Article

Australian Journal of Education

Strengthening practicum 2014, Vol. 58(3) 248–261
! Australian Council for Educational

conversations: Enhancing Research 2014

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DOI: 10.1177/0004944114537051
aed.sagepub.com
development through
returning lecturer supervisions
Bill Ussher
Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Education, University of Waikato, Hamilton,
New Zealand

Wendy Carss
Lecturer, Faculty of Education, University of Waikato, Hamilton,
New Zealand

Abstract
Relationships between teachers, children and university lecturers must be positive, productive and
professional to optimise the learning and development of student teachers in school-based
experiences. The limited research into these ‘high stakes’ relationships mostly explores alternative
approaches. This paper explores the perceptions of student teachers and associate teachers as they
consider the value of an alternative practicum supervision approach. The lecturers supervised and
mentored the student teachers in all of their practicum experiences. Findings indicate a clear
preference for this approach, mostly because of reduced stress, especially in the final practicum.
The lecturer was a stable influence with a greater depth of knowledge of the student’s learning
journey. The later visits were future-focused, identifying next steps in developing both strengths and
weaknesses. There are some current examples of this approach, but these participants suggest that it
should be common practice because of the value of the professional conversations that occurred.

Keywords
Teaching practice, supervision, mentoring, student teachers, primary schools, teacher education

Introduction
It is accepted that successful practicum experiences are of value in learning teaching for
initial teacher education (pre-service) student teachers (Sim, 2011; Ussher, 2011) and that
developing effective working relationships with schools and associate teachers during these
practicum experiences is a critical element in the perceptions of success (Ferrier-Kerr, 2005;

Corresponding author:
Bill Ussher, Faculty of Education, University of Waikato, Private Bag 3105, Hamilton 3240, New Zealand.
Email: [email protected]

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Ussher and Carss 249

Ussher, 2010). However, no matter how successful the practicum may be, it is considered a
time of stress for those involved because of the need to accommodate the student teacher
within the classroom programme and to prepare and present for evaluative purposes. For
associate teachers, the reasons for accepting a student teacher into their classrooms vary but
presence of a student teacher creates pressure to provide opportunities for learning teaching,
while at the same time fulfilling obligations to the children and school. Several researchers
have reported practicum experiences as a stressful time for the students involved in their
studies (Caires, Almeida, & Vieira, 2012; Murray-Harvey et al., 2000). In fact, typically
student teachers learned how to manage their associate teachers (Maynard, 2000) so that
the focus is on opportunities for them to ‘practice and learn by doing (teaching)’ (Borko &
Mayfield, 1995, p. 515). Meijer, De Graaf and Meirink (2011) reported that for, ‘most
student teachers’ development is not about steady improvement of practice but is a rocky
path’ (p. 127) with moments of tension and periods where development is minimal. Such
stresses, tensions and moments can be minimised by the university lecturer ‘as a key
facilitator of the ecological transitions of student teachers’ (Caires et al., 2012, p. 173), in
many instances, helping the student teacher to ‘see beyond the lions in the den’.
Recent research shows that where student teachers develop a sense of belonging to a school
and an extended community of practice, learning teaching is enhanced (Grudnoff, 2011; Ussher,
2010). For the student teachers, treating the whole school as their community gives them greater
efficacy and professional agency. For the associate teacher, it reduces their aloneness and
provides opportunities for their role, responsibilities and capabilities to be affirmed by
principal, other teachers and visiting university lecturers (Ferrier-Kerr, 2005; Walkington,
2007). This sense of ‘village’ (Ussher, 2010) has a spin off for schools, teachers and student
teachers. For a university lecturer, it creates greater coherence, collaboration and community.
Building partnerships and community is always a ‘work under construction’ (Zeegers,
2005, p. 355) for those involved in practicum experiences. However, with the development of
community there are more opportunities for the student teachers to engage in professional
learning conversations with others. Such conversations are reported as critical to the
development of teachers by providing opportunities to reflect, theorise practice and
construct knowledge (Beck & Kosnik, 2001; Ferrier-Kerr, 2005; Hoben, 2006; Le Cornu,
Mayer, & White, 2001; Lind, 2004; Sim, 2011; White, 2006). However, in ‘most student
teacher- [associate] teacher dyads, conversations rarely include in-depth exploration of issues
of teaching and learning’ (Borko & Mayfield, 1995, p. 515). Timperley et al.’s (1998) research
highlighted that associate teachers must be trained and supported in their role, so they can
prioritise conversations linking theory and practice. On the other hand, university lecturers
are able to bring the university experience to the classroom. While many conversations
between university lecturers and student teachers are ‘frequently too rushed and based on
insufficient data about the student teachers’ teaching’ (Borko & Mayfield, 1995, p. 515),
mostly they

