 62 4.3 3.6 1.18 0.82
200 101 88 4.3 3.2 1.58 1.03
250 146 118 3.9 2.4 2.08 1.03
300
350
400
Note: Test animals could not pull load beyond 250 kg.
Source: Test data of the National Carabao Research Center, Institute of Animal
Science, UPLB, 1990.
C. Animal Power
C. Animal Power
• The animals were made to pull loads of 50 to 300
kg by using a wooden sledge as the loading device.

• The line of pull was measured from the horizontal

plane and it ranged from 18-24 degrees for the
carabao and 24-30 degrees for the cattle.

• The draft is the horizontal component of the pull.

C. Animal Power
• The average speed of the carabao was 4.38 kph and
the cattle was 3.52 kph.
• With the increase in load, the speed decreased. And
the animals could not pull the load of 300kg and
beyond.
• About 15% of the weight of the carabao would be
an optimum draft under normal conditions.
• For a 500 kg carabao, therefore, the draft load
would be 75 kg and at a walking speed of 3.5 kph,
the animal would generate 0.96 hp.
C. Animal Power
• Power output of animals performing different
works in the paddy field.

AVERAGE DRAFT OUTPUT

NATURE OF WORK (kg) (Hp)
Normal plowing 55 0.82
Deep plowing 112 0.96
Harrowing 42 0.87
Cultivating 48 0.79

Source: Tatsumi, H. 1958. Energy Expense of Horses in Culture in a Paddy Field.

National Institute of Agricultural Science Bulletin Series 6. No.14.
C. Animal Power
Advantages (Compared with mechanical energy sources )

a) lower initial cost

b) easy to maintain
c) rarely bogs down in mud
d) can work closer to the levees
e) mobile in most terrain conditions,
f) if female, it is capable of reproduction
g) source of milk, meat, leather and fertilizer.
C. Animal Power
Disadvantages
a) low work capacity - this means more time spent for
a single operation (25-50 h/ha plowing once)
b) more labor input and drudgery (a farmer walks with
the carabao 77 km/ha), and limited working period
to avoid the intense heat of the sun
c) prone to disability by disease, poisoning and death
and lost by rustling,
d) requires daily attention such as feeding and
pasturing even when not in use
e) under poor management practices, carabao causes
unsanitary conditions near the house due to
wasted feed, dung and urine.
 Draft Animal Technology
• Draft animals like water buffaloes, horses, oxen,
camel, llamas, cows, and the likes are harnessed
for tractive force in pulling a certain implement or
machine.

• When using a pack, llamas can carry about 25% to

30% of their body weight for 5-8 miles
 Draft Animal Technology
• Can make a maximum sustained pull of
10% of its weight for about 2-3 hours
per day at a normal speed of 0.6-0.8
m/sec.
• Can develop an output of 0.7-1.3
horsepower.
 Possible Controls to Maximize the
Animals Potentials
• Environmental factors that define the
working condition for the draft animal.
• Choice of animals (breed, species, sex,
temperament)
• Use of the animals- harnessing system.
• Livestock management (feeding,
training, care, watering)
Sample Problem
Determine the time required and distance travelled in plowing a one-
hectare field using a 13-cm wide animal-drawn plow with a field efficiency
of 70%. If the draft is 60 kg and the animal is travelling at 3 kph, what is
the horsepower output of the animal?

Given:
Area = 1 ha Draft = 60 kg
Width = 13 cm Speed = 3 kph
Field efficiency = 70 %

Required:
Time to plow one hectare
Distance travelled per hectare
Horsepower output of animal
Sample Problem
Time to plow one hectare:
SWEff.
C = ----------- EQN. 1-1
10
where:
C = effective field capacity, ha/h
S = speed of travel, kph
W = width of cut, m
Eff = field efficiency Decimal

(3 kph) (0.13 m) (0.70)

hence: C = ------------------------------- = 0.0273 ha/h
10
1 1
t = ------ = ------------------ = 36.63 h/ha
C 0.0273 ha/h
Sample Problem
Distance travelled in one hectare:
WD
A = ------------ EQN. 1-2
10

where:
A = area, ha
W = width of cut, m
D = distance travelled, km

10A 10 x 1 Ha
therefore, D = ------------- = --------------------- = 76.92 km
W 0.13 m
Sample Problem
Horsepower output of the animal:

DS
Hp = --------- EQN. 1-3
274
where:
D = draft, kg S = Speed, kph

60 kg x 3 kph
therefore, Hp = ----------------------- = 0.66 hp
274
D. Electric Motors
• Device used to convert electrical energy
into mechanical energy

P= VI cos θ
where:
P = Power
V = Voltage
I = Current
cos θ = phase factor
D. Electric Motors
• Efficient means of converting energy into mechanical
energy compared to gasoline and diesel engines.

