PHYSIC AL CONSTANTS

CONSTANT SYMBOL THREE-FIGURE VALUE BEST KNOWN VALUE*

Speed of light c 3.003108 m/s 299 792 458 m/s (exact)
Elementary charge e 1.60310219 C 1.602 176 4871402 310219 C
Electron mass me 9.11310231 kg 9.109 382 151452 310231 kg
Proton mass mp 1.67310227 kg 1.672 621 6371832 310227 kg
Gravitational constant G 6.67310211 N # m2/kg 2 6.674 281672 310211 N # m2/kg 2
Permeability constant m0 1.2631026 N/A2 1H/m2 4p31027 (exact)
Permittivity constant P0 8.85310212 C 2/N # m2 1F/m2 1/m0c2 (exact)
Boltzmann’s constant k 1.38310223 J/K 1.380 65041242 310223 J/K
Universal gas constant R 8.31 J/K # mol 8.314 4721152 J/K # mol
Stefan–Boltzmann constant s 5.6731028 W/m2 # K4 5.670 4001402 31028 W/m2 # K4
Planck’s constant h 15 2p"2 6.63310234 J # s 6.626 068 961332 310234 J # s
Avogadro’s number NA 6.0231023 mol21 6.022 141 791302 31023 mol21
Bohr radius a0 5.29310211 m 5.291 772 08591362 310211 m
*Parentheses indicate uncertainties in last decimal places. Source: U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2007 values

SI PREFIXES THE GREEK ALPHABET

POWER PREFIX SYMBOL UPPERCASE LOWERCASE
1024 yotta Y Alpha A a
1021 zetta Z Beta B b
1018 exa E Gamma G g
1015 peta P Delta D d
1012 tera T Epsilon E P
109 giga G Zeta Z z
106 mega M Eta H h
103 kilo k Theta U u
102 hecto h Iota I i
101 deca da Kappa K k
100 — — Lambda L l
1021 deci d Mu M m
1022 centi c Nu N n
1023 milli m Xi J j
1026 micro μ Omicron O o
1029 nano n Pi P p
10212 pico p Rho R r
10215 femto f Sigma S s
10218 atto a Tau T t
10221 zepto z Upsilon Y y
10224 yocto y Phi F f
Chi X x
Psi C c
Omega V v

Conversion Factors (more conversion factors in Appendix C)

Length Mass, energy, force Pressure
1 in 5 2.54 cm 1 u 5 1.661310227 kg 1 atm 5 101.3 kPa 5 760 mm Hg
1 mi 5 1.609 km 1 cal 5 4.184 J 1 atm 5 14.7 lb/in2
1 ft 5 0.3048 m 1 Btu 5 1.054 kJ
1 light year 5 9.4631015 m 1 kWh 5 3.6 MJ Rotation and angle
1 eV 5 1.602310219 J 1 rad 5 180°/p 5 57.3°
Velocity 1 pound 1lb2 5 4.448 N 1 rev 5 360° 5 2p rad
1 mi/h 5 0.447 m/s 5 weight of 0.454 kg 1 rev/s 5 60 rpm
1 m/s 5 2.24 mi/h 5 3.28 ft/s
Time Magnetic field
1 day 5 86,400 s 1 gauss 5 1024 T
1 year 5 3.163107 s
Essential

UNIVERSITY PHYSICS SECOND EDITION

Richard Wolfson
Middlebury College
Publisher: James Smith
Executive Editor: Nancy Whilton
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Wolfson, Richard.
Essential university physics / Richard Wolfson.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-321-70669-0 (v. 1 : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-321-70669-2 (alk. paper)
ISBN-13: 978-0-321-71204-2 (v. 2 : alk. paper)
ISBN 10: 0-321-70669-2; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-70669-0
ISBN-10: 0-321-71204-8 (alk. paper)
(Volume 1 without Mastering Physics)
1. Physics—Textbooks. I. Title.
ISBN 10: 0-321-71204-8; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-71204-2
QC21. 3.W65 2012
(Volume 1 with Mastering Physics)
530—dc22
ISBN 10: 0-321-71206-4; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-71206-6
2010039884
(Volume 1 Exam copy)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10—EB—14 13 12 11 10
ISBN 10: 0-321-70127-5; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-70127-5
(Volume 2 without Mastering Physics)
ISBN 10: 0-321-71174-2; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-71174-8
(Volume 2 with Mastering Physics)
ISBN 10: 0-321-71198-X; ISBN 13: 978-0-321-71198-4
(Volume 2 Exam copy)
 Brief Contents
Chapter 22 Electric Potential 372
Chapter 1 Doing Physics 1
Chapter 23 Electrostatic Energy and Capacitors 389
PART ONE Chapter 24 Electric Current 403

Mechanics 12 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits 419

Chapter 2 Motion in a Straight Line 13 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field 439

Chapter 3 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions 30 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction 466

Chapter 4 Force and Motion 48 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits 491

Chapter 5 Using Newton’s Laws 66 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and

Electromagnetic Waves 510
Chapter 6 Work, Energy, and Power 85
Chapter 7 Conservation of Energy 101 PART FIVE
Chapter 8 Gravity 118
Optics 531
Chapter 9 Systems of Particles 133
Chapter 30 Reflection and Refraction 532
Chapter 10 Rotational Motion 155
Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments 544
Chapter 11 Rotational Vectors and Angular
Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction 564
Momentum 174
Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium 186
PART SIX

PART TWO Modern Physics 585

Chapter 33 Relativity 586
Oscillations, Waves, and Fluids 203
Chapter 34 Particles and Waves 609
Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion 204
Chapter 35 Quantum Mechanics 628
Chapter 14 Wave Motion 224
Chapter 36 Atomic Physics 644
Chapter 15 Fluid Motion 246
Chapter 37 Molecules and Solids 662
PART THREE Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics 680

Thermodynamics 264 Chapter 39 From Quarks to the Cosmos 706

Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat 265

APPENDICES
Chapter 17 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 282
Appendix A Mathematics A-1
Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law
of Thermodynamics 295 Appendix B The International System of Units (SI) A-9

Chapter 19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 312 Appendix C Conversion Factors A-11
Appendix D The Elements A-13
PART FOUR Appendix E Astrophysical Data A-16
Electromagnetism 331 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-17
Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field 332 Credits C-1
Index I-1
Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law 351
iii
 About the Author

Richard Wolfson
Richard Wolfson is the Benjamin F. Wissler Professor of Physics at Middlebury College,
where he has taught since 1976. He did undergraduate work at MIT and Swarthmore Col-
lege, and he holds an M.S. degree from the University of Michigan and Ph.D. from Dart-
mouth. His ongoing research on the Sun’s corona and climate change has taken him
to sabbaticals at the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado;
St. Andrews University in Scotland; and Stanford University.
Rich is a committed and passionate teacher. This is reflected in his many publications
for students and the general public, including the video series Einstein’s Relativity and the
Quantum Revolution: Modern Physics for Nonscientists (The Teaching Company, 1999),
Physics in Your Life (The Teaching Company, 2004), and How the Universe Works:
Understanding Physics, from Quark to Galaxy (The Teaching Company, 2011); books
Nuclear Choices: A Citizen’s Guide to Nuclear Technology (MIT Press, 1993), Simply
Einstein: Relativity Demystified (W. W. Norton, 2003), and Energy, Environment, and
Climate (W. W. Norton, 2007); and articles for Scientific American and the World Book
Encyclopedia.
Outside of his research and teaching, Rich enjoys hiking, canoeing, gardening, cook-
ing, and watercolor painting.

iv
 Preface to the Instructor
Introductory physics texts have grown ever larger, more massive, more encyclopedic,
more colorful, and more expensive. Essential University Physics bucks that trend—with-
out compromising coverage, pedagogy, or quality. The text benefits from the author’s
three decades of teaching introductory physics, seeing firsthand the difficulties and mis-
conceptions that students face as well as the “Got It!” moments when big ideas become
clear. It also builds on the author’s honing multiple editions of a previous calculus-based
textbook and on feedback from hundreds of instructors and students.

Goals of This Book

Physics is the fundamental science, at once fascinating, challenging, and subtle—and yet
simple in a way that reflects the few basic principles that govern the physical universe. My
goal is to bring this sense of physics alive for students in a range of academic disciplines
who need a solid calculus-based physics course—whether they’re engineers, physics ma-
jors, premeds, biologists, chemists, geologists, mathematicians, computer scientists, or
other majors. My own courses are populated by just such a variety of students, and among
my greatest joys as a teacher is having students who took a course only because it was re-
quired say afterwards that they really enjoyed their exposure to the ideas of physics. More
specifically, my goals include:
● Helping students build the analytical and quantitative skills and confidence needed
to apply physics in problem solving for science and engineering.
● Adressing key misconceptions and helping students build a stronger conceptual un-
derstanding.
● Helping students see the relevance and excitement of the physics they’re studying
with contemporary applications in science, technology, and everyday life.
● Helping students develop an appreciation of the physical universe at its most funda-
mental level.
● Engaging students with an informal, conversational writing style that balances pre-
cision with approachability.

New to This Edition

We’ve updated this second edition based on user feedback to expand coverage of a few
● Complete edition Volumes 1–2
key topics and abbreviate coverage of some that are less widely taught. We’ve also (shrinkwrapped) with Mastering-
added new and revised features to improve conceptual understanding and spotlight rele- Physics® (ISBN 0-321-714-
vancy, and have completely overhauled end-of-chapter problem sets. Specific changes 385): Chapters 1–39
include:
● Volume 1 with Mastering-
Physics® (ISBN 0-321-71204-8):
● Expanded coverage of impulse (Ch. 9), the addition of the wave equation (Ch.14), Chapters 1–19
and a new statistical treatment of entropy (Ch. 19). ● Volume 2 with Mastering-
● Reduced coverage of toroids (Ch. 26) and phasors (Ch. 28). Physics® (ISBN 0-321-71174-2):
● New Conceptual Examples that contain a Making the Connection follow-up Chapters 20–39
question applying the concept from the example to a quantitative problem based on ● Complete edition Volumes 1–2
a real-world situation. (shrinkwrapped) (ISBN 0-321-
● New Applications to emphasize how physics concepts apply to real-world 69692-1): Chapters 1–39
situations, including biomedical and engineering fields. ● Volume 1 (ISBN 0-321-70669-2):
● To Learn/To Know chapter previews are now called New Concepts, New Chapters 1–19
Skills/Connecting Your Knowledge, and have been revised to better emphasize ● Volume 2 (ISBN 0-321-70127-5):
the key concepts in each chapter and to show how they connect with concepts in Chapters 20–39
previous chapters.

v
vi Preface to the Instructor

● End-of-chapter (EOC) problem sets now include new biomedical-related

problems that investigate physics concepts in biology, medicine, and biomedical
technologies, and new computational problems that require a computer or graph-
ing calculator.
● Every end-of-chapter problem set now includes new Passage Problems similar to
the types of questions asked on the MCAT Exam. Each set includes 4 multiple-
choice questions based on a passage of text, often with an accompanying figure or
graph, and involves biomedical and other real-world scenarios.
● EOC problem sets have been thoroughly revised to include new calculus-based
problems, new context-rich problems, and more medium-difficulty problems.
● All quantitative results—both in-text examples and EOC problems—have been
checked independently for accuracy by two physicists.
● Finally, we’ve incorporated new research results and new applications of physics
principles wherever they’re relevant.

Pedagogical Innovations
This book is concise, but it’s also progressive in its embrace of proven techniques from
physics education research and strategic in its approach to learning physics. Chapter 1
introduces the IDEA framework for problem solving, and every one of the book’s sub-
sequent worked examples employs this framework. IDEA—an acronym for Identify,
Develop, Evaluate, Assess—is not a “cookbook” method for students to apply mind-
lessly, but rather a tool for organizing students’ thinking and discouraging equation
hunting. It begins with an interpretation of the problem and an identification of the key
physics concepts involved; develops a plan for reaching the solution; carries out the
mathematical evaluation; and assesses the solution to see that it makes sense, to com-
pare the example with others, and to mine additional insights into physics. In nearly all
of the text’s worked examples, the Develop phase includes making a drawing, and most
of these use a hand-drawn style to encourage students to make their own drawings—a
step that research suggests they often skip. IDEA provides a common approach to all
physics problem solving, an approach that emphasizes the conceptual unity of physics
and helps break the typical student view of physics as a hodgepodge of equations and
unrelated ideas. In addition to IDEA-based worked examples, other pedagogical fea-
tures include:
● Problem-Solving Strategy boxes that follow the IDEA framework to provide de-
tailed guidance for specific classes of physics problems, such as Newton’s second
law, conservation of energy, thermal-energy balance, Gauss’s law, or multiloop
circuits.
● Tactics boxes that reinforce specific essential skills such as differentiation, setting
up integrals, vector products, drawing free-body diagrams, simplifying series and
parallel circuits, or ray tracing.
● Got It? boxes that provide quick checks for students to test their conceptual under-
standing. Many of these use a multiple-choice or quantitative ranking format to
probe student misconceptions and facilitate their use with classroom-response
systems.
● Tips that provide helpful problem-solving hints or warn against common pitfalls
and misconceptions.
● Chapter openers that include a forward-looking New Concepts, New Skills list
for the chapter ahead, and a backward-looking Connecting Your Knowledge list
of important ideas on which the chapter builds. Both lists reference specific chapter
sections by number.
● Applications, self-contained presentations typically shorter than half a page,
provide interesting and contemporary instances of physics in the real world, such as
bicycle stability; flywheel energy storage; laser vision correction; ultracapacitors;
wind energy; magnetic resonance imaging; global climate change; combined-cycle
power generation; circuit models of the cell membrane; CD, DVD, and Blu-ray
technologies; and radiocarbon dating.
 Preface to the Instructor vii

● For Thought and Discussion questions at the end of each chapter designed for
peer learning or for self-study to enhance students’ conceptual understanding of
physics.
● Annotated figures that adopt the research-based approach of including simple
“instructor’s voice” commentary to help students read and interpret pictorial and
graphical information.
● End-of-chapter problems that begin with simpler exercises keyed to individual
chapter sections and ramp up to more challenging and often multistep problems that
synthesize chapter material. Context-rich problems focusing on real-world
situations are interspersed throughout each problem set.
● Chapter summaries that combine text, art, and equations to provide a synthesized
overview of each chapter. Each summary is hierarchical, beginning with the chap-
ter’s “big picture” ideas, then focusing on key concepts and equations, and ending
with a list of “applications”—specific instances or applications of the physics pre-
sented in the chapter.

Organization
This contemporary book is concise, strategic, and progressive, but it’s traditional in its or-
ganization. Following the introductory Chapter 1, the book is divided into six parts. Part
One (Chapters 2–12) develops the basic concepts of mechanics, including Newton’s laws
and conservation principles as applied to single particles and multiparticle systems. Part
Two (Chapters 13–15) extends mechanics to oscillations, waves, and fluids. Part Three
(Chapters 16–19) covers thermodynamics. Part Four (Chapters 20–29) deals with electric-
ity and magnetism. Part Five (Chapters 30–32) treats optics, first in the geometrical optics
approximation and then including wave phenomena. Part Six (Chapters 33–39) introduces
relativity and quantum physics. Each part begins with a brief description of its coverage,
and ends with a conceptual summary and a challenge problem that synthesizes ideas from
several chapters.
Essential University Physics is available in two paperback volumes, so students can
purchase only what they need—making the low-cost aspect of this text even more attrac-
tive. Volume 1 includes Parts One, Two, and Three, mechanics through thermodynamics.
Volume 2 contains Parts Four, and Five, and Six, electricity and magnetism along with op-
tics and modern physics.

Instructor Supplements
NOTE: For convenience, all of the following instructor supple- A comprehensive library of more than 220 applets from
ments (except the Instructor Resource DVD) can be down- ActivPhysics OnLineTM and a suite of over 70 PhET
loaded from the “Instructor Area,” accessed via the left-hand simulations are also included.
navigation bar of MasteringPhysics® (www.masteringphysics. ● MasteringPhysics® (www.
com). masteringphysics.com) is the most
● The Instructor Solutions Manual (ISBN 0-321-69723- advanced physics homework and
5) contains solutions to all end-of-chapter exercises and tutorial system available. This online homework and
problems, written in the Interpret/Develop/Evaluate/ As- tutoring system guides students through the toughest
sess (IDEA) problem-solving framework. The solutions topics in physics with self-paced tutorials that provide
are provided in PDF and editable Microsoft® Word for- individualized coaching. These assignable, in-depth
mats for Mac and PC, with equations in MathType, and tutorials are designed to coach students with hints and
can also be downloaded from the Instructor Resource feedback specific to their individual errors. Instructors
Center (www.pearsonhighered.com/irc). can also assign end-of-chapter problems from every
● The Instructor Resource DVD (ISBN 0-321-71171-8) chapter, including multiple-choice questions, section-
provides all the figures, photos, and tables from the text specific exercises, and general problems. Quantitative
in JPEG format. All the problem-solving strategies, Tac- problems can be assigned with numerical answers
tics Boxes, key equations, and chapter summaries are and randomized values (with sig fig feedback) or
provided in PDF and editable Microsoft® Word formats solutions.
with equations in MathType. Each chapter also has a set ● Pearson eText is available either automatically when
of PowerPoint® lecture outlines and “clicker” questions. MasteringPhysics® is packaged with new books or as a
viii Preface to the Instructor

purchased upgrade online. Users can search for words or ● The Test Bank (ISBN 0-321-71172-6) contains more than
phrases, create notes, highlight text, bookmark sections, 2000 multiple-choice, true-false, and conceptual questions
click on definitions to key terms, and launch ActivPhysics in TestGen® and Microsoft Word® formats for Mac and
applets and PhET simulations as they read. Professors PC users. More than half of the questions can be assigned
also have the ability to annotate the text for their course with randomized numerical values. The Test Bank can also
and hide chapters not covered in their syllabi. be downloaded from www. pearsonhighered.com/irc.

Student Supplements
● The Student Solutions Manuals, Volume 1 (Chapters end-of-chapter problems from every chapter including
1–19) (ISBN 0-321-71203-X) and Volume 2 (Chapters multiple-choice questions, section-specific exercises,
20–39) (ISBN 0-321-71205-6) contain detailed solutions and general problems. Quantitative problems can be as-
to all of the odd-numbered end-of-chapter problems signed with numerical answers and randomized values
from the textbook. All solutions are written in the Inter- (with sig fig feedback) or solutions.
pret/Develop/Evaluate/Assess (IDEA) problem-solving ● Pearson eText is available through MasteringPhysics®,
framework. either automatically when MasteringPhysics® is pack-
● MasteringPhysics® (www.masteringphysics.com) is the aged with new books or as a purchased upgrade online.
most advanced physics homework and tutorial system Allowing students access to the text wherever they have
available. This online homework and tutoring system access to the Internet, Pearson eText comprises the full
guides students through the most important topics in text with additional interactive features. Users can search
physics with self-paced tutorials that provide individual- for words or phrases, create notes, highlight text, book-
ized coaching. These assignable, in-depth tutorials are mark sections, click on definitions to key terms, and
designed to coach students with hints and feedback spe- launch ActivPhysics applets and PhET simulations as
cific to their individual errors. Instructors can also assign they read.

Acknowledgments
A project of this magnitude isn’t the work of its author alone. writing introductory physics a large part of my professional
First and foremost among those I thank for their contributions career. Dr. Adam Black, physics editor and Ph.D. physicist at
are the now several thousand students I’ve taught in calculus- Addison-Wesley, had the vision to see promise in a new intro-
based introductory physics courses at Middlebury College. ductory text that would respond to the rising chorus of com-
Over the years your questions have taught me how to convey plaints about massive, encyclopedic, and expensive physics
physics ideas in many different ways appropriate to your di- texts. Brad Patterson, developmental editor for the first edition,
verse learning styles. You’ve helped identify the “sticking brought his graduate-level knowledge of physics to a role that
points” that challenge introductory physics students, and you’ve made him a real collaborator and the closest this book has to a
showed me ways to help you avoid and “unlearn” the miscon- coauthor. Brad is responsible for many of the book’s innovative
ceptions that many students bring to introductory physics. features, and it was a pleasure to work with him. We’ve gone
Thanks also go to my Middlebury faculty colleagues and to to great lengths to make this book as error-free as possible, and
numerous instructors and students from around the world who much of the credit for that happy situation goes to Charles
have contributed valuable suggestions that were incorporated Hibbard and Peter W. Murphy. Not only did they check the
in the revisions of my earlier introductory physics text, Physics numbers for every worked example, but they also read the
for Scientists and Engineers (Wolfson and Pasachoff, third edi- entire book in page proof with a professionally critical eye, and
tion: Addison-Wesley, 1999). I’ve heard you, and you’ll find they’re responsible for many improvements to both text and art
still more of your suggestions implemented in Essential Uni- made even at that late stage.
versity Physics. I also wish to thank Martha Steele, Ashley Eklund, Nancy
Experienced physics instructors thoroughly reviewed every Whilton, and Beth Collins at Addison-Wesley, and Jared
chapter of this book, and reviewers’ comments resulted in sub- Sterzer at PreMediaGlobal, for their highly professional efforts
stantive changes—and sometimes in major rewrites—to the in shepherding this book through its vigorous production
first drafts of the manuscript. We list all these reviewers below. schedule. Martha, especially, has been with this project since
But first, special thanks are due to six individuals who made its first edition, and her cheerful and meticulous attention to de-
exceptional contributions to the quality and in some cases the tail has made production of this book a smooth and pleasant
very existence of this book. First is Professor Jay Pasachoff of process. Finally, as always, I thank my family, my colleagues,
Williams College, whose willingness more than two decades and my students for the patience they showed during the inten-
ago to take a chance on an inexperienced coauthor has made sive process of writing and revising this book.
 Preface to the Instructor ix

Reviewers
John R. Albright, Purdue University–Calumet Kevin T. Kilty, Laramie County Community College
Rama Bansil, Boston University Duane Larson, Bevill State Community College
Richard Barber, Santa Clara University Kenneth W. McLaughlin, Loras College
Linda S. Barton, Rochester Institute of Technology Tom Marvin, Southern Oregon University
Rasheed Bashirov, Albertson College of Idaho Perry S. Mason, Lubbock Christian University
Chris Berven, University of Idaho Mark Masters, Indiana University–Purdue University
David Bixler, Angelo State University Fort Wayne
Ben Bromley, University of Utah Jonathan Mitschele, Saint Joseph’s College
Charles Burkhardt, St. Louis Community College Gregor Novak, United States Air Force Academy
Susan Cable, Central Florida Community College Richard Olenick, University of Dallas
George T. Carlson, Jr., West Virginia Institute of Robert Philbin, Trinidad State Junior College
Technology–West Virginia University Russell Poch, Howard Community College
Catherine Check, Rock Valley College Steven Pollock, Colorado University–Boulder
Norbert Chencinski, College of Staten Island James Rabchuk, Western Illinois University
Carl Covatto, Arizona State University George Schmiedeshoff, Occidental College
David Donnelly, Texas State University–San Marcos Natalia Semushkina, Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania
David G. Ellis, University of Toledo Anwar Shiekh, Dine College
Tim Farris, Volunteer State Community College David Slimmer, Lander University
Paula Fekete, Hunter College of The City University Chris Sorensen, Kansas State University
of New York Ronald G. Tabak, Youngstown State University
Idan Ginsburg, Harvard University Gajendra Tulsian, Daytona Beach Community College
James Goff, Pima Community College Henry Weigel, Arapahoe Community College
Austin Hedeman, University of California–Berkeley Arthur W. Wiggins, Oakland Community College
Mark Hollabaugh, Normandale Community College Fredy Zypman, Yeshiva University
Rex W. Joyner, Indiana Institute of Technology
Nikos Kalogeropoulos, Borough of Manhattan Community
College–The City University of New York
 Preface to the Student
Welcome to physics! Maybe you’re taking introductory I have some specific advice for you that grows out of my
physics because you’re majoring in a field of science or engi- long experience teaching introductory physics. Keeping this
neering that requires a semester or two of physics. Maybe advice in mind will make physics easier (but not necessarily
you’re premed, and you know that medical schools are increas- easy!), more interesting, and, I hope, more fun:
ingly interested in seeing calculus-based physics on your tran-
script. Perhaps you’re really gung-ho and plan to major in ● Read each chapter thoroughly and carefully before you
physics. Or maybe you want to study physics further as a mi- attempt to work any problem assignments. I’ve written
nor associated with related fields like math or chemistry or to this text with an informal, conversational style to make it
complement a discipline like economics, environmental stud- engaging. It’s not a reference work to be left alone until
ies, or even music. Perhaps you had a great high-school physics you need some specific piece of information; rather, it’s
course, and you’re eager to continue. Maybe high-school an unfolding “story” of physics—its big ideas and their
physics was an academic disaster for you, and you’re ap- applications in quantitative problem solving. You may
proaching this course with trepidation. Or perhaps this is your think physics is hard because it’s mathematical, but in
first experience with physics. Whatever your reason for taking my long experience I’ve found that failure to read thor-
introductory physics, welcome! oughly is the biggest single reason for difficulties in in-
And whatever your reason, my goals for you are similar: I’d troductory physics.
like to help you develop an understanding and appreciation of ● Look for the big ideas. Physics isn’t a hodgepodge of
the physical universe at a deep and fundamental level; I’d like different phenomena, laws, and equations to memorize.
you to become aware of the broad range of natural and techno- Rather, it’s a few big ideas from which flow myriad ap-
logical phenomena that physics can explain; and I’d like to plications, examples, and special cases. In particular,
help you strengthen your analytic and quantitative problem- don’t think of physics as a jumble of equations that you
solving skills. Even if you’re studying physics only because it’s choose among when solving a problem. Rather,
a requirement, I want to help you engage the subject and come identify those few big ideas and the equations that repre-
away with an appreciation for this fundamental science and its sent them, and try to see how seemingly distinct exam-
wide applicability. One of my greatest joys as a physics teacher ples and special cases relate to the big ideas.
is having students tell me after the course that they had taken it ● When working problems, re-read the appropriate
only because it was required, but found they really enjoyed sections of the text, paying particular attention to the
their exposure to the ideas of physics. worked examples. Follow the IDEA strategy described
Physics is fundamental. To understand physics is to under- in Chapter 1 and used in every subsequent worked
stand how the world works, both in everyday life and on example. Don’t skimp on the final Assess step. Always
scales of time and space so small and so large as to defy intu- ask: Does this answer make sense? How can I
ition. For that reason I hope you’ll find physics fascinating. understand my answer in relation to the big principles of
But you’ll also find it challenging. Learning physics will physics? How was this problem like others I’ve worked,
challenge you with the need for precise thinking and lan- or like examples in the text?
guage; with subtle interpretations of even commonplace phe- ● Don’t confuse physics with math. Mathematics is a tool,
nomena; and with the need for skillful application of not an end in itself. Equations in physics aren’t abstract
mathematics. But there’s also a simplicity to physics, a sim- math, but statements about the physical world. Be sure you
plicity that results because there are in physics only a very understand each equation for what it says about physics,
few really basic principles to learn. Those succinct principles not just as an equality between mathematical terms.
encompass a universe of natural phenomena and technologi- ● Work with others. Getting together informally in a room
cal applications. with a blackboard is a great way to explore physics, to
I’ve been teaching introductory physics for decades, and clarify your ideas and help others clarify theirs, and to
this book distills everything my students have taught me about learn from your peers. I urge you to discuss physics
the many different ways to approach physics; about the subtle problems together with your classmates, to contemplate
misconceptions students often bring to physics; about the ideas together the “For Thought and Discussion” questions at
and types of problems that present the greatest challenges; and the end of each chapter, and to engage one another in
about ways to make physics engaging, exciting, and relevant to lively dialog as you grow your understanding of physics,
your life and interests. the fundamental science.

x
 Detailed Contents
Volume 1 contains Chapters 1–19 5.3 Circular Motion 71
Volume 2 contains Chapters 20–39 5.4 Friction 75

Chapter 1 Doing Physics 1 5.5 Drag Forces 79

1.1 Realms of Physics 1 Chapter 6 Work, Energy, and Power 85

1.2 Measurements and Units 3 6.1 Work 86

1.3 Working with Numbers 5 6.2 Forces That Vary 88

1.4 Strategies for Learning Physics 7 6.3 Kinetic Energy 92

6.4 Power 94
PART ONE Chapter 7 Conservation of Energy 101
7.1 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces 102
7.2 Potential Energy 103
7.3 Conservation of Mechanical Energy 106
Mechanics 12
7.4 Potential-Energy Curves 110
Chapter 2 Motion in a Straight Line 13
Chapter 8 Gravity 118
2.1 Average Motion 13
8.1 Toward a Law of Gravity 119
2.2 Instantaneous Velocity 15
8.2 Universal Gravitation 119
2.3 Acceleration 17
8.3 Orbital Motion 121
2.4 Constant Acceleration 19
8.4 Gravitational Energy 124
2.5 The Acceleration of Gravity 22
8.5 The Gravitational Field 127
Chapter 3 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions 30 Chapter 9 Systems of Particles 133
3.1 Vectors 30 9.1 Center of Mass 133
3.2 Velocity and Acceleration Vectors 33 9.2 Momentum 138
3.3 Relative Motion 34 9.3 Kinetic Energy of a System 142
3.4 Constant Acceleration 35 9.4 Collisions 142
3.5 Projectile Motion 37 9.5 Totally Inelastic Collisions 143
3.6 Uniform Circular Motion 41 9.6 Elastic Collisions 145

Chapter 4 Force and Motion 48 Chapter 10 Rotational Motion 155

4.1 The Wrong Question 48 10.1 Angular Velocity and Acceleration 155
4.2 Newton’s First and Second Laws 49 10.2 Torque 158
4.3 Forces 52 10.3 Rotational Inertia and the Analog
4.4 The Force of Gravity 53 of Newton’s Law 160
4.5 Using Newton’s Second Law 55 10.4 Rotational Energy 165
4.6 Newton’s Third Law 57 10.5 Rolling Motion 167

Chapter 11 Rotational Vectors and Angular

Chapter 5 Using Newton’s Laws 66
Momentum 174
5.1 Using Newton’s Second Law 66
11.1 Angular Velocity and Acceleration Vectors 174
5.2 Multiple Objects 69
11.2 Torque and the Vector Cross Product 175
xi
xii Contents

11.3 Angular Momentum 177 PART THREE

11.4 Conservation of Angular Momentum 178
11.5 Gyroscopes and Precession 180
Thermodynamics 264
Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium 186
12.1 Conditions for Equilibrium 186 Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat 265
12.2 Center of Gravity 188 16.1 Heat, Temperature, and Thermodynamic
Equilibrium 266
12.3 Examples of Static Equilibrium 189
16.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 267
12.4 Stability 191
16.3 Heat Transfer 269
16.4 Thermal-Energy Balance 274
PART TWO

Chapter 17 The Thermal Behavior of Matter 282

Oscillations, Waves, 17.1 Gases 282
and Fluids 203 17.2 Phase Changes 286
17.3 Thermal Expansion 289
Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion 204
13.1 Describing Oscillatory Motion 205
Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law
13.2 Simple Harmonic Motion 205 of Thermodynamics 295
13.3 Applications of Simple Harmonic Motion 209 18.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics 295
13.4 Circular and Harmonic Motion 212 18.2 Thermodynamic Processes 297
13.5 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion 213 18.3 Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas 304
13.6 Damped Harmonic Motion 215
13.7 Driven Oscillations and Resonance 216
Chapter 19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 312
Chapter 14 Wave Motion 224 19.1 Reversibility and Irreversibility 312
14.1 Waves and Their Properties 224 19.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 313
14.2 Wave Math 226 19.3 Applications of the Second Law 317
14.3 Waves on a String 228 19.4 Entropy and Energy Quality 320
14.4 Sound Waves 231
14.5 Interference 232
PART FOUR
14.6 Reflection and Refraction 235
14.7 Standing Waves 236
14.8 The Doppler Effect and Shock Waves 239
Electromagnetism 331
Chapter 15 Fluid Motion 246
15.1 Density and Pressure 246 Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field 332
15.2 Hydrostatic Equilibrium 247 20.1 Electric Charge 332
15.3 Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy 250 20.2 Coulomb’s Law 333
15.4 Fluid Dynamics 252 20.3 The Electric Field 336
15.5 Applications of Fluid Dynamics 254 20.4 Fields of Charge Distributions 338
15.6 Viscosity and Turbulence 257 20.5 Matter in Electric Fields 342
 Contents xiii

Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law 351 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction 466

21.1 Electric Field Lines 351 27.1 Induced Currents 466
21.2 Electric Flux and Field 353 27.2 Faraday’s Law 468
21.3 Gauss’s Law 355 27.3 Induction and Energy 471
21.4 Using Gauss’s Law 356 27.4 Inductance 476
21.5 Fields of Arbitrary Charge Distributions 362 27.5 Magnetic Energy 481
21.6 Gauss’s Law and Conductors 363 27.6 Induced Electric Fields 483

Chapter 22 Electric Potential 372 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits 491

22.1 Electric Potential Difference 372 28.1 Alternating Current 491
22.2 Calculating Potential Difference 375 28.2 Circuit Elements in AC Circuits 492
22.3 Potential Difference and the Electric Field 380 28.3 LC Circuits 496
22.4 Charged Conductors 382 28.4 Driven RLC Circuits and Resonance 499
28.5 Power in AC Circuits 502
Chapter 23 Electrostatic Energy and Capacitors 389
28.6 Transformers and Power Supplies 503
23.1 Electrostatic Energy 390
23.2 Capacitors 390 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic
Waves 510
23.3 Using Capacitors 392
29.1 The Four Laws of Electromagnetism 511
23.4 Energy in the Electric Field 396
29.2 Ambiguity in Ampère’s Law 511
Chapter 24 Electric Current 403 29.3 Maxwell’s Equations 513
24.1 Electric Current 403 29.4 Electromagnetic Waves 514
24.2 Conduction Mechanisms 405 29.5 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves 517
24.3 Resistance and Ohm’s Law 410 29.6 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 521
24.4 Electric Power 412 29.7 Producing Electromagnetic Waves 522
24.5 Electrical Safety 413 29.8 Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic
Waves 523
Chapter 25 Electric Circuits 419
25.1 Circuits, Symbols, and Electromotive
Force 419
PART FIVE
25.2 Series and Parallel Resistors 420
25.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Multiloop
Circuits 426
Optics 531
25.4 Electrical Measurements 428
25.5 Capacitors in Circuits 429 Chapter 30 Reflection and Refraction 532
30.1 Reflection 532
Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field 439
30.2 Refraction 534
26.1 What Is Magnetism? 439
30.3 Total Internal Reflection 536
26.2 Magnetic Force and Field 440
30.4 Dispersion 538
26.3 Charged Particles in Magnetic Fields 441
26.4 The Magnetic Force on a Current 444 Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments 544
26.5 Origin of the Magnetic Field 446 31.1 Images with Mirrors 545
26.6 Magnetic Dipoles 448 31.2 Images with Lenses 550
26.7 Magnetic Matter 452 31.3 Refraction in Lenses: The Details 552
26.8 Ampère’s Law 453 31.4 Optical Instruments 555
xiv Contents

Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction 564 Chapter 36 Atomic Physics 644

32.1 Coherence and Interference 564 36.1 The Hydrogen Atom 644
32.2 Double-Slit Interference 566 36.2 Electron Spin 648
32.3 Multiple-Slit Interference and Diffraction 36.3 The Exclusion Principle 651
Gratings 568 36.4 Multielectron Atoms and the Periodic Table 652
32.4 Interferometry 571 36.5 Transitions and Atomic Spectra 655
32.5 Huygens’ Principle and Diffraction 574
32.6 The Diffraction Limit 577 Chapter 37 Molecules and Solids 662
37.1 Molecular Bonding 662
PART SIX 37.2 Molecular Energy Levels 664
37.3 Solids 667
37.4 Superconductivity 673

Modern Physics 585 Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics 680

38.1 Elements, Isotopes, and Nuclear Structure 680
Chapter 33 Relativity 586 38.2 Radioactivity 685
33.1 Speed c Relative to What? 587 38.3 Binding Energy and Nucleosynthesis 691
33.2 Matter, Motion, and the Ether 587 38.4 Nuclear Fission 693
33.3 Special Relativity 589 38.5 Nuclear Fusion 698
33.4 Space and Time in Relativity 590
33.5 Simultaneity Is Relative 595 Chapter 39 From Quarks to the Cosmos 706

33.6 The Lorentz Transformations 596 39.1 Particles and Forces 706

33.7 Energy and Momentum in Relativity 600 39.2 Particles and More Particles 707

33.8 Electromagnetism and Relativity 603 39.3 Quarks and the Standard Model 711

33.9 General Relativity 603 39.4 Unification 714

39.5 The Evolving Universe 715
Chapter 34 Particles and Waves 609
34.1 Toward Quantum Theory 609 APPENDICES
34.2 Blackbody Radiation 610
Appendix A Mathematics A-1
34.3 Photons 612
Appendix B The International System of Units (SI) A-9
34.4 Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Atom 616
Appendix C Conversion Factors A-11
34.5 Matter Waves 619
34.6 The Uncertainty Principle 621 Appendix D The Elements A-13

34.7 Complementarity 623 Appendix E Astrophysical Data A-16

Chapter 35 Quantum Mechanics 628 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-17

35.1 Particles, Waves, and Probability 629 Credits C-1
35.2 The Schrödinger Equation 630 Index I-1
35.3 Particles and Potentials 632
35.4 Quantum Mechanics in Three Dimensions 638
35.5 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics 639
 1 Doing Physics
New Concepts, New Skills
By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Describe the different realms of
physics and their applications in
both natural and technological
systems (1.1).
■ Explain the SI unit system and
convert units (1.2).
■ Express and manipulate numbers
using scientific notation (1.3).
■ Explain the importance of significant
figures and handle them in
calculations (1.3).
■ Make quick order-of-magnitude
estimates (1.3).
■ Describe the strategic steps used in
solving physics problems (1.4).
Which realms of physics are involved in
the workings of your DVD player?

Y ou slip a DVD into your player and settle in to watch a movie. The DVD spins, and a precisely
focused laser beam “reads” its content. Electronic circuitry processes the information, send-
ing it to your video display and to loudspeakers that turn electrical signals into sound waves.
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ Physics is a quantitative science, and
we’ll begin right off using algebra.
Every step of the way, principles of physics govern the delivery of the movie from DVD to you. Soon we’ll add trigonometry and
later calculus (which you might be

1.1 Realms of Physics studying now, concurrently with

physics). However, you don’t need to
That DVD player is a metaphor for all of physics—the science that describes the funda- have taken physics previously to get
mental workings of physical reality. Physics explains natural phenomena ranging from a full understanding from this book.
the behavior of atoms and molecules to thunderstorms and rainbows and on to the evolu-
tion of stars, galaxies, and the universe itself. Technological applications of physics are
the basis for everything from microelectronics to medical imaging to cars, airplanes, and
space flight.
At its most fundamental, physics provides a nearly unified description of all
physical phenomena. However, it’s convenient to divide physics into distinct realms

1
2 Chapter 1 Doing Physics

Oscillations, waves, (Fig. 1.1). Your DVD player encompasses essentially all those realms. Mechanics, the
and fluids Mechanics branch of physics that deals with motion, describes the spinning disc. Mechanics also ex-
plains the motion of a car, the orbits of the planets, and the stability of a skyscraper. Part 1
of this book deals with the basic ideas of mechanics.
Modern Optics Those sound waves coming from your loudspeakers represent wave motion. Other ex-
Physics
physics
amples include the ocean waves that pound Earth’s coastlines, the wave of standing spec-
tators that sweeps through a football stadium, and the undulations of Earth’s crust that
Thermodynamics Electromagnetism
spread the energy of an earthquake. Part 2 of this book covers wave motion and other phe-
nomena involving the motion of fluids like air and water.
FIGURE 1.1 Realms of physics. When you burn your own DVD, the high temperature produced by an intensely focused
laser beam alters the material properties of a writable DVD, thus storing video or com-
puter information. That’s an example of thermodynamics—the study of heat and its ef-
fects on matter. Thermodynamics also describes the delicate balance of energy-transfer
processes that keeps our planet at a habitable temperature and puts serious constraints on
our ability to meet the burgeoning energy demands of modern society. Part 3 comprises
four chapters on thermodynamics.
An electric motor spins your DVD, converting electrical energy to the energy of mo-
tion. Electric motors are ubiquitous in modern society, running everything from subway
trains to washing machines to your computer’s hard drive. Conversely, electric generators
convert the energy of motion to electricity, providing virtually all of our electrical energy.
Motors and generators are two applications of electromagnetism in modern technology.
Others include computers, audiovisual electronics, microwave ovens, digital watches, and
even the humble lightbulb; without these electromagnetic technologies our lives would be
very different. Equally electromagnetic are all the wireless technologies that enable mod-
ern communications, from satellite TV to cell phones to wireless computer networks,
mice, and keyboards. And even light itself is an electromagnetic phenomenon. Part 4
presents the principles of electromagnetism and their many applications.
The precise focusing of laser light in your DVD player allows hours of video to fit on a
small plastic disc. The details and limitations of that focusing are governed by the principles
of optics, the study of light and its behavior. Applications of optics range from simple mag-
nifiers to contact lenses to sophisticated instruments such as microscopes, telescopes, and
spectrometers. Optical fibers carry your e-mail, web pages, and music downloads over the
global Internet. Natural optical systems include your eye and the raindrops that deflect sun-
light to form rainbows. Part 5 of the book explores optical principles and their applications.
That laser light in your DVD player is an example of an electromagnetic wave, but an
atomic-level look at the light’s interaction with matter reveals particle-like “bundles” of
electromagnetic energy. This is the realm of quantum physics, which deals with the often
counterintuitive behavior of matter and energy at the atomic level. Quantum phenomena
also explain how that DVD laser works and, more profoundly, the structure of atoms and
the periodic arrangement of the elements that is the basis of all chemistry. Quantum
physics is one of the two great developments of modern physics. The other is Einstein’s
theory of relativity. Relativity and quantum physics arose during the 20th century, and
together they’ve radically altered our commonsense notions of time, space, and causality.
Part 6 of the book surveys the ideas of modern physics.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 1.1 Car Physics

Name systems in your car that exemplify the different realms of burning gasoline into the car’s motion. Electromagnetic systems range
physics. from the starter motor and spark plugs to sophisticated electronic
devices that monitor and optimize engine performance. Optical princi-
EVALUATE Mechanics is easy; the car is fundamentally a mechanical
ples govern rear- and side-view mirrors and headlights. Increasingly,
system whose purpose is motion. Details include starting, stopping,
optical fibers transmit information to critical safety systems. Modern
cornering, as well as a host of other motions within mechanical subsys-
physics is less obvious in your car, but ultimately, everything from the
tems. Your car’s springs and shock absorbers constitute an oscillatory
chemical reactions of burning gasoline to the atomic-scale operation of
system engineered to give a comfortable ride. The car’s engine is a
automotive electronics is governed by its principles.
prime example of a thermodynamic system, converting the energy of
 1.2 Measurements and Units 3

1.2 Measurements and Units APPLICATION Units Matter: A

“A long way” means different things to a sedentary person, a marathon runner, a pilot, and Bad Day on Mars
an astronaut. We need to quantify our measurements. Science uses the metric system, In September 1999 the Mars Climate Orbiter
with fundamental quantities length, mass, and time measured in meters, kilograms, and was destroyed when the spacecraft passed
seconds, respectively. The modern version of the metric system is SI, for Système Interna- through Mars’s atmosphere and experienced
tional d’Unités (International System of Units), which incorporates scientifically precise stresses and heating it was not designed to tol-
erate. Why did this $125-million craft enter the
definitions of the fundamental quantities.
Martian atmosphere when it was supposed to
remain in the vacuum of space? NASA identi-
Length fied the “root cause” as a failure to convert the
English units one team used to specify rocket
The meter was first defined as one ten-millionth of the distance from the equator to the thrust to the SI units another team expected.
north pole. In 1889 a standard meter was fabricated to replace the Earth-based unit, and in Units matter!
1960 that gave way to a standard based on the wavelength of light. Such an operational
definition, a measurement standard based on a laboratory procedure, has the advantage
that scientists anywhere can reproduce the standard meter. By the 1970s, the speed of light
had become one of the most precisely determined quantities. As a result, in 1983 the
meter was given a new operational definition:

The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a time interval
of 1/299,792,458 of a second.

This definition of the meter also means that the speed of light is now a defined quantity;
its value is exactly 299,792,458 m/s.

Time
The second used to be defined by Earth’s rotation, but that’s not constant, so it was rede-
fined as a specific fraction of the year 1900. In 1967 the second was given an operational
definition involving atomic vibrations:

The second is the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding

to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-
133 atom.

The device that implements this definition—which will seem a lot less obscure once
you’ve studied some atomic physics—is called an atomic clock.

Mass
Today’s mass standard is the least satisfactory. Unlike the operational definitions of length
and time, based on procedures that can be repeated anywhere, the unit of mass is defined
by a particular object—the international prototype kilogram kept at the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures at Sèvres, France.
The prototype kilogram is made of a special platinum-iridium alloy that is very hard
and not subject to corrosion. Nevertheless, it could change, and in any event comparison
with such a standard is less convenient than an operational definition that can be
checked in a laboratory. So scientists are developing techniques based on counting the
atoms in a given volume, to scale up from the mass of a single atom to a new definition
of the kilogram. The angle u in radians
is defined as the ratio
of the subtended arc
Other SI Units length s to the radius
r : u 5 –s .
SI includes seven independent base units: In addition to the three we’ve just defined, there r
are the ampere (A) for electric current, the kelvin (K) for temperature, the mole (mol) s
for the amount of a substance, and the candela (cd) for luminosity. Two supplementary
u
units are used to measure angle: the radian (rad) for ordinary angles (Fig. 1.2) and the
r
steradian (sr) for solid angles. Units for all other quantities are derived from these base
units. FIGURE 1.2 The radian is the SI unit of angle.
4 Chapter 1 Doing Physics

Table 1.1 SI Prefixes You could specify the length of a bacterium (e.g., 0.00001 m) or the distance to the
next city (e.g., 58,000 m) in meters, but the results are unwieldy—too small in the first
Prefix Symbol Power
case and too large in the latter. So we use prefixes to indicate multiples of the SI base
yotta Y 1024 units. For example, the prefix k (for “kilo”) means 1000; 1 km is 1000 m, and the dis-
zetta Z 1021 tance to the next city is 58 km. Similarly, the prefix m (the lowercase Greek “mu”)
exa E 1018 means “micro,” or 1026. So our bacterium is 10 mm long. The SI prefixes are listed in
peta P 1015 Table 1.1, which is repeated inside the front cover. We’ll use the prefixes routinely in
tera T 1012 examples and problems.
giga G 109 When two units are used together, a hyphen appears between them—for example,
mega M 106 newton-meter. Each unit has a symbol, such as m for meter or N for newton (the SI unit of
kilo k 103 force). Symbols are ordinarily lowercase, but those named after people are uppercase.
hecto h 102 Thus “newton” is written with a small “n” but its symbol is a capital N. The exception is
deca da 101 the unit of volume, the liter; since the lowercase “l” is easily confused with the number
— — 100 one, the symbol for liter is a capital L. When two units are multiplied, their symbols are
deci d 1021 separated by a centered dot: N # m for newton-meter. Division of units is expressed by us-
centi c 1022 ing the slash 1/2 or writing with the denominator unit raised to the 21 power. Thus the
milli m 1023 SI unit of speed is the meter per second, written m/s or m # s21.
micro m 1026
nano n 1029 Other Unit Systems
pico p 10212 The inches, feet, yards, miles, and pounds of the so-called English system still domi-
femto f 10215 nate measurement in the United States. Other non-SI units such as the hour are often
atto a 10218 mixed with English or SI units, as with speed limits in miles per hour or kilometers
zepto z 10221 per hour. In some areas of physics there are good reasons for using non-SI units. We’ll
yocto y 10224 discuss these as the need arises and will occasionally use non-SI units in examples
and problems. We’ll also often find it convenient to use degrees rather than radians
for angles. The vast majority of examples and problems in this book, however, use
strictly SI units.