. . . represent a significant opportunity for self exploration, exploration of the teaching

profession, mutual knowledge and the strengthening of complicity relationships amongst
student teachers, their supervisors and colleagues. These aspects may indeed help to thwart
the communication problems, competitiveness and individualism frequently emerging within
the group. (Caires et al., 2012, p. 173)

For a range of reasons, it is not practical for university lecturers to observe and engage with
the student teachers in the same way or frequency that the associate teachers are able to

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250 Australian Journal of Education 58(3)

within the traditional practicum structure (Borko & Mayfield, 1995). As several researchers
suggest (Grudnoff, 2011; Le Cornu & Ewing, 2008; White, 2006; Zeegers, 2005; Zeichner,
2002), aspects of practicum experiences for our student teachers need to be reconsidered.
These aspects include but are not restricted to: increased access to and availability of
lecturers, more time for professional conversations, greater articulation of links between
theory and practice, greater emphasis on reflection opportunities, effective and
constructive descriptive feedback, and improved mentoring of both student teachers and
associate teachers.
Mentors play a critical role in practicum experiences and for most student teachers their
school-based mentor changes for each practicum as they experience a variety of school
settings. This may create issues of authority and ownership as the advice and support of
their associate teacher is significant to the student teachers’ perceptions of success (Caires
et al., 2012; Ussher, 2011). Associate teachers take on their role in good faith, providing
pastoral care, expert practical guidance and feedback on teaching. Timperley et al.’s (1998)
study showed that the associates were, ‘better at eliciting student teacher’s theories than they
were articulating theory-practice links’ (p. 4), giving higher priority to organising practical
teaching experiences rather than theorising. The university lecturer’s role is to support the
student teacher and associate teacher in each practicum. Much of this support comes
through mentoring conversations focused on exploring progress and achievements and
reflecting on practice and learning (Le Cornu et al., 2001; Lind, 2004). As mentors, the
university lecturers also support the student teachers through challenging and difficult
relationship and placement situations (Le Cornu, 2009), advising them about attitudes
and skills appropriate for teaching and learning. Responsibilities for the university
lecturers include working with the associate teachers as practitioner experts to better
articulate what they know and do (Zeegers, 2005) as well as being cognisant of the ‘needs
and position of the novice’ student teacher and how to cater for these needs within the
‘demands of today’s busy school environment’ (White, 2006, p. 10).
The development of effective learning partnerships within a community of practice is
important for success in a practicum experience (White, 2006). Minimising stress,
adopting the whole school as the practicum site, engaging in a wide range of professional
learning conversations and attending to the responsibilities associated with mentoring will go
some way to developing these partnerships. Practicum must be seen as a time to both
practice theory and theorise practice, so the participants must understand the reciprocity
of each partner and be prepared to challenge and be challenged (Timperley, 2001). The
associate teacher and university lecturer must work together for the benefit of the student
teacher, ‘to identify areas of strength and weakness’ (Brown, 2006, p. 39) as integral to the
process of providing fair and equitable learning and assessment within the practicum
(Brown, 2006; Walkington, 2004; White, 2006). This should include moderating between
different teachers and schools across the practicum experiences. A model where supportive
and collaborative partnerships develop and where the expertise of the school-based teacher
educator complements that of the university-based teacher educator is suggested as ideal
(Ferrier-Kerr, 2005; Lind, 2004; Walkington, 2004).