Energy conversion efficiencies of major farm power units.

ENERGY CONVERSION
POWER UNIT EFFICIENCY
%
Electric motor 50 - 99
Gasoline engine 25
Diesel engine 40
Source: Gustafson and Morgan, 2004
D. Electric Motors
• They are commonly used as prime movers for
stationary and indoor equipment such as those used
for processing of farm products and by-products
D. Electric Motors
Advantages over engines

1. low initial cost,

2. available in fractional hp sizes (1/4, ½, ¾ Hp) and low
integral hp sizes (1, 1 ½, 2, 2 ½, 3 Hp),
3. Compact
4. long life
5. easy to start and simple to operate
6. inexpensive to operate
7. quiet operation
8. no exhaust fumes
9. potential for automatic control
Source: Gustafson, 2004
ELECTRIC MOTORS
Disadvantages

1. not adapted to mobile applications such as field

machines,
2. used only in farms with existing electric lines
3. affected by power outages
D. Electric Motors
Classifications

Source: PAES 129:2002

D. Electric Motors
Direct-current motors

- use direct-unidirectional current.

- commonly used in special applications where high
torque starting or smooth acceleration over a broad
speed range is required.

DC Motor.
Source: Direct Industry, 2005
D. Electric Motors

Direct-current motors main components:

1. Field pole
• interaction of two
magnetic fields causes
the rotation in a DC
motor.

• north and south poles that

are stationary and an
armature (rotor) that
turns on bearings in the
space between the field
poles.
D. Electric Motors
2. Armature (rotor)
• becomes an electromagnet when
current goes through it.

• linked to a drive shaft in order to drive the load.

• it rotates in the magnetic field established by

the poles, until the north and south poles of
the magnets change location with respect to
the armature.

• the current is reversed to switch the south and

north poles of the armature. Thus rotation is
achieved
D. Electric Motors
3. Commutator

• Commutator is found only in DC

motors. Its purpose is to overturn
the direction of the electric current
in the armature. The commutator
also aids in the transmission of
current between the armature and
the power source.
D. Electric Motors
Alternating -current motors
• use an electrical current, which
reverses its direction at regular
intervals.
• majority of electrical motors
used in homes and on farms
AC motor
are alternating current Source: Integrated Publishing, 2003
motors
• two major parts: stator and
rotor
• difficult to control the speed;
can be equipped with
variable frequency drives
D. Electric Motors
Synchronous motor
• runs at constant speed
• requires direct current (DC) for excitation
• low starting torque.
• Applications: low load requiement such as
air compressors, frequency changes and
motor generators.
• Synchronous motors are able to improve the
power factor of a system, which is why they are
often used in systems that use a lot of electricity
D. Electric Motors
Synchronous motor

Application in agriculture :
- clocks and timers
- three-phase synchronous motors are more
widely used. with very large horsepower and
relatively low speed.
D. Electric Motors

Induction motor

• the most popular motors in industry because of their

ruggedness and lower maintenance requirements.

• AC induction motors are inexpensive, half or less of the cost

of a DC motor, and also provide a high power to weight ratio,
about twice that of a DC motor
D. Electric Motors
Induction motor

• Has two main electrical components: rotor and stator

• They use two types of rotors: squirrel-cage rotor and

wound rotor.
➢ Squirrel-cage rotor consists of thick conducting bars,
short- circuited at both ends by means of short-circuiting
rings, embedded in parallel slots.
➢ wound rotor has a three-phase, double-layer, distributed
winding. It is wound for as many poles as the stator. The
three phases are wired internally and the other ends are
connected to slip-rings mounted on a shaft with brushes
resting on them.
D. Electric Motors

Classification of electric motors based on electrical service

required:

Single-phase alternating current (< 5 hp)

Three-phase alternating current (> 5 hp)
D. Electric Motors
Motor Ratings and Selection

1. Torque requirement:
Starting torque
Running torque
Figure 1.Speed-vs-torque curve for
general-purpose motor

• At all times from start to full speed, the torque supplied by

the motor > than that required by the load.