Changing Units
Sometimes we need to change from one unit system to another—for example, from Eng-
lish to SI. Appendix C contains tables for converting among unit systems; you should fa-
miliarize yourself with this and the other appendices and refer to them often.
For example, Appendix C shows that 1 ft 5 0.3048 m. Since 1 ft and 0.3048 m represent
828 m
the same physical distance, multiplying any distance by their ratio will change the units but
2717 ft not the actual physical distance. Thus the height of Dubai’s Burj Khalifa (Fig. 1.3)—the
world’s tallest structure—is 2717 ft or

0.3048 m
12717 ft2 a b 5 828.1 m
1 ft

Often you’ll need to change several units in the same expression. Keeping track of
the units through a chain of multiplications helps prevent you from carelessly inverting
any of the conversion factors. A numerical answer cannot be correct unless it has the
right units!

FIGURE 1.3 Dubai’s Burj Khalifa is the world’s

tallest structure.

EXAMPLE 1.1 Changing Units: Speed Limits

Express a 65 mi/h speed limit in meters per second. the conversion factor 3600 s/h to convert hours to seconds. So we have

EVALUATE In Appendix C, we find that 1 mi 5 1609 m, so we can 65 mi 1609 m 1h

65 mi/h 5 a ba ba b 5 29 m/s
multiply miles by the ratio 1609 m/mi to get meters. Similarly, we use h mi 3600 s

■
 1.3 Working with Numbers 5

1.3 Working with Numbers

Scientific Notation This galaxy is 1021 m across and
has a mass of ~ 1042 kg.
The range of measured quantities in the universe is enormous; lengths alone go from about
1/1,000,000,000,000,000 m for the radius of a proton to 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 m
for the size of a galaxy; our telescopes see 100,000 times farther still. Therefore, we
frequently express numbers in scientific notation, where a reasonable-size number
is multiplied by a power of 10. For example, 4185 is 4.1853103 and 0.00012 is
1.231024. Table 1.2 suggests the vast range of measurements for the fundamental quanti-
ties of length, time, and mass. Take a minute (about 102 heartbeats, or 331028 of a typi-
cal human lifespan) to peruse this table along with Fig. 1.4.

Table 1.2 Distances, Times, and Masses (rounded to

one significant figure) 1021 m

Radius of observable universe 131026 m

Earth’s radius 63106 m
Your movie is stored on a DVD in “pits”
Tallest mountain 93103 m only 4 3 1027 m in size.
Height of person 2m
Diameter of red blood cell 131025 m
Size of proton 1310215 m

Age of universe 431017 s

Earth’s orbital period (1 year) 33107 s
Human heartbeat 1s
Wave period, microwave oven 5310210 s
Time for light to cross a proton 3310224 s

Mass of Milky Way galaxy 131042 kg

Mass of mountain 131018 kg
Mass of human 70 kg
FIGURE 1.4 Large and small.
Mass of red blood cell 1310213 kg
Mass of uranium atom 4310225 kg
Mass of electron 1310230 kg

Scientific calculators handle numbers in scientific notation. But straightforward rules

allow you to manipulate scientific notation if you don’t have such a calculator handy.

TACTICS 1.1 Using Scientific Notation

Addition/Subtraction
To add (or subtract) numbers in scientific notation, first give them the same exponent and then add (or
subtract):
3.753106 1 5.23105 5 3.753106 1 0.523106 5 4.273106

Multiplication/Division
To multiply (or divide) numbers in scientific notation, multiply (or divide) the digits and add (or subtract)
the exponents:
13.03108 m/s212.1310210 s2 5 13.0212.12 31081 12102 m 5 6.331022 m

Powers/Roots
To raise numbers in scientific notation to any power, raise the digits to the given power and multiply the
exponent by the power:
213.61310423 5 23.613 310142132 5 147.043101221/2
5 247.04310112211/22 5 6.863106
6 Chapter 1 Doing Physics

EXAMPLE 1.2 Scientific Notation: Tsunami Warnings

Earthquake-generated tsunamis are so devastating because the entire where we wrote 29.43103 m2/s2 as 2.943104 m2/s2 in the second line
ocean, from surface to bottom, participates in the wave motion. The in order to calculate the square root more easily. Converting the speed
speed of such waves is given by v 5 1gh, where g 5 9.8 m/s2 is the to km/h gives
gravitational acceleration, and h is the depth in meters. Determine a 1.73102 m 1 km 3.63103 s
tsunami’s speed in 3.0-km deep water. 1.73102 m/s 5 a ba 3 ba b
s 1.0310 m h
EVALUATE That 3.0-km depth is 3.03103 m, so we have 5 6.13102 km/h
v 5 1gh 5 319.8 m/s2213.03103 m241/2 5 129.43103 m2/s221/2 This speed—about 600 km/h—shows why even distant coastlines
5 12.943104 m2/s22 5 12.943102 m/s 5 1.73102 m/s
1/2 have little time to prepare for the arrival of a tsunami. ■

Significant Figures
How precise is that 1.73102 m/s we calculated in Example 1.2? The two significant fig-
ures in this number imply that the value is closer to 1.7 than to 1.6 or 1.8. The fewer sig-
nificant figures, the less precisely we can claim to know a given quantity.
In Example 1.2 we were, in fact, given two significant figures for both quantities. The
mere act of calculating can’t add precision, so we rounded our answer to two significant
figures as well. Calculators and computers often give numbers with many figures, but
most of those are usually meaningless.
What’s Earth’s circumference? It’s 2pRE, of course. And p is approximately
3.14159. c But if you only know Earth’s radius as 6.373106 m, knowing p to more sig-
nificant figures doesn’t mean you can claim to know the circumference any more pre-
cisely. This example suggests a rule for handling calculations involving numbers with
different precisions:

In multiplication and division, the answer should have the same number of signifi-
cant figures as the least precise of the quantities entering the calculation.

You’re engineering an access ramp to a bridge whose main span is 1.248 km long. The
ramp will be 65.4 m long. What will be the overall length? A simple calculation gives
1.248 km 1 0.0654 km 5 1.3134 km. How should you round this? You know the bridge
length to 60.001 km, so an addition this small is significant. Thus your answer should
have three digits to the right of the decimal point, giving 1.313 km. Thus:

In addition and subtraction, the answer should have the same number of digits to the
right of the decimal point as the term in the sum or difference that has the smallest
number of digits to the right of the decimal point.

In subtraction, this rule can quickly lead to loss of precision, as Example 1.3 illustrates.

EXAMPLE 1.3 Significant Figures: Nuclear Fuel

A uranium fuel rod is 3.241 m long before it’s inserted in a nuclear re- EVALUATE Subtraction gives 3.249 m 2 3.241 m 5 0.008 m or 8 mm.
actor. After insertion, heat from the nuclear reaction has increased its Should this be 8 mm or 8.000 mm? Just 8 mm. Subtraction affected
length to 3.249 m. What’s the increase in its length? only the last digit of the four-significant-figure lengths, leaving only
one significant figure in the answer. ■
 1.4 Strategies for Learning Physics 7

✓TIP Intermediate Results

Although it’s important that your final answer reflect the precision of the numbers
that went into it, any intermediate results should have at least one extra significant
figure. Otherwise, rounding of intermediate results could alter your answer.

GOT IT? 1.1 Rank the numbers according to (a) their size and (b) the number of sig-
nificant figures. Some may be of equal rank. 0.0008, 3.143107, 2.99831029, 553106,
0.0413109

Estimation
Some problems in physics and engineering call for precise numerical answers. We need to
know exactly how long to fire a rocket to put a space probe on course toward a distant
planet, or exactly what size to cut the tiny quartz crystal whose vibrations set the pulse of
a digital watch. But for many other purposes, we need only a rough idea of the size of
a physical effect. And rough estimates help check whether the results of more difficult
calculations make sense.

EXAMPLE 1.4 Estimation: Counting Brain Cells

Estimate the mass of your brain and the number of cells it contains. same size, then each cell has a volume of approximately
11025 m23 5 10215 m3. Then the number of cells in my 1023-m3 brain
EVALUATE My head is about 6 in. or 15 cm wide, but there’s a lot of is roughly
skull bone in there, so maybe my brain is about 10 cm or 0.1 m across.
1023 m3/brain
I don’t know its exact shape, but for estimating, I’ll take it to be a N5 5 1012 cells/brain
cube. Then its volume is 110 cm23 5 1000 cm3, or 1023 m3. I’m 10215 m3/cell
mostly water, and water’s density is 1 gram per cubic centimeter Crude though they are, these estimates aren’t bad. The average adult
11 g/cm32, so my 1000-cm3 brain has a mass of about 1 kg. brain’s mass is about 1.3 kg, and it contains at least 1011 cells.
How big is a brain cell? I don’t know, but Table 1.2 lists the diam- ■
eter of a red blood cell as about 1025 m. If brain cells are roughly the

1.4 Strategies for Learning Physics

You can learn about physics, and you can learn to do physics. This book is for science
and engineering students, so it emphasizes both. Learning about physics will help you ap-
preciate the role of this fundamental science in explaining both natural and technological
phenomena. Learning to do physics will make you adept at solving quantitative problems—
finding answers to questions about how the natural world works and about how we forge
the technologies at the heart of modern society.

Physics: Challenge and Simplicity

Physics problems can be challenging, calling for clever insight and mathematical agility.
That challenge is what gives physics a reputation as a difficult subject. But underlying all
of physics is only a handful of basic principles. Because physics is so fundamental, it’s
also inherently simple. There are only a few basic ideas to learn; if you really understand
those, you can apply them in a wide variety of situations. These ideas and their applica-
tions are all connected, and we’ll emphasize those connections and the underlying sim-
plicity of physics by reminding you how the many examples, applications, and problems
are manifestations of the same few basic principles. If you approach physics as a hodge-
podge of unrelated laws and equations, you’ll miss the point and make things difficult. But
if you look for the basic principles, for connections among seemingly unrelated phenomena
8 Chapter 1 Doing Physics

and problems, then you’ll discover the underlying simplicity that reflects the scope and
power of physics—the fundamental science.

Problem Solving: The IDEA Strategy

Solving a quantitative physics problem always starts with basic principles or concepts and
ends with a precise answer expressed as either a numerical quantity or an algebraic ex-
pression. Whatever the principle, whatever the realm of physics, and whatever the specific
situation, the path from principle to answer follows four simple steps—steps that make up
a comprehensive strategy for approaching all problems in physics. Their acronym, IDEA,
will help you remember these steps, and they’ll be reinforced as we apply them over and
over again in worked examples throughout the book. We’ll generally write all four steps
separately, although the examples in this chapter cut right to the EVALUATE phase. And
in some chapters we’ll introduce versions of this strategy tailored to specific material.
The IDEA strategy isn’t a “cookbook” formula for working physics problems. Rather,
it’s a tool for organizing your thoughts, clarifying your conceptual understanding, devel-
oping and executing plans for solving problems, and assessing your answers. Here’s the
big IDEA:

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 1.1 Physics Problems

INTERPRET The first step is to interpret the problem to be sure you know what it’s asking. Then
identify the applicable concepts and principles—Newton’s laws of motion, conservation of en-
ergy, the first law of thermodynamics, Gauss’s law, and so forth. Also identify the players in the
situation—the object whose motion you’re asked to describe, the forces acting, the thermody-
namic system you’re to analyze, the charges that produce an electric field, the components in
an electric circuit, the light rays that will help you locate an image, and so on.
DEVELOP The second step is to develop a plan for solving the problem. It’s always helpful and
often essential to draw a diagram showing the situation. Your drawing should indicate objects,
forces, and other physical entities. Labeling masses, positions, forces, velocities, heat flows,
electric or magnetic fields, and other quantities will be a big help. Next, determine the relevant
mathematical formulas—namely, those that contain the quantities you’re given in the problem
as well as the unknown(s) you’re solving for. Don’t just grab equations—rather, think about
how each reflects the underlying concepts and principles that you’ve identified as applying to
this problem. The plan you develop might include calculating intermediate quantities, finding
values in a table or in one of this text’s several appendices, or even solving a preliminary prob-
lem whose answer you need in order to get your final result.
EVALUATE Physics problems have numerical or symbolic answers, and you need to evaluate
your answer. In this step you execute your plan, going in sequence through the steps you’ve
outlined. Here’s where your math skills come in. Use algebra, trig, or calculus, as needed, to
solve your equations. It’s a good idea to keep all numerical quantities, whether known or not,
in symbolic form as you work through the solution of your problem. At the end you can plug in
numbers and work the arithmetic to evaluate the numerical answer, if the problem calls for one.
ASSESS Don’t be satisfied with your answer until you assess whether it makes sense! Are the
units correct? Do the numbers sound reasonable? Does the algebraic form of your answer work
in obvious special cases, like perhaps “turning off” gravity or making an object’s mass zero or
infinite? Checking special cases not only helps you decide whether your answer makes sense
but also can give you insights into the underlying physics. In worked examples, we’ll often use
this step to enhance your knowledge of physics by relating the example to other applications of
physics.

Don’t memorize the IDEA problem-solving strategy. Instead, grow to understand it as

you see it applied in examples and as you apply it yourself in working end-of-chapter
problems. This book has a number of additional features and supplements, discussed in
the Preface, to help you develop your problem-solving skills.
CHAPTER 1 SUMMARY
Big Picture
Physics is the fundamental science. It’s convenient to consider several realms Oscillations, waves,
of physics, which together describe all that’s known about physical reality: and fluids Mechanics

Modern Optics
Physics
physics

Thermodynamics Electromagnetism

Key Concepts and Equations

Numbers describing physical quantities must have units. The SI unit system comprises seven fundamental units:

Length: meter (m) Time: second (s)

Mass: kilogram (kg) Temperature: kelvin (K)

SI

Amount: mole (mol) Electric current: ampere (A)

Luminosity: candela (cd)

In addition, physics uses geometric measures of angle.

Numbers are often written with prefixes or in scientific notation to express powers of 10. Precision is shown by the number of significant figures:
Power of 10

Earth’s radius 5 6.37 3 106 m 5 6.37 Mm

Three significant figures SI prefix for “3106”

Applications
The IDEA strategy for solving physics problems follows four steps: Interpret, Develop, Evaluate, and Assess.
10 Chapter 1 Doing Physics

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 26. A 3.0-lb box of grass seed will seed 2100 ft2 of lawn. Express
this coverage in m2/kg.
1. Explain why measurement standards based on laboratory proce- 27. A radian is how many degrees?
dures are preferable to those based on specific objects such as the
Section 1.3 Working with Numbers
international prototype kilogram.
2. Which measurement standards are now defined operationally? 28. Add 3.63105 m and 2.13103 km.
Which aren’t? 29. Divide 4.23103 m/s by 0.57 ms, and express your answer in m/s2.
3. When a computer that carries seven significant figures adds 30. Add 5.131022 cm and 6.83103 mm, and multiply the result by
1.000000 and 2.5310215, what’s its answer? Why? 1.83104 N (N is the SI unit of force).
4. Why doesn’t Earth’s rotation provide a suitable time standard? 31. Find the cube root of 6.431019 without a calculator.
5. To raise a power of 10 to another power, you multiply the expo- 32. Add 1.46 m and 2.3 cm.
nent by the power. Explain why this works. 33. You’re asked to specify the length of an updated aircraft model
6. What facts might a scientist use in estimating Earth’s age? for a sales brochure. The original plane was 41 m long; the new
7. How would you determine the length of a curved line? model has a 3.6-cm-long radio antenna added to its nose. What
8. Write 1/x as x to some power. length do you put in the brochure?
9. Emissions of carbon dioxide from fossil-fuel combustion are of- 34. Repeat the preceding exercise, this time using 41.05 m as the air-
ten expressed in gigatonnes per year, where 1 tonne 5 1000 kg. plane’s original length.
But sometimes CO2 emissions are given in petagrams per year. Problems
How are the two units related? 35. To see why it’s important to carry more digits in intermediate cal-
culations, determine 1 1323 to three significant figures in two
ways: (a) Find 13 and round to three significant figures, then
Exercises and Problems cube and again round; and (b) find 13 to four significant figures,
Exercises then cube and round to three significant figures.
36. You’ve been hired as an environmental watchdog for a big-city
Section 1.2 Measurements and Units newspaper. You’re asked to estimate the number of trees that go
10. The power output of a typical large power plant is 1000 into one day’s printing, given that half the newsprint comes from
megawatts (MW). Express this result in (a) W, (b) kW, and recycling, the rest from new wood pulp. What do you report?
(c) GW. 37. The average dairy cow produces about 104 kg of milk per year.
11. The diameter of a hydrogen atom is about 0.1 nm, and the diam- Estimate the number of dairy cows needed to keep the United
eter of a proton is about 1 fm. How many times bigger than a pro- States supplied with milk.
ton is a hydrogen atom? 38. How many Earths would fit inside the Sun?
12. Use the definition of the meter to determine how far light travels 39. The average American uses electrical energy at the rate of
in 1 ns. about 1.5 kilowatts (kW). Solar energy reaches Earth’s surface
13. In nanoseconds, how long is the period of the cesium-133 radia- at an average rate of about 300 watts on every square meter.
tion used to define the second? What fraction of the United States’ land area would have to be
14. Lake Baikal in Siberia holds the world’s largest quantity of fresh covered with 20% efficient solar cells to provide all of our elec-
water, about 14 Eg. How many kilograms is that? trical energy?
15. A hydrogen atom is about 0.1 nm in diameter. How many hydro- 40. You’re writing a biography of the famous physicist Enrico Fermi,
gen atoms lined up side by side would make a line 1 cm long? who was fond of estimation problems. Here’s one problem Fermi
16. How long a piece of wire would you need to form a circular arc posed: What’s the number of piano tuners in Chicago? Give your
subtending an angle of 1.4 rad, if the radius of the arc is 8.1 cm? estimate, and explain to your readers how you got it.
17. Making a turn, a jetliner flies 2.1 km on a circular path of radius 41. (a) Estimate the volume of water going over Niagara Falls each sec-
3.4 km. Through what angle does it turn? ond. (b) The falls provides the outlet for Lake Erie; if the falls were
18. A car is moving at 35.0 mi/h. Express its speed in (a) m/s and shut off, estimate how long it would take Lake Erie to rise 1 m.
(b) ft/s. 42. Estimate the number of air molecules in your dorm room.
19. You have postage for a 1-oz letter but only a metric scale. What’s 43. A human hair is about 100 mm across. Estimate the number of
the maximum mass your letter can have, in grams? hairs in a typical braid.
20. A year is very nearly p3107 s. By what percentage is this figure 44. You’re working in the fraud protection division of a credit-card
in error? company, and you’re asked to estimate the chances that a 16-digit
21. How many cubic centimeters are in a cubic meter? number chosen at random will be a valid credit-card number.
22. Since the start of the industrial era, humankind has emitted about What do you answer?
half an exagram of carbon to the atmosphere. What’s that in 45. Bubble gum’s density is about 1 g/cm3. You blow an 8-g wad of
tonnes 1t; 1 t 5 1000 kg2? gum into a bubble 10 cm in diameter. What’s the bubble’s thick-
23. A gallon of paint covers 350 ft2. What’s its coverage in m2/L? ness? (Hint: Think about spreading the bubble into a flat sheet.
24. Highways in Canada have speed limits of 100 km/h. How does The surface area of a sphere is 4pr2.)
this compare with the 65 mi/h speed limit common in the United 46. The Moon barely covers the Sun during a solar eclipse. Given that
States? Moon and Sun are, respectively, 43105 km and 1.53108 km
25. One m/s is how many km/h? from Earth, determine how much bigger the Sun’s diameter is
 Answers to Chapter Questions 11

than the Moon’s. If the Moon’s radius is 1800 km, how big is 10 billion electronic components. The chip measures 5 mm on a
the Sun? side and uses 32-nm technology, meaning each component is
47. The semiconductor chip at the heart of a personal computer is a 32 nm across. Is the salesperson right?
square 4 mm on a side and contains 109 electronic components. 55. Café Milagro sells coffee online. A half-kilogram bag of coffee
(a) What’s the size of each component, assuming they’re square? costs $8.95, excluding shipping. If you order six bags, the ship-
(b) If a calculation requires that electrical impulses traverse 104 ping costs $6.90. What’s the cost per bag when you include
components on the chip, each a million times, how many such shipping?
calculations can the computer perform each second? (Hint: The 56. The world consumes energy at the rate of about 450 EJ per year,
maximum speed of an electrical impulse is 33108 m/s, close to where the joule (J) is the SI energy unit. Convert this figure to
the speed of light.) watts (W), where 1 W 5 1 J/s, and then estimate the average per
48. Estimate the number of (a) atoms and (b) cells in your body. capita energy consumption rate in watts.
49. When we write the number 3.6 as typical of a number with two
significant figures, we’re saying that the actual value is closer to Passage Problems
3.6 than to 3.5 or 3.7; that is, the actual value lies between 3.55 The human body contains about 1014 cells, and the diameter of a typi-
and 3.65. Show that the percent uncertainty implied by such two- cal cell is about 10 mm. Like all ordinary matter, cells are made of
significant-figure precision varies with the value of the number, atoms; a typical atomic diameter is 0.1 nm.
being the lowest for numbers beginning with 9 and the highest 57. How does the number of atoms in a cell compare with the num-
for numbers beginning with 1. In particular, what is the percent ber of cells in the body?
uncertainty implied by the numbers (a) 1.1, (b) 5.0, and (c) 9.9? a. greater b. smaller c. about the same
50. Continental drift occurs at about the rate your fingernails grow. 58. The volume of a cell is about
Estimate the age of the Atlantic Ocean, given that the eastern and a. 10210 m3. b. 10215 m3. c. 10220 m3. d. 10230 m3.
western hemispheres have been drifting apart. 59. The mass of a cell is about
51. You’re driving into Canada and trying to decide whether to fill a. 10210 kg. b. 10212 kg. c. 10214 kg. d. 10216 kg.
your gas tank before or after crossing the border. Gas in the 60. The number of atoms in the body is closest to
United States costs $2.97/gallon, in Canada it’s 94¢/L, and the a. 1014. b. 1020. c. 1030. d. 1040.
Canadian dollar is worth 87¢ in U.S. currency. Where should you
fill up?
52. In the 1908 London Olympics, the intended 26-mile marathon Answers to Chapter Questions
was extended 385 yards to put the end in front of the royal review-
ing stand. This distance subsequently became standard. What’s Answer to Chapter Opening Question
the marathon distance in kilometers, to the nearest meter? All of them!
53. Express the following with appropriate units and significant
figures: (a) 1.0 m plus 1 mm, (b) 1.0 m times 1 mm, (c) 1.0 m Answers to GOT IT? Question
minus 999 mm, (d) 1.0 m divided by 999 mm. 1.1. (a) 2.99831029, 0.0008, 3.143107, 0.0413109, 553106
54. You’re shopping for a new computer, and a salesperson claims (b) 0.0008, 0.0413109 and 553106 (with two significant fig-
the microprocessor chip in the model you’re looking at contains ures each), 3.143107, 2.99831029
 PART ONE OVERVIEW

Mechanics

A wilderness hiker uses the Global Positioning System to follow her chosen route. A Hikers check their position using
farmer plows a field with centimeter-scale precision, guided by GPS and saving signals from GPS satellites.

precious fuel as a result. One scientist uses GPS to track endangered elephants,
another to study the accelerated flow of glaciers as Earth’s climate warms. Our deep
understanding of motion is what lets us use a constellation of satellites, 20,000 km up
and moving faster than 10,000 km/h, to find positions on Earth so precisely.
Motion occurs at all scales, from the intricate dance of molecules at the heart of life’s
cellular mechanics, to the everyday motion of cars, baseballs, and our own bodies, to
the trajectories of GPS and TV satellites and of spacecraft exploring the distant planets,
to the stately motions of the celestial bodies themselves and the overall expansion of
the universe. The study of motion is called mechanics. The 11 chapters of Part 1
introduce the physics of motion, first for individual bodies and then for complicated
systems whose constituent parts move relative to one another.
We explore motion here from the viewpoint of Newtonian mechanics, which
applies accurately in all cases except the subatomic realm and when relative speeds
approach that of light. The Newtonian mechanics of Part 1 provides the groundwork
for much of the material in subsequent parts, until, in the book’s final chapters, we
extend mechanics into the subatomic and high-speed realms.

12
 2 Motion in a Straight Line

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Explain the meanings of and
relationships among displacement,
velocity, and acceleration in one-
dimensional motion (2.1–2.3).
■ Calculate average and instantaneous
velocities and accelerations (2.1–2.3).
■ Solve problems involving motion un-
der constant acceleration, including
the acceleration of gravity at Earth’s
surface (2.4, 2.5).
The server tosses the tennis ball straight up and hits it on
its way down. Right at its peak height, the ball has zero
velocity, but what’s its acceleration?

E lectrons swarming around atomic nuclei, cars speeding along a highway, blood coursing
through your veins, galaxies rushing apart in the expanding universe—all these are exam-
ples of matter in motion. The study of motion without regard to its cause is called kinematics
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ From Chapter 1, you should be com-
fortable working with SI units, and
(from the Greek “kinema,” or motion, as in motion pictures). This chapter deals with the simplest you should be able to convert from
case: a single object moving in a straight line. Later, we generalize to motion in more dimensions other unit systems (1.2).
and with more complicated objects. But the basic concepts and mathematical techniques we ■ You should be able to express quan-
develop here continue to apply. titative answers with the correct
number of significant figures (1.3).
■ You should be ready to apply the
2.1 Average Motion four problem-solving steps of the
You drive 15 minutes to a pizza place 10 km away, grab your pizza, and return home in IDEA strategy (1.4).
another 15 minutes. You’ve traveled a total distance of 20 km, and the trip took half an
hour, so your average speed—distance divided by time—was 40 kilometers per hour. To
describe your motion more precisely, we introduce the quantity x that gives your position

13
14 Chapter 2 Motion in a Straight Line

20
At time t1 5 0, your
position is x1 5 0.

Position, x (km)
Arrive at Now your position is x2 5 0,
10 pizza place so your displacement is
Dx 5 x2 2 x1 5 0,
and your average
Return Dx
velocity v 5 5 0.
home Dt
Leave home But, your average speed was
0 40 km/h.
0 15 30
Time, t (min)
Dt 5 30 min

FIGURE 2.1 Position versus time for the pizza trip.

at any time t. We then define displacement, Dx, as the net change in position: Dx 5 x2 2 x1,
where x1 and x2 are your starting and ending positions, respectively. Your average velo-
city, v, is displacement divided by the time interval:

Dx
v5 1average velocity2 (2.1)
Dt

where Dt 5 t2 2 t1 is the interval between your ending and starting times. The bar in v in-
dicates an average quantity (and is read “v bar”). The symbol D (capital Greek delta)
stands for “the change in.” For the round trip to the pizza place, your overall displacement
was zero and therefore your average velocity was also zero—even though your average
speed was not (Fig. 2.1).

Directions and Coordinate Systems

+1200 km
It matters whether you go north or south, east or west. Displacement therefore includes
not only how far but also in what direction. For motion in a straight line, we can de-
scribe both properties by taking position coordinates x to be positive going in one direc-
+800 km tion from some origin, and negative in the other. This gives us a one-dimensional
From International coordinate system. The choice of coordinate system—both of origin and of which di-
Falls to Des Moines rection is positive—is entirely up to you. The coordinate system isn’t physically real;
is a displacement
of –750 km.
it’s just a convenience we create to help in the mathematical description of motion.
+400 km Figure 2.2 shows some midwestern cities that lie on a north-south line. We’ve established
a coordinate system with northward direction positive and origin at Kansas City. Arrows
show displacements from Houston to Des Moines and from International Falls to Des
N
Moines; the former is approximately 11300 km, and the latter is approximately 2750 km,
0 km with the minus sign indicating a southward direction. Suppose the Houston-to-Des Moines
S
trip takes 2.6 hours by plane; then the average velocity is 11300 km2/12.6 h2 5 500 km/h.
The choice of
origin is arbitrary.
If the International Falls-to-Des Moines trip takes 10 h by car, then the average velocity is
12750 km2/110 h2 5 275 km/h; again, the minus sign indicates southward.
–400 km In calculating average velocity, all that matters is the overall displacement. Maybe that
From Houston to trip from Houston to Des Moines was a nonstop flight going 500 km/h. Or maybe it
Des Moines is a
displacement of involved a faster plane that stopped for half an hour in Kansas City. Maybe the plane even
+1300 km. went first to Minneapolis, then backtracked to Des Moines. No matter: The displacement
–800 km remains 1300 km and, as long as the total time is 2.6 h, the average velocity remains
500 km/h.

–1200 km GOT IT? 2.1 We just described three trips from Houston to Des Moines: (a) direct;
(b) with a stop in Kansas City, and (c) via Minneapolis. For which of these trips is the
FIGURE 2.2 Describing motion in the central
average speed the same as the average velocity? Where the two differ, which is greater?
United States.
 2.2 Instantaneous Velocity 15

EXAMPLE 2.1 Speed and Velocity: Flying with a Connection

To get a cheap flight from Houston to Kansas City—a distance of EVALUATE You start in Houston and end up in Kansas City, for a dis-
1000 km—you have to connect in Minneapolis, 700 km north of placement of 1000 km—regardless of how far you actually traveled. The
Kansas City. The flight to Minneapolis takes 2.2 h, then you have a total time for the three segments is Dt 5 2.2 h 1 0.50 h 1 1.3 h 5
30-min layover, and then a 1.3-h flight to Kansas City. What are your 4.0 h. Then the average velocity, from Equation 2.1, is
average velocity and your average speed on this trip? Dx 1000 km
v5 5 5 250 km/h
INTERPRET We interpret this as a one-dimensional kinematics prob-
Dt 4.0 h
lem involving the distinction between velocity and speed, and we However, that Minneapolis connection means you’ve gone an extra
identify three distinct travel segments: the two flights and the layover. 2 3 700 km, for a total distance of 2400 km in 4 hours. Thus your av-
We identify the key concepts as speed and velocity; their distinction is erage speed is 12400 km2/14.0 h2 5 600 km/h, more than twice your
clear from our pizza example. average velocity.

DEVELOP Figure 2.2 is our drawing. We determine that Equation 2.1, ASSESS Make sense? Average velocity depends only on the net dis-
v 5 Dx/Dt, will give the average velocity, and that the average speed placement between the starting and ending points. Average speed
is the total distance divided by the total time. We develop our plan: takes into account the actual distance you travel—which can be a lot
Find the displacement and the total time, and use those values to get longer on a circuitous trip like this one. So it’s entirely reasonable that
the average velocity; then find the total distance traveled and use that the average speed should be greater. ■
along with the total time to get the average speed.

2.2 Instantaneous Velocity

Geologists determine the velocity of a lava flow by dropping a stick into the lava and
timing how long it takes the stick to go a known distance (Fig. 2.3a). Dividing the dis-
tance by the time then gives the average velocity. But did the lava flow faster at the be-
ginning of the interval? Or did it speed up and slow down again? Clearly, velocity can
change over time. To understand motion in all its detail, we need to know the velocity at
each instant.
Geologists could explore that detail with a series of observations taken over smaller in-
tervals of time and distance (Fig. 2.3b). As the size of the intervals shrinks, a more detailed
picture of the motion emerges. In the limit of very small intervals, we’re measuring the
velocity at a single instant. This is the instantaneous velocity, or simply the velocity. The
magnitude of the instantaneous velocity is the instantaneous speed.

The average velocity as the stick

goes from A to B is v 5 Dx/Dt.
Dx
A B

Dt
(a)

Using shorter distance intervals gives details

about how the velocity changes.
6x1 6x2 6x3 6x4
A B
Dt1 5 5 s Dt2 5 10 s

Dt3 5 15 s Dt4 5 10 s
(b)

FIGURE 2.3 Determining the velocity of a lava flow.

16 Chapter 2 Motion in a Straight Line

Average velocity is the You might object that it’s impossible to achieve that limit of an arbitrarily small time in-
slope of this line. terval. With observational measurements that’s true, but calculus lets us go there. Figure 2.4a
is a plot of position versus time for the stick in the lava flow shown in Fig. 2.3. Where the
curve is steep, the position changes rapidly with time—so the velocity is greater. Where
Position, x

Dx the curve is flatter, the velocity is lower. Study the clocks in Fig. 2.3b and you’ll see that
Dt
the stick starts out moving rapidly, then slows, and then speeds up a bit at the end. The
curve in Fig. 2.4a reflects this behavior.
Suppose we want the instantaneous velocity at the time marked t1 in Fig. 2.4a. We can
t1 t2 approximate this quantity by measuring the displacement Dx over the interval Dt between
Time, t
t1 and some later time t2: the ratio Dx/Dt is then the average velocity over this interval.
(a) As the interval gets
shorter, average
Note that this ratio is the slope of a line drawn through points on the curve that mark the
velocity approaches ends of the interval.
instantaneous Figure 2.4b shows what happens as we make the time interval Dt arbitrarily small:
velocity at time t1.
Eventually, the line between the two points becomes indistinguishable from the tangent
line to the curve. That tangent line has the same slope as the curve right at the point we’re
interested in, and therefore it defines the instantaneous velocity at that point. We write this
t1 mathematically by saying that the instantaneous velocity is the limit, as the time interval
Dt becomes arbitrarily close to zero, of the ratio of displacement Dx to Dt:
(b)
Dx
FIGURE 2.4 Position-versus-time graph for v 5 lim (2.2a)
Dt S 0 Dt
the motion in Fig. 2.3.

You can imagine making the interval Dt as close to zero as you like, getting ever better
The slopes of 3 tangent approximations to the instantaneous velocity. Given a graph of position versus time, an
lines give the instantaneous
velocity at 3 different times. easy approach is to “eyeball” the tangent line to the graph at a point you’re interested in;
its slope is the instantaneous velocity (Fig. 2.5).

Dt Dx
Dx
Position, x

Dt
GOT IT? 2.2 The figures show position-versus-time graphs for four objects. Which
Dx object is moving with constant speed? Which reverses direction? Which starts slowly and
Dt
then speeds up?

ta tb tc
x x x x
Time, t

FIGURE 2.5 The instantaneous velocity is

the slope of the tangent line. t t t t
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Given position as a mathematical function of time, calculus provides a quick way to

find instantaneous velocity. In calculus, the result of the limiting process described in
Equation 2.2a is called the derivative of x with respect to t and is given the symbol dx/dt:

dx Dx
5 lim
dt Dt S 0 Dt

The quantities dx and dt are called infinitesimals; they represent vanishingly small quan-
tities that result from the limiting process. We can then write Equation 2.2a as

dx
v5 1instantaneous velocity2 (2.2b)
dt
Given position x as a function of time t, calculus shows how to find the velocity
v 5 dx/dt. Consult Tactics 2.1 if you haven’t yet seen derivatives in your calculus class,
or if you need a refresher.
 2.3 Acceleration 17

TACTICS 2.1 Taking Derivatives

You don’t have to go through an elaborate limiting process every time you want to find an instantaneous
velocity. That’s because calculus provides formulas for the derivatives of common functions. For example,
any function of the form x 5 btn, where b and n are constants, has the derivative

dx
5 nbtn21 (2.3)
dt

Appendix A lists derivatives of other common functions.

EXAMPLE 2.2 Instantaneous Velocity: A Rocket Ascends

The altitude of a rocket in the first half-minute of its ascent is given the total displacement at 20 s. Since x 5 bt2, Equation 2.1 gives
by x 5 bt2 , where the constant b is 2.90 m/s 2 . Find a general ex- Dx bt2
pression for the rocket’s velocity as a function of time and from it the v5 5 5 bt
Dt t
instantaneous velocity at t 5 20 s. Also find an expression for the
average velocity, and compare your two velocity expressions. where we’ve used x 5 bt2 for Dx and t for Dt because both position
and time are taken to be zero at liftoff. Comparison with our earlier
INTERPRET We interpret this as a problem involving the comparison result shows that the average velocity from liftoff to any particular
of two distinct but related concepts: instantaneous velocity and aver- time is exactly half the instantaneous velocity at that time.
age velocity. We identify the rocket as the object whose velocities we’re
interested in. ASSESS Make sense? Yes. The rocket’s speed is always increasing, so
its velocity at the end of any time interval is greater than the average
DEVELOP Equation 2.2b, v 5 dx/dt, gives the instantaneous velocity over that interval. The fact that the average velocity is exactly
velocity and Equation 2.1, v 5 Dx/Dt, gives the average velocity. half the instantaneous velocity results from the quadratic 1t2 2 depend-
Our plan is to use Equation 2.3, dx/dt 5 nbtn21 , to evaluate the de- ence of position on time.
rivative that gives the instantaneous velocity. Then we can use Equa-
tion 2.1 for the average velocity, but first we’ll need to determine the ✓TIP Language
displacement from the equation we’re given for the rocket’s position.
Language often holds clues to the meaning of physical concepts.
EVALUATE Applying Equation 2.2b with position given by x 5 bt2 In this example we speak of the instantaneous velocity at a partic-
and using Equation 2.3 to evaluate the derivative, we have ular time. That wording should remind you of the limiting process
that focuses on a single instant. In contrast, we speak of the
dx d1bt22
v5 5 5 2bt average velocity over a time interval, since averaging explicitly
dt dt involves a range of times.
for the instantaneous velocity. Evaluating at t 5 20 s with
b 5 2.90 m/s 2 gives v 5 116 m/s. For the average velocity we need ■

2.3 Acceleration
When velocity changes, as in Example 2.2, an object is said to undergo acceleration. Quan-
titatively, we define acceleration as the rate of change of velocity, just as we defined velocity
as the rate of change of position. The average acceleration over a time interval Dt is
When a and v have the
Dv same direction, the
a5 1average acceleration2 (2.4) car speeds up.
Dt
a
where Dv is the change in velocity and the bar on a indicates that this is an average v
value. Just as we defined instantaneous velocity through a limiting procedure, we define
instantaneous acceleration as (a) When a is opposite
v, the car slows.
Dv dv
a 5 lim 5 1instantaneous acceleration2 (2.5)
Dt S 0 Dt dt a
v
As we did with velocity, we also use the term acceleration alone to mean instantaneous
acceleration. (b)
In one-dimensional motion, acceleration is either in the direction of the velocity or opposite
it. In the former case the accelerating object speeds up, whereas in the latter it slows (Fig. 2.6). FIGURE 2.6 Acceleration and velocity.
18 Chapter 2 Motion in a Straight Line

Position, x (m) 10 Although slowing is sometimes called deceleration, it’s simpler to use acceleration to
5 describe the time rate of change of velocity no matter what’s happening. With two-
dimensional motion, we’ll find much richer relationships between the directions of ve-
0
1 2 3 4 locity and acceleration.
–5
Time, t (s) Since acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, its units are (distance per time)
–10
Here the position per time, or distance/time2. In SI, that’s m/s2. Sometimes acceleration is given in mixed
(a) reaches a maxi- units; for example, a car going from 0 to 60 mi/h in 10 s has an average acceleration of
mum, so the 6 mi/h/s.
velocity is zero.
5
Velocity, v (m/s)

0
–5 1 2 4
–10 Time, t (s)
Position, Velocity, and Acceleration
–15 Figure 2.7 shows graphs of position, velocity, and acceleration for an object undergo-
–20
–25
ing one-dimensional motion. In Fig. 2.7a the rise and fall of the position-versus-time
curve show that the object first moves away from the origin, reverses, then reaches the
(b)
Here the velocity origin again at t 5 4 s. It then continues moving into the region x , 0. Velocity, shown
peaks, so the in Fig. 2.7b, is the slope of the position-versus-time curve in Fig. 2.7a. Note that the
Acceleration, a (m/s2)

10 acceleration is zero.
5
velocity is great where the curve in Fig. 2.7a is steep—that is, where position is chang-
0 ing most rapidly. At the peak of the position curve, the object is momentarily at rest as
–5 1 3 4 it reverses, so there the position curve is flat and the velocity is zero. After the
–10 Time, t (s) object reverses, at about 2.7 s, it’s heading in the negative x-direction and so its veloc-
–15 ity is negative.
–20 Just as velocity is the slope of the position-versus-time curve, acceleration is the slope of
(c) the velocity-versus-time curve. Initially that slope is positive—velocity is increasing—but
FIGURE 2.7 (a) Position, (b) velocity, and
(c) acceleration versus time.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 2.1 Acceleration Without Velocity?

Can an object be accelerating even though it’s not moving? At the peak
of its flight,
EVALUATE Figure 2.7 shows that velocity is the slope of the position the ball is
curve—and the slope depends on how the position is changing, not instantaneously
on its actual value. Similarly, acceleration depends only on the rate at rest.
of change of velocity, not on velocity itself. So there’s no intrinsic
reason why there can’t be acceleration at an instant when velocity
is zero.
ASSESS Figure 2.8, which shows a ball thrown straight up, is a case
in point. Right at the peak of its flight, the ball’s velocity is instanta- (a)
neously zero. But just before the peak it’s moving upward, and just af- Just before the peak,
ter it’s moving downward. No matter how small a time interval you v is positive; just
after, it’s negative.
consider, the velocity is always changing. Therefore, the ball is accel-
erating, even right at the instant its velocity is zero.

MAKING THE CONNECTION Just 0.010 s before it peaks, the ball in

Fig. 2.8 is moving upward at 0.098 m/s; 0.010 s after it peaks, it’s
moving downward with the same speed. What’s its average accelera- (b)
tion over this 0.02-s interval?
EVALUATE Equation 2.4 gives the average acceleration: a 5 Dv/Dt 5
120.098 m/s 2 0.098 m/s 2/ 10.020 s 2 5 29.8 m/s 2 . Here we’ve
implicitly chosen a coordinate system with a positive upward direc-
tion, so both the initial velocity and the acceleration are negative.
The time interval is so small that our result must be close to the in-
stantaneous acceleration right at the peak—when the velocity is
zero. You might recognize 9.8 m/s 2 as the acceleration due to Since v is steadily decreasing, the
acceleration is constant and negative.
Earth’s gravity. (c)

FIGURE 2.8 Our sketch for Conceptual Example 2.1.

 2.4 Constant Acceleration 19

eventually it peaks at the point of maximum velocity and zero acceleration and then it de-
creases. That velocity decrease corresponds to a negative acceleration, as shown clearly in
the region of Fig. 2.7c beyond about 1.3 s.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, and velocity is the rate of change of
position. That makes acceleration the rate of change of the rate of change of position.
Mathematically, acceleration is the second derivative of position with respect to
time. Symbolically, we write the second derivative as d2x/dt2; this is just a symbol
and doesn’t mean that anything is actually squared. Then the relationship among ac-
celeration, velocity, and position can be written

dv d dx d2x
a5 5 a b5 2 (2.6)
dt dt dt dt

2.4 Constant Acceleration

The description of motion has an especially simple form when acceleration is constant.
Suppose an object starts at time t 5 0 with some initial velocity v0 and constant accelera-
tion a. Later, at some time t, it has velocity v. Because the acceleration doesn’t change, its
average and instantaneous values are identical, so we can write

Dv v 2 v0
a5a5 5
Dt t20

or, rearranging,

v 5 v0 1 at 1for constant acceleration only2 (2.7)

This equation says that the velocity changes from its initial value by an amount that is the
product of acceleration and time.

✓TIP Know Your Limits

Many equations we develop are special cases of more general laws, and they’re lim-
ited to special circumstances. Equation 2.7 is a case in point: It applies only when
acceleration is constant.

Having determined velocity as a function of time, we now consider position. With con-
stant acceleration, velocity increases steadily—and thus the average velocity over an in-
terval is the average of the velocities at the beginning and the end of that interval. So we
can write

v 5 121v0 1 v2 (2.8)

for the average velocity over the interval from t 5 0 to some later time when the velocity
is v. We can also write the average velocity as the change in position divided by the time
interval. Suppose that at time 0 our object was at position x0. Then its average velocity
over a time interval from 0 to time t is

Dx x 2 x0
v5 5
Dt t20

where x is the object’s position at time t. Equating this expression for v with the expres-
sion in Equation 2.8 gives

x 5 x0 1 vt 5 x0 1 121v0 1 v2t (2.9)

20 Chapter 2 Motion in a Straight Line

With no But we already found the instantaneous velocity v that appears in this expression; it’s
Acceleration causes the acceleration, given by Equation 2.7. Substituting and simplifying then give the position as a function of
position-time graph to position changes
curve upward. at a steady rate. time:

x 5 x0 1 v0 t 1 12 at2 1for constant acceleration only2 (2.10)

x

1– 2 Does Equation 2.10 make sense? With no acceleration 1a 5 02, position would in-
Position, x

2
at
crease linearly with time, at a rate given by the initial velocity v0. With constant ac-
5 v0 celeration, the additional term 12 at2 describes the effect of the ever-changing velocity;
Slope
v0 t time is squared because the longer the object travels, the faster it moves, so the more
x0 distance it covers in a given time. Figure 2.9 shows the meaning of the terms in
x0 Equation 2.10.
Time, t t How much runway do I need to land a jetliner, given touchdown speed and a constant
With v 5 0 and a 5 0, position doesn’t change. acceleration? A question like this involves position, velocity, and acceleration without ex-
plicit mention of time. So we solve Equation 2.7 for time, t 5 1v 2 v02 /a, and substitute
FIGURE 2.9 Meaning of the terms this expression for t in Equation 2.9 to write
in Equation 2.10.
1v0 1 v21v 2 v02
x 2 x0 5 12
a
Table 2.1 Equations of Motion for Constant
Acceleration or, since 1a 1 b21a 2 b2 5 a2 2 b2,
Equation Contains Number
v 2 5 v02 1 2a1x 2 x02 (2.11)
v 5 v0 1 at v, a, t; no x 2.7
x 5 x0 1 121v0 1 v2t x, v, t; no a 2.9 Equations 2.7, 2.9, 2.10, and 2.11 link all possible combinations of position,
x 5 x0 1 v0t 1 12at2 x, a, t; no v 2.10 velocity, and acceleration for motion with constant acceleration. We summarize
v2 5 v02 1 2a1x 2 x02 x, v, a; no t 2.11 them in Table 2.1, and remind you that they apply only in the case of constant
acceleration.