The study
This study seeks to explore the impact of an alternative practicum visiting strategy, whereby
the same lecturer returns to assess the progress and achievements of a student teacher over

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Table 1. Participants who responded to the surveys.

Second practicum: 2010 Third practicum: 2011

Students 8 Seven from the 2010 group

Associate teachers 4 7

several school-based experiences. The study received ethical approval from the University of
Waikato’s Faculty of Education Research Ethics Committee. Eight student teachers enrolled
in the three-year distance Bachelor of Teaching (primary) programme were involved. These
student teachers received liaison contact and evaluative visits from one of the two
researchers during each of their three school-based experiences and completed an online
survey immediately after both second and third practicum periods. The online surveys were
made anonymous as we rationalised that if a student teacher was not happy with the process,
then they needed to be in a position to indicate this without fear of consequences. One of the
eight students chose not to take part in the study during the third practicum period but his/
her data from the first survey were not identifiable (see Table 1).
The associate teachers involved in the second and third practicum periods, 15 different
individuals in total, were invited to take part in the study and to complete the same online
survey as the students at the conclusion of the practicum. Four teachers responded during
the second practicum and seven following the third (total 11/15). One group of three
associates also chose to meet as a focus group at the conclusion of the second practicum
to share their thoughts with one researcher.
The school-based experiences within the distance teacher education programme included
24 placement days in a base school throughout the first year of study. This one-day per week
placement was then followed by a four-week practicum at the end of the year in a different
school. In the second year, student teachers spent 12 more placement days in their base
school and then completed a six-week practicum. The third practicum was for eight weeks
during the first semester of their final year of study giving a cumulative total of 126 days of
school-based experiences. Most students were paired with three different classroom teachers,
at different year levels, in three different schools during the practicum experiences.
While this teacher education programme is essentially a distance programme, an
important component is that all students must attend on-campus block courses in each of
the three years of their degree. They attend for varying periods in February, July and August
in their first year, then twice in their second year and a further three times in their final year.
For the students, this created up to eight opportunities for them to meet face-to-face with
their visiting lecturers. Typically, they met briefly two or three times rather than all
eight times.
The researchers (university lecturers) visited each of their assigned students in their local
area at least five times, four of which were for evaluative purposes, once during each of the
first and second practicum periods and twice during the third practicum. Each evaluative
visit included a conversation with the student teacher, an in-class observation of the student
teacher engaged in a teaching sequence, and a conversation with the associate teacher. In
some variations, a triadic conversation was also included. The researchers also had digital
communication with both students and associate teachers via phone or computer for liaison
purposes early in the practicum. This visiting sequence deviated from the normal pattern in

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252 Australian Journal of Education 58(3)

this programme whereby each year the evaluative visits would have been carried out by a
different lecturer. The placement of students throughout the North Island meant that
lecturers had to travel varying distances for each visit – up to 1000 km return trip.

The findings
This section is divided into five parts: responses gathered from student teachers and associate
teachers during the second practicum, then responses gathered from both groups during the
third practicum followed by themes associated directly with the student teachers, associate
teachers and finally the university lecturers. The findings are the result of an interpretative
analysis of the responses to the open questions in the survey with some additional data from
the closed questions. The comparisons and overall themes will be discussed in the discussion
section.

The second-year practicum experience

Eight student teachers completed the online survey in 2010, all strongly agreeing with this
practicum evaluative visiting strategy, indicating it was a positive experience for them. Of the
four associate teachers who completed the survey, one agreed with the strategy, two were
unsure and the fourth did not respond to this question. The four associate teachers all had
more than seven years of classroom teaching experience, were experienced school leaders,
and three of them were experienced associate teachers guiding at least four student teachers
in the past.