• If the load torque becomes higher than the motor torque, the
motor will stall.
D. Electric Motors
Motor Ratings and Selection

2. Starting current requirements:

• During starting, a current of magnitude 2-7x larger than the

full-load current is expected.

• Knowing the starting current requirements of motors, the

corresponding rating of transformers, fuses, switches and
wires can be determined.

• A motor code designated by a letter on the motor nameplate,

may be used to compute for the starting current.
D. Electric Motors

Motor Ratings and Selection

Motor code

CODE LETTER LOCKED ROTOR,

KVA/HP
F 5.0 - 5.6
G 5.6 - 6.3
H 6.3 - 7.1
J 7.1 - 8.0
K 8.0 - 9.0
L 9.0 - 10.0
D. Electric Motors

Motor Ratings and Selection

For example, calculate the maximum locked-rotor current
(starting current) for a ½-hp, 220-volt motor with an H motor
code.

7,100 VA/Hp X 0.5 Hp

Max. starting current = A = ------------------------------ = 16.14 amp.
220 V
D. Electric Motors
Motor Ratings and Selection

3. Temperature rating:

• Both bearing and insulation life are reduced as the

operating temperature of the motor increases.

• Motors are built with four insulation classes and are

classified by the maximum temperature any spot in
the motor can tolerate continuously.
D. Electric Motors
Motor Ratings and Selection

Insulation class of motors

MAX. HOT SPOT CONT.

INSULATION CLASS TEMPT.
ºC ºF
A 105 221
B 130 266
F 155 311
H 180 356
Normal maximum ambient temperature for motor operation is 40ºC (104ºF)
for most motor ratings

As a general rule, never operate the motor under the direct heat of the sun.
D. Electric Motors
Motor Ratings and Selection

4. Duty rating:

• Motor duty refers to how frequently the motor is started

and for how long it will run each time it is started.

• Continuous duty is the type of service in which the motor

is operated for more than 60 minutes at a time.

• Intermittent duty type is operated only for up to 30

minutes at a time with a rest or cooling period between
operations.
D. Electric Motors
Motor Ratings and Selection

4. Duty rating:

• However, most motors are designed for continuous

duty.

• Use of intermittent duty motors is a matter of cost.

Heat dissipation is not as critical on an intermittent duty
motor; therefore, some components can be constructed
less expensively.
D. Electric Motors
Motor Ratings and Selection

5. Enclosure:

• The open-type enclosure allows for easy movement of air

through the windings by providing slots in the end shields
or frame where air can pass through.

• A blower attached to the rotor shaft sucks the air in

through the slots in the front end shield and out of the
rear end shield.

• This is desirable for motors operating in clean air or

where water is kept from entering the motor.
D. Electric Motors
Motor Ratings and Selection

5. Enclosure:

• The closed-type enclosure does not allow entry of air to

the windings.

• A fan on the rotor shaft blows air on the outside surface of

the frame to dissipate the heat.

• Fins are constructed on the frame to increase the surface

area for heat dissipation.

• One advantage of closed-type enclosure is that they are

not affected by dusty conditions and water splashes.
D. Electric Motors
Motor Ratings and Selection

6. Service factor:

• Service factor indicates the maximum load that can be

successfully carried by the motor if it is to operate
continuously and remain within a safe temperature range.

• Integral horsepower motors have service factor of 1.15

Fractional horsepower motors have service factors ranging
from 1.25 for ¾ hp to 1.4 for 1/20 hp.

• The service factor on the nameplate is multiplied by the

horsepower rating to give the maximum load that the motor
can safely sustain.
D. Electric Motors
Motor Nameplate

• The motor nameplate carries a good deal of essential

information about the motor.

• Refer to it when you specify, buy, install, replace, operate

and repair motors.
D. Electric Motors
Motor Nameplate

The information generally found on the nameplate includes:

• Name of manufacturer - The name provides an indication of

the quality of the product.