Using the Equations of Motion

The equations in Table 2.1 fully describe motion under constant acceleration. Don’t re-
gard them as separate laws, but recognize them as complementary descriptions of a single
underlying phenomenon—one-dimensional motion with constant acceleration. Having
several equations provides convenient starting points for approaching problems. Don’t
memorize these equations, but grow familiar with them as you work problems. We now
offer a strategy for solving problems about one-dimensional motion with constant accel-
eration using these equations.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 2.1 Motion with Constant Acceleration

INTERPRET Interpret the problem to be sure it asks about motion with constant acceleration.
Next, identify the object(s) whose motion you’re interested in.
DEVELOP Draw a diagram with appropriate labels, and choose a coordinate system. For in-
stance, sketch the initial and final physical situations, or draw a position-versus-time graph.
Then determine which equations of motion from Table 2.1 contain the quantities you’re given
and will be easiest to solve for the unknown(s).
EVALUATE Solve the equations in symbolic form and then evaluate numerical quantities.

ASSESS Does your answer make sense? Are the units correct? Do the numbers sound reason-
able? What happens in special cases—for example, when a distance, velocity, acceleration, or
time becomes very large or very small?

The next two examples are typical of problems involving constant acceleration. Exam-
ple 2.3 is a straightforward application of the equations we’ve just derived to a single object.
Example 2.4 involves two objects, in which case we need to write equations describing the
motions of both objects.
 2.4 Constant Acceleration 21

EXAMPLE 2.3 Motion with Constant Acceleration: Landing a Jetliner

A jetliner touches down at 270 km/h. The plane then decelerates Note that we used a negative value for the acceleration because the
(i.e., undergoes acceleration directed opposite its velocity) at plane’s acceleration is directed opposite its velocity—which we chose
4.5 m/s 2 . What’s the minimum runway length on which this aircraft as the positive x-direction. We also converted the speed to m/s for
can land? compatibility with the SI units given for acceleration.

INTERPRET We interpret this as a problem involving one-dimensional ASSESS Make sense? That 625 m is just over one-third of a mile,
motion with constant acceleration and identify the airplane as the which seems a bit short. However, this is an absolute minimum with
object of interest. no margin of safety. For full-size jetliners, the standard for minimum
landing runway length is about 5000 feet or 1.5 km.
DEVELOP We determine that Equation 2.11, v 2 5 v 02 1 2a1x 2 x0 2,
relates distance, velocity, and acceleration, so our plan is to solve that ✓TIP Be Careful with Mixed Units
equation for the minimum runway length. We want the airplane to
come to a stop, so the final velocity v is 0, and v0 is the initial touch- Frequently problems are stated in units other than SI. Although
down velocity. If x0 is the touchdown point, then the quantity x 2 x0 it’s possible to work consistently in other units, when in doubt,
is the distance we’re interested in; we’ll call this Dx. convert to SI. In this problem, the acceleration is originally in
SI units but the velocity isn’t—a sure indication of the need for
EVALUATE Setting v 5 0 and solving Equation 2.11 then give conversion.
2v02 231270 km/h211000 m/km211/3600 h/s242
Dx 5 5 5 625 m ■
2a 122124.5 m/s22

EXAMPLE 2.4 Motion with Two Objects: Speed Trap!

A speeding motorist zooms through a 50 km/h zone at 75 km/h versions of this equation specialized to each car, (2) to equate the resulting
(that’s 21 m/s ) without noticing a stationary police car. The police of- position expressions to find the time when the cars coincide, and
ficer immediately heads after the speeder, accelerating at 2.5 m/s 2 . (3) to find the corresponding position and the police car’s velocity. For the
When the officer catches up to the speeder, how far down the road are latter we’ll use Equation 2.7, v 5 v0 1 at.
they, and how fast is the police car going?
EVALUATE Let’s take the origin to be the point where the speeder
INTERPRET We interpret this as two problems involving one- passes the police car and t 5 0 to be the corresponding time, as
dimensional motion with constant acceleration. We identify the objects marked in Fig. 2.10. Then x0 5 0 in Equation 2.10 for both cars,
in question as the speeding car and the police car. Their motions are while the speeder has no acceleration and the police car has no initial
related because we’re interested in the point where the two coincide. velocity. Thus our two versions of Equation 2.10 are
DEVELOP It’s helpful to draw a sketch showing qualitatively the position- xs 5 vs0 t 1speeder2 and xp 5 12 ap t2 1police car2
versus-time graphs for the two cars. Since the speeding car moves with
constant speed, its graph is a straight line. The police car is accelerating Equating xs and xp tells when the speeder and the police car are at the
from rest, so its graph starts flat and gets increasingly steeper. Our sketch same place, so we write vs0 t 5 12ap t2. This equation is satisfied when
in Fig. 2.10 shows clearly the point we’re interested in, when the two cars t 5 0 or t 5 2vs0 /ap. Why two answers? We asked for any times
coincide for the second time. Equation 2.10, x 5 x0 1 v0t 1 12at2, gives when the two cars are in the same place. That includes the initial en-
position versus time with constant acceleration. Our plan is (1) to write counter at t 5 0 as well as the later time t 5 2vs0 /ap when the police
car catches the speeder; both points are shown on our sketch. Where
does this occur? We can evaluate using t 5 2vs0 /ap in the speeder’s
equation:
Police car 122121 m/s22
2vs0 2vs02
catches up. xs 5 vs0t 5 vs0 5 5 5 350 m
ap ap 2.5 m/s2
Equation 2.7 then gives the police car’s speed at this time:
Motorist 2vs0
passes vp 5 ap t 5 ap 5 2vs0 5 150 km/h
police
ap
car.
ASSESS Make sense? As Fig. 2.10 shows, the police car starts from
rest and undergoes constant acceleration, so it has to be going faster at
the point where the two cars meet. In fact, it’s going twice as fast—
again, as in Example 2.2, that’s because the police car’s position de-
pends quadratically on time. That quadratic dependence also tells us
that the police car’s position-versus-time graph in Fig. 2.10 is a
FIGURE 2.10 Our sketch of position versus time for the cars in Example 2.4. parabola. ■
22 Chapter 2 Motion in a Straight Line

GOT IT? 2.3 The police car in Example 2.4 starts with zero velocity and is going at
twice the car’s velocity when it catches up to the car. So at some intermediate instant it
must be going at the same velocity as the car. Is that instant (a) halfway between the times
when the two cars coincide, (b) closer to the time when the speeder passes the stationary
police car, or (c) closer to the time when the police car catches the speeder?

2.5 The Acceleration of Gravity

Drop an object, and it falls at an increasing rate, accelerating because of gravity
(Fig. 2.11). The acceleration is constant for objects falling near Earth’s surface, and fur-
thermore it has the same value for all objects. This value, the acceleration of gravity, is
designated g and is approximately 9.8 m/s2 near Earth’s surface.
The acceleration of gravity applies strictly only in free fall—motion under the influ-
ence of gravity alone. Air resistance, in particular, may dramatically alter the motion, giv-
ing the false impression that gravity acts differently on lighter and heavier objects. As
early as the year 1600, Galileo is reputed to have shown that all objects have the same ac-
celeration by dropping objects off the Leaning Tower of Pisa. Astronauts have verified that
a feather and a hammer fall with the same acceleration on the airless Moon—although that
acceleration is less than on Earth.
Although g is approximately constant near Earth’s surface, it varies slightly with lati-
tude and even local geology. The variation with altitude becomes substantial over distances
of tens to hundreds of kilometers. But nearer Earth’s surface it’s a good approximation to
take g as strictly constant. Then an object in free fall undergoes constant acceleration, and
the equations of Table 2.1 apply. In working gravitational problems, we usually replace x
with y to designate the vertical direction. If we make the arbitrary but common choice that
FIGURE 2.11 Strobe photo of a falling ball. Suc-
cessive images are farther apart, showing that
the upward direction is positive, then acceleration a becomes 2g because the acceleration
the ball is accelerating. is downward.

EXAMPLE 2.5 Constant Acceleration Due to Gravity: Cliff Diving

A diver drops from a 10-m-high cliff. At what speed does he enter the motion. Knowing the initial and final velocities, we use Equation 2.7 to
water, and how long is he in the air? find how long the dive takes. Solving that equation for t gives
v0 2 v 0 m/s 2 1214 m/s2
INTERPRET This is a case of constant acceleration due to gravity, and t5 5 5 1.4 s
the diver is the object of interest. The diver drops a known distance g 9.8 m/s2
starting from rest, and we want to know the speed and time when he
hits the water.

DEVELOP Figure 2.12 is a sketch showing what the diver’s position

Curve is flat
versus time should look like. We’ve incorporated what we know: the here because diver
initial position 10 m above the water, the start from rest, and the down- starts from rest.
ward acceleration that results in a parabolic position-versus-time curve.
Given the dive height, Equation 2.11, v2 5 v02 1 2a1x 2 x0 2, deter-
mines the speed v. Since the diver starts from rest, v0 5 0 and the
equation becomes v2 5 22g1y 2 y02. So our plan is first to solve for We want this
the speed at the water; then use Equation 2.7, v 5 v0 1 at, to get the slope (speed) . . .
time.

EVALUATE Our sketch shows that we’ve chosen y 5 0 at the water, so

. . . and
y0 5 10 m and Equation 2.11 gives
this time.
ƒvƒ 5 222g1y 2 y02 5 2122219.8 m/s2210 m 2 10 m2
5 14 m/s
This is the magnitude of the velocity, hence the absolute value sign; the
actual value is v 5 214 m/s, with the minus sign indicating downward FIGURE 2.12 Our sketch for Example 2.5.
 2.5 The Acceleration of Gravity 23

Note the careful attention to signs here; we wrote v with its negative ASSESS Make sense? Our expression for v gives a higher speed with
sign and used a 5 2g in Equation 2.7 because we defined downward a greater acceleration or a greater distance y 2 y0 —both as expected.
to be the negative direction in our coordinate system. Our approach here isn’t the only one possible; we could also have
found the time by solving Equation 2.10 and then evaluating the speed
using Equation 2.7. ■

In Example 2.5 the diver was moving downward, and the downward gravitational
acceleration steadily increased his speed. But, as Conceptual Example 2.1 suggested, the
acceleration of gravity is downward regardless of an object’s motion. Throw a ball straight
up, and it’s accelerating downward even while moving upward. Since velocity and accel-
eration are in opposite directions, the ball slows until it reaches its peak, then pauses in-
stantaneously, and then gains speed as it falls. All the while its acceleration is 9.8 m/s2
downward.

EXAMPLE 2.6 Constant Acceleration Due to Gravity: Tossing a Ball

You toss a ball straight up at 7.3 m/s; it leaves your hand at 1.5 m EVALUATE Our sketch shows that we’ve taken y 5 0 at the floor,
above the floor. Find when it hits the floor, the maximum height it so when the ball is at the floor, Equation 2.10 becomes
reaches, and its speed when it passes your hand on the way down. 0 5 y0 1 v0 t 2 12 gt2, which we can solve for t using the quadratic
formula (Appendix A; t 5 A v0 6 2v02 1 2y0 g B /g ). Here v0 is the
INTERPRET We have constant acceleration due to gravity, and here initial velocity, 7.3 m/s; it’s positive because the motion is initially
the object of interest is the ball. We want to find time, height, and upward. The initial position is the hand height so y0 5 1.5 m, and
speed. g of course is 9.8 m/s 2 (we accounted for the downward accelera-
tion by putting a 5 2g in Equation 2.10). Putting in these numbers
DEVELOP The ball starts by going up, eventually comes to a stop, and
gives t 5 1.7 s or 20.18 s; the answer we want is 1.7 s. At the
then heads downward. Figure 2.13 is a sketch of the height versus
peak of its flight, the ball’s velocity is instantaneously zero because
time that we expect, showing what we know and the three quantities
it’s moving neither up nor down. So we set v2 5 0 in Equation 2.11
we’re after. Equation 2.10, x 5 x0 1 v0t 1 12at2, determines position
to get 0 5 v02 2 2g1y 2 y0 2. Solving for y then gives the peak
(here, height y) as a function of time, so our plan is to use that equation
height:
to find the time the ball hits the floor. Then we can use Equation 2.11,
v2 5 v02 1 2a1x 2 x0 2, to find the height at which v 5 0—that is, v02 17.3 m/s22
y 5 y0 1 5 1.5 m 1 5 4.2 m
the peak height. Finally, Equation 2.11 will also give us the speed at 2g 12219.8 m/s22
any height, letting us answer the question about the speed when the To find the speed when the ball reaches 1.5 m on the way down, we
ball passes the height of 1.5 m on its way down. set y 5 y0 in Equation 2.11. The result is v2 5 v02, so v 5 6v0
or 67.3 m/s. Once again, there are two answers. The equation
We’re given the The curve is flat at has given us all the velocities the ball has at 1.5 m—including the ini-
initial speed and the top since speed tial upward velocity and the later downward velocity. We’ve shown
height. is instantaneously here that an upward-thrown object returns to its initial height with
zero.
the same speed it had initially.
We want this
height . . . ASSESS Make sense? With no air resistance to sap the ball of its en-
ergy, it seems reasonable that the ball comes back down with the
. . . and same speed—a fact we’ll explore further when we introduce energy
this speed . . . conservation in Chapter 7. But why are there two answers for time
and velocity? Equation 2.10 doesn’t “know” about your hand or the
floor; it “assumes” the ball has always been undergoing downward
acceleration g. We asked of Equation 2.10 when the ball would be at
y 5 0. The second answer, 1.7 s, was the one we wanted. But if the
ball had always been in free fall, it would also have been on the floor
. . . and this
Here is another 0.18 s earlier, heading upward. That’s the meaning of the other an-
time.
time the ball swer, 20.18 s, as we’ve indicated on our sketch. Similarly, Equa-
would have been tion 2.11 gave us all the velocities the ball had at a height of 1.5 m,
at floor level. including both the initial upward velocity and the later downward
FIGURE 2.13 Our sketch for Example 2.6. velocity. ■
24 Chapter 2 Motion in a Straight Line

✓TIP Multiple Answers

Frequently the mathematics of a problem gives more than one answer. Think about
what each answer means before discarding it! Sometimes an answer isn’t consistent
with the physical assumptions of the problem, but other times all answers are meaning-
ful even if they aren’t all what you’re looking for.

GOT IT? 2.4 Standing on a roof, you simultaneously throw one ball straight up and
drop another from rest. Which hits the ground first? Which hits the ground moving faster?

APPLICATION Keeping Time

The NIST-F1 atomic clock, shown here with its developers, sets the U.S. stan-
dard of time. The clock gets its remarkable accuracy by monitoring a super-
cold clump of freely falling cesium atoms for what is, in this context, a long
time period of about 1 second. The atom clump is put in free fall by a more so-
phisticated version of the ball toss in Example 2.6. In the NIST-F1 clock, laser
beams gently “toss” the ball of atoms upward with a speed that gives it an
up-and-down travel time of about 1 second (see Problem 64). For this reason
NIST-F1 is called an atomic fountain clock. In the photo you can see the
clock’s towerlike structure that accommodates this atomic fountain.
CHAPTER 2 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big ideas here are those of kinematics—the study of motion Rate of Rate of
without regard to its cause. Position, velocity, and acceleration are change change
the quantities that characterize motion: Position Velocity Acceleration

Key Concepts and Equations

Average velocity and acceleration involve changes in position and velocity, respectively, This line’s
occurring over a time interval Dt: slope is the
average
Dx velocity . . .

Position, x
v5 . . . and this line’s
Dt slope is the instantaneous
velocity.
Dv Dx
a5
Dt Dt

Here Dx is the displacement, or change in position, and Dv is the change in velocity. Time, t
Instantaneous values are the limits of infinitesimally small time intervals and are
The average acceleration a
given by calculus as the time derivatives of position and velocity: is this line’s slope . . .
dx
v5
dt . . . while the

Velocity, v
instantaneous
acceleration a
dv is the slope of
a5
dt this line.
Dv
Dt
0
Time, t

Applications
Constant acceleration is a special case that yields simple equations de- An important example is the acceleration of gravity, essentially con-
scribing one-dimensional motion: stant near Earth’s surface, with magnitude approximately 9.8 m/s 2 .
v 5 v0 1 at P At the peak
of its flight,
the ball is
Height, y

x 5 x0 1 v0 t 1 12 at2 instantaneously
at rest.

v2 5 v02 1 2a1x 2 x02

Time, t
These equations apply only in the case of constant acceleration.
v0 Just before the peak,
v is positive; just
after, it’s negative.
x v 0
Time, t
1– 2
Position, x

2
at 2v0

5 v0
Slope
v0 t
x0
x0 a 0
Time, t
Time, t t
29.8 m/s2
Since v is steadily decreasing, the
acceleration is constant and negative.
26 Chapter 2 Motion in a Straight Line

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion the Royal Box at London’s Olympic Stadium. Today’s top
marathoners achieve times around 2 hours, 4 minutes for the stan-
1. Under what conditions are average and instantaneous velocity dard marathon. (a) What’s the average speed of a marathon run in
equal? this time? (b) Marathons before 1908 were typically about 25 miles.
2. Does a speedometer measure speed or velocity? How much longer does the race last today as a result of the extra
3. You check your odometer at the beginning of a day’s driving and mile and 385 yards, assuming it’s run at the average speed?
again at the end. Under what conditions would the difference 14. Starting from home, you bicycle 24 km north in 2.5 h and then
between the two readings represent your displacement? turn around and pedal straight home in 1.5 h. What are your
4. Consider two possible definitions of average speed: (a) the average (a) displacement at the end of the first 2.5 h, (b) average velocity
of the values of the instantaneous speed over a time interval and over the first 2.5 h, (c) average velocity for the homeward leg of
(b) the magnitude of the average velocity. Are these definitions the trip, (d) displacement for the entire trip, and (e) average
equivalent? Give two examples to demonstrate your conclusion. velocity for the entire trip?
5. Is it possible to be at position x 5 0 and still be moving? 15. The Voyager 1 spacecraft is expected to continue broadcasting
6. Is it possible to have zero velocity and still be accelerating? data until at least 2020, when it will be some 14 billion miles
7. If you know the initial velocity v0 and the initial and final heights from Earth. How long will it take Voyager’s radio signals, travel-
y0 and y, you can use Equation 2.10 to solve for the time t when ing at the speed of light, to reach Earth from this distance?
the object will be at height y. But the equation is quadratic in t, 16. In 2008, Australian Emma Snowsill set an unofficial record in
so you’ll get two answers. Physically, why is this? the women’s Olympic triathlon, completing the 1.5-km swim,
8. Starting from rest, an object undergoes acceleration given by 40-km bicycle ride, and 10-km run in 1 h, 58 min, 27.66 s. What
a 5 bt, where t is time and b is a constant. Can you use bt for a was her average speed?
in Equation 2.10 to predict the object’s position as a function of 17. Taking Earth’s orbit to be a circle of radius 1.53108 km, deter-
time? Why or why not? mine Earth’s orbital speed in (a) meters per second and (b) miles
9. In which of the velocity-versus-time graphs shown in Fig. 2.14 per second.
would the average velocity over the interval shown equal the 18. What’s the conversion factor from meters per second to miles per
average of the velocities at the ends of the interval? hour?
Section 2.2 Instantaneous Velocity
19. On a single graph, plot distance versus time for the first two trips
from Houston to Des Moines described on page 14. For each trip,
v v
identify graphically the average velocity and, for each segment
of the trip, the instantaneous velocity.
20. For the motion plotted in Fig. 2.15, estimate (a) the greatest veloc-
t t ity in the positive x-direction, (b) the greatest velocity in the nega-
(a) (b) tive x-direction, (c) any times when the object is instantaneously at
rest, and (d) the average velocity over the interval shown.

5
Distance (m)

v v 4
3
2
t t 1
(c) (d)
1 2 3 4 5 6
FIGURE 2.14 For Thought and Discussion 9 Time (s)

FIGURE 2.15 Exercise 20

10. If you travel in a straight line at 50 km/h for 1 h and at 100 km/h
for another hour, is your average velocity 75 km/h? If not, is it 21. A model rocket is launched straight upward. Its altitude y as a
more or less? function of time is given by y 5 bt 2 ct2 , where b 5 82 m/s,
11. If you travel in a straight line at 50 km/h for 50 km and then at c 5 4.9 m/s 2 , t is the time in seconds, and y is in meters. (a) Use
100 km/h for another 50 km, is your average velocity 75 km/h? differentiation to find a general expression for the rocket’s veloc-
If not, is it more or less? ity as a function of time. (b) When is the velocity zero?
Section 2.3 Acceleration
Exercises and Problems 22. A giant eruption on the Sun propels solar material from rest to
Exercises 450 km/s over a period of 1 h. Find the average acceleration.
23. Starting from rest, a subway train first accelerates to 25 m/s, then
Section 2.1 Average Motion brakes. Forty-eight seconds after starting, it’s moving at 17 m/s.
12. In 2009, Usain Bolt of Jamaica set a world record in the 100-m What’s its average acceleration in this 48-s interval?
dash with a time of 9.58 s. What was his average speed? 24. A space shuttle’s main engines cut off 8.5 min after launch,
13. The standard 26-mile, 385-yard marathon dates to 1908, when the at which time its speed is 7.6 km/s. What’s the shuttle’s average
Olympic marathon started at Windsor Castle and finished before acceleration during this interval?
 Exercises and Problems 27

25. An egg drops from a second-story window, taking 1.12 s to fall Problems
and reaching 11.0 m/s just before hitting the ground. On contact, 43. You allow 40 min to drive 25 mi to the airport, but you’re caught
the egg stops completely in 0.131 s. Calculate the average mag- in heavy traffic and average only 20 mi/h for the first 15 min.
nitudes of its acceleration while falling and while stopping. What must your average speed be on the rest of the trip if you’re
26. An airplane’s takeoff speed is 320 km/h. If its average accelera- to make your flight?
tion is 2.9 m/s 2 , how much time is it accelerating down the run- 44. A base runner can get from first to second base in 3.4 s. If he
way before it lifts off? leaves first as the pitcher throws a 90 mi/h fastball the 61-ft dis-
27. ThrustSSC, the world’s first supersonic car, accelerates from rest tance to the catcher, and if the catcher takes 0.45 s to catch and
to 1000 km/h in 16 s. What’s its acceleration? rethrow the ball, how fast does the catcher have to throw the ball
Section 2.4 Constant Acceleration to second base to make an out? Home plate to second base is the
28. You’re driving at 70 km/h when you apply constant acceleration diagonal of a square 90 ft on a side.
to pass another car. Six seconds later, you’re doing 80 km/h. How 45. You drive 4600 km from coast to coast of the United States at
far did you go in this time? 65 mi/h (105 km/h), stopping an average of 30 min for rest after
29. Differentiate both sides of Equation 2.10, and show that you get every 2 h of driving. (a) What’s your average velocity for the en-
Equation 2.7. tire trip? (b) How long does the trip take?
30. An X-ray tube gives electrons constant acceleration over a distance 46. You can run 9.0 m/s, 20% faster than your brother. How much
of 15 cm. If their final speed is 1.23107 m/s, what are (a) the elec- head start should you give him in order to have a tie race over
trons’ acceleration and (b) the time they spend accelerating? 100 m?
31. A rocket rises with constant acceleration to an altitude of 85 km, 47. A jetliner leaves San Francisco for New York, 4600 km away.
at which point its speed is 2.8 km/s. (a) What’s its acceleration? With a strong tailwind, its speed is 1100 km/h. At the same time,
(b) How long does the ascent take? a second jet leaves New York for San Francisco. Flying into the
32. Starting from rest, a car accelerates at a constant rate, reaching wind, it makes only 700 km/h. When and where do the two
88 km/h in 12 s. Find (a) its acceleration and (b) how far it goes planes pass?
in this time. 48. An object’s position is given by x 5 bt 1 ct3 , where
33. A car moving initially at 50 mi/h begins slowing at a constant b 5 1.50 m/s, c 5 0.640 m/s 3 , and t is time in seconds. To
rate 100 ft short of a stoplight. If the car comes to a full stop just study the limiting process leading to the instantaneous velocity,
at the light, what is the magnitude of its acceleration? calculate the object’s average velocity over time intervals from
34. In a medical X-ray tube, electrons are accelerated to a velocity of (a) 1.00 s to 3.00 s, (b) 1.50 s to 2.50 s, and (c) 1.95 s to 2.05 s.
BIO 10 8 m/s and then slammed into a tungsten target. As they stop, (d) Find the instantaneous velocity as a function of time by differ-
the electrons’ rapid acceleration produces X rays. If the time for entiating, and compare its value at 2 s with your average velocities.
an electron to stop is on the order of 10 29 s, approximately how 49. An object’s position as a function of time t is given by x 5 bt4 ,
far does it move while stopping? with b a constant. Find an expression for the instantaneous veloc-
35. The Barringer meteor crater in Arizona is 180 m deep and 1.2 km ity, and show that the average velocity over the interval from
in diameter. Fragments of the meteor lie just below the bottom of t 5 0 to any time t is one-fourth of the instantaneous velocity at t.
the crater. If these fragments negatively accelerated at a constant 50. In a drag race, the position of a car as a function of time is given
rate of 43105 m/s2 as they plowed through Earth, what was the by x 5 bt2 , with b 5 2.000 m/s 2 . In an attempt to determine
meteor’s speed at impact? the car’s velocity midway down a 400-m track, two observers
36. You’re driving at speed v0 when you spot a stationary moose on stand at the 180-m and 220-m marks and note when the car
the road, a distance d ahead. Find an expression for the magni- passes. (a) What value do the two observers compute for the car’s
tude of the acceleration you need if you’re to stop before hitting velocity over this 40-m stretch? Give your answer to four signifi-
the moose. cant figures. (b) By what percentage does this observed value
differ from the instantaneous value at x 5 200 m?
Section 2.5 The Acceleration of Gravity 51. An object’s position is given by x 5 bt3 , with x in meters, t in
37. You drop a rock into a deep well and 4.4 s later hear a splash. seconds, and b 5 1.5 m/s 3 . Determine (a) the instantaneous ve-
How far down is the water? Neglect the travel time of sound. locity and (b) the instantaneous acceleration at the end of 2.5 s.
38. Your friend is sitting 6.5 m above you on a tree branch. How fast Find (c) the average velocity and (d) the average acceleration
should you throw an apple so it just reaches her? during the first 2.5 s.
39. A model rocket leaves the ground, heading straight up at 49 m/s. 52. Squaring Equation 2.7 gives an expression for v2. Equation 2.11
(a) What’s its maximum altitude? Find its speed and altitude at also gives an expression for v2. Equate the two expressions, and
(b) 1 s, (c) 4 s, and (d) 7 s. show that the resulting equation reduces to Equation 2.10.
40. A foul ball leaves the bat going straight up at 23 m/s. (a) How 53. On packed snow, computerized antilock brakes can reduce a car’s
high does it rise? (b) How long is it in the air? Neglect the dis- stopping distance by 55%. By what percentage is the stopping
tance between bat and ground. time reduced?
41. A Frisbee is lodged in a tree 6.5 m above the ground. A rock 54. A particle leaves its initial position x0 at time t 5 0, moving in
thrown from below must be going at least 3 m/s to dislodge the the positive x-direction with speed v0 but undergoing acceleration
Frisbee. How fast must such a rock be thrown upward if it leaves of magnitude a in the negative x-direction. Find expressions for
the thrower’s hand 1.3 m above the ground? (a) the time when it returns to x0 and (b) its speed when it passes
42. Space pirates kidnap an earthling and hold him on one of the so- that point.
lar system’s planets. With nothing else to do, the prisoner amuses 55. A hockey puck moving at 32 m/s slams through a wall of snow
himself by dropping his watch from eye level (170 cm) to the 35 cm thick. It emerges moving at 18 m/s. Assuming constant ac-
floor. He observes that the watch takes 0.95 s to fall. On what celeration, find (a) the time the puck spends in the snow and
planet is he being held? (Hint: Consult Appendix E.) (b) the thickness of a snow wall that would stop the puck entirely.
28 Chapter 2 Motion in a Straight Line

56. Amtrak’s 20th-Century Limited is en route from Chicago to New 70. A balloon is rising at 10 m/s when its passenger throws a ball
York at 110 km/h when the engineer spots a cow on the track. straight up at 12 m/s relative to the balloon. How much later does
The train brakes to a halt in 1.2 min, stopping just in front of the the passenger catch the ball?
cow. (a) What is the magnitude of the train’s acceleration? 71. Landing on the Moon, a spacecraft fires its rockets and comes to
(b) What’s the direction of the acceleration? (c) How far was the a complete stop just 12 m above the lunar surface. It then drops
train from the cow when the engineer applied the brakes? freely to the surface. How long does it take to fall, and what’s its
57. A jetliner touches down at 220 km/h and comes to a halt 29 s impact speed? (Hint: Consult Appendix E.)
later. What’s the shortest runway on which this aircraft can land? 72. You’re at mission control for a rocket launch, deciding whether
58. A motorist suddenly notices a stalled car and slams on the to let the launch proceed. A band of clouds 5.3 km thick extends
brakes, negatively accelerating at 6.3 m/s 2 . Unfortunately, this upward from 1.9 km altitude. The rocket will accelerate at
isn’t enough, and a collision ensues. From the damage sustained, 4.6 m/s 2 , and it isn’t allowed to be out of sight for more than 30 s.
police estimate that the car was going 18 km/h at the time of the Should you allow the launch?
collision. They also measure skid marks 34 m long. (a) How fast 73. You’re an investigator for the National Transportation Safety
was the motorist going when the brakes were first applied? (b) How Board, examining a subway accident in which a train going at
much time elapsed from the initial braking to the collision? 80 km/h collided with a slower train traveling in the same direc-
59. A racing car undergoing constant acceleration covers 140 m in tion at 25 km/h. Your job is to determine the relative speed of the
3.6 s. (a) If it’s moving at 53 m/s at the end of this interval, what collision, to help establish new crash standards. The faster train’s
was its speed at the beginning of the interval? (b) How far did it “black box” shows that it began negatively accelerating at
travel from rest to the end of the 140-m distance? 2.1 m/s 2 when it was 50 m from the slower train, while the
60. The maximum braking acceleration of a car on a dry road is slower train continued at constant speed. What do you report?
about 8 m/s 2 . If two cars move head-on toward each other at 74. You toss a book into your dorm room, just clearing a windowsill
88 km/h (55 mi/h), and their drivers brake when they’re 85 m 4.2 m above the ground. (a) If the book leaves your hand 1.5 m
apart, will they collide? If so, at what relative speed? If not, how above the ground, how fast must it be going to clear the sill?
far apart will they be when they stop? Plot distance versus time (b) How long after it leaves your hand will it hit the floor, 0.87 m
for both cars on a single graph. below the windowsill?
61. After 35 min of running, at the 9-km point in a 10-km race, you 75. Consider an object traversing a distance L, part of the way at
find yourself 100 m behind the leader and moving at the same speed v1 and the rest of the way at speed v2. Find expressions for
speed. What should your acceleration be if you’re to catch up by the average speeds when the object moves at each of the two
the finish line? Assume that the leader maintains constant speed. speeds (a) for half the total time and (b) for half the distance.
62. You’re speeding at 85 km/h when you notice that you’re only 10 m 76. A particle’s position as a function of time is given by
behind the car in front of you, which is moving at the legal speed x 5 x0 sin vt, where x0 and v are constants. (a) Find expres-
limit of 60 km/h. You slam on your brakes, and your car nega- sions for the velocity and acceleration. (b) What are the maxi-
tively accelerates at 4.2 m/s 2 . Assuming the other car continues mum values of velocity and acceleration? (Hint: Consult the
at constant speed, will you collide? If so, at what relative speed? table of derivatives in Appendix A.)
If not, what will be the distance between the cars at their closest 77. Ice skaters, ballet dancers, and basketball players executing ver-
approach? tical leaps often give the illusion of “hanging” almost motionless
63. Airbags cushioned the Mars rover Spirit’s landing, and the rover near the top of the leap. To see why this is, consider a leap to
bounced some 15 m vertically after its first impact. Assuming no maximum height h. Of the total time spent in the air, what frac-
loss of speed at contact with the Martian surface, what was tion is spent in the upper half (i.e., at y . 12 h)?
Spirit’s impact speed? 78. You’re staring idly out your dorm window when you see a wa-
64. Calculate the speed with which cesium atoms must be “tossed” ter balloon fall past. If the balloon takes 0.22 s to cross the
in the NIST-F1 atomic clock so that their up-and-down travel 1.3-m-high window, from what height above the window was it
time is 1.0 s. (See the Application on page 24.) dropped?
65. A falling object travels one-fourth of its total distance in the last 79. A police radar’s effective range is 1.0 km, and your radar detec-
second of its fall. From what height was it dropped? tor’s range is 1.9 km. You’re going 110 km/h in a 70 km/h zone
66. You’re on a NASA team engineering a probe to land on Jupiter’s when the radar detector beeps. At what rate must you negatively
moon Io, and your job is to specify the impact speed the probe accelerate to avoid a speeding ticket?
can tolerate without damage. Rockets will bring the probe to a 80. An object starts moving in a straight line from position x0 , at
halt 100 m above the surface, after which it will fall freely. What time t 5 0, with velocity v0. Its acceleration is given by
speed do you specify? (Consult Appendix E.) a 5 a0 1 bt, where a0 and b are constants. Find expressions for
67. You’re atop a building of height h, and a friend is poised to drop (a) the instantaneous velocity and (b) the position, as functions
a ball from a window at h/2. Find an expression for the speed at of time.
which you should simultaneously throw a ball downward, so the 81. You’re a consultant on a movie set, and the producer wants a car
two hit the ground at the same time. to drop so that it crosses the camera’s field of view in time Dt.
68. A castle’s defenders throw rocks down on their attackers from a The field of view has height h. Derive an expression for the
15-m-high wall, with initial speed 10 m/s. How much faster are height above the top of the field of view from which the car
the rocks moving when they hit the ground than if they were sim- should be released.
ply dropped? 82. (a) For the ball in Example 2.6, find its velocity just before it hits
69. Two divers jump from a 3.00-m platform. One jumps upward at the floor. (b) Suppose you had tossed a second ball straight down
1.80 m/s, and the second steps off the platform as the first passes at 7.3 m/s (from the same place 1.5 m above the floor). What
it on the way down. (a) What are their speeds as they hit the would its velocity be just before it hits the floor? (c) When would
water? (b) Which hits the water first and by how much? the second ball hit the floor? (Interpret any multiple answers.)
 Answers to Chapter Questions 29

83. Your roommate is an aspiring novelist and asks your opinion on 87. At which marked point(s) is the tiger not accelerating?
a matter of physics. The novel’s central character is kept awake a. E only
at night by a leaky faucet. The sink is 19.6 cm below the faucet. b. A, E, and H
At the instant one drop leaves the faucet, another strikes the sink c. C and F
below and two more are in between on the way down. How many d. all of the points (it’s never accelerating)
drops per second are keeping the protagonist awake? 88. At which point does the tiger have the greatest speed?
84. You and your roommate plot to drop water balloons on students a. B
entering your dorm. Your window is 20 m above the sidewalk. b. C
You plan to place an X on the sidewalk to mark the spot a student c. D
must be when you drop the balloon. You note that most students d. F
approach the dorm at about 2 m/s. How far from the impact point
89. At which point does the tiger’s acceleration have the greatest
do you place the X?
magnitude?
85. Derive Equation 2.10 by integrating Equation 2.7 over time.
a. B
You’ll have to interpret the constant of integration.
b. C
Passage Problems c. D
A wildlife biologist is studying the hunting patterns of tigers. She anes- d. F
thetizes a tiger and attaches a GPS collar to track its movements. The 90. At which point is the tiger farthest from its starting position
collar transmits data on the tiger’s position and velocity. Figure 2.16 at t 5 0?
shows the tiger’s velocity as a function of time as it moves on a one- a. C
dimensional path. b. E
c. F
1, right
d. H
C
Velocity, v

0 A
B D Answers to Chapter Questions
Time, t r H
E G
F Answer to Chapter Opening Question
Although the ball’s velocity is zero at the top of its motion, its accel-
2, left
eration is 29.8 m/s 2 , as it is throughout the toss.

Answers to GOT IT? Questions

FIGURE 2.16 The tiger’s velocity (Passage Problems 86–90)
2.1. (a) and (b); average speed is greater for (c).
2.2. (b) moves with constant speed; (a) reverses; (d) speeds up.
86. At which marked point(s) is the tiger not moving? 2.3. (a) halfway between the times. Because its acceleration is con-
a. E only stant, the police car’s speed increases by equal amounts in equal
b. A, E, and H times. So it gets from 0 to half its final velocity—which is twice
c. C and F the car’s velocity—in half the total time.
d. none of the points (it’s always moving) 2.4. The dropped ball hits first; the thrown ball hits moving faster.
 3 Motion in Two
and Three Dimensions

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Use vectors to describe position,
velocity, and acceleration in three
dimensions (3.1, 3.2).
■ Add and subtract vectors, and multi-
ply them by scalars (3.1).
■ Explain how the effects of accelera-
tion depend on the direction of
acceleration relative to velocity (3.2).
■ Transform velocities to different
reference frames (3.3).
■ Solve quantitative problems involv-
ing motion in two dimensions with
constant acceleration, including pro-
jectile motion with the acceleration
of gravity (3.4, 3.5).
■ Explain why circular motion
necessarily entails acceleration, and
solve quantitative problems involv-
ing uniform circular motion (3.6).
At what angle should this penguin leave the
water to maximize the range of its jump?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ You should understand the concepts
of position, velocity, and acceleration
W hat’s the speed of an orbiting satellite? How should I leap to win the long-jump competi-
tion? How do I engineer a curve in the road for safe driving? These and many other ques-
tions involve motion in more than one dimension. In this chapter we extend the ideas of
in one dimension (2.1–2.3). one-dimensional motion to these more complex—and more interesting—situations.
■ You should know how to solve prob-
lems in one-dimensional motion
with constant acceleration (2.4).
3.1 Vectors
■ You should be familiar with the We’ve seen that quantities describing motion have direction as well as magnitude. In
acceleration of gravity near Earth’s Chapter 2, a simple plus or minus sign took care of direction. But now, in two or three di-
surface, and be able to apply it to mensions, we need a way to account for all possible directions. We do this with mathe-
one-dimensional motion under the matical quantities called vectors, which express both magnitude and direction. Vectors
influence of gravity (2.5). stand in contrast to scalars, which are quantities that have no direction.

Position and Displacement

The simplest vector quantity is position. Given an origin, we can characterize any position
in space by drawing an arrow from the origin to that position. That arrow is a pictorial rep-
!
resentation of a position vector, which we call r . The arrow over the r indicates that this
is a vector quantity, and it’s crucial to include the arrow whenever you’re dealing with

30
 3.1 Vectors 31

vectors. Figure 3.1 shows a position vector in a two-dimensional coordinate system; this The vector rr1
vector describes a point a distance of 2 m from the origin, in a direction 30° from the hor- describes the
position of this
izontal axis.
! point.
Suppose you walk from the origin straight to the point described by the vector r1 in Fig. 3.1,
and then you turn right and walk another 1 m. Figure 3.2 shows how you can tell where
O is the
you end up. Draw a second vector whose length represents 1 m and that points to the right; r
! arbitrary r1
2.0
m
we’ll call this vector Dr because it’s a displacement vector, representing a change in po- origin.
! ! !
sition. Put the tail of Dr at the head of the vector r1; then the head of Dr shows your end- 30°
ing position. The result is the same as if you had walked straight from the origin to this O
!
position. So the new position is described by a third vector r2, as indicated in Fig. 3.2. !
FIGURE 3.1 A position vector r1.
What we’ve just described is vector addition. To add two vectors, put the second vector’s
tail at the head of the first; the sum is then the vector that extends from the tail of the first
!
vector to the head of the second, as does r2 in Fig. 3.2. Drr
A vector has both magnitude and direction—but because that’s all the information it
contains, it doesn’t matter where it starts. So you’re free to move a vector around to form rr1
vector sums. Figure 3.3 shows some examples of vector addition and also shows that vec- rr2
tor addition obeys simple rules you know for regular arithmetic. 30°

! ! !
FIGURE 3.2 Vectors r1 and Dr sum to r2.
Vector
r
addition
r r
is commutative: Vector
r
addition isralso rassociative:
r
r r r
A 1 B 5 B 1 A. (A 1 B ) 1 C 5 A 1 (B 1 C).
r
r r
B B B
r r
r r C C
r B1A
A r r r r r
r r
r r A A A1B A B1C
A1B
r
B r r r r r r
(A 1 B ) 1 C A 1 (B 1 C)

FIGURE 3.3 Vector addition is commutative and associative.

Multiplication
!
You and I jog in the same direction, but you go! twice as far. Your displacement
! ! vector, B,
is twice as long as my displacement vector, A; mathematically, B 5 2A. That’s what it
means to multiply a vector by a scalar; simply rescale the magnitude of the vector by that
scalar. If the scalar is negative, then the vector direction reverses—and that provides a way
! ! !
to subtract vectors. In Fig. 3.2, for example, you can see that r1 5 r2 1 1212D r , or sim-
! ! !
ply r1 5 r2 2 D r . Later, we’ll see ways to multiply two vectors, but for now the only mul-
tiplication we consider is a vector multiplied by a scalar.

Vector Components
You can always add vectors graphically, as shown in Fig. 3.2, or you can use geometric re-
lationships like the laws of sines and cosines to accomplish the same thing algebraically.
In both these approaches, you specify a vector by giving its magnitude and direction. But
Here’s the y- This is the
often it’s more convenient instead to describe vectors using their components in a given component magnitude
r r
coordinate system. of A. of A.
A coordinate system is a framework for describing positions in space. It’s a mathe-
A cosu
matical construct, and you’re free to choose whatever coordinate system you want. You’ve Ay
already seen Cartesian or rectangular coordinate systems, in which a pair of numbers 2
Ay
1x, y2 represents each point in a plane. You could also think of each point as representing 2
Ax
1
A sinu
r
the head of a position vector, in which case the numbers x and y are the vector compo- A5 A
nents. The components tell how much of the vector is in the x-direction and how much is u
in the y-direction. Not all vectors represent actual positions in space; for example, there Ax
r
are velocity, acceleration, and force vectors. The lengths of these vectors represent the! This is A’s Here’s the x- r
magnitudes of the corresponding physical quantities. For an arbitrary vector quantity A, direction. component of A.
we designate the components A x and A y (Fig. 3.4). Note that the components themselves FIGURE 3.4 Magnitude/direction and !
aren’t vectors but scalars. component representations of vector A.
32 Chapter 3 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

In two dimensions it takes two quantities to specify a vector—either its magnitude and
direction or its components. They’re related by the Pythagorean theorem and the defini-
tions of the trig functions, as shown in Fig. 3.4:
Ay
A 5 2A x2 1 A y2 and tan u 5 1vector magnitude and direction2 (3.1)
Ax

Ay Without the arrow above it, a vector’s symbol stands for the vector’s magnitude. Going the
≥^ other way, we have
A y
Ay ≥^ ı^ 1
r
Ax A x 5 A cos u and A y 5 A sin u 1vector components2 (3.2)
A5 ! ! !
≥^ If a vector A has zero magnitude, we write A 5 0, where the vector arrow on the zero
ı^ Ax ı^ Ax indicates that both components must be zero.
(a)
Unit Vectors
y It’s cumbersome to say “a vector of magnitude 2 m at 30° to the x-axis” or, equivalently,
“a vector whose x- and y-components are 1.73 m and 1.0 m, respectively.” We can ex-
press this more succinctly using the unit vectors ı^ and ^/ (read as “i hat”). These unit
Ay ≥^
vectors have magnitude 1, no units, and point along the x- and y-axes, respectively.
r
In three dimensions we add a third unit vector, k^ , along the z-axis. Any vector in the
A
x-direction can be written as some number—perhaps with units, such as meters or me-
≥^ ı^ ters per second—times the unit vector ı^, and analogously in the y-direction using ^/. That
Az k^ Ax ı^
k^ means
! any vector in a plane can be written as a sum involving the two unit vectors:
x
A 5 A x ı^ 1 A y ^/ (Fig. 3.5a). Similarly, any vector in space can be written with the three
z
unit vectors (Fig. 3.5b).
(b)
The unit vectors convey only direction; the numbers that multiply them give size and
units. Together they provide compact representations of vectors, including units. The dis-
FIGURE 3.5 Vectors in (a) a plane and ! !
(b) space, expressed using unit vectors. placement vector r1 in Fig. 3.1, for example, is r1 5 1.7ı^ 1 1.0 ^/ m.

EXAMPLE 3.1 Unit Vectors: Taking a Drive

You drive to a city 160 km from home, going 35° north of east. sketch shows the component values and the final answer. Note that we
Express your new position in unit vector notation, using an east-west/ treat 131 ı^ 1 92 ^/ as a single vector quantity, labeling it at the end with
north-south coordinate system. the appropriate unit, km. ■

INTERPRET We interpret this as a problem about writing a vector in

The city’s position
unit vector notation, given its magnitude and direction. is described by the
r
vector r.
DEVELOP Unit vector notation multiplies a vector’s x- and y-components
by the unit vectors ı^ and ^/ and sums the results, so we draw a sketch
showing those components (Fig. 3.6). Our plan is to solve for the two
components, multiply by the unit vectors, and then add. Equations 3.2
determine the components.

EVALUATE We have x 5 r cos u 5 1160 km21cos 35°2 5 131 km and

y 5 r sin u 5 1160 km21sin 35°2 5 92 km. Then the position of the
city is
!
r 5 131 ı^ 1 92 ^/ km

ASSESS Make sense? Figure 3.6 suggests that the x-component

should be longer than the y component, as our answer indicates. Our FIGURE 3.6 Our sketch for Example 3.1.
 3.2 Velocity and Acceleration Vectors 33

Vector Arithmetic with Unit Vectors

Vector
! addition is simple! with unit vectors: Just add the corresponding components. If
A 5 A x ^ı 1 A y ^/ and B 5 Bx ^ı 1 By ^/, for example, then their sum is
! !
A 1 B 5 1A x ı^ 1 A y ^/2 1 1Bx ı^ 1 By ^/2 5 1A x 1 Bx2ı^ 1 1A y 1 By2^/
Subtraction and multiplication by a scalar are similarly straightforward.