Benefits. Most students identified the initial liaison phone call as being a supportive
component of the experience providing a focused opportunity to discuss current progress
and address queries in confidence early in the practicum. When reflecting on the evaluative
visit, by far the most common theme for the student teachers was them being more relaxed
and the observation being less stressful. Overall students felt more comfortable, confident
and could ‘act naturally’ (ST3-10)1 which made it a more positive experience. They reported
this as occurring because of the established professional relationship they had with their
lecturer and because they knew each other personally before the observation visit occurred.
For these student teachers, it was easier talking about practice and asking for advice, which
they then took more seriously as the lecturer gave the information from a position of
knowledge about their strengths and weaknesses. They liked that their lecturer was
involved in their ‘whole journey’ (ST6-10) and hence had a more accurate and trusted
picture of their growth.
The four associates reported similar benefits highlighting rapport, feedback and progress
based on the lecturer’s knowledge of the student. Specifically, AT1-10 wrote about the
lecturer’s ability to identify strengths and weaknesses of the student quickly and ‘act to
make improvements or draw on the strengths’. The associates were assured by the student
teachers of the quality of their lecturers and were comfortable working with them.
Importantly, the students also reported that as they were more relaxed they could
concentrate and ensure that the learning environment was authentic for the children
rather than ‘trying to over-succeed’ (ST3-10), presenting a more consistent lesson. Both
students and associates suggested that this different approach would be a more efficient
use of the lecturers’ time and they would enjoy and benefit from observing the growth of

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Ussher and Carss 253

the same student and be able to give more meaningful support and advice. Overall, there was
no increased workload or time commitment reported for students or associates and they
recommended that the strategy should remain the same in the future. The student teachers
felt valued and that the lecturer was interested in them personally. They were fully
supportive of the strategy.

Challenges. Of the 12 participants who completed the 2010 online survey, eight reported
unconditionally no challenges or limitations. One student and one associate stated a
preference for a face-to-face liaison visit over the initial phone call. They felt this should
be an option to allow observation of classroom dynamics and sighting of planning early in
the practicum, if such matters were of concern. Others added a proviso raising awareness to
potential clashes of personality and ‘preconceived ideas about a student and developing
certain expectations around these’ (ST7-10), including the influence and impact on
judgment of the practicum. Student teachers also commented on the two different roles of
support and evaluation undertaken by these lecturers and how this may be a challenge for
student and lecturer. It required an adjustment to discussion because these lecturers were
both liaison and support ‘mentors’ at the start of the practicum and then later they were
‘judge and critic’ (ST6-10). The only overall recommendation from these participants was
about a change of time spent by the lecturer with student and associate.

The third-year practicum experience

Seven of the 2010 group of student teachers completed the online survey in 2011, five rating
this practicum evaluative visiting experience as strongly agree, one agreed and one strongly
disagreed.2 As this was an anonymous survey, there is no way of connecting the 2010 results
with individuals completing the 2011 survey. Of the seven associate teachers who completed
the survey, five strongly agreed with the strategy, one agreed and the seventh did not respond
to this question. Six of the associate teachers had more than seven years of classroom
teaching experience and one was a relative novice. Four were experienced or very
experienced school leaders, and four of them were experienced or very experienced
associate teachers supporting at least four student teachers in the past. To balance this
experience, three of the teachers were novice associates with no school leadership experience.

Benefits. While the words may have been slightly different between the seven student
teachers, common sentiments are echoed through the words of ST2-11:

Having Wendy visit as an evaluative lecturer I believed benefitted me in terms of the feedback I
received. Having the same person who has been a part of my journey from the beginning,
knowing my strengths and weaknesses has been able to help put my puzzle pieces together
through observation and feedback from all three practicums. I have taken on board and
valued the feedback as to me it means a lot more as Wendy has a greater knowledge,
understanding and appreciation for my entire journey.