• Model name or number - Accurately describes the product.

• Frame designation - National Electrical Manufacturers

Association (NEMA) - designation for frame design for
interchangeability between motors from different
manufacturers.
D. Electric Motors
Motor Nameplate

• Shaft height in inches for integral horsepower motors

may be obtained by dividing the first two number of
the frame size by four.

• Shaft height in inches for fractional horsepower

motors is obtained by dividing the frame size by 16.
D. Electric Motors The following dimensions are
shown in each drawing:
• D = shaft height measured
at the centerline
• E = distance from the
centerline to the side
mounting holes
• BA = distance from the
center of the nearest
mounting hole to the
beginning of the usable
shaft
• 2F = distance between the
front-to-back mounting
holes
• U = shaft diameter
• N-W = shaft length
• V = usable shaft length
• ES = length of keyseat
• S = width of keyseat

Source: https://www.renown-electric.com/blog/motor-dimensions-comparison-tool/
D. Electric Motors
Motor Nameplate

• Shaft height in inches for integral horsepower motors may

be obtained by dividing the first two number of the frame
size by four.
• Shaft height in inches for fractional horsepower motors is
obtained by dividing the frame size by 16.

For example:
Determine the shaft height for the 2 motors:
2 hp, frame size 180
½ hp, frame size 40
Solution:
Shaft height = 18/4 = 4.5 in.
Shaft height = 40/16 = 2.5 in.
D. Electric Motors
Motor Nameplate

• Horsepower - Full-load horsepower rating.

• Motor code - Letter designating starting current requirement

(F, G, H, J, K, or L).

• Cycles or Hertz - Frequency of the electrical source to be used

(50/60 Hz).

• Phase - Number of phases of source (single-phase or three-

phase).

• RPM - Speed of rotation of the motor shaft at full load.

D. Electric Motors
Motor Nameplate

• Voltage - Voltage(s) at which the motor is designed to operate

(110 V or 220 V)

• Current - Rated current at full load which varies with voltage

used.

• Duty - Duty rating whether continuous or intermittent.

• Ambient temperature - Maximum ambient temperature at

which motor should be operated.
D. Electric Motors
Motor Nameplate

• Service factor - Amount of overload the motor can tolerate

continuously.

• Insulation class - Designation of insulation class

• Bearings - Identification of bearings for replacement

purposes.
E. Internal Combustion Engines

What is an engine?

• An engine is a mechanical device used to

convert the heat energy of fuel produced by
combustion into mechanical energy

piston
cylinder
steam

boiler
furnace

fuel
Types of Heat Engines
a. External Combustion Engine (ECE)
b. Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)

A. External Combustion Engine (ECE)

• also known as steam engine
• fuel is ignited and burned outside the cylinder
• heat energy is applied indirectly to the piston
by an intermediate medium (water vapor)
• steam is generated in a boiler which is entirely
separate from the engine cylinder
 Schematic Diagram of ECE

piston
cylinder

steam

boiler

furnace

fuel
Types of Heat Engines
a. External Combustion Engine (ECE)
b. Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)

B. Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)

• fuel is ignited and burned inside the cylinder

• Ignition of compressed mixture causes rapid

combustion and an instantaneous application of
pressure to the piston

• Piston is consequently set in motion and power

is generated
Advantages of ICE over ECE

• More efficient – greater percentage of the heat and

energy value of the fuel is converted into useful
power (15-30%). ECE is often as low as 3 and seldom
exceeds 10%
• Weighs less per hp
• More compact
• Original cost less per hp
• Less time and work necessary preliminary to starting
• Less time and attention required while in operation
• Greater range of adaptability
E. Internal Combustion Engines
Sources of Power in the Farm

Lectures of
Dr. Rossana Marie C. Amongo
Dr. Fernando O. Paras, Jr.
IAE, CEAT, UPLB
For more information contact:

REYNOLD M. CAOILI, PhD

Mariano Marcos State University
College of Engineering
Department of Agricultural and
Biosystems Engineering

email address:
[email protected]
[email protected]
FB Account Name:
Reynold M. Caoili
Contact Number:
(+63) 09356852107
SCHEDULES (2nd Sem 2021-2022)