GOT IT? 3.1 Which vector describes a displacement of 10 units in a direction 30°
below the positive x-axis? (a) 10ı^ 2 10 ^/, (b) 5.0ı^ 2 8.6 ^/, (c) 8.6ı^ 2 5.0 ^/, (d) 101^ı 1 ^/2

3.2 Velocity and Acceleration Vectors

We defined velocity in one dimension as the rate of change of position. In two or three
dimensions it’s the same thing, except now the change in position—displacement—is a
vector. So we write
!
! Dr
v5 1average velocity vector2 (3.3)
Dt
for the average velocity, in analogy with Equation 2.1. Here division by Dt simply means
multiplying by 1/Dt. As before, instantaneous velocity is given by a limiting process:
! !
! Dr dr
v 5 lim 5 1instantaneous velocity vector2 (3.4)
Dt S 0 Dt dt
!
Again, that derivative dr /dt is shorthand for the result of the limiting process, taking ever
!
smaller time intervals Dt and the corresponding displacements Dr . Another way to look at
!
Equation 3.4 is in terms of components. If r 5 xı^ 1 y ^/, then we can write
!
! dr dx dy
v5 5 ı^ 1 ^/ 5 vx ı^ 1 vy ^/
dt dt dt
where the velocity components vx and vy are the derivatives of the position components.
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, so we write
!
! Dv
a5 1average acceleration vector2 (3.5)
Dt
for the average acceleration and
! !
! Dv dv
a 5 lim 5 1instantaneous acceleration vector2 (3.6)
Dt S 0 Dt dt
for the instantaneous acceleration. We can also express instantaneous acceleration in com-
ponents, as we did for velocity:
! dvy
! dv dvx
a5 5 ı^ 1 ^/ 5 ax ı^ 1 ay ^/
dt dt dt

Velocity and Acceleration in Two Dimensions

Motion in a straight line may or may not involve acceleration, but motion on curved paths in
two or three dimensions is always accelerated motion. Why? Because moving in multiple
dimensions means changing direction—and any change in velocity, including direction,
34 Chapter 3 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

ar involves acceleration. Get used to thinking of acceleration as meaning more than “speeding
up” or “slowing down.” It can equally well mean “changing direction,” whether or not speed
vr0 Dvr 5 aDt
r
is also changing. Whether acceleration results in a speed change, a direction change, or both
vr 5 vr0 1 Dvr depends on the relative orientation of the velocity and acceleration vectors.
Suppose you’re driving down a straight road at speed v0 when you step on the gas to give
!
(a) a constant acceleration a for a time Dt. Equation 3.5 shows that the change in your velocity
! !
r
a is Dv 5 a Dt. In this case the acceleration is in the same direction as your velocity and, as
Fig. 3.7a shows, the result is an increase in the magnitude of your velocity; that is, you speed
vr0 up. Step on the brake, and your acceleration is opposite your velocity, and you slow down
(Fig. 3.7b).
Dvr 5 ar Dt

vr 5 vr0 1 aDt
r ✓TIP Vectors Tell It All
Are you thinking there should be a minus sign in Fig. 3.7b because the speed is decreasing?
(b) ! ! !
Nope: Vectors have both magnitude and direction, and the vector addition v 5 v0 1 a Dt
! ! !
FIGURE 3.7 When v and a are co- tells it all. In Fig. 3.7b, Dv points to the left, and that takes care of the “subtraction.”
linear, only the speed changes.

In two dimensions acceleration and velocity can be at any angle. In general, accelera-
tion then changes both the magnitude and the direction of the velocity (Fig. 3.8). Particu-
r
a ! !
larly interesting is the case when a is perpendicular to v ; then only the direction of motion
changes. If acceleration is constant—in both magnitude and direction—then the two vec-
!
vr0 tors won’t stay perpendicular once the direction of v starts to change, and the magnitude
will change, too. But in the special case where acceleration changes direction so it’s al-
Dvr 5 ar Dt ways perpendicular to velocity, then it’s strictly true that only the direction of motion
vr 5 vr0 1 Dvr changes. Figure 3.9 illustrates this point, which we’ll soon explore quantitatively.

FIGURE 3.8 In general, acceleration GOT IT? 3.2 An object is accelerating downward. Which, if any, of the following
changes both the magnitude and the must be true? (a) The object cannot be moving upward. (b) The object cannot be moving in
direction of velocity.
a straight line. (c) The object is moving directly downward. (d) If the object’s motion is
instantaneously horizontal, it can’t continue to be so.

Initially ar changes only

r
the direction of v, but
soon ar and vr are no longer
3.3 Relative Motion
perpendicular, so vr changes, You stroll down the aisle of a plane, walking toward the front at a leisurely 4 km/h. Meanwhile
too. the plane is moving relative to the ground at 1000 km/h. Obviously, then, you’re moving at
v0
r r
a 1004 km/h relative to the ground. As this example suggests, velocity is meaningful only when
we know the answer to the question, Velocity relative to what? That “what” is called a frame
of reference. Often we know an object’s velocity relative to one frame of reference—for
r r
example, your velocity relative to the plane—and we want to know its velocity relative to some
r Dv 5 a Dt
v other reference frame—in this case the ground. In this one-dimensional case, we can simply
add the two velocities. If you had been walking toward the back of the plane, then the two ve-
locities would have opposite signs and you would be going at 996 km/h relative to the ground.
(a) The same idea works in two dimensions, but here we need to recognize that velocity is
!
a vector. Suppose that airplane is flying with velocity ! v 9 relative to the air. If a wind is
If ar stays perpendicular
r blowing, then the air is moving with some velocity V relative to the ground. The plane’s
to v, then only direction !
changes. velocity v relative to the ground is the vector sum of its velocity relative to the air and the
r
v air’s velocity relative to the ground:
r
a ! ! !
v 5 v9 1 V 1relative velocity2 (3.7)
Here we use lowercase letters for the velocities of an object relative to two different refer-!
ence frames; we distinguish the two with the prime on one of the velocities. The capital V
is the relative velocity between the two frames. In general, Equation 3.7 lets us use the ve-
(b) locity of an object in one reference frame! to find its velocity relative to another frame—
FIGURE 3.9 Acceleration that is always perpendi- provided we know that relative velocity V. Example 3.2 illustrates the application of this
cular to velocity changes only the direction. idea to aircraft navigation.
 3.4 Constant Acceleration 35

EXAMPLE 3.2 Relative Velocity: Navigating a Jetliner

A jetliner flies at 960 km/h relative to the air. It’s going from Hous- the plane is flying northward and the wind is blowing eastward, a
ton to Omaha, 1290 km northward. At cruising altitude a wind is suitable coordinate system has x-axis eastward and y-axis northward.
blowing eastward at 190 km/h. In what direction should the plane Our plan is to work out the vector components in these coordinates
fly? How long will the trip take? and then apply Equation 3.7.

INTERPRET This is a problem involving relative velocities. We iden- EVALUATE Using Equations 3.2 for the vector components, we can
tify the given information: the plane’s speed, but not its direction, in express the three vectors as
! ! !
the reference frame of the air; the plane’s direction, but not its speed, v 9 5 v9 cos u ı^ 1 v9 sin u ^/, V 5 V ı^, and v 5 v ^/
in the reference frame of the ground; and the wind velocity, both !
Here we know the magnitude v9 of the velocity v 9, but we don’t ! know
speed and direction.
the angle u. We know the magnitude V of the! wind velocity V, and we
! ! ! !
DEVELOP Equation 3.7, v 5 v 9 1 V, applies, and we identify v as also know its direction—toward the east. So V has only an x-component.
! !
the plane’s velocity relative to the ground, v 9 as its velocity relative Meanwhile we want the velocity v relative to the ground to be purely
! !
to! the air, and V as the wind velocity. Equation 3.7 shows that v 9 and northward, so it has only a y-component—although we don’t know its
! magnitude v. We’re now ready to put the three velocities into Equa-
V add vectorially to give v ; that, with the given information, helps us
! tion 3.7. Since two vectors are equal only if all their components are
draw the situation (Fig. 3.10). Measuring the angle of v 9 and the
! equal, we can express the vector Equation 3.7 as two separate scalar
length of v in the diagram would then give the answers. However,
we’ll work the problem algebraically using vector components. Since equations for the x- and y-components:
x-component: v9 cos u 1 V 5 0
y-component: v9 sin u 1 0 5 v
The rest is math, evaluating the unknowns u and v. Solving the x equa-
tion gives
V 190 km/h
u 5 cos21 a 2 b 5 cos21 a 2 b 5 101.4°
v9 960 km/h
This angle is measured from the x-axis (eastward; see Fig. 3.10), so it
amounts to a flight path 11° west of north. We can then evaluate v
from the y equation:
v 5 v9 sin u 5 1960 km/h21sin 101.4°2 5 941 km/h
That’s the plane’s speed relative to the ground. Going 1290 km will
then take 11290 km2/1941 km/h2 5 1.4 h.

ASSESS Make sense? The plane’s heading of 11° west of north seems
reasonable compensation for an eastward wind blowing at 190 km/h,
given the plane’s airspeed of 960 km/h. If there were no wind, the trip
would take 1 h, 20 min (1290 km divided by 960 km/h), so our time
FIGURE 3.10 Our vector diagram for Example 3.2. of 1 h, 24 min with the wind makes sense. ■

3.4 Constant Acceleration

When acceleration is constant, the individual components of the acceleration vector are
themselves constant. Furthermore, the component of acceleration in one direction has
no effect on the motion in a perpendicular direction (Fig. 3.11, next page). Then with
constant acceleration, the separate components of the motion must obey the constant-
acceleration formulas we developed in Chapter 2 for one-dimensional motion. Using
vector notation, we can then generalize Equations 2.7 and 2.10 to read
! ! !
v 5 v0 1 at 1for constant acceleration only2 (3.8)
! ! ! !
r 5 r0 1 v 0 t 1 12 a t2 1for constant acceleration only2 (3.9)
!
where r is the position vector. In two dimensions, each of these vector equations repre-
sents a pair of scalar equations describing constant acceleration in two mutually perpendi-
cular directions. Equation 3.9, for example, contains the pair x 5 x0 1 vx0 t 1 12 ax t2 and
36 Chapter 3 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

Vertical spacing is
the same, showing
that vertical and
horizontal motions
are independent.

FIGURE 3.11 Two marbles, one dropped and

the other projected horizontally.

!
y 5 y0 1 vy0 t 1 12 ay t2. (Remember that the components of the displacement vector r are
just the coordinates x and y.) In three dimensions there would be a third equation for the
z-component. Starting with these vector forms of the equations of motion, you can apply
Problem-Solving Strategy 2.1 to problems in two or three dimensions.

EXAMPLE 3.3 Acceleration in Two Dimensions: Windsurfing

!
You’re windsurfing at 7.3 m/s when a gust hits, accelerating your EVALUATE With the x-direction along the initial velocity, v 0 5 7.3 ^ı m/s.
!
sailboard at 0.82 m/s2 at 60° to your original direction. If the gust As Fig. 3.12 shows, the acceleration is a 5 0.41ı^ 1 0.71/^ m/s2. Our
lasts 8.7 s, what’s the board’s displacement during this time? choice of origin gives x0 5 y0 5 0, so the two components of Equa-
tion 3.9 are
INTERPRET This is a problem involving constant acceleration in two
x 5 vx0 t 1 12 ax t2 5 79.0 m
dimensions. The key concept is that motion in perpendicular direc-
tions is independent, so we can treat the problem as involving two sep- y 5 12 ay t2 5 26.9 m
!
arate one-dimensional motions. where we used the appropriate components of a and where t 5 8.7 s.
!
! ! ! ! The new position vector is then r 5 x ı^ 1 y ^/ 5 79.0 ı^ 1 26.9 ^/ m,
DEVELOP Equation 3.9, r 5 r0 1 v0 t 1 2 a t2, will give the board’s
1
giving a net displacement of r 5 2x2 1 y2 5 83 m.
displacement. We need a coordinate system, so we take the x-axis
along the board’s initial motion, with the origin at the point where the ASSESS Make sense? Figure 3.13 shows how the acceleration deflects
gust first hits. Our plan is to find the components of the acceleration the sailboard from its original path and also increases its speed some-
vector and then apply the two components of Equation 3.9 to get the what. Since the acceleration makes a fairly large angle with the initial
components of the displacement. In Fig. 3.12 we draw the accelera- velocity, the change in direction is the greater effect. ■
tion vector to determine its components.

!
FIGURE 3.13 Our sketch of the displacement r and curved path (dashed) for
FIGURE 3.12 Our sketch of the sailboard’s acceleration components. the sailboard.
 3.5 Projectile Motion 37

GOT IT? 3.3 An object is moving initially in the 1x-direction. Which of the follow-
ing accelerations, all acting for the same time interval, will cause the greatest change in its
speed? In its direction? (a) 10ı^ m/s2, (b) 10 ^/ m/s2, (c) 10ı^ 1 5 ^/ m/s2, (d) 2ı^ 2 8 ^/ m/s2

3.5 Projectile Motion

A projectile is an object that’s launched into the air and then moves predominantly under
the influence of gravity. Examples are numerous; baseballs, jets of water, fireworks, mis-
siles, ejecta from volcanoes, drops of ink in an ink-jet printer, and leaping dolphins are all
projectiles.
To treat projectile motion, we make two simplifying assumptions: (1) We neglect any
variation in the direction or magnitude of the gravitational acceleration, and (2) we neg-
lect air resistance. The first assumption is equivalent to neglecting Earth’s curvature, and
is valid for projectiles whose displacements are small compared with Earth’s radius. Air
resistance has a more variable effect; for dense, compact objects it’s often negligible,
but for objects whose ratio of surface area to mass is large—like ping-pong balls and
parachutes—air resistance dramatically alters the motion.
To describe projectile motion, it’s convenient to choose a coordinate system with the
y-axis vertically upward and the x-axis horizontal. With the only acceleration provided by
gravity, ax 5 0 and ay 5 2g, so the components of Equations 3.8 and 3.9 become
vx 5 vx 0 (3.10)
vy 5 vy 0 2 gt (for constant (3.11)
u gravitational
x 5 x0 1 vx 0 t acceleration) (3.12)
y 5 y0 1 vy 0 t 2 2 gt
1 2
(3.13)
We take g to be positive, and account for the downward direction using minus signs. Equa-
tions 3.10–3.13 tell us mathematically what Fig. 3.14 tells us physically: Projectile motion
comprises two perpendicular and independent components—horizontal motion with con-
stant velocity and vertical motion with constant acceleration.

y
vy 5 0 3 vr vy 5 0
3 r 3
a
r
vy v 4
2 4 r
2 r
a v vy
r
a
r
vy v
1 5 5
1 r r
x
r v
a a vy

vx doesn’t
change. 1 2 3 4 5
vx vx vx vx vx

FIGURE 3.14 Velocity and acceleration at five points on a projectile’s path. Also
shown are horizontal and vertical components.
38 Chapter 3 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 3.1 Projectile Motion

INTERPRET Make sure that you have a problem involving the constant acceleration of gravity
near Earth’s surface, and that the motion involves both horizontal and vertical components.
Identify the object or objects in question and whatever initial or final positions and velocities
are given. Know what quantities you’re being asked to find.
DEVELOP Establish a horizontal/vertical coordinate system, and write the separate components
of the equations of motion (Equations 3.10–3.13). The equations for different components will
be linked by a common variable—namely, time. Draw a sketch showing the initial motion and
a rough trajectory.
EVALUATE Solve your individual equations simultaneously for the unknowns of the
problem.
ASSESS Check that your answer makes sense. Consider special cases, like purely vertical or
horizontal initial velocities. Because the equations of motion are quadratic in time, you may
have two answers. One answer may be the one you want, but you gain more insight into physics
if you consider the meaning of the second answer, too.

EXAMPLE 3.4 Finding the Horizontal Distance: Washout!

A raging flood has washed away a section of highway, creating a gash Equation 3.12 to get the horizontal distance. If we choose the origin as
1.7 m deep. A car moving at 31 m/s goes straight over the edge. How the bottom of the washout, then y0 5 1.7 m. Then we want the time
far from the edge of the washout does it land? when y 5 0.

INTERPRET This is a problem involving projectile motion, and it asks EVALUATE With vy0 5 0, we solve Equation 3.13 for t:
for the horizontal distance the car moves after it leaves the road. We’re 2y0 12211.7 m2
given the car’s initial speed and direction (horizontal) and the distance t5 5 5 0.589 s
Bg B 19.8 m/s22
it falls.
During this time the car continues to move horizontally at vx0 5
DEVELOP Figure 3.15a shows the situation, and we’ve sketched the es- 31 m/s, so Equation 3.12 gives x 5 vx0 t 5 131 m/s210.589 s2 5
sentials in Fig. 3.15b. Since there’s no horizontal acceleration, Equa- 18 m.
tion 3.12, x 5 x0 1 vx0 t, would determine the unknown distance if we
knew the time. But horizontal and vertical motions are independent, so ASSESS Make sense? About half a second to drop 1.7 m or about 6 ft
we can find the time until the car hits the ground from the vertical mo- seems reasonable, and at 31 m/s an object will go somewhat farther
tion alone, as determined by Equation 3.13, y 5 y0 1 vy0 t 2 12 gt2. So than 15 m in this time. ■
our plan is to get the time from Equation 3.13 and then use that time in

1.7 m

(a) (b)

FIGURE 3.15 (a) The highway and car, and (b) our sketch.

✓TIP Multistep Problems

Example 3.4 asked for the horizontal distance the car traveled. For that we needed the
time—which we weren’t given. This is a common situation in all but the simplest
physics problems. You need to work through several steps to get the answer—in this
 3.5 Projectile Motion 39

case solving first for the unknown time and then for the distance. In essence, we y
solved two problems in Example 3.4: the first involving vertical motion and the sec-
ond horizontal motion.
Instead of calculating t numerically in Example 3.4, we could have kept
t 5 12y0 /g in symbolic form until the end. That would avoid roundoff error and hav- vr
vy 0 0
ing to keep track of numerical digits and units. And you can often gain more physical
u0
insight from an answer that’s expressed symbolically before you put in the numbers. vx 0 x
Horizontal range

Projectile Trajectories FIGURE 3.16 Parabolic trajectory of a projectile.

We’re often interested in the path, or trajectory, of a projectile without the details of
where it is at each instant of time. We can specify the trajectory by giving the height y as a
APPLICATION Pop Flies, Line
function of the horizontal position x. Consider a projectile launched from the origin at
Drives, and
some angle u0 to the horizontal, with initial speed v0. As Fig. 3.16 suggests, the compo-
Hang Times
nents of the initial velocity are vx0 5 v0 cos u0 and vy0 5 v0 sin u0. Then Equations 3.12 and
3.13 become Although air resistance significantly influences
baseball trajectories, to a first approximation
x 5 v0 cos u0 t and y 5 v0 sin u0 t 2 12 gt2 baseballs behave like projectiles. For a given
speed off the bat, this means a pop fly’s “hang
Solving the x equation for the time t gives time” is much greater than that of a nearly hori-
x zontal line drive, and that makes the fly ball
t5 much easier to catch (see photo).
v0 cos u0
Using this result in the y equation, we have
x x 2
y 5 v0 sin u0 a b 2 12 g a b
v0 cos u0 v0 cos u0
or
g
y 5 x tan u0 2 x2 1projectile trajectory2 (3.14)
2v02 cos2 u0
Equation 3.14 gives a mathematical description of the projectile’s trajectory. Since y is a
quadratic function of x, the trajectory is a parabola.

EXAMPLE 3.5 Finding the Trajectory: Out of the Hole

A construction worker stands in a 2.6-m-deep hole, 3.1 m from the
edge of the hole. He tosses a hammer to a companion outside the hole.
If the hammer leaves his hand 1.0 m above the bottom of the hole at We want v0 so that the hammer will
just clear the point x 5 3.1 m,
an angle of 35 °, what’s the minimum speed it needs to clear the edge y 5 1.6 m.
of the hole? How far from the edge of the hole does it land?

INTERPRET We’re concerned about where an object is but not when,

so we interpret this as a problem about the trajectory—specifically,
the minimum-speed trajectory that just grazes the edge of the hole.

DEVELOP We draw the situation in Fig. 3.17. Equation 3.14 deter-

mines the trajectory, so our plan is to find the speed that makes the tra-
jectory pass just over the edge of the hole at x 5 3.1 m, y 5 1.6 m,
where Fig. 3.17 shows that we’ve chosen a coordinate system with its
origin at the worker’s hand. FIGURE 3.17 Our sketch for Example 3.5.

(continued)
40 Chapter 3 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

EVALUATE To find the minimum speed we solve Equation 3.14 for v0, and x 5 8.7 m; the second value is the one we want. That 8.7 m is
using the coordinates of the hole’s edge for x and y: the distance from our origin at the worker’s hand, and amounts to
gx2 8.7 m 2 3.1 m 5 5.6 m from the hole’s edge.
v0 5 5 11 m/s
B 2 cos2 u0 1x tan u0 2 y2 ASSESS Make sense? The other answer to the quadratic, x 5 3.1 m,
To find where the hammer lands, we need to know the horizontal po- is a clue that we did the problem correctly. That 3.1 m is the distance
sition when y 5 1.6 m. Rearranging Equation 3.14 into the standard to the edge of the hole. The fact that we get this position when we ask
form for a quadratic equation gives 1g/2v02 cos2 u02x2 2 1tan u02x 1 for a vertical height of 1.6 m confirms that the trajectory does indeed
y 5 0. Applying the quadratic formula (Appendix A) gives x 5 3.1 m just clear the edge of the hole. ■

The Range of a Projectile

How far will a soccer ball go if I kick it at 12 m/s at 50° to the horizontal? If I can throw a
rock at 15 m/s, can I get it across a 30-m-wide pond? How far off vertical can a rocket’s
trajectory be and still land within 50 km of its launch point? As in these examples, we’re
frequently interested in the horizontal range of a projectile—that is, how far it moves
Here the particle returns to its horizontally over level ground.
starting height, so Equation 3.15 For a projectile launched on level ground, we can determine when the projectile will
applies.
return to the ground by setting y 5 0 in Equation 3.14:
g gx
0 5 x tan u0 2 x2 5 x a tan u0 2 b
2v02 2
cos u0 2v02 cos2 u0
There are two solutions: x 5 0, corresponding to the launch point, and
2v02 2v02
(a) x5 cos2 u0 tan u0 5 sin u0 cos u0
g g
Here the particle lands at a
different height, so Equation 3.15 But sin 2u0 5 2 sin u0 cos u0, so this becomes
doesn’t apply.
v02
x5 sin 2u0 1horizontal range2 (3.15)
g

✓TIP Know Your Limits

We emphasize that Equation 3.15 gives the horizontal range—the distance a projec-
tile travels horizontally before returning to its starting height. From the way it was
(b)
derived—setting y 5 0—you can see that it does not give the horizontal distance
FIGURE 3.18 Equation 3.15 applies in (a) but not when the projectile returns to a different height (Fig. 3.18).
in (b).

The maximum range occurs when sin 2u 5 1 in Equation 3.15, which occurs when
u 5 45°. As Fig. 3.19 suggests, the range for a given launch speed v0 is equal for angles
equally spaced on either side of 45°—as you can prove in Problem 66.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 3.1 Projectile Flight Times

The ranges in Fig. 3.19 are equal for angles on either side of 45°. How can argue from the vertical motions that the trajectory with the higher
do the flight times compare? launch angle takes longer. We can also argue from horizontal motions:
Horizontal distances of the paired trajectories are the same, but the
EVALUATE We’re being asked about the times projectiles spend on the
lower trajectory has a greater horizontal velocity component, so again
trajectories shown. Since horizontal and vertical motions are inde-
the lower trajectory takes less time.
pendent, flight time depends on how high the projectile goes. So we
 3.6 Uniform Circular Motion 41

120 ASSESS Consider the extreme cases of near-vertical and near-

75°
horizontal trajectories. The former goes nearly straight up and down,
100
60° taking a relatively long time but returning essentially to its starting
80 point. The latter hardly gets anywhere because it immediately hits the
ground right at its starting point, so it takes just about no time!

y (m)
60 45°

40 30° MAKING THE CONNECTION Find the flight times for the 30° and
20 60° trajectories in Fig. 3.19.
15°
EVALUATE The range of Equation 3.15 is also equal to the horizon-
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 tal velocity vx multiplied by the time: vx t 5 v02 sin 2u0/g. Using
x (m) vx0 5 v0 cos u0 and solving for t gives t 5 2v0 sin u0/g. Using
Fig. 3.19’s v0 5 50 m/s yields t30 5 5.1 s and t60 5 8.8 s. You can
FIGURE 3.19 Trajectories for a projectile launched at 50 m/s. explore this time difference more generally in Problem 61.

✓TIP Know the Fundamentals

Equations 3.14 and 3.15 for a projectile’s trajectory and range are useful, but they’re
not fundamental equations of physics. Both follow directly from the equations for
constant acceleration. If you think that specialized results like Equations 3.14 and
3.15 are on an equal footing with more fundamental equations and principles, then
you’re seeing physics as a hodgepodge of equations and missing the big picture of a
science with a few underlying principles from which all else follows.

EXAMPLE 3.6 Projectile Range: Probing the Atmosphere

After a short engine firing, an atmosphere-probing rocket reaches EVALUATE We have sin 2u0 5 gx/v 02 5 0.0232. There are two solu-
4.6 km/s. If the rocket must land within 50 km of its launch site, tions, corresponding to 2u0 5 1.33° and 2u0 5 180° 2 1.33°. The
what’s the maximum allowable deviation from a vertical trajectory? second is the one we want, giving a launch angle u0 5 90° 2 0.67°.
Therefore the launch angle must be within 0.67° of vertical.
INTERPRET Although we’re asked about the launch angle, the 50-km
criterion is a clue that we can interpret this as a problem about the hor- ASSESS Make sense? At 4.6 km/s, this rocket goes quite high, so with
izontal range. That “short engine firing” means we can neglect the dis- even a small deviation from vertical it will land far from its launch
tance over which the rocket fires and consider it a projectile that point. Again we’ve got two solutions. The one we rejected is like the
leaves the ground at v0 5 4.6 km/s. low trajectories of Fig. 3.19; although it gives a 50-km range, it isn’t
going to get our rocket high into the atmosphere. ■
DEVELOP Equation 3.15, x 5 1v 02/g2 sin 2u0, determines the horizon-
tal range, so our plan is to solve that equation for u0 with range
x 5 50 km.

The velocities
are tangent to
the circular path.
3.6 Uniform Circular Motion
An important case of accelerated motion in two dimensions is uniform circular
motion—that of an object describing a circular path at constant speed. Although the speed
is constant, the motion is accelerated because the direction of the velocity is changing.
Uniform circular motion is common. Many spacecraft are in circular orbits, and the or-
bits of the planets are approximately circular. Earth’s daily rotation carries you around in
uniform circular motion. Pieces of rotating machinery describe uniform circular motion,
and you’re temporarily in circular motion as you drive around a curve. Electrons undergo
circular motion in magnetic fields.
Here we derive an important relationship among the acceleration, speed, and radius of
uniform circular motion. Figure 3.20 shows several velocity vectors for an object moving FIGURE 3.20 Velocity vectors in circular motion
with speed v around a circle of radius r. Velocity vectors are tangent to the circle, indicating are tangent to the circular path.
42 Chapter 3 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

the instantaneous direction of motion. In Fig. 3.21a we focus on two nearby points
! ! ! !
described by position vectors r1 and r2, where the velocities are v 1 and v 2. Figures 3.21b
vr1 ! ! !
and c show the corresponding displacement Dr 5 r 2 2 r 1 and velocity difference
rr1 ! ! !
Dv 5 v 2 2 v 1.
u ! ! ! !
vr2 Because v1 is perpendicular to r1, and v2 is perpendicular to r2, the angles u shown in all
rr2
three parts of Fig. 3.21 are the same. Therefore, the triangles in Fig. 3.21b and c are simi-
lar, and we can write
Dv Dr
5
v r
Now suppose the angle u is small, corresponding to a short time interval Dt for motion
! ! !
(a) from position r1 to r2. Then the length of the vector Dr is approximately the length of the
circular arc joining the endpoints of the position vectors, as suggested in Fig. 3.21b. The
Drr is the …and Dvr is the length of this arc is the distance the object travels in the time Dt, or vDt, so Dr . vDt.
difference difference vr2 2 vr1.
rr2 2 rr1…
Then the relation between similar triangles becomes
Dv v Dt
.
r
Dr
r
v1 v r
rr1 vr2
u
u Rearranging this equation gives an approximate expression for the magnitude of the aver-
r
r2 Dvr age acceleration:

These angles Dv v2
a5 .
(b)
are the same,
(c) Dt r
so the triangles
are similar. Taking the limit Dt S 0 gives the instantaneous acceleration; in this limit the angle u ap-
!
FIGURE 3.21 Position and velocity vectors for proaches 0, the circular arc and Dr become indistinguishable, and the relation Dr . v Dt
two nearby points on the circular path. becomes exact. So we have
v2
a5 1uniform circular motion2 (3.16)
r
for the magnitude of the instantaneous acceleration of an object moving in a circle of ra-
!
dius r at constant speed v. What about its direction? As Fig. 3.21c suggests, Dv is very
!
nearly perpendicular to both velocity vectors; in the limit Dt S 0, Dv and the acceleration
!
Dv /Dt become exactly perpendicular to the velocity. The direction of the acceleration vec-
tor is therefore toward the center of the circle.
Clearly, our geometric argument would work for any point on the circle, so we con-
clude that the acceleration has constant magnitude v2/r and always points toward the cen-
ter of the circle. Isaac Newton coined the term centripetal to describe this center-pointing
acceleration. However, we’ll use that term sparingly because we want to emphasize that
centripetal acceleration is fundamentally no different from any other acceleration: It’s sim-
ply a vector describing the rate of change of velocity.
Does Equation 3.16 make sense? Yes. An increase in speed v means the time Dt for a
given change in direction of the velocity becomes shorter. Not only that, but the associ-
!
ated change Dv in velocity is larger. These two effects combine to give an acceleration that
depends on the square of the speed. On the other hand, an increase in the radius with a
fixed speed increases the time Dt associated with a given change in velocity, so the accel-
eration is inversely proportional to the radius.

✓TIP Circular Motion and Constant Acceleration

The direction toward the center changes as an object moves around a circular path, so
the acceleration vector is not constant, even though its magnitude is. Uniform circular
motion is not motion with constant acceleration, and our constant-acceleration equa-
tions do not apply. In fact, we know that constant acceleration in two dimensions
implies a parabolic trajectory, not a circle.
 3.6 Uniform Circular Motion 43

EXAMPLE 3.7 Uniform Circular Motion: The International Space Station

Find the orbital period (the time to complete one orbit) of the Interna- Appendix E lists Earth’s radius as RE 5 6.37 Mm, giving an orbital ra-
tional Space Station in its circular orbit at altitude 400 km, where the dius r 5 RE 1 400 km 5 6.77 Mm. Solving our acceleration ex-
acceleration of gravity is 89% of its surface value. pression for the period then gives T 5 24p2r/a 5 5536 s 5 92 min,
where we used a 5 0.89g.
INTERPRET This is a problem about uniform circular motion.
ASSESS Make sense? You’ve probably heard that astronauts orbit
DEVELOP Given the radius and acceleration, we could use Equation 3.16, Earth in about an hour and a half, experiencing multiple sunrises
a 5 v2/r, to determine the orbital speed. But we’re given the alti- and sunsets in a 24-hour day. Our answer of 92 min is certainly con-
tude, not the orbital radius, and we want the period, not the speed. sistent with that. There’s no choice here; for a given orbital radius,
So our plan is to write the speed in terms of the period and use the Earth’s size and mass determine the period. Because astronauts’ or-
result in Equation 3.16. The orbital altitude is the distance from bits are limited to a few hundred kilometers, a distance small com-
Earth’s surface, so we’ll need to add Earth’s radius to get the orbital pared with RE, variations in g and T are minimal. Any such “low
radius r. Earth orbit” has a period of approximately 90 min. At higher alti-
tudes, gravity diminishes significantly and periods lengthen; the
EVALUATE The speed v is the orbital circumference, 2pr, divided by
Moon, for example, orbits in 27 days. We’ll discuss orbits more in
the period T. Using this in Equation 3.16 gives
Chapter 8. ■
v2 12pr/T22 4p2r
a5 5 5 2
r r T

EXAMPLE 3.8 Uniform Circular Motion: Engineering a Road

An engineer is designing a flat, horizontal road for an 80 km/h speed EVALUATE Using the given numbers, we have r 5 v2/a 5
limit (that’s 22.2 m/s). If the maximum acceleration of a vehicle on 122.2 m/s22/1.5 m/s2 5 329 m.
this road is 1.5 m/s2, what’s the minimum safe radius for curves in the
road? ASSESS Make sense? A speed of 80 km/h is pretty fast, so we need a
wide curve to keep the required acceleration below its design value. If
INTERPRET Even though a curve is only a portion of a circle, we can the curve is sharper, vehicles may slide off the road. We’ll see more
still interpret this problem as involving uniform circular motion. clearly in subsequent chapters how vehicles manage to negotiate high-
speed curves. ■
DEVELOP Equation 3.16, a 5 v 2/r, determines the acceleration given
the speed and radius. Here we have the acceleration and speed, so our
plan is to solve for the radius.

Nonuniform Circular Motion

What if an object moves in a circular path but its speed changes? Then it has components The car is slowing, so
of acceleration both perpendicular and parallel to its velocity. The former, the radial ac- its tangential acceleration art
is opposite its velocity.
celeration ar, is what changes the direction to keep the object in circular motion. Its mag-
nitude is still v2/r, with v now the instantaneous speed. The parallel component of
acceleration, also called tangential acceleration at because it’s tangent to the circle,
changes the speed but not the direction. Its magnitude is therefore the rate of change of vr
speed, or dv/dt. Figure 3.22 shows these two acceleration components for a car rounding The radial acceleration arr
changes only the
a curve. direction of motion.
Finally, what if the radius of a curved path changes? At any point on a curve we can de- art arr
fine a radius of curvature. Then the radial acceleration is still v 2/r, and it can vary if ei-
ar
ther v or r changes along the curve. The tangential acceleration is still tangent to the curve,
and it still describes the rate of change of speed. So it’s straightforward to generalize the
ideas of uniform circular motion to cases where the motion is nonuniform either because
the speed changes, or because the radius changes, or both. FIGURE 3.22 Acceleration of a car that slows as it
rounds a curve.
 CHAPTER 3 SUMMARY
Big Picture
Quantities characterizing motion in two and three dimensions have Rate of Rate of
both magnitude and direction and are described by vectors. Position, change change
velocity, and acceleration are all vector quantities, related as they are
Position Velocity Acceleration
in one dimension:

These vector quantities need not have vr Components of motion in two perpendicular directions are inde-
the same direction. In particular, accel- r
a Dvr pendent. This reduces problems in two and three dimensions to
eration that’s perpendicular to velocity sets of one-dimensional problems that can be solved with the
changes the direction but not the mag- a, v perpendicular methods of Chapter 2.
nitude of the velocity. Acceleration
that’s colinear changes only the mag-
vr Dvr y
nitude of the velocity. In general, both
change.
ar
a, v colinear y
5 1 x

vr
Dvr x
r
a
arbitrary angle between a, v

Key Concepts and Equations

Vectors can be described by magnitude and direc- A compact way to express vectors involves Velocity is the rate of change of the po-
!
tion or by components. In two dimensions these unit vectors that have magnitude 1, have no sition vector r :
representations are related by units, and point along the coordinate axes: !
! ! dr
v5
Ay A 5 A x ^ı 1 A y ^/ dt
A 5 2A x2 1 A y2 and u 5 tan21
Ax Acceleration is the rate of change of
A cosu
Ay velocity:
A x 5 A cos u and A y 5 A sin u
2 !
Ay ≥^ ! dv
2 1 Ay a5
≥^ Ax
A x
ı^ 1 A sinu dt
A5 r
A5
u
ı^ Ax

Applications
When acceleration is constant, motion is described by vector equations that generalize the one- In uniform circular motion the magnitudes of
dimensional equations of Chapter 2: velocity and acceleration remain constant, but
! ! ! ! ! ! ! their directions continually change. For an ob-
v 5 v0 1 at r 5 r0 1 v 0 t 1 12 a t2
ject moving in a circular path of radius r, the
! !
magnitudes of a and v are related by a 5 v2/r.
An important application of constant-acceleration vr
motion in two dimensions is projectile motion un-
der the influence of gravity. ar
ar
Projectile trajectory: vr
g y
y 5 x tan u0 2 x2 r
2v02 cos2 u0
vr0
u
x
 Exercises and Problems 45

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

22. A car, initially going eastward, rounds a 90° curve and ends up
For Thought and Discussion heading southward. If the speedometer reading remains con-
! !
1. Under what conditions is the magnitude of the vector sum A 1 B stant, what’s the direction of the car’s average acceleration
equal to the sum of the magnitudes of the two vectors? vector?
2. Can two vectors of equal magnitude sum to zero? How about two 23. What are (a) the average velocity and (b) the average accelera-
vectors of unequal magnitude? tion of the tip of the 2.4-cm-long hour hand of a clock in the in-
3. Repeat Question 2 for three vectors. terval from noon to 6 PM? Use unit vector notation, with the
4. Can an object have a southward acceleration while moving x-axis pointing toward 3 and the y-axis toward noon.
northward? A westward acceleration while moving northward? 24. An ice skater is gliding along at 2.4 m/s, when she undergoes an
5. You’re a passenger in a car rounding a curve. The driver claims acceleration of magnitude 1.1 m/s2 for 3.0 s. After that she’s
the car isn’t accelerating because the speedometer reading is moving at 5.7 m/s. Find the angle between her acceleration vec-
unchanging. Explain why the driver is wrong. tor and her initial velocity.
In what sense is Equation 3.8 really two (or three) equations? 25. An object is moving in the x-direction at 1.3 m/s when it undergoes
6. !
7. Is a projectile’s speed constant throughout its parabolic trajectory? an acceleration a 5 0.52 ^/ m/s2. Find its velocity vector after 4.4 s.
8. Is there any point on a projectile’s trajectory where velocity and Section 3.3 Relative Motion
acceleration are perpendicular? 26. You’re a pilot beginning a 1500-km flight. Your plane’s speed is
9. How is it possible for an object to be moving in one direction but 1000 km/h, and air traffic control says you’ll have to head 15°
accelerating in another? west of south to maintain a southward course. If the flight takes
10. You’re in a bus moving with constant velocity on a level road 100 min, what’s the wind velocity?
when you throw a ball straight up. When the ball returns, does it 27. You wish to row straight across a 63-m-wide river. You can row
land ahead of you, behind you, or back at your hand? Explain. at a steady 1.3 m/s relative to the water, and the river flows at
0.57 m/s. (a) What direction should you head? (b) How long will
Exercises and Problems it take you to cross the river?
28. A plane with airspeed 370 km/h flies perpendicularly across the
Exercises jet stream, its nose pointed into the jet stream at 32° from the per-
Section 3.1 Vectors pendicular direction of its flight. Find the speed of the jet stream.
11. You walk west 220 m, then north 150 m. What are the magnitude 29. A flock of geese is attempting to migrate due south, but the wind
and direction of your displacement vector? is blowing from the west at 5.1 m/s. If the birds can fly at 7.5 m/s
12. An ion in a mass spectrometer follows a semicircular path of relative to the air, what direction should they head?
radius 15.2 cm. What are (a) the distance it travels and (b) the Section 3.4 Constant Acceleration
!
magnitude of its displacement? 30. The position of an object as a function of time is r 5 13.2t 1
2 ^ 2 ^
13. A migrating whale follows the west coast of Mexico and North 1.8t 2 ı 1 11.7t 2 2.4t 2 / m, with t in seconds. Find the object’s
America toward its summer home in Alaska. It first travels 360 km acceleration vector.
northwest to just off the coast of northern California, and then turns 31. You’re sailboarding at 6.5 m/s when a wind gust hits, lasting 6.3 s
due north and travels 400 km toward its destination. Determine accelerating your board at 0.48 m/s2 at 35° to your original direc-
graphically
! the magnitude and direction of its displacement. ! tion. Find the magnitude and direction of your displacement
14. Vector A has magnitude 3.0 m and points to the right; vector B during the gust.
has magnitude 4.0 m and points! vertically upward.
! ! Find! the! mag-
nitude and direction of vector C such that A 1 B 1 C 5 0. Section 3.5 Projectile Motion
15. Use unit vectors to express a displacement of 120 km at 29° 32. You toss an apple horizontally at 8.7 m/s from a height of 2.6 m.
counterclockwise from the x-axis. Simultaneously, you drop a peach from the same height. How
16. Find the magnitude of the vector 34 ı^ 1 13 ^/ m and determine its long does each take to reach the ground?
angle to the x-axis. 33. A carpenter tosses a shingle horizontally off an 8.8-m-high roof
17. (a) What’s the magnitude of ı^ 1 ^/? (b) What angle does it make at 11 m/s. (a) How long does it take the shingle to reach the
with the x-axis? ground? (b) How far does it move horizontally?
34. An arrow fired horizontally at 41 m/s travels 23 m horizontally.
Section 3.2 Velocity and Acceleration Vectors
From what height was it fired?
18. You’re heading an international effort to save Earth from an aster- 35. Droplets in an ink-jet printer are ejected horizontally at 12 m/s
oid heading toward us at 15 km/s. Your team mounts a rocket on and travel a horizontal distance of 1.0 mm to the paper. How far
the asteroid and fires it for 10 min, after which the asteroid is mov- do they fall in this interval?
ing at 19 km/s at 28° to its original path. In a news conference, 36. Protons drop 1.2 mm over the 1.7-km length of a particle acceler-
what do you report for the acceleration imparted to the asteroid? ator. What’s their approximate average speed?
19. An object is moving at 18 m/s at 220° counterclockwise from the
37. If you can hit a golf ball 180 m on Earth, how far can you hit it
x-axis. Find the x- and y-components of its velocity. on the Moon? (Your answer will be an underestimate because it
20. A car drives north at 40 mi/h for 10 min, then turns east and
neglects air resistance on Earth.)
goes 5.0 mi at 60 mi/h. Finally, it goes southwest at 30 mi/h for
6.0 min. Determine the car’s (a) displacement and (b) average Section 3.6 Uniform Circular Motion
velocity for this trip. 38. How fast would a car have to round a 75-m-radius turn for its ac-
!
21. An object’s velocity is v 5 ct3 ı^ 1 d ^/, where t is time and c and celeration to be numerically equal to that of gravity?
d are positive constants with appropriate units. What’s the direc- 39. Estimate the acceleration of the Moon, which completes a nearly
tion of the object’s acceleration? circular orbit of 385,000 km radius in 27 days.
46 Chapter 3 Motion in Two and Three Dimensions

40. Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites circle Earth at al- 57. You throw a baseball at a 45° angle to the horizontal, aiming at a
titudes of approximately 20,000 km, where the gravitational friend who’s sitting in a tree a distance h above level ground. At
acceleration has 5.8% of its surface value. To the nearest hour, the instant you throw your ball, your friend drops another ball.
what’s the orbital period of the GPS satellites? (a) Show that the two balls will collide, no matter what your
ball’s initial speed, provided it’s greater than some minimum
Problems ! ! value. (b) Find an expression for that minimum speed.
41. Two vectors A and B have the same !magnitude ! A and !are at! right 58. In a chase scene, a movie stuntman runs horizontally off the flat
angles. Find
! the magnitudes of (a) A 1 2B and (b) 3A 2 B. roof of one building and lands on another roof 1.9 m lower. If the
42. Vector A has magnitude
! 1.0 m and points 35° clockwise from ! the gap between the buildings is 4.5 m wide, how fast must he run to
x-axis.! Vector
! B has magnitude 1.8 m. Find the direction of B such cross the gap?
that A! 1 B is in the y-direction. ! ! 59. Standing on the ground 3.0 m from a building, you want to throw
^ ^ ^ ^
43. Let! A! 5 15! ı 2 !40 / and B 5 31/ 1 18 k. Find C such that a package from your 1.5-m shoulder level to someone in a win-
A 1 B 1 C 5 0. dow 4.2 m above the ground. At what speed and angle should
44. A biologist looking through a microscope sees a bacterium at you throw the package so it just barely clears the windowsill?
! !
BIO r 1 5 2.2 ı^ 1 3.7 ^/ 2 1.2 k^ mm. After 6.2 s, it’s at r 2 5 4.6 ı^ 1 60. Derive a general formula for the horizontal distance covered by a
1.9 k^ mm. Find (a) its average velocity, expressed in unit vectors, projectile launched horizontally at speed v0 from height h.
and (b) its average speed. 61. Consider two projectiles launched on level ground with the same
!
45. A particle’s position is r 5 1ct2 2 2dt32 ı^ 1 12ct2 2 dt32 ^/, speed, at angles 45° 6 a. Show that the ratio of their flight times
where c and d are positive constants. Find expressions for times is tan1a 1 45°2.
t . 0 when the particle is moving in (a) the x-direction and 62. You toss a protein bar to your hiking companion located 8.6 m up
(b) the y-direction. a 39° slope, as shown in Fig. 3.23. Determine the initial velocity
46. For the particle in Problem 45, is there any time t . 0 when the vector so the bar reaches your friend moving horizontally.
particle is (a) at rest and (b) accelerating in the x-direction? If ei-
ther answer is “yes,” find the time(s).
47. Attempting to stop on a slippery road, a car moving at 80 km/h
skids at 30° to its initial motion, stopping in 3.9 s. Determine the 8.6 m
average acceleration in m/s2, in coordinates with the x-axis in the
direction of the original motion and the y-axis toward the side to
which the car skids.
48. An object undergoes acceleration 2.3 ı^ 1 3.6 ^/ m/s2 for 10 s. At
the end of this time, its velocity is 33 ı^ 1 15 ^/ m/s. (a) What was 39°
its velocity at the beginning of the 10-s interval? (b) By how
much did its speed change? (c) By how much did its direction
FIGURE 3.23 Problem 62
change? (d) Show that the speed change is not given by the
magnitude of the acceleration multiplied by the time. Why not? 63. Prove that a projectile launched on level ground reaches maxi-
49. The Singapore Flyer is the world’s largest Ferris wheel. Its diam- mum height midway along its trajectory.
eter is 150 m and it rotates once every 30 min. Find the magni- 64. A projectile launched at angle u to the horizontal reaches maxi-
tudes of (a) the average velocity and (b) the average acceleration mum height h. Show that its horizontal range is 4h/tan u.
at the wheel’s rim, over a 5.0-min interval. 65. As an expert witness, you’re testifying in a case involving a mo-
50. A ferryboat sails between towns directly opposite each other on torcycle accident. A motorcyclist driving in a 60-km/h zone hit a
a river, moving at speed v9 relative to the water. (a) Find an ex- stopped car on a level road. The motorcyclist was thrown from
pression for the angle it should head at if the river flows at speed his bike and landed 39 m down the road. You’re asked whether
V. (b) What’s the significance ! of! your answer if V . v9? he was speeding. What’s your answer?
51. The sum ! of two
! vectors, A 1 B, is perpendicular to their differ- 66. Show that, for a given initial speed, the horizontal range of a pro-
ence, A 2 B. How do the vectors’ magnitudes compare? jectile is the same for launch angles 45° 1 a and 45° 2 a.
52. Write an expression for a unit vector at 45° clockwise from the 67. A basketball player is 15 ft horizontally from the center of the
x-axis. basket, which is 10 ft off the ground. At what angle should the
53. An object is initially moving in the x-direction at 4.5 m/s, when player aim the ball from a height of 8.2 ft with a speed of 26 ft/s?
it undergoes an acceleration in the y-direction for a period of 18 s. 68. Two projectiles are launched simultaneously from the same
If the object moves equal distances in the x- and y-directions dur- point, with different launch speeds and angles. Show that no
ing this time, what’s the magnitude of its acceleration? combination of speeds and angles will permit them to land simul-
!
54. A particle leaves the origin with initial velocity v 0 5 taneously and at the same point.
!
11 ^ı 114 ^/ m/s, undergoing constant acceleration a 5 21.2 ı^ 1 69. A jet is diving vertically downward at 1200 km/h. If the pilot can
0.26 ^/ m/s2. (a) When does the particle cross the y-axis? (b) What’s withstand a maximum acceleration of 5g (i.e., 5 times Earth’s
its y-coordinate at the time? (c) How fast is it moving, and in what gravitational acceleration) before losing consciousness, at what
direction? height must the plane start a quarter turn to pull out of the dive?
55. A kid fires a squirt gun horizontally from 1.6 m above the Assume the speed remains constant.
ground. It hits another kid 2.1 m away square in the back, 0.93 m 70. Your alpine rescue team is using a slingshot to send an emer-
above the ground. What was the water’s initial speed? gency medical packet to climbers stranded on a ledge, as shown
56. A projectile has horizontal range R on level ground and reaches in Fig. 3.24; your job is to calculate the launch speed. What do
maximum height h. Find an expression for its initial speed. you report?
 Answers to Chapter Questions 47

the angle the position vector makes with the x-axis. (b) If the par-
ticle moves with constant speed v starting on the x-axis at t 5 0,
find an expression for u in terms of time t and the period T to
complete a full circle. (c) Differentiate the position vector twice
270 m with respect to time to find the acceleration, and show that its
magnitude is given by Equation 3.16 and its direction is toward
the center of the circle.
70°
Passage Problems
390 m Alice (A), Bob (B), and Carrie (C) all start from their dorm and head for
the library for an evening study session. Alice takes a straight path, while
FIGURE 3.24 Problem 70
the paths Bob and Carrie follow are portions of circular arcs, as shown in
71. If you can throw a stone straight up to height h, what’s the maxi- Fig. 3.26. Each student walks at a constant speed. All three leave the
mum horizontal distance you could throw it over level ground? dorm at the same time, and they arrive simultaneously at the library.
72. In a conversion from military to peacetime use, a missile with
maximum horizontal range 180 km is being adapted for studying Dorm
Earth’s upper atmosphere. What is the maximum altitude it can C
achieve if launched vertically?
73. A soccer player can kick the ball 28 m on level ground, with its
initial velocity at 40° to the horizontal. At the same initial speed A
and angle to the horizontal, what horizontal distance can the B
player kick the ball on a 15° upward slope?
74. A diver leaves a 3-m board on a trajectory that takes her 2.5 m
above the board and then into the water 2.8 m horizontally from the
end of the board. At what speed and angle did she leave the board? Library
75. Using calculus, you can find a function’s maximum or minimum
FIGURE 3.26 Passage Problems 81–84
by differentiating and setting the result to zero. Do this for Equa-
tion 3.15, differentiating with respect to u, and thus verify that 81. Which statement characterizes the distances the students travel?
the maximum range occurs for u 5 45°. a. They’re equal.
76. You’re a consulting engineer specializing in athletic facilities, b. C . A . B
and you’ve been asked to help design the Olympic ski jump pic- c. C . B . A
tured in Fig. 3.25. Skiers will leave the jump at 28 m/s and 9.5° d. B . C . A
below the horizontal, and land 55 m horizontally from the end of
82. Which statement characterizes the students’ displacements?
the jump. Your job is to specify the slope of the ground so skiers’
a. They’re equal.
trajectories make an angle of only 3.0° with the ground on land-
b. C . A . B
ing, ensuring their safety. What slope do you specify?
c. C . B . A
55 m d. B . C . A
9.5° 83. Which statement characterizes their average speeds?
a. They’re equal.
b. C . A . B
c. C . B . A
d. B . C . A
84. Which statement characterizes their accelerations while walking
3° (not starting and stopping)?
a. They’re equal.
b. None accelerates.
c. A . B . C
FIGURE 3.25 Problem 76 d. C . B . A
e. B . C . A
77. Differentiate the trajectory Equation 3.14 to find its slope,
f. There’s not enough information to decide.
tan u 5 dy/dx, and show that the slope is in the direction of the
projectile’s velocity, as given by Equations 3.10 and 3.11.
78. Your medieval history class is constructing a trebuchet, a catapult- Answers to Chapter Questions
like weapon for hurling stones at enemy castles. The plan is to
launch stones off a 75-m-high cliff, with initial speed 36 m/s. Some Answer to Chapter Opening Question
members of the class think a 45° launch angle will give the maxi- Assuming negligible air resistance, the penguin should leave the
mum range, but others claim the cliff height makes a difference. water at a 45° angle.
What do you give for the angle that will maximize the range?
79. Generalize Problem 78 to find an expression for the angle that Answers to GOT IT? Questions
will maximize the range of a projectile launched with speed v0 3.1. (c).
from height h above level ground. 3.2. (d) only.
80. (a) Show that the position of a particle on a circle of radius R 3.3. (c) gives the greatest change in speed; (b) gives the greatest
!
with its center at the origin is r 5 R1cos u ı^ 1 sin u ^/2, where u is change in direction.
 4 Force and Motion

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Explain the concept of force and its
role in causing change in motion
(4.1).
■ Describe the fundamental forces of
physics (4.3).
■ State Newton’s three laws of motion
(4.2, 4.6).
■ Describe the force of gravity and the
distinction between mass and
weight (4.4).
■ Apply Newton’s laws to one-dimen-
sional motion (4.5, 4.6).
What forces govern the motion of the
sailboard?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ Newton’s laws relate force and accel-
eration. Therefore you need a solid
A n interplanetary spacecraft moves effortlessly, yet its engines shut down years ago. Why
does it keep moving? A baseball heads toward the batter. The batter swings, and suddenly
the ball is heading toward left field. Why did its motion change?
understanding of acceleration, here Questions about the “why” of motion are the subject of dynamics. Here we develop the basic
based on the one-dimensional analy- laws that answer those questions. Isaac Newton first stated these laws more than 300 years ago,
sis of Chapter 2 (2.3). yet they remain a vital part of physics and engineering today, helping us guide spacecraft to dis-
tant planets, develop better cars, and manipulate the components of individual cells.