The themes evident in the student teachers’ comments relating to their own experience of this
alternate visiting strategy included: reduced stress, developed relationships with the lecturer,
shared knowledge of strengths and weaknesses, observation of growth and improvements
over time, involvement in the journey, and the provision of meaningful feedback and
support. The students also commented positively about the benefits to the children, to

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254 Australian Journal of Education 58(3)

their associate teacher and for the visiting lecturer. The overall themes are reflected in the
comments of ST6-11:

The students got a calm and confident student teacher the day Bill came, as I was able to carry
on and not be nervous with him watching me. The lesson was able to flow more freely and I
could just be myself. Likewise for my AT. I was not a mess before the visit and felt in full control
over what I was doing.

The comments focused on consistency, prior knowledge, relaxed approach,

familiarity and fairness. The comments of the associate teachers are highlighted in the
words of AT3-11:

It was wonderful having conversations with someone who knew the student and who had seen
their progress over time.
In terms of benefits to themselves, the seven associate teachers highlighted consistency,
sound professional relationships and rapport, progress and growth over time, prior
knowledge and clear expectations.
When writing about others, the associate teachers reported the main benefits to the
student teachers related to their confidence and focus on meaningful practice, growth and
improvements. Three of the associate teachers also highlighted how the children benefitted
through a range of reasons, including the calm approach of the student throughout the
observation lesson. Overall, the 14 participants involved with the third-year practicum
were very positive about the benefits of this strategy for themselves and others.

Challenges. As with the 2010 survey, a majority of those surveyed in 2011 reported no
challenges or limitations (9/14 ¼ 64%). Those five who reported a challenge included
issues of bias and less objective feedback, this being one person’s opinion (lecturer), and
pressures of developing a coherent teaching programme for the student. When considering
others involved in this visiting strategy, the only comments relevant to the study were made
by two associate teachers who mentioned the issues of meeting established expectations from
previous practica and the implications for possible personality conflict between student
teacher and lecturer. Twelve of the participants reported this strategy as not impacting
negatively on time and workload commitments. Comments written by two of the
associate teachers highlighted that time and workload are increased with every student
teacher in their classroom, so this strategy was not an influencing factor: ‘when you agree
to have a student teacher in the classroom you understand that they will be more
workload and time, but to ensure a successful evaluation for the student teacher it is
worth it’ (AT4-11).
The next sections compare what the three groups of participants found to be of benefit or
challenging for them with what they suggested should be retained or changed as a result of
their experience. These issues are dealt with firstly from a student teacher perspective and
then from the perspective of the associate teachers.

The practicum experience for the student teachers

The most common theme from the responses of the eight student teachers involved over the
two years was that of support for this practicum visiting strategy. Overall, over two-thirds of
the participants indicated that they strongly agreed with the concept by recommending that

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Ussher and Carss 255

everything ‘remain the same’, that nothing should change. They reported that the entire
process was absolutely valuable and that no modifications should be made.

I found the process extremely beneficial to my personal growth as a teacher and although I have
considered it from many angles, I totally endorse the process and believe it has had a positive
effect [on] my perception and experience of practicum evaluative visits and I would recommend it
continue with future student. (ST7-10)

The student teachers in both their second- and third-year practica suggested that this
strategy for evaluative visiting should be available to all. Most commonly, the student
teachers suggested that this strategy reduced the stress and tension of a visit. They felt
more confident about the visit because they had already developed a relationship with the
lecturer, having a sense of belonging and community where the feedback and suggestions
would be more likely to be accepted and focused.