4.1 The Wrong Question

We began this chapter with two questions: one about why a spacecraft moved and the
other about why a baseball’s motion changed. For nearly 2000 years following the work
of Aristotle (384–322 BCE), the first question—Why do things move?—was the crucial
one. And the answer seemed obvious: It took a force—a push or a pull—to keep some-
thing moving. This idea makes sense: Stop exerting yourself when jogging, and you stop
moving; take your foot off the gas pedal, and your car soon stops. Everyday experience
seems to suggest that Aristotle was right, and most of us carry in our heads the
Aristotelian idea that motion requires a cause—something that pushes or pulls on a
moving object to keep it going.
Actually, “What keeps things moving?” is the wrong question. In the early 1600s,
Galileo Galilei did experiments that convinced him that a moving object has an intrinsic

48
 4.2 Newton’s First and Second Laws 49

“quantity of motion” and needs no push to keep it moving (Fig. 4.1). Instead of answering
“What keeps things moving?,” Galileo declared that the question needs no answer. In so
doing, he set the stage for centuries of progress in physics, beginning with the achieve-
. . . it always
ments of Issac Newton and culminating in the work of Albert Einstein. rises to its
starting height . . .
If a ball is
The Right Question released here . . .
Our first question—about why the spacecraft keeps moving—is the wrong question. So
what’s the right question? It’s the second one, about why the baseball’s motion changed.
Dynamics isn’t about what causes motion itself; it’s about what causes changes in motion.
Changes include starting and stopping, speeding up and slowing down, and changing di-
rection. Any change in motion begs an explanation, but motion itself does not. Get used to
this important idea and you’ll have a much easier time with physics. But if you remain
a “closet Aristotelian,” secretly looking for causes of motion, you’ll find it difficult to un-
. . . so if the
derstand and apply the simple laws that actually govern motion. surface is made
Galileo identified the right question about motion. But it was Isaac Newton who for- horizontal, the ball
mulated the quantitative laws describing how motion changes. We use those laws today should roll forever.
for everything from designing antilock braking systems, to building skyscrapers, to guid-
ing spacecraft.

4.2 Newton’s First and Second Laws FIGURE 4.1 Galileo considered balls rolling on
What caused the baseball’s motion to change? Obviously, it was the bat’s push. The term inclines and concluded that a ball on a horizon-
force descibes a push or a pull. And the essence of dynamics is simply this: tal surface should roll forever.

Force causes change in motion.

We’ll soon quantify this idea, writing equations and solving numerical problems. But the
essential point is in the simple sentence above. If you want to change an object’s motion,
you need to apply a force. If you see an object’s motion change, you know there’s a force
acting. Contrary to Aristotle, and probably to your own intuitive sense, it does not take a
force to keep something in unchanging motion; force is needed only to change an object’s
motion.

The Net Force

You can push a ball left or right, up or down. Your car’s tires can push the car forward or
backward, or make it round a curve. Force has direction and is a vector quantity. Further-
more, more than one force can act on an object. We call the individual forces on an object Here there’s a nonzero
interaction forces because they always involve other objects interacting with the object in net force acting on the
question. In Fig. 4.2a, for example, the interaction forces are exerted by the people push- car, so the car’s motion
is changing.
ing the car. In Fig. 4.2b the interaction forces include the force of air on the plane, the
engine force from the hot exhaust gases, and Earth’s gravitational force. r r
We now explore in more detail the relation between force and change in motion. Ex- F1 Fnet
periment shows that what matters is the net force, meaning the vector sum of all individ-
ual interaction forces acting on an object. If the net force on an object isn’t zero, then the r
object’s motion must be changing—in direction or speed or both (Fig. 4.2a). If the net F2
(a)
force on an object is zero—no matter what individual interaction forces contribute to the The three forces sum to zero,
net force—then the object’s motion is unchanging (Fig. 4.2b). so the plane moves in a straight
line with constant speed.
r r r
Fnet 5 0
Newton’s First Law Fair r
Fengine
The basic idea that force causes change in motion is the essence of Newton’s first law:
r
Fg
(b)
Newton’s first law of motion: A body in uniform motion remains in uniform
motion, and a body at rest remains at rest, unless acted on by a nonzero net force. FIGURE 4.2 The net force determines the change
in an object’s motion.
50 Chapter 4 Force and Motion

The word “uniform” here is essential; uniform motion means unchanging motion—that
is, motion in a straight line at constant speed. The phrase “a body at rest” isn’t really nec-
essary because rest is just the special case of uniform motion with zero speed, but we
include it for consistency with Newton’s original statement.
The first law says that uniform motion is a perfectly natural state, requiring no explana-
tion. Again, the word “uniform” is crucial. The first law does not say that an object mov-
ing in a circle will continue to do so without a nonzero net force; in fact, it says that an
object moving in a circle—or in any other curved path—must be subject to a nonzero net
force because its motion is changing.

GOT IT? 4.1 On a horizontal tabletop is a curved barrier that

exerts a force on a ball, guiding its motion in a circular path as shown.
After the ball leaves the barrier, which of the dashed paths shown
(a)
does it follow?

(b)
(c)

Newton’s first law is simplicity itself, but it’s counter to our Aristotelian preconcep-
tions; after all, your car soon stops when you take your foot off the gas. But because the
motion changes, that just means—as the first law says—that there must be a nonzero net
force acting. That force is often a “hidden” one, like friction, that isn’t as obvious as the push
or pull of muscle. Go to an ice show or hockey game, where frictional forces are minimal,
and the first law becomes a lot clearer.

Newton’s Second Law

Newton’s second law quantifies the relation between force and change in motion. New-
ton reasoned that the product of mass and velocity was the best measure of an object’s
“quantity of motion.” The modern term is momentum, and we write
! !
p 5 mv 1momentum2 (4.1)
!
for the momentum of an object with mass m and velocity v. As the product of a scalar
(mass) and a vector (velocity), momentum is itself a vector quantity. Newton’s second law
relates the rate of change of an object’s momentum to the net force acting on that object:

Newton’s second law of motion: The rate at which a body’s momentum changes
is equal to the net force acting on the body:
!
! dp
Fnet 5 1Newton’s 2 nd law2 (4.2)
dt

When a body’s mass remains constant, we can use the definition of momentum,
! !
p 5 mv , to write
! ! !
! dp d1mv 2 dv
Fnet 5 5 5m
dt dt dt
! !
But dv /dt is the acceleration a , so
! !
Fnet 5 ma 1Newton’s 2nd law, constant mass2 (4.3)
Although Newton originally wrote his second law in the form 4.2, which remains the most
general form, the form 4.3 is more widely recognized.
 4.2 Newton’s First and Second Laws 51

! !
Newton’s second law !includes the first law as the special case Fnet 5 0. In this case
!
Equation 4.3 gives a 5 0, so an object’s velocity doesn’t change.

✓TIP Understanding Newton

To apply Newton’s law successfully,
! you have to understand the terms in Equation 4.3.
On the left is the net force Fnet—the vector sum of all real, physical interaction forces
!
acting on an object. On the right is ma —not a force but the product of the object’s
mass and acceleration. The equal sign says that they have the same value, not that
!
they’re the same thing. So don’t go adding an extra force ma when you’re applying
Newton’s second law.

Mass, Inertia, and Force

Because it takes force to change an object’s motion, the first law says that objects natu- ar
rally resist changes in motion. The term inertia describes this resistance, and for that rea- r
F
son the first law is also called the law of inertia. Just as we describe a sluggish person as
having a lot of inertia, so an object that is hard to start moving—or hard to stop once
!
started—has
! a lot of inertia. If we solve the second law for the acceleration a , we find that
!
a 5 F/m—showing that a given force is less effective in changing the motion of a more
massive object (Fig. 4.3). The mass m that appears in Newton’s laws is thus a measure of ar
an object’s inertia and determines the object’s response to a given force. r
F
By comparing the acceleration of a known and an unknown mass, we can determine
the unknown mass. From Newton’s second law for a force of magnitude F,
F 5 mknown aknown and F 5 munknown aunknown FIGURE 4.3 The loaded truck has greater mass—
more inertia—so its acceleration is smaller
where we’re interested only in magnitudes so we don’t use vectors. Equating these two
when the same force is applied.
expressions for the same force, we get
munknown aknown
5 (4.4)
mknown aunknown
Equation 4.4 is an operational definition of mass; it shows how, given a known mass and a
fixed force, we can determine other masses.
The force required to accelerate a 1-kg mass at the rate of 1 m/s2 is defined to be
1 newton (N). Equation 4.3 shows that 1 N is equivalent to 1 kg # m/s2. Other common
force units are the English pound (lb, equal to 4.448 N) and the dyne, a metric unit equal
to 1025 N. A 1-N force is rather small; you can readily exert forces measuring hundreds of
newtons with your own body.

EXAMPLE 4.1 Force from Newton: A Car Accelerates

A 1200-kg car accelerates from rest to 20 m/s in 7.8 s, moving in a
straight line with constant acceleration. (a) Find the net force acting
on the car. (b) If the car then rounds a bend 85 m in radius at a steady
20 m/s, what net force acts on it?

INTERPRET In this problem we’re asked to evaluate the net force on a

car (a) when it undergoes constant acceleration and (b) when it rounds
a turn. In both cases the net force is entirely horizontal, so we need to (a) (b)
consider only the horizontal component of Newton’s law. FIGURE 4.4 Our sketch of the net force on the car of Example 4.1.
DEVELOP Figure 4.4 shows the horizontal force acting on the car in
each case; since this is the net force, it’s equal to the car’s mass multi- involved, so we can write a 5 Dv/Dt. For (b) we’re given the speed
plied by its acceleration. We aren’t actually given the acceleration in and the radius of the turn; since the car is in uniform circular motion,
this problem, but for (a) we know the change in speed and the time Equation 3.16 applies, and we have a 5 v2 /r.
(continued)
52 Chapter 4 Force and Motion

EVALUATE We solve for the unknown acceleration and evaluate the but we moved the decimal point three places and changed to kN for
numerical answers for both cases: convenience. And the numbers seem to make sense; we mentioned
Dv 20 m/s that 1 newton is a rather small force, so it’s not surprising to find
(a) Fnet 5 ma 5 m 5 11200 kg2 a b 5 3.1 kN forces on cars measured in kilonewtons.
Dt 7.8 s
Note that Newton’s law doesn’t distinguish between forces that
v2 120 m/s22
(b) Fnet 5 ma 5 m 5 11200 kg2 5 5.6 kN change an object’s speed, as in (a), and forces that change its direc-
r 85 m tion, as in (b). Newton’s law relates force, mass, and acceleration in
ASSESS First, the units worked out; they were actually kg # m/s 2 , all cases. ■
but that defines the newton. The answers came out in thousands of N,

GOT IT? 4.2 A nonzero net force acts on an object. Does that mean the object neces-
sarily moves in the same direction as the net force?

Inertial Reference Frames

Why don’t flight attendants serve beverages when an airplane is accelerating down the
runway? For one thing, their beverage cart wouldn’t stay put, but would accelerate toward
the back of the plane even in the absence of a net force. So is Newton’s first law wrong?
No, but Newton’s laws don’t apply in an accelerating airplane. With respect to the ground,
in fact, the beverage cart is doing just what Newton says it should: It remains in its origi-
nal state of motion, while all around it plane and passengers accelerate toward takeoff.
In Section 3.3 we defined a reference frame as a system against which we measure
velocities; more generally, a reference frame is the “background” in which we study
physical reality. Our airplane example shows that Newton’s laws don’t work in all refer-
ence frames; in particular, they’re not valid in accelerating frames. Where they are valid
is in reference frames undergoing uniform motion—called inertial reference frames
because only in these frames does the law of inertia hold. In a noninertial frame like an
accelerating airplane, a car rounding a curve, or a whirling merry-go-round, an object at
rest doesn’t remain at rest, even when no force is acting. A good test for an inertial
frame is to check whether Newton’s first law is obeyed—that is, whether an object at
rest remains at rest, and an object in uniform motion remains in uniform motion, when
no force is acting on it.
Strictly speaking, our rotating Earth is not an inertial frame, and therefore Newton’s
laws aren’t exactly valid on Earth. But Earth’s rotation has an insignificant effect on most
motions of interest, so we can usually treat Earth as an inertial reference frame. An impor-
tant exception is the motion of oceans and atmosphere; here, scientists must take Earth’s
rotation into account.
If Earth isn’t an inertial frame, what is? That’s a surprisingly subtle question, and it
When you sit in a chair,
the chair compresses and pointed Einstein toward his general theory of relativity. The law of inertia is intimately re-
exerts an upward force that lated to questions of space, time, and gravity—questions whose answers lie in Einstein’s
balances gravity. theory. We’ll look briefly at that theory in Chapter 33.

4.3 Forces
The most familiar forces are pushes and pulls you apply yourself, but passive objects can
r
Fc apply forces, too. A car collides with a parked truck and comes to a stop. Why? Because
the truck exerts a force on it. The Moon circles Earth rather than moving in a straight line.
Why? Because Earth exerts a gravitational force on it. You sit in a chair and don’t fall to
r
Fg the floor. Why not? Because the chair exerts an upward force on you, countering gravity.
Some forces, like those you apply with your muscles, can have values that you choose.
Other forces take on values determined by the situation. When you sit in the chair shown
in Fig. 4.5, the downward force of gravity on you causes the chair to compress slightly.
FIGURE 4.5 A compression force. The chair acts like a spring and exerts an upward force. When the chair compresses
 4.4 The Force of Gravity 53

enough that the upward force is equal in magnitude to the downward force of gravity,
there’s no net force and you sit without accelerating. The same thing happens with tension r
forces when objects are suspended from ropes or cables—the ropes stretch until the force T
they exert balances the force of gravity (Fig. 4.6).
Forces like the pull you exert on your rolling luggage, the force of a chair on your body,
and the force a baseball exerts on a bat are contact forces because the force is exerted
through direct contact. Other forces, like gravity and electric and magnetic forces, are
action-at-a-distance forces because they seemingly act between distant objects, like r
Earth and the Moon. Actually, the distinction isn’t clear-cut; at the microscopic level, con- Fg
tact forces involve action-at-a-distance electric forces between molecules. And the action-
at-a-distance concept itself is troubling. How can Earth “reach out” across empty space
and pull on the Moon? Later we’ll look at an approach to forces that avoids this quandary.

The Fundamental Forces FIGURE 4.6 The climbing rope exerts an upward
!
Gravity, tension forces, compression forces, contact forces, electric forces, friction tension force T that balances the force of
forces—how many kinds of forces are there? At present, physicists identify three basic gravity.
forces: the gravitational force, the electroweak force, and the strong force.
Gravity is the weakest of the fundamental forces, but because it acts attractively be-
tween all matter, gravity’s effect is cumulative. That makes gravity the dominant force in
the large-scale universe, determining the structure of planets, stars, galaxies, and the uni-
verse itself.
The electroweak force subsumes electromagnetism and the weak nuclear force. Vir-
tually all the nongravitational forces we encounter in everyday life are electromagnetic,
including contact forces, friction, tension and compression forces, and the forces that bind
atoms into chemical compounds. The weak nuclear force is less obvious, but it’s crucial in
the Sun’s energy production—providing the energy that powers life on Earth.
The strong force describes how particles called quarks bind together to form protons,
neutrons, and a host of less-familiar particles. The force that joins protons and neutrons to
make atomic nuclei is a residue of the strong force between their constituent quarks. Al-
though the strong force isn’t obvious in everyday life, it’s ultimately responsible for the
structure of matter. If its strength were slightly different, atoms more complex than helium
couldn’t exist, and the universe would be devoid of life!
Unifying the fundamental forces is a major goal of physics. Over the centuries we’ve
come to understand seemingly disparate forces as manifestations of a more fundamental
underlying force. Figure 4.7 suggests that the process continues, as physicists attempt first Electricity Magnetism
to unify the strong and electroweak forces, and then ultimately to add gravity to give a
“Theory of Everything.”
Electromagnetism
Weak

4.4 The Force of Gravity

Newton’s second law shows that mass is a measure of a body’s resistance to changes in
Gravity Strong Electroweak
motion—its inertia. A body’s mass is an intrinsic property; it doesn’t depend on location.
If my mass is 65 kg, it’s 65 kg on Earth, in an orbiting spacecraft, or on the Moon. That
means no matter where I am, a force of 65 N gives me an acceleration of 1 m/s2.
We commonly use the term “weight” to mean the same thing as mass. In physics,
Grand Unified Force
though, weight is the force that gravity exerts on a body. Near Earth’s surface, a freely
!
falling body accelerates !downward at 9.8 m/s2; we designate this acceleration vector by g .
!
Newton’s second law, F 5 ma , then says that the force of gravity on a body of mass m is
!
mg ; this force is the body’s weight:
! !
w 5 mg 1weight2 (4.5) Theory of Everything

With my 65-kg mass, my weight near Earth’s surface is then 165 kg219.8 m/s 2 or 640 N.
2

On the Moon, where the acceleration of gravity is only 1.6 m/s2, I would weigh only 100 N.
And in the remote reaches of intergalactic space, far from any gravitating object, my FIGURE 4.7 Unification of forces is a major
weight would be essentially zero. theme in physics.
54 Chapter 4 Force and Motion

EXAMPLE 4.2 Mass and Weight: Exploring Mars

The Phoenix spacecraft that landed on Mars in 2008 weighed 3.43 kN EVALUATE First we want to find mass from weight, so we solve for m
on Earth. What were its mass and weight on Mars? using the Earth weight and Earth’s gravity:
w 3.43 kN
INTERPRET Here we’re asked about the relation between mass m5 5 5 350 kg
g 9.8 m/s 2
and weight, and the object we’re interested in is the Phoenix
spacecraft. This mass is the same everywhere, so the weight on Mars is given by
w 5 mgMars 5 1350 kg213.74 m/s22 5 1.31 kN. Here we found the
DEVELOP Equation 4.5 describes the relation between mass and acceleration of gravity on Mars in Appendix E.
weight. Writing this equation in scalar form because we’re interested
only in magnitudes, we have w 5 mg. ASSESS Make sense? Sure, Mars’s gravitational acceleration is lower
than Earth’s, and so is the spacecraft’s weight on Mars. ■

One reason we confuse mass and weight is the common use of the SI unit kilogram
to describe “weight.” At the doctor’s office you may be told that you “weigh” 55 kg.
You don’t; you have a mass of 55 kg, so your weight is 155 kg219.8 m/s22 or 540 N.
The unit of force in the English system is the pound, so giving your weight in pounds
is correct.
That we confuse mass and weight at all results from the remarkable fact that the
gravitational acceleration of all objects is the same. This makes a body’s weight, a
gravitational property, proportional to its mass, a measure of its inertia in terms that
have nothing to do with gravity. First inferred by Galileo from his experiments with
falling bodies, this relation between gravitation and inertia seemed a coincidence until
the early 20th century. Finally Albert Einstein showed how that simple relation reflects
the underlying geometry of space and time in a way that intimately links gravitation
and acceleration.

Weightlessness
Aren’t astronauts “weightless”? Not according to our definition. At the altitude of the In-
ternational Space Station, the acceleration of gravity has about 89% of its value at Earth’s
!
surface, so the gravitational forces mg on the station and its occupants are almost as large
as on Earth. But the astronauts seem weightless, and indeed they feel weightless (Fig. 4.8).
What’s going on?
Imagine yourself in an elevator whose cable has broken and is dropping freely down-
ward with the gravitational acceleration g. In other words, the elevator and its occupant
are in free fall, with only the force of gravity acting. If you let go of a book, it too falls
freely with acceleration g. But so does everything else around it—and therefore the book

FIGURE 4.8 These astronauts only seem weightless.

 4.5 Using Newton’s Second Law 55

stays put relative to you (Fig. 4.9a). To you, the book seems “weightless,” since it doesn’t In a freely falling elevator you
seem to fall when you let go of it. And you’re “weightless” too; if you jump off the eleva- and your book seem weightless
because both fall with the same
tor’s floor, you float to the ceiling rather than falling back. Of course you, the book, and acceleration as the elevator.
the elevator are all falling, but because all have the same acceleration that isn’t obvious to
you. The gravitational force is still acting; it’s making you fall. So you really do have
weight, and your condition is best termed apparent weightlessness.
A falling elevator is a dangerous place; your state of apparent weightlessness would
end with a deadly smash caused by nongravitational contact forces when you hit the
ground. But apparent weightlessness occurs permanently in a state of free fall that doesn’t
intersect Earth—as in an orbiting spacecraft (Fig. 4.9b). It’s not being in outer space that r
ar a
makes astronauts seem weightless; it’s that they, like our hapless elevator occupant, are in
free fall—moving under the influence of the gravitational force alone. The condition of
ar
apparent weightlessness in orbiting spacecraft is sometimes called “microgravity.”

Earth
GOT IT? 4.3 A popular children’s book explains the weightlessness astronauts expe-
(a)
rience by saying there’s no gravity in space. If there were no gravity in space, what would
be the motion of a space shuttle, a satellite, or, for that matter, the Moon?
Like the elevator in (a), an orbiting
spacecraft is falling toward Earth,
and because its occupants also fall
with the same acceleration, they
4.5 Using Newton’s Second Law experience apparent weightlessness.

The interesting problems involving Newton’s second law are those where more than one
force acts on an object. To apply the second law, we then need the net force. For an object
of constant mass, the second law relates the net force and the acceleration:
! ar ar
!
Fnet 5 ma
ar
Using Newton’s second law with multiple forces is easier if we draw a free-body
diagram, a simple diagram that shows only the object of interest and the forces acting on it.

TACTICS 4.1 Drawing a Free-Body Diagram Earth

Drawing a free-body diagram, which shows the forces acting on an object, is the key to solving problems
with Newton’s laws. To make a free-body diagram: (b)

1. Identify the object of interest and all the forces acting on it. FIGURE 4.9 Objects in free fall appear weight-
2. Represent the object as a dot. less because they all experience the same
3. Draw the vectors for only those forces acting on the object, with their tails all starting on the dot. acceleration.
Figure 4.10 shows two examples where we reduce physical scenarios to free-body diagrams. We often add a
coordinate system to the free-body diagram so that we can express force vectors in components.

Cable
tension
r 2 Skier
T r
2 Elevator T Force from reduces
1 Identify and
sloping to dot. nr
all forces contents 3 Both forces
act on the ground r
acting on reduce n
dot. 3 Both forces
the object. to dot. Gravity
r r r act on the
Fg Fg Fg
Gravity 1 Identify all dot.
r
Fg forces acting
on the object.
Physical Free-body Physical Free-body
situation diagram situation diagram
(a) (b)

FIGURE 4.10 Free-body diagrams. (a) A one-dimensional situation like those we discuss in this chapter.
(b) A two-dimensional situation. We’ll deal with such cases in Chapter 5.
56 Chapter 4 Force and Motion

Our IDEA strategy applies to Newton’s laws as it does to other physics problems. For
the second law, we can elaborate on the four IDEA steps:

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 4.1 Newton’s Second Law

INTERPRET Interpret the problem to be sure that you know what it’s asking and that Newton’s
second law is the relevant concept. Identify the object of interest and all the individual interac-
tion forces acting on it.
DEVELOP Draw a free-body diagram
! as described! in Tactics 4.1. Develop your solution plan by
!
writing Newton’s second law, Fnet 5 ma , with Fnet expressed as the sum of the forces you’ve
identified. Then choose a coordinate system so you can express Newton’s law in components.
EVALUATE At this point the physics is done, and you’re ready to execute your plan by solving
Newton’s second law and evaluating the numerical answer(s), if called for. Even in the one-
dimensional problems of this chapter, remember that Newton’s law is a vector equation; that will
help you get the signs right. You need to write the components of Newton’s law in the coordi-
nate system you chose, and then solve the resulting equation(s) for the quantity(ies) of interest.
ASSESS Assess your solution to see that it makes sense. Are the numbers reasonable? Do the
units work out correctly? What happens in special cases—for example, when a mass, force, or
acceleration becomes very small or very large, or an angle becomes 0° or 90°?

EXAMPLE 4.3 Newton’s Second Law: In the Elevator

A 740-kg elevator accelerates upward at 1.1 m/s 2 , pulled by a cable ✓TIP Vectors Tell It All
of negligible mass. Find the tension force in the cable.
Don’t be tempted to put a minus sign in this equation because one
INTERPRET In this problem we’re asked to evaluate one of the forces force is downward. You don’t have to worry about signs until you
on an object. First we identify the object of interest. Although the write the components of a vector equation in the coordinate system
problem asks about the cable tension, it’s the elevator on which that you chose.
tension acts, so the elevator is the object of interest. Next, we identify
the forces acting
! on the elevator. There are !two: the downward force Now we need to choose a coordinate system. Here all the forces
of gravity Fg and the upward cable tension T. are vertical, so we choose our y-axis pointing upward.
DEVELOP Figure 4.11a shows the elevator accelerating upward; EVALUATE Now we’re ready to rewrite Newton’s second law—
Fig. 4.11b is a free-body diagram representing the elevator as a dot Equation 4.6 in this case—in our coordinate system. Formally, we re-
with the two force vectors ! acting on it. The
! applicable equation is
! move the vector signs and add coordinate subscripts—just y in this case:
Newton’s second law, Fnet 5 ma , with Fnet given by the sum of the
forces we’ve identified: Ty 1 Fgy 5 may (4.7)
! ! ! ! Still no need to worry about signs. Now, what is Ty? Since the tension
Fnet 5 T 1 Fg 5 ma (4.6)
points upward and we’ve chosen that to be the positive direction, the
component of tension in the y-direction is its magnitude T. What about
Fgy? Gravity points downward, so this component is negative. Further-
more, we know that the magnitude of the gravitational force is mg. So
Fgy 5 2mg. Then our Newton’s law equation becomes
T 2 mg 5 may
r so
a
T 5 may 1 mg 5 m1ay 1 g2 (4.8)
For the numbers given, this equation yields
T 5 m1ay 1 g2 5 1740 kg 211.1 m/s 2 1 9.8 m/s 2 2 5 8.1 kN

ASSESS We can see that this answer makes sense—and learn a lot more
about physics—from the algebraic form of the answer in Equation 4.8.
Consider some special cases: If the acceleration ay were zero, then the
net force on the elevator would have to be zero. In that case Equation
4.8 gives T 5 mg. Of course: The cable is then supporting the eleva-
(a) (b) tor’s weight mg but not exerting any additional force to accelerate it.
! ! On the other hand, if the elevator is accelerating upward, then the
FIGURE 4.11 The forces on the elevator are the cable tension T and gravity Fg . cable has to provide an extra force in addition to the weight; that’s
 4.6 Newton’s Third Law 57

why the tension becomes may 1 mg. Numerically, our answer of You might have reasoned out this problem in your head. But we
8.1 kN is greater than the elevator’s weight—and the cable had better did it very thoroughly because the strategy we followed will let you
be strong enough to handle the extra force. solve all problems involving Newton’s second law, even if they’re
Finally, if the elevator is accelerating downward, then ay is nega- much more complicated. If you always follow this strategy and don’t
tive, and the cable tension is less than the weight. In free fall, try to find shortcuts, you’ll become confident in using Newton’s sec-
ay 5 2g, and the cable tension would be zero. ond law. ■

GOT IT? 4.4 For each of the following situations, would the cable tension in Exam-
ple 4.3 be greater than, less than, or equal to the elevator’s weight? (a) elevator starts mov-
ing upward, accelerating from rest; (b) elevator decelerates to a stop while moving
upward; (c) elevator starts moving downward, accelerating from rest; (d) elevator slows to
a stop while moving downward; (e) elevator is moving upward with constant speed

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 4.1 At the Equator

When you stand on a scale, the scale pushes up to support you, and the to a net force that’s downward, the force of gravity—your weight—must
scale reading shows the force with which it’s pushing. If you stand on be larger. Therefore, the scale reading must be less than your weight.
a scale at Earth’s equator, is the reading greater or less than your weight?
ASSESS Make sense? Yes: If the two forces had equal magnitudes, the
EVALUATE The question asks about the force the scale exerts on you, in net force would be zero—inconsistent with the fact that you’re accel-
comparison to your weight (the gravitational force on you). Figure 4.12 is erating. And if the scale force were greater, you’d be accelerating in
our sketch, showing the scale force upward and the gravitational force the wrong direction! The same effect occurs everywhere except at the
downward, toward Earth’s center. You’re in circular motion about Earth’s poles, but its analysis is more complicated because the acceleration is
center, so the direction of your acceleration is toward the center (down- toward Earth’s axis, not the center.
ward). According to Newton’s second law, the net force and acceleration
are in the same direction. The only two forces acting on you are the down-
ward force of gravity and the upward force of the scale. For them to sum MAKING THE CONNECTION By what percentage is your apparent
weight (the scale reading) at the equator less than your actual weight?
EVALUATE Using Earth’s radius RE from Appendix E, and its 24-hour
rotation period, you can find your acceleration: From Equation 3.16,
it’s v2/RE. Following Problem-Solving Strategy 4.1 and working in
a coordinate system with the vertical direction upward, you’ll
v2
find that Newton’s second law becomes Fscale 2 mg 5 2m , or
RE
Fscale 5 mg 2 mv2 /RE. So the scale reading differs from your weight
mg by mv2 /RE. Working the numbers shows that’s a difference of only
FIGURE 4.12 Our sketch for Conceptual Example 4.1. 0.34%. Note that this result doesn’t depend on your mass m.

4.6 Newton’s Third Law

Push your book across your desk, and you feel the book push back (Fig. 4.13a). Kick a
ball with bare feet, and your toes hurt. Why? You exert a force on the ball, and the ball
exerts a force back on you. A rocket engine exerts forces that expel hot gases out of its
nozzle—and the hot gases exert a force on the rocket, accelerating it forward (Fig. 4.13b).

Book pushes
on hand
with force Hand pushes on r
r book with force FAB.
FBA. Rocket pushes Gases push
on gases. on rocket. r
r F2
FBA r
FAB
r FIGURE 4.13 Newton’s third law says that forces
F1 always come in pairs. With objects in contact,
both forces act at the contact point. To empha-
size that the two forces act on different objects,
(a) (b) we draw them slightly displaced.
58 Chapter 4 Force and Motion

Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object also exerts a
force on the first. The two forces are in opposite directions, but they have equal magni-
tudes. This fact constitutes Newton’s third law of motion. The familiar expression “for
every action there is an equal and opposite reaction” is Newton’s 17th-century language.
But there’s really no distinction between “action” and “reaction”; both are always present.
In modern language, the third law states:
These forces constitute an equal but opposite
pair, but they don’t act on the same object so
they don’t cancel. Newton’s third law of motion If object A exerts a force on object B, then object B
exerts an oppositely directed force of equal magnitude on A.

Newton’s third law is about forces between objects. It says that such forces always
occur in pairs—that it’s not possible for object A to exert a force on object B without B
exerting a force back on A. You can now see why we coined the term “interaction
forces”—when there’s force between two objects, it’s always a true interaction, with
The force on the horse The forward force from both objects exerting forces and both experiencing forces. We’ll use the terms
arises as a reaction to the road is greater than
the horse pushing back the backward force interaction force pair and third-law pair for the two forces described by Newton’s
on the road. from the cart so the net third law.
force is forward. It’s crucial to recognize that the forces of a third-law
! ! pair act on different objects; the
FIGURE 4.14 The horse-and-cart dilemma: The force FAB of object A acts on object B, and the force FBA of B acts on A. The forces have
horse pulls on the cart, and the cart pulls back equal magnitudes and opposite directions, but they don’t cancel to give ! zero net force
on the horse with a force of equal magnitude. because they don’t act on the same object. In Fig. 4.13a, for example, FAB is the force the
So how can the pair ever get moving? No
hand exerts on the book. There’s no other horizontal force acting on the book, so the net
problem: The net force on the horse involves
forces from different third-law pairs. Their mag- force on the book is nonzero and the book accelerates. Failure to recognize that the two
nitudes aren’t equal and the horse experiences forces of a third-law pair act on different objects leads to a contradiction, embodied in the
a net force in the forward direction. famous horse-and-cart dilemma illustrated in Fig. 4.14.

APPLICATION Hollywood Goes Weightless

The film Apollo 13 shows Tom Hanks and his fellow actors floating weight-
lessly around the cabin of their movie-set spacecraft. What special effects did
Hollywood use here? None. The actors’ apparent weightlessness was the real
thing. But even Hollywood’s budget wasn’t enough to buy a space-shuttle
flight. So the producers rented NASA’s weightlessness training aircraft, aptly
dubbed the “vomit comet.” This airplane executes parabolic trajectories that
mimic the free-fall motion of a projectile, so its occupants experience apparent
weightlessness.
Movie critics marveled at how Apollo 13 “simulated the weightlessness of
outer space.” Nonsense! The actors were in free fall just like the real astro-
nauts on board the real Apollo 13, and they experienced exactly the same
physical phenomenon—apparent weightlessness when moving under the
influence of gravity alone.
 4.6 Newton’s Third Law 59

EXAMPLE 4.4 Newton’s Third Law: Pushing Books

!
On a frictionless horizontal surface, you push with force F on a book the first. Newton’s third law would give us that force if we knew the
of mass m1 that in turn pushes on a book of mass m2 (Fig. 4.15a). force the first book exerts on the second. Since that’s the only hori-
What force does the second book exert on the first? zontal force acting on book 2, we could get it from Newton’s second
law if we knew the acceleration of book 2. So here’s our plan:
(1) Find the acceleration of book 2; (2) use Newton’s second law to
r
find
! the net force on book 2, which in this case !is the single force
F m2
m1
F12 ; and (3) apply Newton’s third law to get F21 , which is what
we’re looking for.
r r
F 21 F 12 EVALUATE (1) The total mass of the two books
! is m1 1 m2 , and the
(a) net
! force applied to the combination is F. Newton’s second law,
!
F 5 ma , gives
! !
! F F
a5 5
m m1 1 m2
for the acceleration of both books, including book 2. (2) Now that we
!
know book 2’s acceleration, we use Newton’s second law to find F12 ,
(b) which we recognize as the net force on book 2:
!
! ! F m2 !
F12 5 m2a 5 m2 5 F
m1 1 m2 m1 1 m2
(3) Finally, the forces the books exert on each other constitute a third-
law pair, so we have
(c) ! ! m2 !
F21 5 2F12 5 2 F
FIGURE 4.15 Horizontal forces on the books of Example 4.4. Not shown are m1 1 m2
the vertical forces of gravity and the normal force from the surface support- ASSESS You can see that this result makes sense
ing the books. ! ! by considering the
first book. It too undergoes acceleration a 5 F! / 1m1 1 m2 2, but
! there
are two forces acting on it: the applied force F and the force F21 from
INTERPRET This problem is about the interaction between two ob- the second book. So the net force on the first book is
jects, so we identify both books as objects of interest. ! ! ! m2 ! m1 ! !
F 1 F21 5 F 2 F5 F 5 m1a
DEVELOP In a problem with multiple objects, it’s a good idea to m1 1 m2 m1 1 m2
draw a separate free-body diagram for each object. We’ve done that consistent with Newton’s second law. Our result shows that Newton’s
in Fig. 4.15b and c, keeping very light images of the books them- second and third laws are both necessary for a fully consistent
selves. Now, we’re asked about the force the second book exerts on description of the motion. ■

GOT IT? 4.5 The figure shows two blocks with two forces acting on the pair. Is the
net force on the larger block (a) greater than 2 N, (b) equal to 2 N, or (c) less than 2 N?

5N 3N
3 kg
1 kg

A contact force such as the force between the books in Example 4.4 is called a normal
!
force (symbol n ) because it acts at right angles to the surfaces in contact. Other examples
of normal forces are the upward force that a table or bridge exerts on objects it supports,
and the force perpendicular to a sloping surface supporting an object (Fig. 4.16).
60 Chapter 4 Force and Motion

The normal force and

The normal force acts gravitational force
The upward normal force from the perpendicular to the don’t balance, so the
table supports the block against gravity. surface. block slides down
the slope.

nr nr
nr
nr
r
Fg r
r Fnet
r r
Fg Fg
Fg

Free-body diagram
Free-body diagram
(a) (b)

FIGURE 4.16 Normal forces. Also shown in each case is the gravitational force.

Newton’s third law also applies to forces like gravity that don’t involve direct contact.
Since Earth exerts a downward force on you, the third law says that you exert an equal up-
ward force on Earth (Fig. 4.17). If you’re in free fall, then Earth’s gravity causes you to
accelerate toward Earth. Earth, too, accelerates toward you—but it’s so massive that this
acceleration is negligible.

Measuring Force
Newton’s third law provides a convenient way to measure forces using the tension or com-
pression force in a spring. A spring stretches or compresses in proportion to the force ex-
erted on it. By Newton’s third law, the force on the spring is equal and opposite to the force
the spring exerts on whatever is stretching or compressing it (Fig. 4.18). The spring’s
stretch or compression thus provides a measure of the force on whatever object is attached
FIGURE 4.17 Gravitational forces on you and on to the spring.
Earth form a third-law pair. Figure is obviously
not to scale!
In an ideal spring, the stretch or compression is directly proportional to the force ex-
erted by the spring. Hooke’s law expresses this proportionality mathematically:
Fsp 5 2kx 1Hooke’s law, ideal spring2 (4.9)

x50
A spring at its normal length
does not exert a force.

(a)
A stretched spring pulls inward to oppose the
stretch. It applies a force on the wall to the right
and on the hand to the left.

(b) x.0

A compressed spring pushes outward. The

spring’s force on the wall is to the left and
on the hand to the right.

(c)
x,0

FIGURE 4.18 A spring responds to stretching or compression with an oppositely

directed force.
 4.6 Newton’s Third Law 61

Here Fsp is the spring force, x is the distance the spring has been stretched or compressed
from its normal length, and k is the spring constant, which measures the “stiffness” of
the spring. Its units are N/m. The minus sign shows that the spring force is opposite the
distortion of the spring: Stretch it, and the spring responds with a force opposite the
stretching force; compress it, and the spring pushes back against the compressing force.
Real springs obey Hooke’s law only up to a point; stretch it too much, and a spring will
deform and eventually break.
A spring scale is a spring with an indicator and a scale calibrated in force units F (newtons)
(Fig. 4.19). Common examples include many bathroom scales, hanging scales in super- 0 1 2 3 4
markets, and laboratory spring scales. Even electronic scales are spring scales, with their
“springs” materials that produce electrical signals when deformed by an applied force. r
F
Hang an object on a spring scale, and the spring stretches until its force counters the
gravitational force on the object. Or, with a stand-on scale, the spring compresses until it
supports you against gravity. Either way, the spring force is equal in magnitude to the FIGURE 4.19 A spring scale.
weight mg, and thus the spring indicator provides a measure of weight. Given g, this pro-
cedure also provides the object’s mass.
Be careful, though: A spring scale provides the true weight only if the scale isn’t accel-
erating; otherwise, the scale reading is only an apparent weight. Weigh yourself in an ac-
celerating elevator and you may be horrified or delighted, depending on the direction of
the acceleration. Conceptual Example 4.1 made this point qualitatively, and Example 4.5
does so quantitatively.

EXAMPLE 4.5 True and Apparent Weight: A Helicopter Ride

A helicopter rises vertically, carrying concrete for a ski-lift founda- Vectors tell it all; don’t worry about signs at this point. Our equation
tion. A 35-kg bag of concrete sits in the helicopter on a spring scale expresses all the physics of the situation, but before we can move on
whose spring constant is 3.4 kN/m. By how much does the spring to the solution, we need to choose a coordinate system. Here it’s con-
compress (a) when the helicopter is at rest and (b) when it’s accelerat- venient to take the y-axis vertically upward.
ing upward at 1.9 m/s 2 ?
EVALUATE The forces are in the vertical direction, so we’re concerned
INTERPRET This problem is about concrete, a spring scale, and a heli- with only the y-component of Newton’s law: Fspy 1 Fgy 5 may. The
copter. Ultimately, that means it’s about mass, force, and acceleration— spring force is upward and, from Hooke’s law, it has magnitude kx, so
the content of Newton’s laws. We’re clearly interested in the spring Fspy 5 kx. Gravity is downward with magnitude mg, so Fgy 5 2mg.
and the concrete mass resting on it, which share the motion of the hel- The y-component of Newton’s law then becomes kx 2 mg 5 may,
icopter. We identify
! two forces acting on the concrete: gravity and the which we solve to get
spring force Fsp . m1ay 1 g2
x5
DEVELOP As with any Newton’s law problem, we start with a free- k
body diagram (Fig. 4.20). We then write Newton’s second law in its Putting in the numbers (a) with the helicopter at rest 1ay 5 0 2 and
vector form ! ! ! ! (b) with ay 5 1.9 m/s 2 gives
Fnet 5 Fsp 1 Fg 5 ma
m1ay 1 g2 135 kg2 10 1 9.8 m/s22
(a) x5 5 5 10 cm
k 3400 N/m
135 kg211.9 m/s2 1 9.8 m/s22
(b) x5 5 12 cm
3400 N/m
ASSESS Why is the answer to (b) larger? Because, just as with the
cable in Example 4.3, the spring needs to provide an additional force
to accelerate the concrete upward. ■

FIGURE 4.20 Our drawings for Example 4.5.

GOT IT? 4.6 (a) Would the answer to (a) in Example 4.5 change if the helicopter
were not at rest but moving upward at constant speed? (b) Would the answer to (b) change
if the helicopter were moving downward but still accelerating upward?
CHAPTER 4 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea of this chapter—and of all Newtonian mechanics—is that force causes change in motion, not motion itself. Uniform motion—straight
line, constant speed—needs no cause or explanation. Any deviation, in speed or direction, requires a net force. This idea is the essence of
Newton’s first and second laws. Combined with Newton’s third law, these laws provide a consistent description of motion.

Newton’s First Law Newton’s Second Law Newton’s Third Law

A body in uniform motion remains in uni- The rate at which a body’s momentum If object A exerts a force on object B, then ob-
form motion, and a body at rest remains at changes is equal to the net force acting on ject B exerts an oppositely directed force of
rest, unless acted on by a nonzero net force. the body. equal magnitude on A.
This law is implicit in Newton’s second law. Here momentum is the “quantity of mo- Newton’s third law says that forces come in
tion,” the product of mass and velocity. pairs.