I am strongly agreeing to having the same evaluative lecturer all the way through. I feel this is
important as they know us, and they are helping us to grow in this profession. It was
more relaxing, interesting listening to their feedback, and that feedback was taken seriously.
(ST3-10)

In relation to these themes, it is significant that each of the eight second-year

participants, when stating benefits, included relational aspects such as reduced stress,
trust and feeling comfortable with the lecturer. In comparison, after completion of the
third practicum, the majority of comments around benefits related to the quality
and depth of professional conversations around teaching, with only three reiterating
second-year comments such as a reduction in anxiety and stress. The findings of this
study signal a developing maturity across the three-year programme in student teachers’
ability to reflect on, discuss and theorise practice with a returning lecturer who has shared
the journey.
Being students studying at a distance, it was clear that phone calls by the lecturers to
themselves and their associates were of value. Such phone calls became the starting point of
the professional conversations for each practicum. The importance of opportunities to
engage in professional, in-depth conversations about their own development with a
lecturer who knew of and was involved with their growth, progress and learning journey
was highlighted in both years:

Wendy has become more of a mentor for me and therefore the feedback, advice and
discussions with her have been far more beneficial for me. I have found them to be
honest, truthful and completely relevant as they relate to my entire journey from start to
finish as opposed to just one little snapshot in time, which as I have come to appreciate can
be within a circumstance that is not a true reflection of your abilities and strengths. The
same evaluative lecturer has the ability to take these into account having knowledge from
previous years and observations to put together a complete picture for us, a far more
valuable tool in terms of helping us to grow and develop as trainee and beginner teachers
(ST2-11)

Of other responses by the student teachers, the focus was mostly on the potential impact on
relationships that may not be effective. These student teachers reported that there were no
real challenges associated with this strategy but where they predicted there could be, this was

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256 Australian Journal of Education 58(3)

associated with potential ‘personality conflict’ and variable expectations of the student
teacher by the lecturer.

I have really enjoyed having the same evaluative lecturer in consecutive years, and I would
recommend this to any students. The only possible drawback I could potentially envisage
would be a personality clash between student and lecturer (ST7-11)
Other comments alluded to the possibility of how this strategy might affect a ‘struggling’
student teacher and how this situation might be managed. There was concern by just one
student teacher regarding the conflicting roles of supportive, liaison lecturer then becoming
the critical, evaluative lecturer.

The practicum experience for the associate teachers

Nearly half of these experienced associate teachers strongly agreed with this alternate visiting
strategy. Only two reported they were unsure. Nearly all associates who responded had more
than seven years of classroom teaching experience and most of them were experienced school
leaders. Over half were either very experienced or experienced associate teachers across a
range of pre-service teacher education providers, so they did have a strong foundation on
which to make their informed comments. These associate teachers ranged from one with 27
years of classroom and leadership experience to a few who judged themselves to be novice
associates.
When the eleven associate teachers responded to the question about any benefits to them
in this approach to lecturer supervision, the themes that emerged from their comments were
more about the benefits ensuing as a result of the students’ benefitting. Overall, the associate
teachers reported no problems with this strategy and they were happy with the same lecturer
completing all evaluative visits.

They had a ‘‘big’’ picture of the student’s teaching. If a certain area was an issue or wasn’t
covered they had seen it before or knew if it was a problem. They had also seen the student
develop and could see if some areas were developing as they should. They knew the student’s
strengths and weaknesses clearly. (AT5-2011)

Two of them wrote about this being a win-win situation for them as their student was
more comfortable and at ease during the observation and evaluative visit. In their comments,
they suggested that the initial phone contact with them was positive. Most other suggestions
by the associate teachers relating to retention or change to this strategy focused on the topic
of time. One suggested that time was well spent and a strength of the strategy. Two suggested
more time was needed for the associate to talk with the lecturer while two others commented
on more general aspects such as time of the day for the visit and the need for the lecturer to
arrive on time. The one variation was a 2011 associate teacher suggesting that there should
be two different lecturers for the final visit if the student teacher felt his/her relationship with
the associate teacher or lecturer was not positive in nature.

The practicum experience for the researchers

Overall, the experiences of both evaluative lecturers/researchers were positive and mirrored
those of the student teachers and associates. It was professionally rewarding to work

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Ussher and Carss 257

alongside the same students observing growth in their practice and confidence throughout
the programme. Discussion following observations was more closely focused through
being able to reflect on identified strengths and weaknesses from previous practicum
periods and provided in-depth and targeted feedback and feedforward. This contrasts
with the existing protocols for other student teachers where different lecturers visit
students on practicum each year and the cumulative, shared history is not as easily
accessible for later visits. In terms of lecturer workload, time commitment and expense to
the university, there was little impact from this alternate strategy, aside from the time
involved in the liaison phone calls. All lecturers are expected to undertake a certain quota
of either liaison or evaluative visiting and this alternative arrangement merely resulted in a
redistribution of focus for the two lecturers rather than a substantial increase in time spent
on travelling and visiting.

Discussion and conclusions

This study has investigated the perceptions of a small group of student teachers, their
associates and university lecturers towards a change to the practicum visiting strategy
currently employed by this institution. Comments in the online surveys over a two-year
period indicate a clear preference for the alternative pattern employed whereby the two
lecturers carried out both liaison and evaluative functions with the same students across
all three of their school-based teaching practice experiences.
There are a number of limitations in this study. It was indicated that this was an initial
study and so a small sample group of student teachers and associates was appropriate. It
would be of value to now implement the strategy across the total cohort of students in the
distance programme. This would allow for sampling of views from a wider representation of
the associated groups and a greater likelihood that the strategy could be evaluated when
issues such as personality conflict and bias, alluded to by some participants in the current
study, become a reality. The absence of a control group of student teachers following the
traditional pattern of practicum visiting is also acknowledged as a limitation and with
involvement from other researchers in a more substantial study this could be addressed.
This study reports the perceptions of the student teachers which are a recount of their only
experience. While these student teachers may have talked with their peers, they had no other
experience to draw comparison from, unlike the associate teachers and university lecturers
who mostly had a range of different experiences with student teachers. For the associate
teachers, this may have included a range of teacher education providers.
Each practicum, while providing the student teacher with a community of support and
allowing opportunities for development also has the potential for stress and tension, as
previous research has also shown (Caires et al., 2012; Murray-Harvey et al., 2000).
Results from this study clearly demonstrate the potential for repeated visiting to alleviate
such pressures typically associated with evaluative visits, often carried out by a lecturer who
has no established professional mentoring relationship with the student. The associate
teachers, who mostly had a range of student teacher supervision experiences, affirmed the
views of the student teachers as being more settled and prepared for the evaluative lecturer’s
visit. The university lecturers also found that these student teachers were more attuned to the
moment in comparison with other student teacher visits. The importance of
effective relationships in reducing tensions was also reported in previous research by
Ferrier-Kerr (2005).

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258 Australian Journal of Education 58(3)