Solving Problems with Newton’s Laws

INTERPRET Interpret the problem to be sure that you know what it’s asking Cable
and that Newton’s second law is the relevant concept. Identify the object of in- tension
r
terest and all the individual interaction forces acting on it. T

DEVELOP Draw a free-body diagram as described !in Tactics 4.1. Develop!

!
your solution plan by writing Newton’s second law, Fnet 5 ma , with Fnet ex- 2 Elevator and
r
pressed as the sum of the forces you’ve identified. Then choose a coordinate 1 Identify all contents reduce T
system so you can express Newton’s law in components. forces acting to dot. 3 Both forces
on the object. act on the
r
EVALUATE At this point the physics is done, and you’re ready to execute your F dot. g
plan by solving Newton’s second law and evaluating the numerical answer(s), if
called for. Remember that even in the one-dimensional problems of this chapter, Gravity
r
Newton’s law is a vector equation; that will help you get the signs right. You Fg
need to write the components of Newton’s law in the coordinate system you
chose, and then solve the resulting equation(s) for the quantity(ies) of interest.
ASSESS Assess your solution to see that it makes sense. Are the numbers reasonable? Do the units work out correctly? What happens in special
cases—for example, when a mass, a force, an acceleration, or an angle gets very small or very large?

Key Concepts and Equations

! ! ! !
Mathematically,
! Newton’s second law is Fnet 5 dp /dt, where p 5 mv is an object’s momentum, and r
F3
r
Fnet is the sum of all the individual forces acting on the object. When an object has constant mass, the Fnet is the
r
second law takes the familiar form F1 vector
r r
sum
! ! r
Fnet of F1, F2,
Fnet 5 ma 1Newton’s second law2 F2
r
r
and F3.

Newton’s second law is a vector equation. To use it correctly, you must write the components of the equa-
tion in a chosen coordinate system. In one-dimensional problems the result is a single equation.

Applications
The force of gravity on an object is its weight. Since all objects at a given location experience the same
gravitational acceleration, weight is proportional to mass:
! !
w 5 mg 1weight on Earth 2
In an accelerated reference frame, an object’s apparent weight differs from its actual weight; in particu-
lar, an object in free fall experiences apparent weightlessness.

Springs are convenient force-measuring devices, stretching or compressing in response to the applied
force. For an ideal spring, the stretch or compression is directly proportional to the force:
r
Fsp 5 2kx 1Hooke’s law2 r
Fsp
Fapplied

where k is the spring constant, with units of N/m.

 Exercises and Problems 63

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion the maximum speed for a nondamaging collision is 10 km/h, by how
much must the bumper be able to move relative to the car?
1. Distinguish the Aristotelian and Galilean/Newtonian views of the
Section 4.4 The Force of Gravity
natural state of motion.
2. A ball bounces off a wall with the same speed it had before it hit 21. Show that the units of acceleration can be written as N/kg. Why
the wall. Has its momentum changed? Has a force acted on the does it make sense to give g as 9.8 N/kg when talking about mass
ball? Has a force acted on the wall? Relate your answers to New- and weight?
ton’s laws of motion. 22. Your spaceship crashes on one of the Sun’s planets. Fortu-
3. We often use the term “inertia” to describe human sluggishness. nately, the ship’s scales are intact and show that your weight is
How is this usage related to the meaning of “inertia” in physics? 532 N. If your mass is 60 kg, where are you? (Hint: Consult
4. Does a body necessarily move in the direction of the net force Appendix E.)
acting on it? 23. Your friend can barely lift a 35-kg concrete block on Earth. How
5. A truck crashes into a stalled car. A student trying to explain the massive a block could she lift on the Moon?
physics of this event claims that no forces are involved; the car 24. A cereal box says “net weight 340 grams.” What’s the actual
was just “in the way” so it got hit. Comment. weight (a) in SI units and (b) in ounces?
6. A barefoot astronaut kicks a ball, hard, across a space station. 25. You’re a safety engineer for a bridge spanning the U.S.-Canadian
Does the ball’s apparent weightlessness mean the astronaut’s toes border. U.S. specifications permit a maximum load of 10 tons.
don’t hurt? Explain. What load limit should you specify on the Canadian side, where
7. The surface gravity on Jupiter’s moon Io is one-fifth that on “weight” is given in kilograms?
Earth. What would happen to your weight and to your mass if 26. The gravitational acceleration at the International Space Station’s
you were on Io? altitude is about 89% of its surface value. What’s the weight of a
8. In paddling a canoe, you push water backward with your paddle. 68-kg astronaut at this altitude?
What force actually propels the canoe forward? Section 4.5 Using Newton’s Second Law
9. Is it possible for a nonzero net force to act on an object without
27. A 50-kg parachutist descends at a steady 40 km/h. What force
the object’s speed changing? Explain.
does air exert on the parachute?
10. As your plane accelerates down the runway, you take your keys
28. A 930-kg motorboat accelerates away from a dock at 2.3 m/s 2 .
from your pocket and suspend them by a thread. Do they hang
Its propeller provides a 3.9-kN thrust force. What drag force does
vertically? Explain.
the water exert on the boat?
11. A driver tells passengers to buckle their seatbelts, invoking the
29. An elevator accelerates downward at 2.4 m/s 2 . What force does
law of inertia. What’s that got to do with seatbelts?
the elevator’s floor exert on a 52-kg passenger?
30. At 560 metric tons, the Airbus A-380 is the world’s largest airliner.
Exercises and Problems What’s the upward force on an A-380 when the plane is (a) flying
at constant altitude and (b) accelerating upward at 1.1 m/s 2 ?
Exercises 31. You’re an engineer working on Ares I, NASA’s replacement for
Section 4.2 Newton’s First and Second Laws the space shuttles. Performance specs call for a first-stage rocket
capable of accelerating a total mass of 630 Mg vertically from
12. A subway train’s mass is 1.5 3 10 6 kg. What force is required
rest to 7200 km/h in 2.0 min. You’re asked to determine the
to accelerate the train at 2.5 m/s 2 ?
required engine thrust (force) and the force exerted on a 75-kg
13. A 61-Mg railroad locomotive can exert a 0.12-MN force. At
astronaut during liftoff. What do you report?
what rate can it accelerate (a) by itself and (b) when pulling a
32. You step into an elevator, and it accelerates to a downward speed
1.4-Gg train?
of 9.2 m/s in 2.1 s. How does your apparent weight during this
14. A small plane accelerates down the runway at 7.2 m/s 2 . If its
time compare with your actual weight?
propeller provides an 11-kN force, what’s the plane’s mass?
15. A car leaves the road traveling at 110 km/h and hits a tree, com- Section 4.6 Newton’s Third Law
ing to a stop in 0.14 s. What average force does a seatbelt exert 33. What upward gravitational force does a 5600-kg elephant exert
on a 60-kg passenger during this collision? on Earth?
16. By how much does the force required to stop a car increase if the ini- 34. Your friend’s mass is 65 kg. If she jumps off a 120-cm-high
tial speed is doubled while the stopping distance remains the same? table, how far does Earth move toward her as she falls?
17. Kinesin is a “motor protein” responsible for moving materials 35. What force is necessary to stretch a spring 48 cm, if its spring
BIO within living cells. If it exerts a 6.0-pN force, what acceleration constant is 270 N/m?
will it give a molecular complex with mass 3.0 3 10 218 kg? 36. A 35-N force is applied to a spring with spring constant
18. Starting from rest, a 940-kg racing car covers 400 m in 4.95 s. k 5 220 N/m. How much does the spring stretch?
Find the average force on the car. 37. A spring with spring constant k 5 340 N/m is used to weigh a
19. In an egg-dropping contest, a student encases an 85-g egg in a 6.7-kg fish. How far does the spring stretch?
Styrofoam block. If the force on the egg can’t exceed 1.5 N, and
if the block hits the ground at 1.2 m/s, by how much must the Problems
Styrofoam compress on impact? 38. A 1.25-kg object is moving in the x-direction at 17.4 m/s. Just
20. In a front-end collision, a 1300-kg car with shock-absorbing bumpers 3.41 s later, it’s moving at 26.8 m/s at 34.0° to the x-axis. Find
can withstand a maximum force of 65 kN before damage occurs. If the magnitude and direction of the force applied during this time.
64 Chapter 4 Force and Motion

39. An airplane encounters sudden turbulence, and you feel momen- shown in Fig. 4.23. How much does the spring stretch from its
tarily lighter. If your apparent weight seems to be about 70% of equilibrium length?
your normal weight, what are the magnitude and direction of the
r
plane’s acceleration? F
40. A 74-kg tree surgeon rides a “cherry picker” lift to reach the up- 2 kg 3 kg
15 N
per branches of a tree. What force does the lift exert on the sur-
geon when it’s (a) at rest; (b) moving upward at a steady 2.4 m/s;
(c) moving downward at a steady 2.4 m/s; (d) accelerating up- FIGURE 4.23 Problem 50
ward at 1.7 m/s 2 ; (e) accelerating downward at 1.7 m/s 2 ?
41. A dancer executes a vertical jump during which the floor pushes 51. You’re an automotive engineer designing the “crumple zone” of a
up on his feet with a force 50% greater than his weight. What’s new car—the region that compresses as the car comes to a stop in a
his upward acceleration? head-on collision. If the maximum allowable force on a passenger
42. Find expressions for the force needed to bring an object of mass in a 70-km/h collision is 20 times the passenger’s weight, what do
m from rest to speed v (a) in time Dt and (b) over distance Dx. you specify for the amount of compression in the crumple zone?
43. An elevator moves upward at 5.2 m/s. What’s its minimum stop- 52. Frogs’ tongues dart out to catch insects, with maximum tongue
ping time if the passengers are to remain on the floor?
BIO accelerations of about 250 m/s 2 . What force is needed to give a
A 2.50-kg object is moving 500-mg tongue such an acceleration?
44. ! along! the x-axis at 1.60 m/s. As it passes
the origin, two forces F1 and F2 are applied, both in the y-direction 53. Two large crates, with masses 640 kg and 490 kg, are connected
(plus or minus). The forces are applied for! 3.00 s, after which the! ob- by a stiff, massless spring 1k 5 8.1 kN/m2 and propelled along
ject is at x 5 4.80 m, y 5 10.8 m. If F1 5 15.0 ^/N, what’s F2? an essentially frictionless factory floor by a horizontal force ap-
45. Blocks of 1.0, 2.0, and 3.0 kg are lined up on a frictionless table, as plied to the more massive crate. If the spring compresses 5.1 cm,
shown in Fig. 4.21, with a 12-N force applied to the leftmost block. what’s the applied force?
What force does the middle block exert on the rightmost one? 54. What force do the blades of a 4300-kg helicopter exert on the air
when the helicopter is (a) hovering at constant altitude; (b) drop-
ping at 21 m/s with speed decreasing at 3.2 m/s 2 ; (c) rising at
12 N 17 m/s with speed increasing at 3.2 m/s 2 ; (d) rising at a steady
2 kg 3 kg
1 kg 15 m/s; (e) rising at 15 m/s with speed decreasing at 3.2 m/s 2 ?
55. What engine thrust (force) is needed to accelerate a rocket of
mass m (a) downward at 1.40g near Earth’s surface; (b) upward
FIGURE 4.21 Problem 45 at 1.40g near Earth’s surface; (c) at 1.40g in interstellar space,
far from any star or planet?
46. A child pulls an 11-kg wagon with a horizontal handle whose 56. Your engineering firm is asked to specify the maximum load for
mass is 1.8 kg, accelerating the wagon and handle at 2.3 m/s 2 . the elevators in a new building. Each elevator has mass 490 kg
Find the tension forces at each end of the handle. Why are they when empty and maximum acceleration 2.24 m/s 2 . The elevator
different? cables can withstand a maximum tension of 19.5 kN before
47. A 2200-kg airplane pulls two gliders, the first of mass 310 kg and breaking. For safety, you need to ensure that the tension never ex-
the second of mass 260 kg, down the runway with acceleration ceeds two-thirds of that value. What do you specify for the maxi-
1.9 m/s 2 (Fig. 4.22). Neglecting the mass of the two ropes and any mum load? How many 70-kg people is that?
frictional forces, determine (a) the horizontal thrust of the plane’s 57. An F-16 jet fighter has mass 12 Mg and engine thrust 132 kN. An
propeller; (b) the tension force in the first rope; (c) the tension Airbus A-380 has mass 560 Mg and total engine thrust 1.5 MN.
force in the second rope; and (d) the net force on the first glider. Could either aircraft climb vertically with no lift from its wings?
If so, what vertical acceleration could it achieve?
ar 58. Two springs have the same unstretched length but different spring
constants, k1 and k2 . (a) If they’re connected side by side and
stretched a distance x, as shown in Fig. 4.24a, show that the force
exerted by the combination is 1k1 1 k2 2x. (b) If they’re con-
nected end to end (Fig. 4.24b) and the combination is stretched a
distance x, show that they exert a force k1 k2 x/ 1k1 1 k2 2.
FIGURE 4.22 Problem 47

48. A biologist is studying the growth of rats on the Space Station.

BIO To determine a rat’s mass, she puts it in a 320-g cage, attaches a
spring scale, and pulls so that the scale reads 0.46 N. If rat and
cage accelerate at 0.40 m/s 2 , what’s the rat’s mass?
49. An elastic towrope has spring constant 1300 N/m. It’s connected
between a truck and a 1900-kg car. As the truck tows the car, the (a) (b)
rope stretches 55 cm. Starting from rest, how far do the truck and FIGURE 4.24 Problem 58
the car move in 1 min? Assume the car experiences negligible
friction. 59. Although we usually write Newton’s second law for one-
50. A 2.0-kg mass and a 3.0-kg mass are on a horizontal frictionless dimensional motion in the form F 5 ma, which holds when mass
surface, connected by a massless spring with spring constant d1mv2
k 5 140 N/m. A 15-N force is applied to the larger mass, as is constant, a more fundamental version is F 5 . Consider
dt
 Answers to Chapter Questions 65

an object whose mass is changing, and use the product rule for y

Apparent weight (lb)

7
derivatives to show that Newton’s law then takes the form
dm 6 B
F 5 ma 1 v . A C E
dt 5 D
60. A railroad car is being pulled beneath a grain elevator that dumps 4
grain at the rate of 450 kg/s. Use the result of Problem 59 to find
3 x
the force needed to keep the car moving at a constant 2.0 m/s. 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
61. A block 20% more massive than you hangs from a rope that goes Time (s)
over a frictionless, massless pulley. With what acceleration must
you climb the other end of the rope to keep the block from falling? FIGURE 4.25 The laptop’s apparent weight (Passage Problems 68–71).
62. You’re asked to calibrate a device used to measure vertical accel-
eration in helicopters. The device consists of a mass m hanging 68. At the first sign of turbulence, the plane’s acceleration
from a massless spring of constant k. Your job is to express the a. is upward.
acceleration as a function of the spring’s stretch Dy from its equi- b. is downward.
librium length. What’s your expression? c. is impossible to tell from the graph.
63. Your airplane is caught in a brief, violent downdraft. To your 69. The plane’s vertical acceleration has its greatest magnitude
amazement, pretzels rise vertically off your seatback tray, and a. during interval B.
you estimate their upward acceleration relative to the plane at b. during interval C.
2 m/s 2 . What’s the plane’s downward acceleration? c. during interval D.
64. You’re assessing the Engineered Material Arresting System 70. During interval C, you can conclude for certain that the plane is
(EMAS) at New York’s JFK airport. The system consists of a a. at rest.
132-m-long bed of crushable cement blocks, designed to stop air- b. accelerating upward.
craft from sliding off the runway in emergencies. The EMAS can c. accelerating downward.
exert a 300-kN force on a 55-Mg jetliner that hits the system at d. moving with constant vertical velocity.
36 m/s. Can it stop the plane before it plows through all the
71. The magnitude of the greatest vertical acceleration the plane
blocks?
undergoes during the time shown on the graph is approximately
65. Two masses are joined by a massless string. A 30-N force ap-
a. 0.5 m/s 2 .
plied vertically to the upper mass gives the system a constant up-
b. 1.0 m/s 2 .
ward acceleration of 3.2 m/s 2 . If the string tension is 18 N, what
c. 5 m/s 2 .
are the two masses?
d. 10 m/s 2 .
66. A mass M hangs from a uniform rope of length L and mass m.
Find an expression for the rope tension as a function of the dis-
tance y measured downward from the top of the rope. Answers to Chapter Questions
67. “Jerk” is the rate of change of acceleration, and it’s what can
make you sick on an amusement park ride. In a particular ride, a Answer to Chapter Opening Question
car and passengers with total mass M are subject to a force given The human body exerts a contact force; wind and water are fluids that
by F 5 F0 sin vt, where F0 and v are constants. Find an expres- exert pressure forces; gravity is an action-at-a-distance force between
sion for the maximum jerk. Earth and the sailboard.

Passage Problems Answers to GOT IT? Questions

Laptop computers are equipped with accelerometers that sense when 4.1. (b).
the device is dropped and then put the hard drive into a protective 4.2. No. Look at Fig. 4.4b.
mode. Your computer geek friend has written a program that reads 4.3. All would move in straight lines.
the accelerometer and calculates the laptop’s apparent weight. 4.4. (a) greater; (b) less; (c) less; (d) greater; (e) equal.
You’re amusing yourself with this program on a long plane flight. 4.5. (c) less than 2 N.
Your laptop weighs just 5 pounds, and for a long time that’s what the 4.6. (a) No, the acceleration is still 0; (b) no, the direction of velocity
program reports. But then the “Fasten Seatbelt” light comes on as is irrelevant (this situation would occur if the helicopter were
the plane encounters turbulence. For the next 12 seconds, your lap- moving downward but slowing).
top reports rapid changes in apparent weight, as shown in Fig. 4.25.
 5 Using Newton’s Laws

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Use Newton’s second law to solve
problems involving the motion of a
single object in two dimensions under
the influence of multiple forces (5.1).
■ Solve Newton’s law problems
involving multiple objects (5.2).
■ Explain that circular motion is just a
special case of Newton’s second law,
and solve circular-motion problems
involving multiple forces (5.3).
■ Describe the force of friction, both
static and kinetic, and solve Newton’s
law problems in which one of the
forces is friction (5.4).
■ Explain drag forces qualitatively (5.5).
Why doesn’t the roller coaster fall off its
loop-the-loop track?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ You first met Newton’s laws in
Chapter 4, and you should be
C hapter 4 introduced Newton’s three laws of motion and used them in one-dimensional
applications. Now we apply Newton’s laws in two dimensions. This material is at the heart of
Newtonian physics, from textbook problems to systems that guide spacecraft to distant planets.
familiar with all three of them The chapter consists largely of examples, to help you learn to apply Newton’s laws and also to
(4.2, 4.6). appreciate their wide range of applicability. We also introduce frictional forces and elaborate on
■ This chapter builds especially on circular motion. As you study the diverse examples, keep in mind that they all follow from the
applications of Newton’s second law, underlying principles embodied in Newton’s laws.
now generalizing to the case where
the forces acting on an object no
5.1 Using Newton’s
!
Second Law
longer lie along a line (4.5). !
Newton’s second law, Fnet 5 ma , is the cornerstone of mechanics. We can use it to develop
faster skis, engineer skyscrapers, design safer roads, compute a rocket’s thrust, and solve
myriad other practical problems.
We’ll work Example 5.1 in great detail, applying Problem-Solving Strategy 4.1. Follow
this example closely, and try to understand how our strategy is grounded in Newton’s basic
statement that the net force on an object determines that object’s acceleration.

66
 5.1 Using Newton’s Second Law 67

EXAMPLE 5.1 Newton’s Law in Two Dimensions: Skiing

A skier of mass m 5 65 kg glides down a slope at angle u 5 32°, as parallel and perpendicular to the slope. In the standard horizontal/
shown in Fig. 5.1. Find (a) the skier’s acceleration and (b) the force vertical system, gravity would have a single component but we would
the snow exerts on the skier. The snow is so slippery that you can have to break both the acceleration and the normal force into two
neglect friction. components each (see Problem 32). The choice doesn’t affect physi-
cal reality and you could work the problem either way, but the “tilted”
coordinate system makes the math easier. We sketched this coordinate
system on the free-body diagram in Fig. 5.2.

EVALUATE The rest is math. First, we write the components of

Newton’s law in our coordinate system. That means writing a version
of the equation for each coordinate direction by removing the arrows
indicating vector quantities and adding subscripts for the coordinate
directions:
u 5 32°
x-component: nx 1 Fgx 5 max
y-component: ny 1 Fgy 5 may
FIGURE 5.1 What’s the skier’s acceleration? Don’t worry about signs until the next step, when we actually evaluate
the individual terms in these equations. Let’s begin with the
INTERPRET This problem is about the skier’s motion, so we identify x equation. With the x-axis parallel and the y-axis perpendicular to
the skier as the object of interest. Next, we identify the forces acting the slope, the normal force has only a y-component, so nx 5 0.
on the object. In this case there are just two: the downward force of Meanwhile, the acceleration points downslope—that’s the positive
gravity and the normal force the ground exerts on the skier. As always, x-direction—so ax 5 a, the magnitude of the acceleration. Only grav-
the normal force is perpendicular to the surfaces in contact—in this ity has two nonzero components and, as Fig. 5.2 shows, trigonometry
case perpendicular to the slope. gives Fgx 5 Fg sin u. But Fg, the magnitude of the gravitational force,
is just mg, so Fgx 5 mg sin u. This component has a positive sign be-
DEVELOP Our strategy for using Newton’s second law calls for draw-
cause our x-axis slopes downward. Then, with nx 5 0, the x equation
ing a free-body diagram that shows only the object and the forces act-
becomes
ing on it; that’s Fig. 5.2. Determining the relevant
! equation is
! x-component: mg sin u 5 ma
straightforward here: It’s Newton’s second law, Fnet 5 ma . We write
Newton’s law explicitly for the forces we’ve identified: On to the y equation. The normal force points in the positive y-direction,
! ! ! !
Fnet 5 n 1 Fg 5 ma so ny 5 n, the magnitude of the normal force. The acceleration has no
component perpendicular to the slope, so ay 5 0. Figure 5.2 shows
To apply Newton’s law in two dimensions, we need to choose a coor-
that Fgy 5 2Fg cos u 5 2mg cos u, so the y equation is
dinate system so that we can write this vector equation in components.
Since the coordinate system is just a mathematical construct, you’re y-component: n 2 mg cos u 5 0
free to choose any coordinate system you like—but a smart choice can Now we can evaluate to get the answers. The x equation solves
make the problem a lot easier. In this example, the normal force is per- directly to give
pendicular to the slope and the skier’s acceleration is along the slope. a 5 g sin u 5 19.8 m/s221sin 32°2 5 5.2 m/s2
That means two of the three vectors in Newton’s law will have only a
which is the acceleration we were asked to find in (a). Next, we solve
single nonzero component if we choose a coordinate system with axes
the y equation to get n 5 mg cos u. Putting in the numbers gives
n 5 540 N. This is the answer to (b), the force the snow exerts on the
skier.

A coordinate system ASSESS A look at two special cases shows that these results make
with axes parallel sense. First, suppose u 5 0°, so the surface is horizontal. Then the x
and perpendicular equation gives a 5 0, as expected. The y equation gives n 5 mg,
to the slope is most showing that a horizontal surface exerts a force that just balances the
These are the
convenient here.
x- and y-components skier’s weight. At the other extreme, consider u 5 90°, so the slope is a
of the gravitational vertical cliff. Then the skier falls freely with acceleration g, as expected.
r
force, Fg.
In this case n 5 0 because there’s no contact between skier and slope.
At intermediate angles, the slope’s normal force lessens the effect of
gravity, resulting in a lower acceleration. As the x equation shows, that
acceleration is independent of the skier’s mass—just as in the case of a
vertical fall. The force exerted by the snow—here mg cos u, or 540 N—
is less than the skier’s weight mg because the slope has to balance only
the perpendicular component of the gravitational force.
These angles are
the same. If you understand this example, you should be able to apply
Newton’s second law confidently in other problems involving motion
FIGURE 5.2 Our free-body diagram for the skier. with forces in two dimensions. ■
68 Chapter 5 Using Newton’s Laws

Sometimes we’re interested in finding the conditions under which an object won’t acceler-
ate. Examples are engineering problems, such as ensuring that bridges and buildings don’t fall
down, and physiology problems involving muscles and bones. Next we give a wilder example.

EXAMPLE 5.2 Objects at Rest: Bear Precautions

To protect her 17-kg pack from bears, a camper hangs it from ropes These are the x- and
between two trees (Fig. 5.3). What’s the tension in each rope? y-components of the
r
tension T1.

u 5 22° u 5 22°

r
T2 has the same magnitude
r
as T1, but its x-component
FIGURE 5.3 Bear precautions. is opposite.

FIGURE 5.4 Our free-body diagram for the pack.

INTERPRET Here the pack is the object of interest. The only forces act-
ing on it are gravity and tension forces in the two halves of the rope. To
keep the pack from accelerating, they must sum to zero net force. rope, the magnitudes T1 and T2 of the tension forces are the same.
Let’s just call the magnitude T: T1 5 T2 5 T. Then the first two terms
DEVELOP Figure 5.4 is our free-body diagram for ! the pack. The rele-
! in the y equation are equal, and the equation becomes 2T sin u 2
vant equation
! is again Newton’s second law, F 5 ma —this time mg 5 0, which gives
! net
with a! 5 0.! For the
! three
! forces acting on the pack, Newton’s law is mg 117 kg219.8 m/s22
then T1 1 T2 1 Fg 5 0. Next, we need a coordinate system. The two T5 5 5 220 N
rope tensions point in different directions that aren’t perpendicular, so 2 sin u 2 sin 22°
it doesn’t make sense to align a coordinate axis with either of them.
Instead, a horizontal/vertical system is simplest. ASSESS Make sense? Let’s look at some special cases. With u 5 90°,
the rope hangs vertically, sin u 5 1, and the tension in each half of the
EVALUATE First we need to write Newton’s law in components. For- rope is 12 mg. Of course: Each piece of the rope supports half the
mally, we have T1x 1 T2x 1 Fgx 5 0 and T1y 1 T2y 1 Fgy 5 0 for the pack’s weight. But as u gets smaller, the ropes become more horizon-
component equations. Figure 5.4 shows the components of the tension tal and the tension increases. That’s because the vertical tension com-
forces, and we see that Fgx 5 0 and Fgy 5 2Fg 5 2mg. So our com- ponents together still have to support the pack’s weight—but now
ponent equations become there’s a horizontal component as well, increasing the overall tension.
Ropes break if the tension becomes too great, and in this example that
x-component: T1 cos u 2 T2 cos u 5 0
means the rope’s so-called breaking tension must be considerably
y-component: T1 sin u 1 T2 sin u 2 mg 5 0 greater than the pack’s weight. If u 5 0, in fact, the tension would be-
The x equation tells us something that’s apparent from the symmetry come infinite—demonstrating that it’s impossible to support a weight
of the situation: Since the angle u is the same for both halves of the with a purely horizontal rope. ■

EXAMPLE 5.3 Objects at Rest: Restraining a Ski Racer

A starting gate acts horizontally to restrain a 60-kg ski racer on a fric-
tionless 30° slope (Fig. 5.5). What horizontal force does the starting
gate apply to the skier?

INTERPRET Again, we want the skier to remain unaccelerated. The

skier is the object of interest, and we identify three forces acting:
gravity, the! normal force from the slope, and a horizontal restrain-
ing force Fh that we’re asked to find. u 5 30°

DEVELOP Figure 5.6 is our free-body diagram. The

! applicable equa-
!
tion is Newton’s second law. Again, we want a 5 0, so with the forces FIGURE 5.5 Restraining a skier.
 5.2 Multiple Objects 69

! ! ! ! ! !
we identified, Fnet 5 ma becomes Fh 1 n 1 Fg 5 0. Developing our EVALUATE As usual, the component equations follow directly from
solution strategy, we choose a coordinate system. With two forces the vector form of Newton’s law: Fhx 1 nx 1 Fgx 5 0 and
now either horizontal or vertical, a horizontal/vertical system makes Fhy 1 ny 1 Fgy 5 0. Figure 5.6 gives the components of the normal
the most sense; we’ve shown this on Fig. 5.6. force and shows that Fhx 5 2Fh, Fgy 5 2Fg 5 2mg, and Fgx 5
Fhy 5 0. Then the component equations become
Horizontal/vertical Trig gives the x: 2Fh 1 n sin u 5 0 y: n cos u 2 mg 5 0
axes are best here. components of There are two unknowns here—namely, the horizontal force we’re
the normal force.
looking for and the normal force n. We can solve the y equation to get
n 5 mg/cos u. Using this expression in the x equation and solving for
Fh then give the answer:
mg
Fh 5 sin u 5 mg tan u 5 160 kg219.8 m/s221tan 30°2 5 340 N
cos u

ASSESS Again, let’s look at the extreme cases. With u 5 0, we have

Fh 5 0. Of course! It doesn’t take any force to restrain a skier on flat
ground. But as the slope becomes more vertical, tan u S `, and in the
vertical limit, it becomes impossible to restrain the skier with a purely
horizontal force. ■

FIGURE 5.6 Our free-body diagram for the restrained skier.

GOT IT? 5.1 A roofer’s toolbox rests on an essentially How does the
frictionless metal roof with a 45° slope, secured by a horizon- rope tension compare
with the toolbox
tal rope as shown. Is the rope tension (a) greater than, (b) less weight?
than, or (c) equal to the box’s weight?
45°

5.2 Multiple Objects

In the preceding examples there was a single object of interest. But often we have several
objects whose motion is linked. Our Newton’s law strategy still applies, with extensions to
handle multiple objects.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 5.1 Newton’s Second Law and Multiple Objects

INTERPRET Interpret the problem to be sure that you know what it’s asking and that Newton’s
second law is the relevant concept. Identify the multiple objects of interest and all the individ-
ual interaction forces acting on each object. Finally, identify connections between the objects
and the resulting constraints on their motions.
DEVELOP Draw a separate free-body diagram showing ! all the forces acting on each object.
!
! your solution plan by writing Newton’s law, Fnet 5 ma , separately for each object,
Develop
with Fnet expressed as the sum of the forces acting on that object. Then choose a coordinate sys-
tem appropriate to each object, so you can express each Newton’s law equation in components.
The coordinate systems for different objects don’t need to have the same orientation.
EVALUATE At this point the physics is done, and you’re ready to execute your plan by solving
the equations and evaluating the numerical answer(s), if called for. Write the components of
Newton’s law for each object in the coordinate system you chose for each. You can then solve
the resulting equations for the quantity(ies) you’re interested in, using the connections you
identified to relate the quantities that appear in the equations for the different objects.
ASSESS Assess your solution to see whether it makes sense. Are the numbers reasonable? Do
the units work out correctly? What happens in special cases—for example, when a mass, a
force, an acceleration, or an angle gets very small or very large?
70 Chapter 5 Using Newton’s Laws

EXAMPLE 5.4 Multiple Objects: Rescuing a Climber

A 70-kg climber finds himself dangling over the edge of an ice cliff, where the subscripts c and r stand for climber and rock, respectively.
as shown in Fig. 5.7. Fortunately, he’s roped to a 940-kg rock lo- All forces are either horizontal or vertical, so we can use the same
cated 51 m from the edge of the cliff. Unfortunately, the ice is fric- horizontal/vertical coordinate system for both objects, as shown in
tionless, and the climber accelerates downward. What’s his Fig. 5.8.
acceleration, and how much time does he have before the rock goes
over the edge? Neglect the rope’s mass. EVALUATE Again, the component equations follow directly from the
vector forms. There are no horizontal forces on the climber, so only
51 m
the y equation is significant. We’re skilled enough now to skip the
intermediate step of writing the components without their actual
The rope connects
climber and rock,
expressions, and we see from Fig. 5.8a that the y-component of
so they have the Newton’s law for the climber becomes Tc 2 mc g 5 mcac. For the
same acceleration. rock, the only horizontal force is the tension, pointing to the right or
positive x-direction, so the rock’s x equation is Tr 5 mr ar. Since it’s
on a horizontal surface, the rock has no vertical acceleration, so its
y equation is n 2 mr g 5 0. In writing these equations, we haven’t
added the subscripts x and y because each vector has only a single
nonzero component. Now we need to consider the connection be-
tween rock and climber. That’s the rope, and its presence means that
FIGURE 5.7 A climber in trouble. the magnitude of both accelerations is the same. Calling that magni-
INTERPRET We need to find the climber’s acceleration, and from that ! ar 5 a and ac 5 2a. The value
tude a, we can see from Fig. 5.8 that
we can get the time before the rock goes over the edge. We identify two for the rock is positive because Tr points to the right, which we de-
objects of interest: the climber and the rock, and we note that the rope fined as the positive x-direction; the value for the climber is negative
connects them. There are two forces on the climber: gravity and the up- because he’s accelerating downward, which we defined as the nega-
ward rope tension. There are three forces on the rock: gravity, the nor- tive y-direction. The rope, furthermore, has negligible mass, so the
mal force from the surface, and the rightward-pointing rope tension. tension throughout it must be the same (more on this point just after
the example). Therefore, the tension forces on rock and climber have
DEVELOP Figure 5.8 shows a free-body diagram for each object. equal magnitude T, so Tc 5 Tr 5 T. Putting this all together gives us
Newton’s law applies to each, so we write two vector equations: three equations:
! ! !
climber: Tc 1 Fgc 5 mc a c climber, y: T 2 mc g 5 2mc a
! ! ! !
rock: Tr 1 Fgr 1 n 5 mr a r rock, x: T 5 mr a
rock, y: n 2 mr g 5 0
The rope tension The rock’s x equation gives the tension, which we can substitute into
and gravity are the climber’s equation to get mr a 2 mc g 5 2mc a. Solving for a then
the only forces
acting on the gives the answer:
climber. mc g 170 kg219.8 m/s22
a5 5 5 0.679 m/s2
mc 1 mr 170 kg 1 940 kg2
We didn’t need the rock’s y equation, which just says that the normal
force supports the rock’s weight.

ASSESS Again, let’s look at special cases. Suppose the rock’s mass is
zero; then our expression gives a 5 g. In this case there’s no rope ten-
sion and the climber plummets in free fall. Also, acceleration de-
creases as the rock’s mass increases, so with an infinitely massive
rock, the climber would dangle without accelerating. You can see
physically why our expression for acceleration makes sense. The
There are three gravitational force mc g acting on the climber has to accelerate both
forces on the rock and climber—whose combined mass is mc 1 mr. The result is an
rock.
acceleration of mc g/1mc 1 mr2.
We’re not quite done because we were also asked for the time until
the rock goes over the cliff, putting the climber in real trouble. We in-
terpret this as a problem in one-dimensional motion from Chapter 2,
and we determine that Equation 2.10, x 5 x0 1 v0 t 1 12 at2, applies.
With x0 5 0 and v0 5 0, we have x 5 12 at2. We evaluate by solving
for t and using the acceleration we found along with x 5 51 m for the
distance from the rock to the cliff edge:
2x (2)(51 m)
t5 5 5 12 s ■
FIGURE 5.8 Our free-body diagrams for (a) the climber and (b) the rock. Ba A 0.679 m/s2
 5.3 Circular Motion 71

✓TIP Ropes and Tension Forces

Tension forces can be confusing. In Example 5.4, the rock pulls on one end of the
rope and the climber pulls on the other. So why isn’t the rope tension the sum of these
forces? And why is it important to neglect the rope’s mass? The answers lie in the
meaning of tension.
1N 1N
Figure 5.9 shows a situation similar to Example 5.4, with two people pulling on
opposite ends of a rope with forces of 1 N each. You might think the rope tension is
then 2 N, but it’s not. To see why, consider the part of the rope that’s highlighted in (a)
Fig. 5.9b. To the left is the hand pulling leftward with 1 N. The rope isn’t accelerat- The hand pulls the The net force on the
ing, so there must be a 1-N force pulling to the right on the highlighted piece. The re- highlighted section highlighted section is
mainder of the rope provides that force. We could have divided the rope anywhere, so of the rope with a zero, so the rest of the
1-N force to the left. rope must exert a 1-N
we conclude that every part of the rope exerts a 1-N force on the adjacent rope. That force to the right.
1-N force is what we mean by the rope tension.
1N 1N 1N
As long as the rope isn’t accelerating, the net force on it must be zero, so the forces
at the two ends have the same magnitude. That conclusion would hold even if the rope
were accelerating—provided it had negligible mass. That’s often a good approxima- (b)
tion in situations involving tension forces. But if a rope, cable, or chain has signifi- The dividing point could be anywhere,
so there’s a 1-N tension force
cant mass and is accelerating, then the tension force differs at the two ends. That throughout the rope.
difference, according to Newton’s second law, is what accelerates the rope.
FIGURE 5.9 Understanding tension forces.

GOT IT? 5.2 In the figure we’ve replaced one hand with a hook attaching the rope to
a wall. On the right, the hand still pulls with a 1-N force. Now what are (a) the rope ten-
sion and (b) the force exerted by the hook on the rope?

1N

5.3 Circular Motion

A car rounds a curve. A satellite circles Earth. A proton whirls around a giant particle
accelerator. Since they’re not going in straight lines, Newton tells us that a force acts on A net force is necessary to
each (Fig. 5.10). We know from Section 3.6 that the acceleration of an object moving with change the direction of motion.
The force points toward the
constant speed v in a circular path of radius r has magnitude v2/r and points toward the center of the curve.
center of the circle. Newton’s second law then tells us that the magnitude of the net force
on an object of mass m in circular motion is r
F
mv2
Fnet 5 ma 5 1uniform circular motion2 (5.1)
r
The force is in the same direction as the acceleration—toward the center of the circular FIGURE 5.10 A car rounds a turn on the
path. For that reason it’s sometimes called the centripetal force, meaning center-seeking Trans-Sahara highway.
(from the Latin centrum, “center,” and petere, “to seek”).

✓TIP Look for Real Forces

Centripetal force is not some new kind of force. It’s just the name for any forces that
keep an object in circular motion—which are always real, physical forces. Common
examples of forces involved in circular motion include the gravitational force on a
satellite, friction between tires and road, magnetic forces, tension forces, normal
forces, and combinations of these and other forces.
72 Chapter 5 Using Newton’s Laws

Newton’s second law describes circular motion exactly as it does any other motion: by
relating net force, mass, and acceleration. Therefore, we can analyze circular motion with
the same strategy we’ve used in other Newton’s law problems.

EXAMPLE 5.5 Circular Motion: Whirling a Ball on a String

A ball of mass m whirls around in a horizontal circle at the end of a horizontal or vertical, so in developing our strategy, we choose a
massless string of length L (Fig. 5.11). The string makes an angle u horizontal/vertical coordinate system.
with the horizontal. Find the ball’s speed and the string tension.

✓TIP Real Forces Only!

Were you tempted to draw a third force in Fig. 5.12, perhaps
u pointing outward to balance the other two? Don’t! Because the
ball is accelerating, the net force is nonzero and the individual
L
forces do not balance. Or maybe you were tempted to draw an
u inward-pointing force, mv2/r. Don’t! The quantity mv2/r is not
another force; it’s just the product of mass and acceleration that
r 5 L cosu
FIGURE 5.11 A ball whirling on appears in Newton’s law. Students often complicate problems by
The radius is L cosu. a string. introducing forces that aren’t there. That makes physics seem
harder than it is!
INTERPRET This problem is similar to the Newton’s law problems we
worked involving force and acceleration. The object of interest is the
EVALUATE We now need the x- and y-components of Newton’s law.
ball, and only two forces are acting on it: gravity and the string tension.
Figure 5.12 shows that Fgy 5 2Fg 5 2mg and gives tension compo-
DEVELOP Figure 5.12 is our free-body diagram showing the two
nents in terms of trig functions. The acceleration is purely horizontal,
forces we’ve identified. The relevant equation is Newton’s second law, so ay 5 0, and since the ball is in circular motion, ax 5 v2/r. But
which becomes what’s r? Not the string length L, but the radius of the ball’s circular
! ! ! path. Figure 5.11 shows that the radius is L cos u. With all these
T 1 Fg 5 ma expressions, the components of Newton’s law become
The ball’s path is in a horizontal plane, so its acceleration
! is horizon- mv2
!
tal. Then two of the three vectors in our problem—Fg and a —are x: T cos u 5 y: T sin u 2 mg 5 0
L cos u
We can get the tension directly from the y equation: T 5 mg/sin u.
Using this result in the x equation lets us solve for the speed v:
TL cos2 u 1mg/sin u2L cos2 u gL cos2 u
v5 5 5
B m B m B sin u

ASSESS In the special case u 5 90°, the string hangs vertically; here
cos u 5 0, so v 5 0. There’s no motion, and the string tension equals
the ball’s weight. But as the string becomes increasingly horizontal,
both speed and tension increase. And, just as in Example 5.2, the ten-
sion becomes very great as the string approaches horizontal. Here the
string tension has two jobs to do: Its vertical component supports the
ball against gravity, while its horizontal component keeps the ball in its
circular path. The vertical component is always equal to mg, but as the
string approaches horizontal, that becomes an insignificant part of the
FIGURE 5.12 Our free-body diagram for the whirling ball. overall tension—and thus the tension and speed grow very large. ■

EXAMPLE 5.6 Circular Motion: Engineering a Road

Roads designed for high-speed travel have banked curves to give the INTERPRET This is another example involving circular motion and
normal force a component toward the center of the curve. That lets Newton’s second law. Although we’re asked about the road, a car on
cars turn without relying on friction between tires and road. At what the road is the object we’re interested in, and we need to design the
angle should a road with 200-m curvature radius be banked for travel road so the car can round the curve without needing a frictional force.
at 90 km/h (25 m/s)? That means the only forces on the car are gravity and the normal force.
 5.3 Circular Motion 73

DEVELOP Figure 5.13 shows the physical situation, and Fig. 5.14 is Solving the y equation gives n 5 mg/cos u. Then using this result in
our free-body diagram for the car. Newton’s! second law is the appli- the x equation gives mg sin u/cos u 5 mv2/r, or g tan u 5 v2/r. The
! !
cable equation, and here it becomes n 1 Fg 5 ma . Unlike the skier of mass canceled, which is good news because it means our banked
Example 5.1, the car isn’t accelerating down the slope, so a horizontal/ road will work for a vehicle of any mass. Now we can solve for the
vertical coordinate system makes the most sense. banking angle:
v2 125 m/s22
EVALUATE First we write Newton’s law in components. Gravity has u 5 tan21 a b 5 tan21 a b 5 18°
only a vertical component, Fgy 5 2mg in our coordinate system, and
gr 19.8 m/s221200 m2
Fig. 5.14 shows the two components of the normal force. The accelera-
ASSESS Make sense? At low speed v or large radius r, the car’s mo-
tion is purely horizontal and points toward the center of the curve; in
tion changes gently and it doesn’t take a large force to keep it on its
our coordinate system that’s the positive x-direction. Since the car is in
circular path. But as v increases or r decreases, the required force in-
circular motion, the magnitude of the acceleration is v2/r. So the com-
creases and so does the banking angle. That’s because the horizontal
ponents of Newton’s law become
component of the normal force is what keeps the car in circular
mv2 motion, and the steeper the angle, the greater that component. ■
x: n sin u 5 y: n cos u 2 mg 5 0
r
where the 0 on the right-hand side of the y equation reflects the fact
that we don’t want the car to accelerate in the vertical direction. The vertical
component of the
normal force The center of the
balances gravity. curve is this way.

␪
r

The horizontal component

of the normal force holds
the car in its circular
path.

FIGURE 5.13 Car on a banked curve. FIGURE 5.14 Our free-body diagram for the car on a banked curve.

EXAMPLE 5.7 Circular Motion: Looping the Loop

The “Great American Revolution” roller coaster at Valencia, Califor- At the top, both forces
nia, includes a loop-the-loop section whose radius is 6.3 m at the top point downward and the
car is momentarily in
(see the chapter opening photo). What’s the minimum speed for a
uniform circular
roller-coaster car at the top of the loop if it’s to stay on the track? motion. Gravity is always downward,
r but at this point the normal
INTERPRET Again, we have circular motion described by Newton’s n
r force is horizontal. The net
second law. We’re asked about the minimum speed for the car to stay Fg nr force isn’t toward the center,
on the track. What does it mean to stay on the track? It means there r and the car is slowing as well
Fg
must be a normal force between car and track; otherwise, the two as changing direction.
aren’t in contact. So we can identify two forces acting on the car:
gravity and the normal force from the track.

DEVELOP Figure 5.15 shows the physical situation. The situation is

especially simple at the top of the track, where both forces point in the
FIGURE 5.15 Forces on the roller-coaster car.
same direction. We show this in our free-body diagram, Fig. 5.16
(next page). Since that common direction is downward, it makes sense motion, so its acceleration is toward the center—downward—and has
to choose a coordinate system with the y-axis downward. The applica- magnitude v2/r. So ay 5 v2/r, and the y-component of Newton’s law
ble equation is Newton’s second ! law,! and with the two forces we’ve becomes
!
identified, that becomes n 1 Fg 5 ma . mv2
n 1 mg 5
EVALUATE With both forces in the same direction, we need only the r
y-component of Newton’s law. With the downward direction positive, Solving for the speed gives v 5 11nr/m2 1 gr. Now, the minimum
ny 5 n and Fgy 5 mg. At the top of the loop, the car is in circular possible speed for contact with the track occurs when n gets arbitrarily
(continued)
74 Chapter 5 Using Newton’s Laws

small right at the top of the track, so we find this minimum limit by set- ASSESS Do you see what’s happening here? With the minimum
ting n 5 0. Then the answer is speed, the normal force vanishes at the top of the loop, and gravity
vmin 5 1gr 5 219.8 m/s2216.3 m2 5 7.9 m/s alone provides the force that keeps the object in its circular path. Since
the motion is circular, that force must have magnitude mv2/r. But the
force of gravity alone is mg, and vmin 5 1gr follows directly from
equating those two quantities. A car moving any slower than vmin
would lose contact with the track and go into the parabolic trajectory
of a projectile. For a car moving faster, there would be a nonzero nor-
mal force contributing to the downward acceleration at the top of the
loop. In the “Great American Revolution,” the actual speed at the
loop’s top is 9.7 m/s to provide a margin of safety. As with many
problems involving gravity, the mass cancels. That’s a good thing be-
cause it means the safe speed doesn’t depend on the number or mass
of the riders. ■
FIGURE 5.16 Our free-body diagram at the top of the loop.

✓TIP Force and Motion

We’ve said this before, but it’s worth noting again: Force doesn’t cause motion but
rather change in motion. The direction of an object’s motion need not be the direction
of the force on the object. That’s true in Example 5.7, where the car is moving hori-
zontally at the top of the loop while subject to a downward force. What is in the same
direction as the force is the change in motion, here embodied in the center-directed
acceleration of circular motion.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 5.1 Bad Hair Day

What’s wrong with this cartoon showing riders on a loop-the-loop Every part of the riders’ bodies must therefore experience a net
roller coaster (Fig. 5.17)? downward force. Again, Example 5.7 shows that the minimum force is
that of gravity alone; for safety, there must be additional downward forces.
Now focus on the riders’ hair, shown hanging downward. Forces
on an individual hair are gravity and tension, and our safety argument
shows that they should both point in the same direction—namely,
downward—to provide a downward force stronger than gravity alone.
How, then, can the riders’ hair hang downward? That implies an
upward tension force, inconsistent with our argument. The artist
should have drawn the hair “hanging” upward.
ASSESS Make sense? Yes: To the riders, it feels like up is down! They
feel the normal force of the seat pushing down, and their hairs experi-
ence a downward-pointing tension force. Even though the riders wear
seatbelts, they don’t need them: If the speed exceeds Example 5.7’s
minimum, then they feel tightly bound to their seats. Is there some
mysterious new force that pushes them against their seats and that
pulls their hair up? No! Newton’s second law says the net force on the
riders is in the direction of their acceleration—namely, downward.
And for safety, that net force must be greater than gravity. It’s those
additional downward forces—the normal force from the seat and the
tension force in the hair—that make up feel like down.
FIGURE 5.17 Conceptual Example 5.1.
MAKING THE CONNECTION Suppose the riders feel like they
EVALUATE Our objects of interest are the riders near the top of the
weigh 50% of what they weigh at rest on the ground. How does the
roller coaster. We need to know the forces on them; one is obviously
roller coaster’s speed compare with Example 5.7’s minimum?
gravity. If the roller coaster is moving faster than Example 5.7’s
minimum speed—and it better be, for safety—then there are also EVALUATE In Example 5.7, we found the speed in terms of the
normal forces from the seats as well as internal forces acting to ac- normal force n and other quantities: v 5 11nr/m2 1 gr . An ap-
celerate parts of the riders’ bodies. ! parent weight 50% of normal implies that n 5 mg/2. Then
!
Newton’s law relates net force and acceleration: F 5 ma . This v 5 11gr/22 1 gr 5 13/2 1gr. Example 5.7 shows that the mini-
equation implies that the net force and acceleration must be in the mum speed is 1gr, so our result is 13/2 . 1.22 times the minimum
same direction. At the top of the loop that direction is downward. speed. Of course, that 50% apparent weight the riders feel is upward!
 5.4 Friction 75

5.4 Friction
Your everyday experience of motion seems inconsistent with Newton’s first law. Slide a
book across the table, and it stops. Take your foot off the gas, and your car coasts to a stop.
But Newton’s law is right, so these examples show that some force must be acting. That
force is friction, a force that opposes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact. Friction results
On Earth, we can rarely ignore friction. Some 20% of the gasoline burned in your car from these
regions where
is used to overcome friction inside the engine. Friction causes wear and tear on machinery surfaces adhere.
and clothing. But friction is also useful; without it, you couldn’t drive or walk.
nr

The Nature of Friction (a)

Friction is ultimately an electrical force between molecules in different surfaces. When

two surfaces are in contact, microscopic irregularities adhere, as shown in Fig. 5.18a.
At the macroscopic level, the result is a force that opposes any relative movement of the
surfaces.
Experiments show that the magnitude of the frictional force depends on the normal With increased
force between surfaces in contact. Figure 5.18b shows why this makes sense: As the nor- normal force, there’s
more contact area
mal forces push the surfaces together, the actual contact area increases. There’s more ad- and hence greater
herence, and this increases the frictional force. friction.
At the microscopic level, friction is complicated. The simple equations we’ll develop nr

here provide approximate descriptions of frictional forces. Friction is important in every-

day life, but it’s not one of the fundamental physical interactions. (b)

FIGURE 5.18 Friction originates in the contact

between two surfaces.
Frictional Forces
Try pushing a heavy trunk across the floor. At first nothing happens. Push harder; still
nothing. Finally, as you push even harder, the trunk starts to slide—and you may notice
that once it gets going, you don’t have to push quite so hard. Why is that?
With the trunk at rest, microscopic contacts between trunk and floor solidify into
relatively strong bonds. As you start pushing, you distort those bonds without breaking
them; they respond ! with a force that opposes your applied force. This is the force of
static friction, fs. As you increase the applied force, static friction increases equally,
as shown in Fig. 5.19, and the trunk remains at rest. Experimentally, we find that the
maximum static-friction force is proportional to the normal force between surfaces,
and we write As the applied force This is the maximum
increases, so does frictional force.
fs # ms n 1static friction2 (5.2) the frictional force.
The net force remains
Here the proportionality constant ms (lowercase Greek mu, with the subscript s for zero, and the object Now the applied force
doesn’t move. exceeds friction and
“static”) is the coefficient of static friction, a quantity that depends on the two surfaces. the object accelerates.
The # sign indicates that the force of static friction ranges from zero up to the maximum The frictional force
value on the right-hand side. decreases.
+sn
Eventually you push hard enough to break the bonds between trunk and floor, and
Frictional force

Accelerating
the trunk begins to move; this is the point in Fig. 5.19 where the force suddenly drops.
+kn
Now the microscopic bonds don’t have time to strengthen, so the force needed to over-
come them isn’t so great. This! weaker force between surfaces in relative motion is the
force of kinetic friction, fk. Again, it’s proportional to the normal force between the At rest Constant speed
surfaces:
fk 5 mk n 1kinetic friction2 (5.3) Time
Once again friction balances
where now the proportionality constant is mk, the coefficient of kinetic friction. Because the applied force, but it’s the
kinetic friction is weaker, the coefficient of kinetic friction for a given pair of surfaces is lower kinetic friction. The
object moves with constant
less than the coefficient of static friction. Cross-country skiers exploit that fact by using speed.
waxes that provide a high coefficient of static friction for pushing against the snow and for
climbing hills, while the lower kinetic friction permits effortless gliding. FIGURE 5.19 Behavior of frictional forces.
76 Chapter 5 Using Newton’s Laws

With the block Equations 5.2 and 5.3 give only the magnitudes of the frictional forces. The direction
at rest, static nr of the frictional force is parallel to the two surfaces, in the direction that opposes any ap-
friction opposes
the applied force. plied force (Fig. 5.20a) or the surfaces’ relative motion (Fig. 5.20b).
r
fs
r
Fapplied Since they describe proportionality between the magnitudes of two forces, the coeffi-
cients of friction are dimensionless. Typical values of mk range from less than 0.01 for
smooth or lubricated surfaces to about 1.5 for very rough ones. Rubber on dry concrete—
r
Fg vital in driving an automobile—has mk about 0.8 and ms as high as 1. A waxed ski on dry
(a) snow has mk < 0.04, while the synovial fluid that lubricates your body’s joints reduces mk
Kinetic friction to a low 0.003.
opposes the relative nr If you push a moving object with a force equal to the opposing force of kinetic friction,
motion. then the net force is zero and, according to Newton, the object moves at constant speed.
r
fk
vr Since friction is nearly always present, but not as obvious as the push of a hand or the pull
of a rope, you can see why it’s so easy to believe that force is needed to make things
move—rather than, as Newton recognized, to make them accelerate.
r
Fg We emphasize that the equations describing friction are empirical expressions that
(b) approximate the effects of complicated but more basic interactions at the microscopic
level. Our friction equations have neither the precision nor the fundamental character of
FIGURE 5.20 Direction of frictional forces. Newton’s laws.

Applications of Friction
Your foot . . . so the Static friction plays a vital role in everyday activities such as walking and driving. As you
pushes back ground pushes
on the ground . . . forward on you. walk, your foot contacting the ground is momentarily at rest, pushing back against the ground.
r
F2
By Newton’s third law, the ground pushes forward, accelerating you forward (Fig. 5.21). Both
forces of the third-law pair arise from static friction between foot and ground. On a friction-
r
F1
less surface, walking is impossible.
Similarly, the tires of an accelerating car push back on the road. If they aren’t slipping,
FIGURE 5.21 Walking. the bottom of each tire is momentarily at rest (more on this in Chapter 10). Therefore the
force is static friction. The third law then requires a frictional force of the road pushing
ar vr forward on the tires; that’s what accelerates the car. Braking is the opposite: The tires push
forward, and the road pushes back to decelerate the car (Fig. 5.22). The brakes affect only
the wheels; it’s friction between tires and road that stops the car. You know this if you’ve
applied your brakes on an icy road!
r r
fs fs

FIGURE 5.22 Friction stops the car.

EXAMPLE 5.8 Frictional Forces: Stopping a Car

The kinetic- and static-friction coefficients between a car’s tires and a
dry road are 0.61 and 0.89, respectively. If the car is traveling at
90 km/h (25 m/s) on a level road, determine the minimum stopping
distance and the stopping distance with the wheels fully locked and
the car skidding.

INTERPRET Since we’re asked about the stopping distance, this is ul-
timately a question about accelerated motion in one dimension—the
subject of Chapter 2. But here friction causes that acceleration, so we
have a Newton’s law problem. The car is the object of interest, and we FIGURE 5.23 Our free-body
identify three forces: gravity, the normal force, and friction. diagram for the braking car.

DEVELOP Figure 5.23 is our free-body diagram. We have a two-part

problem here: First, we need to use Newton’s second law to find the ac- EVALUATE The only horizontal force is friction, which points in the
celeration, and then we can use Equation 2.11, v2 5 v02 1 2a Dx, to 2x-direction and has magnitude mn, where m can be either the
relate distance and acceleration. With kinetic- or the static-friction coefficient. The normal force and gravity
! ! ! the three
!
forces acting on the car,
Newton’s law becomes Fg 1 n 1 ff 5 ma . A horizontal/vertical coor- act in the vertical direction, so the component equations are
dinate system is most appropriate for the components of Newton’s law. x: 2mn 5 max y: 2mg 1 n 5 0
 5.4 Friction 77

Solving the y equation for n and substituting in the x equation give the ASSESS Our result a x 5 2mg shows that a higher friction coefficient
acceleration: ax 5 2mg. We then use this result in Equation 2.11 and leads to a larger acceleration; this makes sense because friction is
solve for the stopping distance Dx. With final speed v 5 0, this gives what causes the acceleration. What happened to the car’s mass? A
v02 v02 more massive car requires a larger frictional stopping force for the
Dx 5 5 same acceleration—but friction depends on the normal force, and the
22ax 2mg
latter is greater in proportion to the car’s mass. Thus the stopping dis-
Using the numbers given, we get Dx 5 36 m for the minimum stop- tance doesn’t depend on mass.
ping distance (no skid; static friction) and 52 m for the car skidding This example shows that stopping distance increases as the square
with its wheels locked (kinetic friction). The difference could well be of the speed. That’s one reason high speeds are dangerous: Doubling
enough to prevent an accident. your speed quadruples your stopping distance! ■

EXAMPLE 5.9 Frictional Forces: Steering

A level road makes a 90° turn with radius 73 m. What’s the maximum in circular
! motion.
! With the three forces acting on the car, Newton’s law
! !
speed for a car to negotiate this turn when the road is dry 1ms 5 0.882 is Fg 1 n 1 fs 5 ma . A horizontal/vertical coordinate system is most
and when the road is snow covered 1ms 5 0.212? appropriate, and now it’s most convenient to take the x-axis in the direc-
tion of the acceleration—namely, toward the center of the curve.
INTERPRET This example is similar to Example 5.8, but now the fric-
tional force acts perpendicular to the car’s motion, keeping it in a cir- EVALUATE Again, the only horizontal force is friction, with magni-
cular path. Because the car isn’t moving in the direction of the force, tude ms n. Here it points in the positive x-direction, as does the ac-
we’re dealing with static friction. The car is the object of interest, and celeration of magnitude v2/r. So the x-component of Newton’s law
again the forces are gravity, the normal force, and friction. is ms n 5 mv2/r. There’s no vertical acceleration, so the y-component
is 2mg 1 n 5 0. Solving for n and using the result in the
DEVELOP Figure 5.24 is our free-body diagram. Newton’s law is the ap- x equation give ms mg 5 mv2/r. Again the mass cancels, and we
plicable equation, and we’re dealing with the acceleration v2/r that occurs solve for v to get
v 5 1ms gr
The frictional Putting in the numbers, we get v 5 25 m/s (90 km/h) for the dry road
force points and 12 m/s (44 km/h) for the snowy road. Exceed these speeds, and
toward the your car inevitably moves in a path with a larger radius—and that
The dot curve’s center.
represents means going off the road!
the car,
which is ASSESS Once again, it makes sense that the car’s mass doesn’t matter.
coming out A more massive car needs a larger frictional force, and it gets what it
of the page.
needs because its larger mass results in a larger normal force. The safe
speed increases with the curve radius r, and that, too, makes sense: A
larger radius means a gentler turn, with less acceleration at a given
FIGURE 5.24 Our free-body speed. So less frictional force is needed. ■
diagram for the cornering car.

APPLICATION Antilock Brakes

vr 2vr Today’s cars have computer-controlled antilock braking systems (ABS). These
systems exploit the fact that static friction is greater than kinetic friction. Slam
on the brakes of a non-ABS car and the wheels lock and skid without turning.
The force between tires and road is then kinetic friction (part a in the figure).
vr vr
But if you pump the brakes to keep the wheels from skidding, then it’s the
greater force of static friction (part b).
ABS improves on this brake-pumping strategy with a computer that inde-
vr vr 5 0 pendently controls the brakes at each wheel, keeping each just on the verge of
r
r fs slipping. Drivers of ABS cars should slam the brakes hard in an emergency;
fk
(a) (b) the ensuing clatter indicates the ABS system is working.
When a wheel The bottom of Although ABS can reduce the stopping distance, its real significance is in
skids, the force the rolling wheel preventing vehicles from skidding out of control as can happen when you ap-
is kinetic friction. is momentarily at ply the brakes with some wheels on ice and others on pavement. Increasingly,
rest, so the force today’s cars incorporate their computer-controlled brakes into sophisticated
is static friction.
systems that enhance stability during emergency maneuvers.
78 Chapter 5 Using Newton’s Laws

EXAMPLE 5.10 Friction on a Slope: Avalanche!

A storm dumps new snow on a ski slope. The coefficient of static fric-
tion between the new snow and the older snow underneath is 0.46.
What’s the maximum slope angle to which the new snow can adhere?

INTERPRET The problem asks about an angle, but it’s friction that
holds the new snow to the old, so this is really a problem about the
maximum possible static friction. We aren’t given an object, but we
can model the new snow as a slab of mass m resting on a slope of un-
known angle u. The! forces on the slab are gravity, the normal force,
and static friction fs.

DEVELOP Figure 5.25 shows the model, and Fig. 5.26 is our free-body
diagram.
! Newton’s ! second ! law !is the applicable equation, here with
! ! FIGURE 5.26 Our free-body diagram for the snow slab.
a 5 0, giving Fg 1 n 1 fs 5 0. We also need the maximum static-
friction force, given in Equation 5.2, fs max 5 ms n. As in Example 5.1,
a tilted coordinate system is simplest and is shown in Fig. 5.26. 2mg cos u 1 n 5 0. Solving the y equation gives n 5 mg cos u. Using
this result in the x equation then yields mg sin u 2 ms mg cos u 5 0.
EVALUATE With the positive x-direction downslope, Fig. 5.26 shows Both m and g cancel, and we have sin u 5 ms cos u or, since
that the x-component of gravity is Fg sin u 5 mg sin u, while the fric- tan u 5 sin u/cos u,
tional force acts upslope (2x-direction) and has maximum magnitude tan u 5 ms
ms n; therefore, fsx 5 2ms n. So the x-component of Newton’s law is
mg sin u 2 ms n 5 0. We can read the y-component from Fig. 5.26: For the numbers in this example, we get u 5 tan21 ms 5
tan2110.462 5 25°.

ASSESS Make sense? Sure: The steeper the slope, the greater the fric-
tion needed to keep the snow from sliding. Two effects are at work
here: First, as the slope steepens, so does the component of gravity
along the slope. Second, as the slope steepens, the normal force gets
smaller, and that reduces the frictional force for a given friction coef-
m ficient. Note here that the normal force is not simply the weight mg of
the snow; again, that’s because of the sloping surface.
u The real avalanche danger comes at angles slightly smaller than
our answer tan u 5 ms, where a thick snowpack can build up. Changes
in the snow’s composition with temperature may decrease the friction
FIGURE 5.25 A layer of snow, modeled as a slab on a sloping surface. coefficient and unleash an avalanche. ■

EXAMPLE 5.11 Friction: Dragging a Trunk

You drag a trunk of mass m across a level floor using a massless rope DEVELOP Figure 5.28 is our free-body diagram showing all four
that makes an angle u with the horizontal (Fig. 5.27). Given a kinetic- forces acting on the trunk. The relevant equation is Newton’s law.
friction coefficient mk, what rope tension is required to move the trunk
at constant speed?

FIGURE 5.27 Dragging a trunk.

INTERPRET Even though the trunk is moving, it isn’t accelerating, so

here’s another problem involving Newton’s law with zero accelera-
tion. The object is the trunk, and now four forces act: gravity, the nor-
mal force, friction, and the rope tension. FIGURE 5.28 Our free-body diagram for the trunk.
 5.5 Drag Forces 79

! ! ! ! !
With no acceleration, it is Fg 1 n 1 fk 1 T 5 0, with the magnitude ASSESS Make sense? Without friction, we wouldn’t need any force to
of kinetic friction given by fk 5 mk n. All vectors except the tension move the trunk at constant speed, and indeed our expression gives
force are horizontal or vertical, so we choose a horizontal/vertical co- T 5 0 in this case. If u 5 0, then sin u 5 0 and we get T 5 mk mg. Of
ordinate system. course: In this case the normal force equals the weight, so the fric-
tional force is mk mg. Since the frictional force is horizontal and with
EVALUATE From Fig. 5.28, we can write the components of Newton’s u 5 0 we’re pulling horizontally, this is also the magnitude of the ten-
law: T cos u 2 mk n 5 0 in the x-direction and T sin u 2 mg 1 n 5 0 sion force. At intermediate angles, two effects come into play: First,
in the y-direction. This time the unknown T appears in both equations. the upward component of tension helps support the trunk’s weight,
Solving the y equation for n gives n 5 mg 2 T sin u. Putting this n in and that means less normal force is needed. With less normal force,
the x equation then yields T cos u 2 mk1mg 2 T sin u2 5 0. Factoring there’s less friction—making the trunk easier to pull. But as the angle
terms involving T and solving, we arrive at the answer: increases, less of the tension is horizontal and that means a larger ten-
sion force is needed to overcome friction. In combination, these two
mk mg effects mean there’s an optimum angle at which the rope tension is a
T5
cos u 1 mk sin u minimum. Problem 66 explores this point further. ■

GOT IT? 5.3 The figure shows a logging vehicle pulling a redwood log. Is the fric-
tional force in this case (a) less than, (b) equal to, or (c) greater than the weight multiplied
by the coefficient of friction?

5.5 Drag Forces

Friction isn’t the only “hidden” force that robs objects of their motion and obscures New-
ton’s first law. Objects moving through fluids like water or air experience drag forces that
oppose the relative motion of object and fluid. Ultimately, drag results from collisions be-
tween fluid molecules and the object. The drag force depends on several factors, including
fluid density and the object’s cross-sectional area and speed.

Terminal Speed
When an object falls from rest, its speed is initially low and so is the velocity-dependent
drag force. It therefore accelerates downward with nearly the gravitational acceleration g.
But as the object gains speed, the drag force increases—until eventually the drag force and
gravity have equal magnitudes. At that point the net force on the object is zero, and it falls
with constant speed, called its terminal speed.
Because the drag force depends on an object’s area and the gravitational force depends
on its mass, the terminal speed is lower for lighter objects with large areas. A parachute,
for example, is designed specifically to have a large surface area that results, typically, in
a terminal speed around 5 m/s. A ping-pong ball and a golf ball have about the same size
and therefore the same area, but the ping-pong ball’s much lower mass leads to a terminal
speed of about 10 m/s compared with the golf ball’s 50 m/s. For an irregularly shaped ob-
ject, the drag and thus the terminal speed depend on how large a surface area the object
presents to the air. Skydivers exploit this effect to vary their rates of fall.

Drag and Projectile Motion

In Chapter 3, we consistently neglected air resistance—the drag force of air—in projectile
motion. Calculating drag effects on projectiles is not trivial and usually requires computer
calculations. The net effect, though, is obvious: Air resistance decreases the range of a
projectile. Despite the physicist’s need for computer calculations, others—especially ath-
letes—have a feel for drag forces that lets them play their sports by judging correctly the
trajectory of a projectile under the influence of drag forces.
CHAPTER 5 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is the same as in Chapter 4—namely, that Newton’s laws are a universal description of Here’s a car on
motion, in which force causes not motion itself but change in motion. Here we focus on Newton’s second a banked turn.
The forces on
law, extended to the richer and more complex examples of motion in two dimensions. To use Newton’s law, it don’t sum to nr
we now sum forces that may point in different directions, but the result is the same: The net force deter- zero because the
mines an object’s acceleration. car is accelerating ar
toward the center
of the turn. r
Fg

r
Common forces include gravity, the normal force from surfaces, tension forces, and a force introduced here: A block sits at rest ff
nr
friction. Important examples are those where an object is accelerating, including in circular motion, and on a slope. The three
those where there’s no acceleration and therefore the net force is zero. forces—gravity, normal
force, and friction—
r
sum to zero. Fg

Solving Problems with Newton’s Laws

The problem-solving strategy in this chapter is exactly the same as in Chapter 4, except that in two dimensions the choice of coordinate system and
the division of forces into components become crucial steps. You usually need both component equations to solve a problem.

A skier on a frictionless slope Free-body diagram Coordinate system and vector components
showing the two
forces acting y

nr
nr
r Fgx 5 mg sinu
Fg Fgy 5 2mg cosu
u
u
x
r
Fg

! ! ! ! ! n 1 Fgx 5 max mg sin u 5 max

F 5 ma S n 1 Fg 5 ma S e x Se
ny 1 Fgy 5 may n 2 mg cos u 5 0

Key Concepts and Equations

! !
Newton’s second law, Fnet 5 ma , is the key equation in this chapter. It’s crucial to remember that it’s
a vector equation, representing a pair of scalar equations for its two components in two dimensions.

Applications
Friction acts between surfaces to oppose their relative motion, and its strength depends on the normal A block moving to the right
!
force n acting perpendicular to them. When surfaces aren’t actually in relative motion, the force is static experiences a frictional force
to the left.
friction, whose value ranges from zero to a maximum value ms n as needed to oppose any applied force:
fs # ms n. Here ms is the coefficient of static friction, which depends on the nature of the two surfaces. The magnitude of nr
the frictional force r vr
For surfaces in relative motion, the force is kinetic friction, given by fk 5 mk n, where the coefficient ff
depends on the
of kinetic friction is less than the coefficient of static friction. normal force: r
Fg
ff 5 mn.
Here the frictional
force is a little less
than the normal force,
so m is a little less than 1.
 Exercises and Problems 81

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion what’s the magnitude of the cable tension? Neglect friction and
the cable’s mass.
1. Compare the net force on a heavy trunk when it’s (a) at rest on 17. Studies of gymnasts show that their high rate of injuries to the
the floor; (b) being slid across the floor at constant speed; (c) be- BIO Achilles tendon is due to tensions in the tendon that typically
ing pulled upward in an elevator whose cable tension equals the reach 10 times body weight. That force is provided by a pair of
combined weight of the elevator and trunk; and (d) sliding down muscles, each exerting a force at 25° to the vertical, with their
a frictionless ramp. horizontal components opposite. For a 55-kg gymnast, find the
2. The force of static friction acts only between surfaces at rest. Yet force in each of these muscles.
that force is essential in walking and in accelerating or braking a
car. Explain. Section 5.2 Multiple Objects
3. A jet plane flies at constant speed in a vertical circular loop. At 18. Your 12-kg baby sister pulls on the bottom of the tablecloth with
what point in the loop does the seat exert the greatest force on the all her weight. On the table, 60 cm from the edge, is a 6.8-kg
pilot? The least force? roast turkey. (a) What’s the turkey’s acceleration? (b) From the
4. In cross-country skiing, skis should easily glide forward but time your sister starts pulling, how long do you have to intervene
should remain at rest when the skier pushes back against the before the turkey goes over the edge? Neglect friction.
snow. What frictional properties should the ski wax have to 19. If the left-hand slope in Fig. 5.29 makes a 60° angle with the hor-
achieve this goal? izontal, and the right-hand slope makes a 20° angle, how should
5. Why do airplanes bank when turning? the masses compare if the objects are not to slide along the fric-
6. Why is it easier for a child to stand nearer the inside of a rotating tionless slopes?
merry-go-round? 20. Suppose the angles shown in Fig. 5.29 are 60° and 20°. If the
7. Gravity pulls a satellite toward Earth’s center. So why doesn’t the left-hand mass is 2.1 kg, what should the right-hand mass be so
satellite actually fall to Earth? that it accelerates (a) downslope at 0.64 m/s2 and (b) upslope at
8. Explain why a car with ABS brakes can have a shorter stopping 0.76 m/s2?
distance. 21. Two unfortunate climbers, roped together, are sliding freely
9. A fishing line has a 20-lb breaking strength. Is it possible to down an icy mountainside. The upper climber (mass 75 kg) is on
break the line while reeling in a 15-lb fish? Explain. a slope at 12° to the horizontal, but the lower climber (mass
10. Two blocks rest on slopes of unequal angles, connected by a rope 63 kg) has gone over the edge to a steeper slope at 38°. (a) As-
passing over a pulley (Fig. 5.29). If the blocks have equal masses, suming frictionless ice and a massless rope, what’s the accelera-
will they remain at rest? Why? Neglect friction. tion of the pair? (b) The upper climber manages to stop the slide
with an ice ax. After the climbers have come to a complete stop,
what force must the ax exert against the ice?

Section 5.3 Circular Motion

22. Suppose the Moon were held in its orbit not by gravity but by
tension in a massless cable. Estimate the magnitude of the cable
FIGURE 5.29 For Thought and Discussion 10; Exercises 19 and 20 tension. (Hint: See Appendix E.)
23. Show that the force needed to keep a mass m in a circular path of
radius r with period T is 4p2 mr/T2.
11. You’re on a plane undergoing a banked turn, so steep that out the 24. A 940-g rock is whirled in a horizontal circle at the end of a 1.30-
window you see the ground below. Yet your pretzels stay put on m-long string. (a) If the breaking strength of the string is 120 N,
the seatback tray, rather than sliding downward. Why? what’s the minimum angle the string can make with the horizon-
tal? (b) At this minimum angle, what’s the rock’s speed?
Exercises and Problems 25. You’re investigating a subway accident in which a train derailed
while rounding an unbanked curve of radius 132 m, and you’re
Exercises asked to estimate whether the train exceeded the 45-km/h speed
Section 5.1 Using Newton’s Second Law limit for this curve. You interview a passenger who had been
standing and holding onto a strap; she noticed that an unused
12. Two forces, both in the x-y plane, act on a 1.5-kg mass that ac-
strap was hanging at about a 15° angle to the vertical just before
celerates at 7.3 m/s2 in a direction 30° counterclockwise from
the accident. What do you conclude?
the x-axis. One force has magnitude 6.8 N and points in the
26. A tetherball on a 1.7-m rope is struck so that it goes into circular
1x-direction. Find the other force.
motion in a horizontal plane, with the rope making a 15° angle to
13. Two forces act on a 3.1-kg mass that undergoes acceleration
! the horizontal. What’s the ball’s speed?
a 5 0.91ı^ 2 0.27/^ m/s2. If one force is 21.2 ı^ 2 2.5 ^/ N, what’s
27. An airplane goes into a turn 3.6 km in radius. If the banking an-
the other?
gle required is 28° from the horizontal, what’s the plane’s speed?
14. At what angle should you tilt an air table to simulate free fall at
the Moon’s surface, where g 5 1.6 m/s2?
15. A skier starts from rest at the top of a 24° slope 1.3 km long. Ne- Section 5.4 Friction
glecting friction, how long does it take to reach the bottom? 28. Movers slide a 73-kg file cabinet along a floor where the coeffi-
16. A tow truck is connected to a 1400-kg car by a cable that makes cient of kinetic friction is 0.81. What’s the frictional force on the
a 25° angle to the horizontal. If the truck accelerates at 0.57 m/s2, cabinet?
82 Chapter 5 Using Newton’s Laws

29. A hockey puck is given an initial speed of 14 m/s. If it comes to mass m is 4.8 kg, and the pulleys can be considered massless and
rest in 56 m, what’s the coefficient of kinetic friction? frictionless. Find the horizontal traction force applied to the leg.
30. Starting from rest, a skier slides 100 m down a 28° slope. How
much longer does the run take if the coefficient of kinetic friction
is 0.17 instead of 0?
31. What frictional coefficient is needed to keep a car moving at u1 5 70°
90 km/h on a 120-m-radius unbanked turn?
u2 5 20°

Problems m
32. Repeat Example 5.1, this time using a horizontal/vertical coordi-
FIGURE 5.32 Problem 38
nate system.
33. A block is launched with initial speed 2.2 m/s up a 35° friction- 39. Riders on the “Great American Revolution” loop-the-loop roller
less ramp. How far up the ramp does it slide? coaster of Example 5.7 wear seatbelts as the roller coaster nego-
34. In the process of mitosis (cell division), two motor proteins pull tiates its 6.3-m-radius loop at 9.7 m/s. At the top of the loop,
BIO on a spindle pole, each with a 7.3-pN force. The two force vec- what are the magnitude and direction of the force exerted on a
tors make a 65° angle. What’s the magnitude of the force the two 60-kg rider (a) by the roller-coaster seat and (b) by the seatbelt?
motor proteins exert on the spindle pole? (c) What would happen if the rider unbuckled at this point?
35. A 15-kg monkey hangs from the middle of a massless rope, each 40. A 45-kg skater rounds a 5.0-m-radius turn at 6.3 m/s. (a) What
half of which makes an 8° angle with the horizontal. What’s the are the horizontal and vertical components of the force the ice ex-
rope tension? Compare with the monkey’s weight. erts on her skate blades? (b) At what angle can she lean without
36. A camper hangs a 26-kg pack between two trees using separate falling over?
ropes of different lengths, as shown in Fig. 5.30. Find the tension 41. When a plane turns, it banks as shown in Fig. 5.33 to give the
in each rope. wings’ lifting force a horizontal component that turns the plane.
If a plane is flying level at 950 km/h and the banking angle is not
to exceed 40°, what’s the minimum curvature radius for the turn?

r
28° Fw
71°

r
Fg
u

FIGURE 5.33 Problem 41

42. You whirl a bucket of water in a vertical circle of radius 85 cm.

What’s the minimum speed that will keep the water from falling
out?
FIGURE 5.30 Problem 36 43. A child sleds down a 12° slope at constant speed. What’s the fric-
tional coefficient between slope and sled?
37. A mass m1 undergoes circular motion of radius R on a horizontal 44. The handle of a 22-kg lawnmower makes a 35° angle with the
frictionless table, connected by a massless string through a hole horizontal. If the coefficient of friction between lawnmower and
in the table to a second mass m2 (Fig. 5.31). If m2 is stationary, ground is 0.68, what magnitude of force, applied in the direction
find expressions for (a) the string tension and (b) the period of of the handle, is required to push the mower at constant velocity?
the circular motion. Compare with the mower’s weight.
45. Repeat Example 5.4, now assuming that the coefficient of kinetic
friction between rock and ice is 0.057.
46. A bat crashes into the vertical front of an accelerating subway
R m1 train. If the frictional coefficient between bat and train is 0.86,
what’s the minimum acceleration of the train that will allow the
bat to remain in place?
47. The coefficient of static friction between steel train wheels and
m2
steel rails is 0.58. The engineer of a train moving at 140 km/h
spots a stalled car on the tracks 150 m ahead. If he applies the
brakes so the wheels don’t slip, will the train stop in time?
48. A bug crawls outward from the center of a CD spinning at
FIGURE 5.31 Problem 37 200 revolutions per minute. The coefficient of static friction be-
tween the bug’s sticky feet and the disc surface is 1.2. How far
does the bug get from the center before slipping?
38. Patients with severe leg breaks are often placed in traction, with 49. A 310-g paperback book rests on a 1.2-kg textbook. A force is
BIO an external force countering muscles that would pull too hard on applied to the textbook, and the two books accelerate together
the broken bones. In the arrangement shown in Fig. 5.32, the from rest to 96 cm/s in 0.42 s. The textbook is then brought to a
 Exercises and Problems 83

stop in 0.33 s, during which time the paperback slides off. Within 61. An astronaut is training in an earthbound centrifuge that consists
what range does the coefficient of static friction between the two of a small chamber whirled horizontally at the end of a 5.1-m-
books lie? long shaft. The astronaut places a notebook on the vertical wall
50. Children sled down a 41-m-long hill inclined at 25°. At the bot- of the chamber and it stays in place. If the coefficient of static
tom, the slope levels out. If the coefficient of friction is 0.12, how friction is 0.62, what’s the minimum rate at which the centrifuge
far do the children slide on the level ground? must be revolving?
51. In a typical front-wheel-drive car, 70% of the car’s weight rides 62. You stand on a spring scale at the north pole and again at the
on the front wheels. If the coefficient of friction between tires equator. Which scale reading will be lower, and by what percent-
and road is 0.61, what’s the car’s maximum acceleration? age will it be lower than the higher reading? Assume g has the
52. A police officer investigating an accident estimates that a mov- same value at pole and equator.
ing car hit a stationary car at 25 km/h. If the moving car left skid 63. Driving in thick fog on a horizontal road, you spot a tractor-
marks 47 m long, and if the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.71, trailer truck jackknifed across the road. To avert a collision,
what was the initial speed of the moving car? you could brake to a stop or swerve in a circular arc, as sug-
53. A slide inclined at 35° takes bathers into a swimming pool. With gested in Fig. 5.35. Which option offers the greater margin of
water sprayed onto the slide to make it essentially frictionless, a safety? Assume that there is the same coefficient of static fric-
bather spends only one-third as much time on the slide as when tion in both cases, and that you maintain constant speed if you
it’s dry. What’s the coefficient of friction on the dry slide? swerve.
54. You try to move a heavy trunk, pushing down and forward at an
angle of 50° below the horizontal. Show that, no matter how hard
you push, it’s impossible to budge the trunk if the coefficient of
static friction exceeds 0.84.
55. A block is shoved up a 22° slope with an initial speed of 1.4 m/s.
The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.70. (a) How far up the
slope will the block get? (b) Once stopped, will it slide back
down?
56. At the end of a factory production line, boxes start from rest and
slide down a 30° ramp 5.4 m long. If the slide can take no more
than 3.3 s, what’s the maximum allowed frictional coefficient? FIGURE 5.35 Problem 63
57. You’re in traffic court, arguing against a speeding citation. You
entered a 210-m-radius banked turn designed for 80 km/h, which 64. A block is projected up an incline at angle u. It returns to its ini-
was also the posted speed limit. The road was icy, yet you stayed tial position with half its initial speed. Show that the coefficient
in your lane, so you argue that you must have been going at the of kinetic friction is mk 5 35 tan u.
design speed. But police measurements show there was a fric- 65. A 2.1-kg mass is connected to a spring with spring constant
tional coefficient m 5 0.15 between tires and road. Is it possible k 5 150 N/m and unstretched length 18 cm. The two are
you were speeding, and if so by how much? mounted on a frictionless air table, with the free end of the spring
58. A space station is in the shape of a hollow ring, 450 m in diame- attached to a frictionless pivot. The mass is set into circular mo-
ter (Fig. 5.34). At how many revolutions per minute should it ro- tion at 1.4 m/s. Find the radius of its path.
tate in order to simulate Earth’s gravity—that is, so the normal 66. Take mk 5 0.75 in Example 5.11, and plot the tension force in
force on an astronaut at the outer edge would equal the astro- units of the trunk’s weight, as a function of the rope angle u (that
naut’s weight on Earth? is, plot T/mg versus u). Use your plot to determine (a) the mini-
mum tension necessary to move the trunk and (b) the angle at
which this minimum tension should be applied.
67. Repeat the preceding problem for an arbitrary value of mk, by us-
ing calculus to find the minimum force needed to move the trunk
with constant speed.
68. Moving through a liquid, an object of mass m experiences a re-
450 m
sistive drag force proportional to its velocity, Fdrag 5 2bv, where
b is a constant. (a) Find an expression for the object’s speed as a
function of time, when it starts from rest and falls vertically
through the liquid. (b) Show that it reaches a terminal velocity
mg/b.
69. Suppose the object in Problem 68 had an initial velocity in the
horizontal direction equal to the terminal speed, vx0 5 mg/b.
FIGURE 5.34 Problem 58
Show that the horizontal distance it can go is limited to
59. In a loop-the-loop roller coaster, show that a car moving too xmax 5 mvx0/b, and find an expression for its trajectory (y as a
slowly would leave the track at an angle f given by function of x).
cos f 5 v2/rg, where f is the angle made by a vertical line 70. A block is launched with speed v0 up a slope making an angle u
through the center of the circular track and a line from the center with the horizontal; the coefficient of kinetic friction is mk.
to the point where the car leaves the track. (a) Find an expression for the distance d the block travels along the
60. Find an expression for the minimum frictional coefficient needed slope. (b) Use calculus to determine the angle that minimizes d.
to keep a car with speed v on a banked turn of radius R designed 71. A florist asks you to make a window display with two hanging
for speed v0. pots as shown in Fig. 5.36. The florist is adamant that the strings
84 Chapter 5 Using Newton’s Laws

be as invisible as possible, so you decide to use fishing line but 74. From the photo, you can conclude that the skater is
want to use the thinnest line you can. Will fishing line that can a. executing a turn to her left.
withstand 100 N of tension work? b. executing a turn to her right.
c. moving in a straight line out of the page.
75. The net force on the skater
54.0° 68.0°
a. points to her left.
b. points to her right.
13.9° c. is zero.
76. If the skater were to execute the same maneuver but at higher
speed, the tilt evident in the photo would be
3.85 kg
a. less.
b. greater.
9.28 kg
c. unchanged.
FIGURE 5.36 Problem 71 77. The tilt angle u that the skater’s body makes with the vertical is
given approximately by u 5 tan21(0.5). From this you can con-
72. You’re at the state fair. A sideshow barker claims that the star of
clude that the skater’s centripetal acceleration has approximate
the show can throw a 7.3-kg Olympic-style hammer “faster than
magnitude
a speeding bullet.” You recall that bullets travel at several hun-
a. 0.
dreds of meters per second. The burly hammer thrower whirls the
b. 0.5 m/s2.
hammer in a circle that you estimate to be 2.4 m in diameter. You
c. 5 m/s2.
guess the chain holding the hammer makes an angle of 10° with
d. can’t be determined without knowing the skater’s speed
the horizontal. When the hammer flies off, is it really moving
faster than a bullet?
73. One of the limiting factors in high-performance aircraft is the Answers to Chapter Questions
acceleration to which the pilot can be subjected without black-
ing out; it’s measured in “gees,” or multiples of the gravitational Answer to Chapter Opening Question
acceleration. The F-22 Raptor fighter can achieve Mach 1.8 The roller coaster is “falling,” in the sense that it’s accelerating down-
(1.8 times the speed of sound, which is about 340 m/s). Sup- ward, but that doesn’t mean it has to be moving downward. The accel-
pose a pilot dives in a circle and pulls up. If the pilot can’t ex- eration comes in response to the downward force of gravity and the
ceed 6g, what’s the tightest circle (smallest radius) in which the normal force from the track, both of which are needed to keep the
plane can turn? roller coaster moving in its circular path. Quantitatively, the net force
is equal to the mass multiplied by the acceleration, so Newton’s sec-
Passage Problems ond law of motion is perfectly satisfied.
A spiral is an ice-skating position in which the skater glides on one
foot with the other foot held above hip level. It’s a required element in Answers to GOT IT? Questions
women’s singles figure skating competition and is related to the 5.1. (c) Equal—but only because of the 45° slope. At larger angles,
arabesque performed in ballet. Figure 5.37 shows skater Sarah Hughes the tension would be greater than the weight; at smaller angles,
executing a spiral during her gold-medal performance at the Winter less.
Olympics in Salt Lake City. 5.2. (a) 1 N; (b) 1 N—the left hand in Fig. 5.9 and the hook in this
figure play exactly the same role, balancing the 1-N tension force
in the rope.
5.3. (c) Greater because the chain is pulling downward, making the
normal force greater than the log’s weight.

FIGURE 5.37 Passage Problems 74–77

 6 Work, Energy,
and Power

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Explain the concept of work and
evaluate the work done by constant
forces (6.1).
■ Evaluate the work done by forces
that vary with position (6.2).
■ Explain the concept of kinetic energy
and its relation to work (6.3).
■ Describe the relation between
energy and power (6.4).
Climbing a mountain, these cyclists do
work against gravity. Does that work de-
pend on the route chosen?

F igure 6.1a shows a skier starting from rest at the top of a uniform slope. What’s the skier’s
speed at the bottom? You can solve this problem by applying Newton’s second law to find
the skier’s constant acceleration and then the speed. But what about the skier in Fig. 6.1b? Here
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ The idea of work builds on the
concept of force. You should have a
the slope is continuously changing and so is the acceleration. Constant-acceleration equations firm understanding of force from
don’t apply, so solving for the details of the skier’s motion is difficult. Chapters 4 and 5, and you should
There are many cases where motion involves changing forces and accelerations. In this chap- be able to distinguish individual
ter, we introduce the important physical concepts of work and energy. These powerful concepts forces from the net force on an
enable us to “shortcut” the detailed application of Newton’s law to analyze these more complex object (4.1–4.3).
situations. We begin with the concept of work. ■ The relation between work and
kinetic energy follows from Newton’s
second law. Chapters 4 and 5 have
This skier’s acceleration This skier’s acceleration
is constant. varies as the slope changes.
given you a solid understanding of
this law and its applications
(4.2, 4.5, 5.1).

(a) (b)

FIGURE 6.1 Two skiers.

85
86 Chapter 6 Work, Energy, and Power

6.1 Work
We all have an intuitive sense of the term work. Carrying a piece of furniture upstairs in-
volves work. The heavier the furniture or the higher the stairs, the greater the work. Push-
ing a stalled car involves work. The harder you push or the farther you push, the more
work you do. The precise definition of work reflects our intuition:

For an object moving

! in one dimension, the work W done on the object by constant
applied force F is
W 5 Fx Dx (6.1)
where Fx is the component of the force in the direction of the object’s motion and
Dx is the object’s displacement.
!
The force F need not be the net force. If you’re interested, ! for example, in how much
work you must do to drag a heavy box across the floor, then F is the force you apply and
W is the work you do.
Equation 6.1 shows that the SI unit of work is the newton-meter 1N # m2. One newton-me-
ter is given the name joule, in honor of the 19th-century British physicist and brewer
James Joule.
According to Equation 6.1, the person pushing the car in Fig. 6.2a does work equal to
the force he applies times the distance the car moves. But the person pulling the suitcase in
Fig. 6.2b does work equal to only the horizontal component of the force she applies times
the distance the suitcase moves. Furthermore, by our definition, the waiter of Fig. 6.2c does
no work on the tray. Why not? Because the force on the tray is vertical while the tray’s dis-
placement is horizontal; there’s no component of force in the direction of the tray’s motion.

Force and displacement

are perpendicular;
Force and displacement no work is done.
are not in the same direction;
Force and displacement here W = Fx Dx.
are in the same direction, r
Dx
so work W = FD x. Dx F
Dx

Fy r
F
r
F Fx

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 6.2 Work depends on the orientation Work can be positive or negative (Fig. 6.3). When a force acts in the same general
of force and displacement.
direction as the motion, it does positive work. A force acting at 90° to the motion does
no work. And when a force acts to oppose motion, it does negative work.

A force acting in the same direction as an A force acting with a component in the
object’s motion does positive work. same direction as the object’s motion does
W.0 positive work. W . 0
r
F r
F

Drr Drr
(a) (b)

A force acting at right angles to the motion

does no work. A force acting opposite the motion does
r W50 negative work.
F W,0
r
F
FIGURE 6.3 The sign of the work depends on the
relative directions of force and motion. We use
!
Dr here to indicate that the displacement can Drr Drr
be any vector. (c) (d)
 6.1 Work 87

EXAMPLE 6.1 Calculating Work: Pushing a Car

The person in Fig. 6.2a pushes with a force of 650 N, moving the car force is in the same direction as the displacement, so 650 N is the
a distance of 4.3 m. How much work does he do? component we need.

INTERPRET This problem is about work. We identify the car as the EVALUATE We apply Equation 6.1 to get
object on which the work is done and the person as the agent doing W 5 Fx Dx 5 1650 N214.3 m2 5 2.8 kJ
the work.
ASSESS Make sense? The units work out, with newtons times meters
DEVELOP Figure 6.2a is our drawing. Equation 6.1, W 5 Fx Dx, is giving joules—here expressed in kilojoules for convenience. ■
the relevant equation, so our plan is to apply that equation. The

EXAMPLE 6.2 Calculating Work: Pulling a Suitcase

The airline passenger in Fig. 6.2b exerts a 60-N force on her suitcase, ASSESS The answer of 2.2 kJ is less than the product of 60 N and
pulling at 35° to the horizontal. How much work does she do in 45 m, and that makes sense because only the x-component of that
pulling the suitcase 45 m on a level floor? 60-N force contributes to the work. ■
INTERPRET Again, this example is about work—here done by the
passenger on the suitcase.

DEVELOP Equation 6.1, W 5 Fx Dx, applies here, but because the

displacement is horizontal while the force isn’t, we need to find the
horizontal force component. We’ve redrawn the force vector in
Fig. 6.4 to determine Fx.

EVALUATE Applying Equation 6.1 to the x-component from Fig. 6.4,

we get
W 5 Fx Dx 5 3160 N21cos 35°24145 m2 5 2.2 kJ FIGURE 6.4 Our sketch for Example 6.2.

Work and the Scalar Product

Work is a scalar quantity; it’s specified completely by a single number and has no direc-
tion. But
! Fig. 6.2 shows clearly that work involves a relation !between two vectors: the
force F and the displacement, designated more generally by Dr . If u is the angle between
these two vectors, then the component of the force along the direction of motion is
F cos u, and the work is
W 5 1F cos u21Dr2 5 F Dr cos u (6.2)
!
This equation is a generalization of our definition 6.1. If we choose the x-axis along Dr ,
then Dr 5 Dx and F cos u 5 Fx , so we recover Equation 6.1. ! !
Equation 6.2 shows that work is the product of the magnitudes of the vectors F and Dr
r
and the cosine of the angle between them. This combination occurs so often that it’s given The component of B in the
r
a special name: the scalar product of two vectors. direction of A is B cosu.
r
B
! !
! !A and B is defined as
The scalar product of any two vectors
u
A # B 5 AB cos u
r
(6.3) A
B cosu
where A and B are the magnitudes of the vectors and u is the angle between them.
A
r r
A · B 5 AB cosu
! !
The term scalar product should remind you that A # B is itself a scalar, even though it’s The scalar product is the
r
magnitude of A multiplied by
r
formed from two vectors. A centered dot designates the scalar product; for this reason, it’s the component of B in the
r
also called the dot product. Figure 6.5 gives a! geometric direction of A.
! ! interpretation.
!
The scalar product is commutative: A # B 5 B # A, and it’s also distributive:
! ! ! ! ! ! ! FIGURE 6.5 Geometric interpretation of the
A # 1B 1 C2 5 A # B 1 A # C. With vectors expressed in unit vector notation, Problem 46 scalar product.
88 Chapter 6 Work, Energy, and Power

shows
! how the distributive! law gives a simple form for the scalar product. If
A 5 A x ı^ 1 A y ^/ 1 A z k^ and B 5 Bx ı^ 1 By ı^ 1 Bz k^ , then
! !
A # B 5 A xBx 1 A yBy 1 A zBz (6.4)
Comparing
! Equation 6.2 with Equation 6.3 shows that the work done by a constant
!
force F moving an object through a straight-line displacement Dr is
! !
W 5 F # Dr (6.5)
As the examples below show, either Equation 6.3 or Equation 6.4 can be used in evaluat-
ing the dot product in this expression for work.