Returning lecturers provided a stable element as the student teachers progressed from one
school community to the next; a consistent variable as associate teachers and class groups
created a range of opportunities for the students to develop their identity, role and
capabilities as teachers. As each round of practicum visiting evolved, the lecturers
developed a greater depth of knowledge of the students’ unique journeys and their
particular strengths and weaknesses, and the role of mentor was enhanced as a result.
Support to student teachers and associates was evident when mentoring conversations
focused on exploring progress and achievements over time and reflecting on practice and
learning over several experiences (Le Cornu et al., 2001; Lind, 2004).
The knowledge gained by the university lecturers was the basis of professional
conversations with student teachers and associate teachers, which included greater
emphasis on opportunities for reflection, theorising of teaching and constructive long-term
feedback. While enhancing the relationship between lecturer and student teacher was
significant, this strategy also elevated the associate teacher’s feedback (Ferrier-Kerr, 2005)
as the university lecturers engaged in deeper, more meaningful conversations about the
progress of the students.
An associated theme that accompanied the concept of each lecturer knowing his or her
student teacher well was the future focus of each visit. Because the student teacher was
expecting to meet the lecturer again they talked about ‘next steps’ and therefore
discussion was more specific and focused on future goals and actions for the student
teacher and how the associate teacher could support these. The student teachers expected
and received guidance for future practical experiences in their learning teaching programme.
Lecturer completion of evaluative requirements for these practical experiences within the
teaching degree should also be considered in assessing the alternate strategy. The themes
discussed above indicate that lecturers are more fully informed of a student teacher’s
progress and hence assessments are more accurate and evidence-based than with the
existing visiting strategy. One of the student teachers commented that this strategy
modelled effectively the assessment principle of utilising many and varied sources of
evidence to inform a complete picture. While a snapshot in time is important, it must be
used to supplement ongoing information about learning (Lind, 2004), so the ongoing
conversations with the student teacher and the various associate teachers provided the
varied sources of evidence to support evaluative decisions.
While phone calls with the student teacher and associate teacher may have been the
starting point of the professional conversations for each of these practicums, which
corresponds to findings in the literature (Hoben, 2006; Le Cornu et al., 2001; Lind, 2004;
White, 2006), it was also the start of extending the student teacher’s community of practice
by making the connections between the associates and university lecturer. This gave the
student teachers a sense of belonging and contributing to a real community (Grudnoff,
2011) where they would learn teaching and develop their own identity. Conversations
across the community of practice are reported as critical to the development of teachers
(Beck & Kosnik, 2001; Ferrier-Kerr, 2005; White, 2006). While it is normally not practical
for university lecturers to engage with the student teachers in the same way that the
associates are able to within the traditional practicum structure (Borko & Mayfield,
1998), this strategy showed that the lecturers had developed sound knowledge of their
student teachers.
In terms of management of this alternate visiting schedule, there were no major issues.
One student teacher reported that they would have liked more time for discussion and four

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Ussher and Carss 259

(across the two surveys) would have preferred face-to-face liaison visits prior to the
evaluation rather than phone calls. Lecturer workload, the distances across which these
students were located and financial constraints all impacted on these aspects of time and
face-to-face contact. Nearly all student teachers reported that this strategy for practicum
visiting involved no extra commitment in terms of their time or workload. In fact, one
student suggested the opposite. She said: ‘I knew from past experience what I needed to
do and was confident going into my visit’ (ST6-11). For these student teachers, any
limitations or challenges were outweighed by the beneficial and believable advice and
guidance provided as feedback following observations, the openness of learning
conversations that evolved as a result of the unique and special bond developed through
their professional mentoring relationship, and the complete and continuing picture that
developed from the same university lecturer returning to each practicum.

The same evaluative lecturer has the ability to take these into account having knowledge from
previous years conversations and observations to put together a complete picture for us, a far
more valuable tool in terms of helping us to grow and develop as trainee and beginner teachers.
(ST2-2011)

This study, while involving a small sample over a two-year period and just two lecturers, has
demonstrated the benefits for student teachers of this alternative practicum visiting strategy.
In terms of enhancing the journey for student teachers, it is critical that initial teacher
educators continue to reflect on levels of practicum support and balance available
resources with quality of feedback and support over time.
As lecturers, we are convinced that for teaching practice assessments, where students are
assigned a visiting lecturer who remains with the same student for the three years of their
programme, a positive and productive relationship can be built up between the student and
the lecturer as their mentor. We have observed the advantages of visiting students and their
associate teachers over an extended period of time, which has equipped us to more
accurately evaluate the practice and learning of the student teachers. We have also
benefitted from developing a positive and professional mentoring relationship with these
students and their associate teachers. Successful practicums are critical (Sim, 2011) and this
strategy certainly enhanced the experience for these distance student teachers.

Declaration of conflicting interest

None declared.

Funding
This research received a small funding grant from The University of Waikato’s Faculty of Education
research committee.

Notes
1. The codes used in this article relate to the participants. ST ¼ student teacher; number of participant
(3) and year of contribution 20(10) compared with AT ¼ associate teacher and 20(11).
2. This may be an error, as the positive narrative comments for ST1-11 do not support this overall
rating.

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260 Australian Journal of Education 58(3)

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