EXAMPLE 6.3 Work and the Scalar Product: A Tugboat

!
A tugboat pushes a cruise ship with force F 5 1.2 ı^ 1 2.3 /^ MN, find their magnitudes. That suggests a strategy for (b): Given the work
!
moving the ship along a straight path with displacement Dr 5 380 ı^ 1 and the vector magnitudes, we can write Equation 6.3 with a single
460 ^/ m. Find (a) the work done by the tugboat and (b) the angle unknown, the angle u that we’re asked to find.
between the force and displacement.
EVALUATE For (a), we use Equations 6.5 and 6.4 to write
! !
INTERPRET Part (a) is about calculating work given force and dis- W 5 F # Dr 5 Fx Dx 1 Fy Dy
placement in unit vector notation. Part (b) is less obvious, but know- 5 11.2 MN21380 m2 1 12.3 MN21460 m2 5 1510 MJ
ing that work involves the angle between force and displacement
provides a clue, suggesting that the answer to (a) may lead us to (b). The first equality is from Equation 6.5; the second gives the scalar prod-
uct in unit vector form from Equation 6.4. Dx and Dy are the compo-
!
DEVELOP Figure 6.6 is a sketch of the two vectors that will serve as a nents of the displacement Dr . Now that we have the work, we can get
check on the angle. The magnitude of a vector comes from the Pythagorean theo-
! our!
final answer. For (a), we want to use Equation 6.5,
W 5 F # Dr , with the scalar product given by Equation
! 6.4. That will rem, as expressed in Equation 3.1. Then we have F 5 1Fx2 1 Fy2 5
! 1(1.2 MN)2 1 (2.3 MN)2 5 2.59 MN; a similar calculation gives
give us the work W. We also have the vectors F and Dr , so we can
Dr 5 597 m. Now we solve Equation 6.3 for u:
W 1510 MJ
u 5 cos21 a b 5 cos21 a b 5 12°
F Dr 12.59 MN21597 m2

In the drawing of ASSESS This small angle is consistent with our sketch in Fig. 6.6.
r
F, each space on And it makes good physical sense: A tugboat is most efficient when
the graph paper pushing in the direction the ship is supposed to go. Note how the units
represents 1 MN;
r work out in that last calculation: MJ in the numerator and MN # m in
for Dr, it’s 100 m.
the denominator. But 1 N # m is 1 J, so that’s MJ in the denominator,
too, giving the dimensionless cosine. ■

FIGURE 6.6 Our sketch of the vectors in Example 6.3.

GOT IT? 6.1 Two objects are each displaced the same distance, one by a force F
pushing in the direction of motion and the other by a force 2F pushing at 45° to the direc-
tion of motion. Which force does more work?

The force F(x) varies with

position x.

6.2 Forces That Vary

Force, F(x)

Often the force applied to an object varies with position. Important examples include elec-
tric and gravitational forces, which vary with the distance between interacting objects. The
force of a spring that we encountered in Chapter 4 provides another example; as the spring
stretches, the force increases.
x1 x2 Figure 6.7 is a plot of a force F that varies with position x. We want to find the work
Position, x
done as an object moves from x1 to x2. We can’t simply write F1x2 2 x12; since the force
FIGURE 6.7 A varying force. varies, there’s no single value for F. What we can do, though, is divide the region into
 6.2 Forces That Vary 89

rectangles of width Dx, as shown in Fig. 6.8a. If we make Dx small enough, the force will The work done in moving this
distance Dx is approximately . . .
be nearly constant over the width of each rectangle (Fig. 6.8b). Then the work DW done
in moving the width Dx of one such rectangle is approximately F1x2 Dx, where F1x2 is . . . this force

Force, F(x)
times Dx.
the force at the midpoint x of that rectangle. We write F1x2 to show explicitly that the
force is a function of position. Note that the quantity F1x2 Dx is the area of the rectangle
expressed in the appropriate units (N # m, or, equivalently, J).
Suppose there are N rectangles. Let xi be the midpoint of the ith rectangle. Then the
total work done in moving from x1 to x2 is given approximately by the sum of the individ- x1 x2
Dx
ual amounts of work DWi associated with each rectangle, or
Position, x
N N
(a)
W . a DWi 5 a F1xi2 Dx (6.6)
i51 i51
Making the rectangles smaller makes the
approximation more accurate.
How good is this approximation? That depends on how small we make the rectangles.

Force, F(x)
Suppose we let them get arbitrarily small. Then the number of rectangles must grow arbi-
trarily large. In the limit of infinitely many infinitesimally small rectangles, the approxi-
mation in Equation 6.6 becomes exact (Fig. 6.8c). Then we have
W 5 lim a F1xi2 Dx (6.7)
Dx S 0 i
x1 x2
where the sum is over all the infinitesimal rectangles between x1 and x2. The quantity on the Dx
right-hand side of Equation 6.7 is the definite integral of the function F1x2 over the inter- Position, x
(b)
val from x1 to x2. We introduce special symbolism for the limiting process of Equation 6.7:
x2 The exact value for the work is the area
work done by a varying under the force-versus-position curve.
W 5 3 F1x2 dx a b (6.8)
force in one dimension

Force, F(x)
x1

Equation 6.8 means exactly the same thing as Equation 6.7: It tells us to divide the interval
from x1 to x2 into many small rectangles of width Dx, to multiply the value of the function
F1x2 at each rectangle by the width Dx, and to sum those products. As we take arbitrarily
many arbitrarily small rectangles, the result of this process gives us the value of the definite
integral. You can think of the symbol # in Equation 6.8 as standing for “sum” and the symbol x1
Position, x
x2
dx as a limiting case of arbitrarily small Dx. The definite integral has a simple geometric in- (c)
terpretation: It’s the area under the curve F1x2 between the limits x1 and x2 (Fig. 6.8c).
Computers approximate the infinite sum implied in Equation 6.8 using a large number FIGURE 6.8 Work done by a varying force.
of very small rectangles. But calculus often provides a better way.

TACTICS 6.1 Integrating

In your calculus course you’ve learned, or will soon learn, that integrals and derivatives are inverses. In Sec-
tion 2.2, you saw that the derivative of xn is nxn21; therefore, the integral of x n is 1xn112/1n 1 12, as you
can verify by differentiating. We determine the value of a definite integral by evaluating this expression at
upper and lower limits and subtracting:
x2 x
xn11
2
x2n11 x1n11
3 x dx 5 n 1 1 ` 5 n 1 1 2 n 1 1
n
(6.9)
x1 x1

where the middle term is a shorthand notation for the difference given in the rightmost term. A review of
integration and a table of common integrals are given in Appendix A.

Stretching a Spring
A spring provides an important example of a force that varies with position. We’ve seen
that an ideal spring exerts a force proportional to its displacement from equilibrium:
F 5 2kx, where k is the spring constant and the minus sign shows that the spring force is
opposite the direction of the displacement. It’s not just coiled springs that we’re interested
in here; many physical systems, from molecules to skyscrapers to stars, behave as though
they contain springs. The work and energy considerations we develop here apply to those
systems as well.
The force exerted by a stretched spring is 2kx, so the force exerted on the spring by the
external stretching force is 1kx. If we let x 5 0 be one end of the spring at equilibrium
90 Chapter 6 Work, Energy, and Power

x50 x and if we hold the other end fixed and pull the spring until its free end is at a new position
You pull on the x, as shown in Fig. 6.9, then Equation 6.8 shows that the work done on the spring by the
spring, stretching
it a distance x.
external force is
x x x
The spring pulls
back on you. W 5 3 F1x2 dx 5 3 kx dx 5 kx ` 5 12 kx2 2 12 k1022 5 12 kx2
1
2
2
(6.10)
Both forces have 0 0 0
(a) magnitude kx.
r
where we used Equation 6.9 to evaluate the integral. The more we stretch the spring, the
Fspring r
F greater the force we must apply—and that means we must do more work for a given
amount of additional stretch. Figure 6.10 shows graphically why the work depends qua-
dratically on the displacement. Although we used the word stretch in developing Equation
6.10, the result applies equally to compressing a spring a distance x from equilibrium.

Force increases with

(b)
stretch . . .
FIGURE 6.9 Stretching a spring. This is the force
kx
when the spring
is fully stretched. . . . so the work is

Force, F
half of (kx)(x), or
the area of the
1–
kx2 triangle, 1–2 kx2.
2

0 x
Distance, x

FIGURE 6.10 Work done in stretching a spring.

EXAMPLE 6.4 The Spring Force: Bungee Jumping

An elastic cord used in bungee jumping is normally 11 m long and has EVALUATE Applying Equation 6.10 gives
spring constant k 5 250 N/m. At the lowest point in a jump, the cord W 5 12 kx2 5 A 12 B 1250 N/m2111 m22 5 15 kN # m 5 15 kJ
length has doubled. How much work has been done on the cord?
ASSESS As you’ll see shortly, that’s just about equal to the work done
INTERPRET The bungee cord behaves like a spring—as we can tell by gravity on a 70-kg person dropping the 22-m distance from the at-
because we’re given its spring constant. So this example is about the tachment point of the cord to its full stretched extent. We’ll see in the
work done in stretching a spring. We’re told the 11-m-long cord length next chapter why this is no coincidence. ■
doubles in length, so it’s stretched another 11 m.

DEVELOP Equation 6.10 gives the work done in stretching the cord a
distance x from its unstretched configuration.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 6.1 Bungee Details

In Example 6.4, is the work done as the cord stretches its final meter area under the force-distance curve. We’ve sketched the force-distance
greater than, less than, or equal to the work done in the first meter of curve in Fig. 6.11, highlighting the first and last meters. Clearly, the
stretch? area associated with the last meter of stretch is much larger. Therefore,
the work is greater.
EVALUATE We’re asked to compare the work done during the begin-
ning and end of the bungee cord’s stretch. We know that work is the ASSESS Makes sense! Once the cord has stretched 10 m, it exerts a
large force. That makes it much harder to stretch farther—and thus the
The area under the final meter requires a lot of work. The first meter takes much less
curve is much larger work because at first the cord exerts very little force.
on the right than on
the left, showing that
it takes much more MAKING THE CONNECTION Find the work involved in stretch-
work for the last
meter of stretch. ing during the first and last meters, and compare.
EVALUATE We can use Equation 6.10, but instead of the limits 0 and x,
we’ll use 0 and 1 m for the first meter of stretch, and 10 m and 11 m
for the last meter. The results are 125 J and 2.6 kJ. Stretching the final
meter takes more than 20 times the work required for the first meter!
FIGURE 6.11 Conceptual Example 6.1.
 6.2 Forces That Vary 91

EXAMPLE 6.5 A Varying Friction Force: Rough Sliding

x2
Workers pushing a 180-kg trunk across a level floor encounter a
10-m-long region where the floor becomes increasingly rough. The Equation 6.8, W 5 3 F1x2 dx. And we need to know the frictional
x1
coefficient of kinetic friction here is given by mk 5 m0 1 ax2, where force, which is given by Equation 5.3: fk 5 mkn. On a level floor, the
m0 5 0.17, a 5 0.0062 m22, and x is the distance from the beginning normal force is equal in magnitude to the weight, mg, so Equation 6.8
of the rough region. How much work does it take to push the trunk x2 x2
across the region? becomes W 5 3 mkmg dx 5 3 mg1m0 1 ax22 dx.
x1 x1
INTERPRET This example asks for the work needed to push the trunk.
To move the trunk at constant speed, the workers must apply a force EVALUATE We evaluate the integral using Equation 6.9. Actually, we
equal in magnitude to the frictional force. That force varies with posi- have two integrals here: one of dx alone and the other of x2 dx. Accord-
tion, so we’re dealing with a varying force. ing to Equation 6.9, the former gives x and the latter x3/3. So the result is
x2 x2

DEVELOP Our drawing, the force-position curve in Fig. 6.12, empha- W 5 3 mg1m0 1 ax22 dx 5 mg A m0 x 1 13 ax3 B `
x1 x1
sizes that we have a varying force. Therefore, we have to integrate using
5 mg C A m0x2 1 1
3
ax23 B 2 A m0x1 1 1
3
ax13 BD
This area gives the
work done in crossing Putting in the values given for m0 , a, and m, using g 5 9.8 m/s2, and
the rough patch.
taking x1 5 0 and x2 5 10 m for the endpoints of the rough interval,
1500 we get 6.6 kJ for our answer.
Force, F (N)

1000 ASSESS Is this answer reasonable? Figure 6.12 shows that the maxi-
mum force is approximately 1.3 kN. If this force acted over the entire
10-m interval, the work would be about 13 kJ. But it’s approximately
500
half that because the coefficient of kinetic friction and therefore the
force start out quite low. You can see that the area under the curve in
0 Fig. 6.12 is about half the area of the full rectangle, so our answer of
0 2 4 6 8 10 FIGURE 6.12 Force versus position
Position, x (m) for Example 6.5.
6.6 kJ makes sense. ■

✓TIP Don’t Just Multiply!

When force depends on position, there’s no single value for the force, so you can’t
just multiply force by distance to get work. You need either to integrate, as in Exam-
ple 6.5, or to use a result that’s been derived by integration, as with the equation
W 5 12 kx2 used in Example 6.4.

Force and Work in Two and Three Dimensions

Sometimes a force varies in both magnitude and direction or an object moves on a curved
path; either way, the angle between
! force and motion may vary. Then we have! to take the
! !
scalar products of the force F with small displacements Dr , writing DW 5 F # Dr for the
work involved in one such small displacement. Adding them all gives the total work,
which in the limit of very small displacements becomes a line integral: Since gravity is vertical,
! only the y-component
r2
! ! contributes to the work.
W 5 3 ! F # dr (6.11) That contribution is
r1 Drr DW 5 mg Dy.
! ! Dy
where the integral is taken over a specific path between positions r1 and r2. We won’t pur-
Dx
sue line integrals further here, but they’ll be useful in later chapters.
h
Work Done Against Gravity
When an object moves upward or downward on an arbitrary path, the angle between its All the y-components
displacement and the gravitational force varies. But here we don’t really need the line in- add up to the total
height h, so the total
tegral of Equation 6.11 because we can consider any path as consisting of small horizontal work is mgh.
and vertical steps (Fig. 6.13). Only the vertical steps contribute to the work, which then
becomes simply W 5 mgh, where h is the total height the object rises—a result that’s FIGURE 6.13 A car climbs a hill with varying slope.
92 Chapter 6 Work, Energy, and Power

independent of the particular path taken. (As in our earlier work with gravity, this result
holds only near Earth’s surface, where we can neglect the variation in gravity with height.)

GOT IT? 6.2 Three forces have magnitudes in newtons that are numerically equal to
these quantities: (a) x, (b) x2, and (c) 1x, where x is the position in meters. Each force
acts on an object as it moves from x 5 0 to x 5 1 m. Notice that all three forces have the
same values at the two endpoints—namely, 0 N and 1 N. Which force does the most work?
Which does the least?

6.3 Kinetic Energy

Closely related to work is energy—one of the most important concepts in all of physics.
Here we introduce the energy associated with motion, or kinetic energy. Our goal is to
relate kinetic energy and work. We’ll start by evaluating the net work done on an object,
and then apply Newton’s second law. The net work is done by all the forces acting on an
object, so we use the net force in our expression for work. We’ll consider one-dimensional
motion, with force and displacement along the same line. In that case, Equation 6.8 gives
the net work:

Wnet 5 3 Fnet dx

But the net force can be written in terms of Newton’s second law: Fnet 5 ma, or
Fnet 5 m dv/dt, so
dv
Wnet 5 3 m dx
dt
The quantities dv, dt, and dx arose as the limits of small numbers Dv, Dt, and Dx. In calcu-
lus, you’ve seen that the limit of a product or quotient is the product or quotient of the in-
dividual terms involved. For these reasons, we can rearrange the symbols dv, dt, and dx to
rewrite our expression in the form
dx
Wnet 5 3 m dv
dt
But dx/dt 5 v, so we have

Wnet 5 3 mv dv

The integral here is like #xdx, which we evaluate by raising the exponent and dividing by
the new exponent. What about the limits? Suppose our object starts at some speed v1 and
ends at v2. Then we have
v2 v2

Wnet 5 3 mv dv 5 2 mv
1 2
` 5 12 mv22 2 12 mv12 (6.12)
v1 v1

Equation 6.12 shows that an object has associated with it a quantity 12 mv2 that changes
when, and only when, net work is done on the object. This quantity plays a vital role in
physics and is called the object’s kinetic energy:

The kinetic energy K of an object of mass m moving at speed v is

K 5 12 mv2 (6.13)

Like velocity, kinetic energy is a relative term; its value depends on the reference frame
in which it’s measured. But unlike velocity, kinetic energy is a scalar. And since it de-
pends on the square of the velocity, kinetic energy is never negative. All moving objects
possess kinetic energy.
 6.3 Kinetic Energy 93

Equation 6.12 equates the change in an object’s kinetic energy with the net work done
on the object, a result known as the work-energy theorem:

Work-energy theorem: The change in an object’s kinetic energy is equal to the

net work done on the object:
DK 5 Wnet (6.14)

Equations 6.12 and 6.14 are equivalent statements of the work-energy theorem.
We’ve seen that work can be positive or negative; so, therefore, can changes in kinetic
energy. If I stop a moving object, for example, I reduce its kinetic energy from 12 mv2 to
zero—a change DK 5 212 mv2. So I do negative work by applying a force directed opposite
to the motion. By Newton’s third law, the object exerts an equal but oppositely directed
force on me, therefore doing positive work 12 mv2 on me. So an object of mass m moving at
speed v can do work equal to its initial kinetic energy, 12 mv2, if it’s brought to rest.

EXAMPLE 6.6 Work and Kinetic Energy: Passing Zone

A 1400-kg car enters a passing zone and accelerates from 70 to where we converted the speeds to meters per second before doing the
95 km/h. (a) How much work is done on the car? (b) If the car then calculation. The work-energy theorem applies equally to the braking
brakes to a stop, how much work is done on it? car in (b), for which v1 5 26.4 m/s and v2 5 0. Here we have
Wnet 5 12 m1v22 2 v122 5 A 12 B 11400 kg2302 2 126.4 m/s224
INTERPRET Here we’re asked about work, but we aren’t given any
5 2490 kJ
forces as we were in previous examples. However, we now know the
work-energy theorem, which relates work and kinetic energy. Kinetic ASSESS Make sense? Yes. There’s a greater change in speed and thus
energy depends on speed, which we’re given. So this is a problem in- in kinetic energy in the braking case, so the magnitude of the work in-
volving the work-energy theorem. volved is greater. Our second answer is negative because stopping the
car means applying a force that opposes its motion—and that means
DEVELOP The relevant equation is Equation 6.14 or its more explicit
negative work done on the car. ■
form, Equation 6.12. Since we’re given speeds, it’s easiest to work
with Equation 6.12.

EVALUATE For (a), Equation 6.12 gives

Wnet 5 12 mv22 2 12 mv12 5 12 m1v22 2 v122
5 A 12 B 11400 kg23126.4 m/s22 2 119.4 m/s224 5 220 kJ

GOT IT? 6.3 For each situation, tell whether the net work done on a soccer ball is pos-
itive, negative, or zero. Justify your answers using the work-energy theorem. (a) You carry
the ball out to the field, walking at constant speed. (b) You kick the stationary ball, starting
it flying through the air. (c) The ball rolls along the field, gradually coming to a halt.

Energy Units
Since work is equal to the change in kinetic energy, the units of energy are the same as
those of work. In SI, the unit of energy is therefore the joule, equal to 1 newton-meter. In
science, engineering, and everyday life, though, you’ll encounter other energy units. Sci-
entific units include the erg, used in the centimeter-gram-second system of units and equal
to 1027 J; the electron-volt, used in nuclear, atomic, and molecular physics; and the
calorie, used in thermodynamics and to describe the energies of chemical reactions. Eng-
lish units include the foot-pound and the British thermal unit (Btu); the latter is com-
monly used in engineering of heating and cooling systems. Your electric company charges
you for energy use in kilowatt-hours 1kW # h2; we’ll see in the next section how this unit
relates to the SI joule. Appendix C contains an extensive table of energy units and conver-
sion factors as well as the energy contents of common fuels.
94 Chapter 6 Work, Energy, and Power

6.4 Power
Climbing a flight of stairs requires the same amount of work no matter how fast you go.
But it’s harder to run up the stairs than to walk. Harder in what sense? In the sense that
you do the same work in a shorter time; the rate at which you do the work is greater. We
define power as the rate of doing work:

If an amount of work DW is done in time Dt, then the average power P is

DW
P5 1average power2 (6.15)
Dt

Often the rate of doing work varies with time. Then we define the instantaneous
power as the average power taken in the limit of an arbitrarily small time interval Dt:
DW dW
P 5 lim 5 1instantaneous power2 (6.16)
Dt S 0 Dt dt
Equations 6.15 and 6.16 both show that the units of power are joules/second. One J/s is
given the name watt (W) in honor of James Watt, a Scottish engineer and inventor who
was instrumental in developing the steam engine as a practical power source. Watt himself
defined another unit, the horsepower. One horsepower (hp) is about 746 J/s or 746 W.

EXAMPLE 6.7 Power: Climbing Mount Washington

A 55-kg hiker ascends New Hampshire’s Mount Washington, making EVALUATE We apply Equation 6.15 in the two cases:
the vertical rise of 1300 m in 2 h. A 1500-kg car drives up the Mount DW 155 kg219.8 m/s2211300 m2
Washington Auto Road, taking half an hour. Neglecting energy lost to Phiker 5 5 5 97 W
Dt 12.0 h213600 s/h2
friction, what’s the average power output for each?
DW 11500 kg219.8 m/s2211300 m2
INTERPRET This example is about power, which we identify as the
Pcar 5 5 5 11 kW
Dt 10.50 h213600 s/h2
rate at which hiker and car expend energy. So we need to know the
work done by each and the corresponding time. ASSESS Do these values make sense? A power of 97 W is typical of
the sustained long-term output of the human body, as you can confirm
DEVELOP Equation 6.15, P 5 DW/Dt, is relevant, since we want the by considering a typical daily diet of 2000 “calories” (actually kilo-
average power. To use this equation we’ll need to find the work done calories; see Exercise 31). The car’s output amounts to 14 hp, which
in climbing the mountain. As you learned in Section 6.2, work done you may find low, given that the car’s engine is probably rated at sev-
against gravity is independent of the path taken and is given by mgh, eral hundred horsepower. But cars are notoriously inefficient ma-
where h is the total height of the climb. chines, with only a small fraction of the rated horsepower available to
do useful work. Most of the rest is lost to friction and heating. ■

When power is constant, so the average power and instantaneous power are the same,
Equation 6.15 shows that the amount of work W done in time Dt is
W 5 P Dt (6.17)
When power isn’t constant, we can consider small amounts of work DW, each taken over
so small a time interval Dt that the power is nearly constant. Adding all these amounts of
work and taking the limit as Dt becomes arbitrarily small, we have
t2
W 5 lim a P Dt 5 3 P dt (6.18)
Dt S 0 t1

where t1 and t2 are the beginning and end of the time interval over which we calculate the
work.
 6.4 Power 95

EXAMPLE 6.8 Energy and Power: Yankee Stadium

Each of the 884 floodlights at Yankee Stadium uses electrical energy EVALUATE At 1.65 kW each, all 884 floodlights use energy at the rate
at the rate of 1650 W. How much does it cost to run these lights dur- 1884211.65 kW2 5 1459 kW. Then the total for a 5-h game is
ing a 5-h night game, if electricity costs 21¢/kW # h? W 5 P Dt 5 11459 kW215 h2 5 7295 kW # h
INTERPRET We’re given a single floodlight’s power consumption and The cost is then 17295 kW # h21 $0.21/kW # h2 5 $1532.
the cost of electricity per kilowatt-hour, a unit of energy. So this prob-
ASSESS Do we have the right units here? Yes. With power in kilo-
lem is about calculating energy given power and time, with a little
watts and time in hours, the energy comes out immediately in
economics thrown in.
kilowatt-hours. ■
DEVELOP Since the power is constant, we can calculate the energy
used over time with Equation 6.17, W 5 P Dt.

APPLICATION Energy and Society

Humankind’s rate of energy consumption is a matter of concern, especially What do we do with all that energy? And where does it come from? The
given our dependence on fossil fuels whose carbon dioxide emissions threaten first pie chart shows that most goes for industry and transportation, with lesser
global climate change. Just how rapidly are we using energy? amounts used in the residential and commercial sectors. The second chart is a
Example 6.7 suggests that the average power output of the human body is stark reminder that our energy supply is neither diversified nor renewable, with
approximately 100 W. Before our species harnessed fire and domesticated ani- some 84% coming from the fossil fuels coal, oil, and natural gas. That’s going
mals, that was all the power available to each of us. But in today’s high-energy to have to change in the coming decades, as a result of both limited fossil-fuel
societies, we use energy at a much greater rate. For the average citizen of the resources and the environmental consequences of fossil-fuel combustion.
United States in the early 21st century, for example, the rate of energy consump- Much of what you learn in an introductory physics course has direct relevance
tion is about 11 kW—the equivalent of more than a hundred human bodies. The to the energy challenges we face today.
rate is lower in most other industrialized countries, but it still amounts to many
tens of human bodies’ worth.

Geothermal,
Hydro Biomass wind, solar
3% 4% 1%

Residential Nuclear Coal

Transportation 8% 23%
22%
28%

Commercial
19% Oil Gas
Industrial 37% 24%
31%

✓TIP Don’t Confuse Energy and Power

Is that 11-kW per-capita energy consumption per year, per day, or what? That ques-
tion reflects a common confusion of energy and power. Power is the rate of energy
use; it doesn’t need any “per time” attached to it. It’s just 11 kW, period.
96 Chapter 6 Work, Energy, and Power

Power and Velocity

We can derive an expression! relating power, applied force, and velocity by noting that the
work dW done by a force F acting on an object that undergoes an infinitesimal displace-
!
ment dr follows from Equation 6.5:
! !
dW 5 F # dr
Dividing both sides by the associated time interval dt gives the power:
dW ! dr!
P5 5F#
dt dt
! !
But dr /dt is the velocity v , so
! !
P5F#v (6.19)

EXAMPLE 6.9 Power and Velocity: Bicycling

Riding your 14-kg bicycle at a steady 18 km/h 15.0 m/s2, you experi- EVALUATE On level ground, we have P 5 Fv 5 130 N215.0 m/s2 5
ence a 30-N force from air resistance. If your mass is 68 kg, what 150 W. Climbing the hill, you have to exert an additional force to
power must you supply on level ground and going up a 5° incline? overcome the downslope component of gravity, which in Example 5.1
we found to be mg sin u. So here we have
INTERPRET This example asks about power in two different situa-
P 5 Fv 5 1Fair 1 mg sin u2v
tions: one with air resistance alone and the other when climbing. We
5 330 N 1 182 kg219.8 m/s221sin 5°2415.0 m/s2 5 500 W
identify the forces involved as air resistance and gravity. You need to
exert forces of equal magnitude to overcome them. where we used your combined mass, body plus bicycle.

DEVELOP Given that we have force and velocity, Equation 6.19, ASSESS Both numbers make sense. The values go from a little to a lot
! !
P 5 F # v , applies. The force you apply
! !to propel the bicycle is in
more than your body’s average power output of around 100 W, and
the same direction as its motion, so F # v in that equation becomes as you’ve surely experienced, even a modest slope takes much more
just Fv. cycling effort than level ground. ■

GOT IT? 6.4 A newspaper reports that a new power plant will produce “50 megawatts
per hour.” What’s wrong with this statement?
CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY
Big Picture
Work and kinetic energy are the big ideas here. A force acting on an Positive work Positive work less than at left
object does work when the object undergoes a displacement and the force W.0 W.0
has a component in the direction of that displacement. A force at right r
F r
F
angles to the displacement does no work, and a force with a component
opposite the displacement does negative work.
Drr Drr
Kinetic energy is the energy associated with an object’s motion. An
object’s kinetic energy changes only when net work is done on the object. Zero work Negative work
r W50
F W,0
r
F

Drr Drr

Key Concepts and Equations

Work is the product of force and displacement, but only the component of force in the direction of displacement counts toward the work.

For a constant force and displacement in the x-direction, When force varies with position, calculating the work
involves integrating. In one dimension:
W 5 Fx D x 1constant force only2
! !
More generally, for a constant force F and arbitrary displacement D r , the work is
! !

Force, F(x)
W 5 F # Dr 5 F Dr cos u 1constant force only2 Work is the
x2
area under
Here F and Dr are the magnitudes of the force and displacement vectors, and u is the W5 3 F(x) dx the force-versus-
angle between them. We’ve written work here using the shorthand notation of the x1
! ! position curve.
scalar product, defined for any two vectors A and B as the product of their magnitudes
x1 x2
and the cosine of the angle between them:
! ! Position, x
A # B 5 AB cos u 1scalar product2 Most generally, work is the line integral of a varying
! !
force over an arbitrary path: W 5 3 F # d r

Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity that depends on an object’s mass and speed: Power is the rate at which work is done or
r
Fnet energy is used. The unit of power is the
K 5 mv1 2
m m
2 watt (W), equal to 1 joule/second.
The work-energy theorem states that the change in Dx
! !
dW
an object’s kinetic energy is equal to the net work done A block is subject After it has P5 5F#v
r undergone dt
on it: to a net force Fnet.
It starts from rest. displacement Dx,
DK 5 Wnet 1work-energy theorem2 the block has
kinetic energy
1
The unit of energy and work is the joule (J), equal to 2
mv2 5 Fnet D x.
1 newton-meter.

Applications
Common applications of work done against everyday forces are the work mgh m
needed to raise an object of mass m a distance h against gravity, and the work
2 kx
1 2 W 5 mgh
needed to stretch or compress a spring of spring constant k a distance x from
m h
its equilibrium length.

W 5 1_2 kx 2
98 Chapter 6 Work, Energy, and Power

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion Section 6.2 Forces That Vary

20. Find the total work done by the force shown in Fig. 6.14 as the
1. Give two examples of situations in which you might think object on which it acts moves (a) from x 5 0 to x 5 3 km and
you’re doing work but in which, in the technical sense, you do (b) from x 5 3 km to x 5 4 km.
no work.
50
2. If the scalar product of two nonzero vectors is zero, what can you
40
conclude about their relative directions?

Force (N)
30
3. Must you do work to whirl a ball around on the end of a string?
20
Explain.
10
4. If you pick up a suitcase and put it down, how much total work
0
have you done on the suitcase? Does your answer change if you 0 1 2 3 4
pick up the suitcase and drop it? Distance (km) FIGURE 6.14 Exercise 20
5. You want to raise a piano a given height using a ramp. With a 21. How much work does it take to stretch a spring with k 5 200 N/m
fixed, nonzero coefficient of friction, will you have to do more (a) 10 cm from equilibrium and (b) from 10 cm to 20 cm from
work if the ramp is steeper or more gradual? Explain. equilibrium?
6. Does the gravitational force of the Sun do work on a planet in a 22. Uncompressed, the spring for an automobile suspension is 45 cm
circular orbit? On a comet in an elliptical orbit? Explain. long. It needs to be fitted into a space 32 cm long. If the spring
7. A pendulum bob swings back and forth on the end of a string, constant is 3.8 kN/m, how much work does a mechanic have to
describing a circular arc. Does the tension force in the string do do to fit the spring?
any work? 23. You do 8.5 J of work to stretch a spring with k 5 190 N/m, start-
8. Does your car’s kinetic energy change if you drive at constant ing with the spring unstretched. How far does the spring stretch?
speed for 1 hour? 24. Spider silk is a remarkable elastic material. A particular strand
9. A watt-second is a unit of what quantity? Relate it to a more stan- BIO has spring constant 70 mN/m, and it stretches 9.6 cm when a fly
dard SI unit. hits it. How much work did the fly’s impact do on the silk strand?
10. A truck is moving northward at 55 mi/h. Later, it’s moving east- Section 6.3 Kinetic Energy
ward at the same speed. Has its kinetic energy changed? Has 25. What’s the kinetic energy of a 2.4 3 105-kg airplane cruising at
work been done on the truck? Has a force acted on the truck? 900 km/h?
Explain. 26. A cyclotron accelerates protons from rest to 21 Mm/s. How
much work does it do on each proton?
27. At what speed must a 950-kg subcompact car be moving to have
the same kinetic energy as a 3.2 3 104-kg truck going 20 km/h?
Exercises and Problems 28. A 60-kg skateboarder comes over the top of a hill at 5.0 m/s and
reaches 10 m/s at the bottom. Find the total work done on the
Exercises skateboarder between the top and bottom of the hill.
Section 6.1 Work 29. After a tornado, a 0.50-g drinking straw was found embedded
11. How much work do you do as you exert a 75-N force to push a 4.5 cm in a tree. Subsequent measurements showed that the tree
shopping cart through a 12-m-long supermarket aisle? exerted a stopping force of 70 N on the straw. What was the straw’s
12. If the coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.21, how much work do speed?
you do when you slide a 50-kg box at constant speed across a 30. From what height would you have to drop a car for its impact to
4.8-m-wide room? be equivalent to a 20-mi/h collision?
13. A crane lifts a 650-kg beam vertically upward 23 m and then Section 6.4 Power
swings it eastward 18 m. How much work does the crane do? 31. A typical human diet is “2000 calories” per day, where the “calorie”
Neglect friction, and assume the beam moves with constant describing food energy is actually 1 kilocalorie. Express 2000
speed. kcal/day in watts.
14. The world’s highest waterfall, the Cherun-Meru in Venezuela, 32. A horse plows a 200-m-long furrow in 5.0 min, exerting a 750-N
has a total drop of 980 m. How much work does gravity do on a force. Find its power output, measured in watts and in horsepower.
cubic meter of water dropping down the Cherun-Meru? 33. A typical car battery stores about 1 kW # h of energy. What’s its
15. A meteorite plunges to Earth, embedding itself 75 cm in the power output if it drains completely in (a) 1 minute, (b) 1 hour, and
ground. If it does 140 MJ of work in the process, what average (c) 1 day?
force does the meteorite exert on the ground? 34. A sprinter completes a 100-m dash in 10.6 s, doing 22.4 kJ of
16. An elevator of mass m rises a vertical distance h with upward ac- work. What’s her average power output?
celeration equal to one-tenth g. Find an expression for the work 35. How much work can a 3.5-hp lawnmower engine do in 1 h?
the elevator cable does on the elevator. 36. A 75-kg long-jumper takes 3.1 s to reach a prejump speed of
17. Show
! ! that! the !scalar
! product
! ! obeys the distributive law: 10 m/s. What’s his power output?
A # 1B 1 C2 5 A # B 1 A # C. ! 37. Estimate your power output as you do deep knee bends at the rate
18. Find the work done by a force F 5 1.8 ı^ 1 2.2 ^/ N as it acts on an of one per second.
object moving from the origin to the point 56 ı^ 1 31 ^/ m. 38. In midday sunshine, solar energy strikes Earth at the rate of about
19. To push a stalled car, you apply a 470-N force at 17° to the car’s 1 kW/m2. How long would it take a perfectly efficient solar col-
motion, doing 860 J of work in the process. How far do you push lector of 15-m2 area to collect 40 kW # h of energy? (Note: This is
the car? roughly the energy content of a gallon of gasoline.)
 Exercises and Problems 99

39. It takes about 20 kJ to melt an ice cube. A typical microwave 53. The force exerted by a rubber band is given approximately by
oven produces 900 W of microwave power. How long will it take
L0 2 x L02
a typical microwave to melt the ice cube? F 5 F0 c 2 d
40. Which consumes more energy, a 1.2-kW hair dryer used for L0 1L0 1 x22
10 min or a 7-W night-light left on for 24 h? where L0 is the unstretched length, x is the stretch, and F0 is a con-
stant. Find the work needed to stretch the rubber band a distance x.
Problems 54. You put your little sister (mass m) on a swing whose chains have
41. You slide a box of books at constant speed up a 30° ramp, apply- length L and pull slowly back until the swing makes an angle f
ing a force of 200 N directed up the slope. The coefficient of slid- with the vertical. Show that the work you do is mgL11 2 cos f2.
ing friction is 0.18. (a) How much work have you done when the 55. Two unknown elementary particles pass through a detection
box has risen 1 m vertically? (b) What’s the mass of the box? chamber. If they have the same kinetic energy and their mass ra-
42. Two people push a stalled car at its front doors, each applying a tio is 4 : 1, what’s the ratio of their speeds?
280-N force at 25° to the forward direction, as shown in Fig. 6.15. 56. A tractor tows a plane from its airport gate, doing 8.7 MJ of
How much work does each person do in pushing the car 5.6 m? work. The link from the plane to the tractor makes a 22° angle
with the plane’s motion, and the tension in the link is 0.41 MN.
25°
How far does the tractor move the plane?
57. A force pointing in the x-direction is given by F 5 F01x/x02,
where F0 and x0 are constants and x is position. Find an expres-
25° sion for the work done by this force as it acts on an object mov-
FIGURE 6.15 Problem 42
ing from x 5 0 to x 5 x0.
43. You’re at the gym, doing arm raises. With each rep, you lift a 58. A force pointing in the x-direction is given by F 5 ax3/2, where
BIO 20-N weight 55 cm. (a) How many raises must you do before a 5 0.75 N/m3/2. Find the work done by this force as it acts on an
you’ve expended 200 kcal of work (see Problem 31)? (b) If your object moving from x 5 0 to x 5 14 m.
workout takes 1.0 min, what’s your average power output? 59. Two vectors have equal magnitude, and their scalar product is one-
44. A locomotive does 7.9 3 1011 J of work in pulling a third the square of their magnitude. Find the angle between them.
3.4 3 106-kg train 180 km. Find the average force in the cou- 60. At what rate can a half-horsepower well pump deliver water to a
pling between the locomotive and the rest of the train. tank 60 m above the water level in the well? Give your answer in
45. You pull a box 23 m horizontally, using the rope shown in kg/s and gal/min.
Fig. 6.16. If the rope tension is 120 N, and if the rope does 2500 J 61. The rate at which the United States imports oil, expressed in
of work on the box, what angle u does the rope make with the terms of the energy content of the imported oil, is about 800 GW.
horizontal? Using the “Energy Content of Fuels” table in Appendix C, con-
vert this figure to gallons per day.
u5?
62. By measuring oxygen uptake, sports physiologists have found
BIO that long-distance runners’ power output is given approximately
by P 5 m1bv 2 c2, where m and v are the runner’s mass and
FIGURE 6.16 Problem 45
speed, and b and c are constants given by b 5 4.27 J/kg # m and
46. (a) Find the scalar products ı^ # ı^, ^/ # ^/ , and k^ # k^ . (b) Find ı^ # ^/ , c 5 1.83 W/kg. Determine the work done by a 54-kg runner who
^/ # k^ , and k^ # ı^. (c) Use the distributive law
! to multiply out the runs a 10-km race at 5.2 m/s.
scalar product of two arbitrary vectors A 5 A x ı^ 1 A y ^/ 1 A z k^ 63. You’re writing performance specifications for a new car model.
!
and B 5 Bx ı^ 1 By ^/ 1 Bz k^ , and use the results of (a) and (b) to The 1750-kg car delivers energy to its drive wheels at the rate of
verify Equation 6.4. 35 kW. Neglecting air resistance, what do you list for the greatest
47. (a) Find the scalar product of the vectors a ı^ 1 b ^/ and b ı^ 2 a ^/ , speed at which it can climb a 4.5° slope?
where a and b are arbitrary constants. (b) What’s the angle be- 64. A 1400-kg car ascends a mountain road at a steady 60 km/h, against
tween the two vectors? a 450-N force of air resistance. If the engine supplies energy to the
48. Looking to cut costs, the airline you work for asks you to investi- drive wheels at the rate of 38 kW, what’s the slope angle of the road?
gate the efficiency of the tractors that push aircraft away from the 65. You do 2.2 kJ of work pushing a trunk at constant speed 3.1 m
gates. One model is supposed to do no more than 10 MJ of work along a ramp inclined upward at 22°. What’s the frictional coef-
in pushing a 747 aircraft 25 m. If the tractor exerts a 0.42-MN ficient between trunk and ramp?
force, does it meet its specifications? 66. (a) Find the work done in lifting 1 L of blood (mass 1 kg) from
!
49. How much work does a force F 5 67ı^ 1 23/^ 1 55k^ N do as it BIO the foot to the head of a 1.7-m-tall person. (b) If blood circulates
!
acts on a body moving in a straight line from r 1 5 16 ı^ 1 31/^ m through the body at the rate of 5.0 L/min, estimate the heart’s
! ^
to r 2 5 21ı ^ ^ power output. (Your answer underestimates the power by a factor
! 1 10/ 1 14k m?
50. A force F acts in the x-direction, its magnitude given by F 5 ax2, of about 5 because it neglects fluid friction and other factors.)
where x is in meters and a 5 5.0 N/m2. Find the work done by this 67. (a) What power is needed to push a 95-kg crate at 0.62 m/s along
force as it acts on a particle moving from x 5 0 to x 5 6.0 m. a horizontal floor where the coefficient of friction is 0.78?
51. A certain amount of work is required to stretch spring A a certain (b) How much work is done in pushing the crate 11 m?
distance. Twice as much work is required to stretch spring B half 68. You mix flour into bread dough, exerting a 45-N force on the
that distance. Compare the spring constants of the two. spoon, which you move at 0.29 m/s. (a) What power do you sup-
52. A force with magnitude F 5 a1x acts in the x-direction, where ply? (b) How much work do you do if you stir for 1.0 min?
a 5 9.5 N/m1/2. Calculate the work this force does as it acts on 69. A machine does work at a rate given by P 5 ct2, where
an object moving from (a) x 5 0 to x 5 3.0 m; (b) 3.0 m to 6.0 m; c 5 18 W/s2 and t is time. Find the work done between t 5 10 s
and (c) 6.0 m to 9.0 m. and t 5 20 s.
100 Chapter 6 Work, Energy, and Power

70. A typical bumblebee has mass 0.25 mg. It beats its wings 100 Passage Problems
BIO times per second, and the wings undergo an average displace- The energy in a batted baseball comes from the power delivered while
ment of about 1.5 mm. When the bee is hovering over a flower, the bat is in contact with the ball. The most powerful hitters can supply
the average force between wings and air must support the bee’s some 10 horsepower during the brief contact time, propelling the ball to
weight. Estimate the average power the bee expends in hovering. over 100 miles per hour. Figure 6.17 shows data taken from a particular
71. You’re trying to decide whether to buy an energy-efficient 225-W hit, giving the power the bat delivers to the ball as a function of time.
refrigerator for $1150 or a standard 425-W model for $850. The
standard model will run 20% of the time, but better insulation

Power ( kW )
6
means the energy-efficient model will run 11% of the time. If
electricity costs 9.5¢/kW # h, how long would you have to own the 4

energy-efficient model to make up the difference in cost? 2

Neglect interest you might earn on your money. 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2
72. Your friend does five reps with a barbell, on each rep lifting Time (s)
45 kg 0.50 m. She claims the work done is enough to “burn off”
a chocolate bar with energy content 230 kcal (see Problem 31). FIGURE 6.17 Passage Problems 82–85
Is that true? If not, how many lifts would it take?
73. A machine delivers power at a decreasing rate P 5 P0t02/1t 1 t022, 82. Which of the following is greatest at the peak of the curve?
where P0 and t0 are constants. The machine starts at t 5 0 and a. the ball’s kinetic energy
runs forever. Show that it nevertheless does only a finite amount b. the ball’s speed
of work, equal to P0t0. c. the rate at which the bat supplies energy to the ball
74. A locomotive accelerates a freight train of total mass M from d. the total work the bat has done on the ball
rest, applying constant power P. Determine the speed and posi- 83. The ball has its maximum speed at about
tion of the train as functions of time, assuming all the power goes a. 85 ms.
to increasing the train’s kinetic energy. b. 145 ms.
75. A force given by F 5 b/1x acts in the x-direction, where b is a c. 185 ms.
constant with the units N # m1/2. Show that even though the force d. whenever the force is greatest.
becomes arbitrarily large as x approaches zero, the work done in 84. As a result of being hit, the ball’s kinetic energy increases by
moving from x1 to x2 remains finite even as x1 approaches zero. about
Find an expression for that work in the limit x1 S 0. a. 550 J.
76. You’re assisting a cardiologist in planning a stress test for a b. 1.3 kJ.
BIO 75-kg patient. The test involves rapid walking on an inclined tread- c. 7.0 kJ.
mill, and the patient is to reach a peak power output of 350 W. If d. You can’t tell because you don’t know its speed coming from
the patient’s maximum walking speed is 8.0 km/h, what should the pitcher.
be the treadmill’s inclination angle?
85. The force on the ball is greatest approximately
77. You’re an engineer for a company that makes bungee-jump cords,
a. at 185 ms.
and you’re asked to develop a formula for the work involved in
b. at the peak in Fig. 6.17.
stretching cords to double their length. Your cords have force-
c. before the peak in Fig. 6.17.
distance relations described by F 5 21kx 1 bx2 1 cx3 1 dx42,
d. after the peak in Fig. 6.17 but before 185 ms.
where k, b, c, and d are constants. (a) Given a cord with un-
stretched length L0, what’s your formula? (b) Evaluate the work
done in doubling the stretch of a 10-m cord with k 5 420 N/m, Answers to Chapter Questions
b 5 286 N/m2, c 5 12 N/m3, and d 5 20.50 N/m4.
78. You push an object of mass m slowly, partway up a loop-the-loop Answer to Chapter Opening Question
track of radius R, starting from the bottom, and ending at a height No. The work done against gravity in climbing a particular height is
h , R above the bottom. The coefficient of friction between the independent of the path. A rider on a bicycle with a combined mass
object and the track is a constant m. Show that the work you do of 80 kg does roughly 400 kilojoules or 100 kilocalories of work
against friction is mmg 22hR 2 h2. against gravity regardless of the path up a 500-m mountain. To climb
79. A particle moves from the origin to the point x 5 3 m, y 5 6 m such a mountain in 20 minutes, the rider’s power output must exceed
along the curve y 5 ax2 2 bx, where a 5 2 m21 and b 5 4. It’s 300 watts.
subject to a force cxy ı^ 1 d ^/ , where c 5 10 N/m2 and d 5 15 N.
Calculate the work done by the force. Answers to GOT IT? Questions
80. Repeat Problem 79 for the following cases: (a) the particle moves 6.1. The force 2F does 12 more work than F does. That’s because
first along the x-axis from the origin to the point (3 m, 0) and 2F’s component along the direction of motion is 2F cos 45°, or
then parallel to the y-axis until it reaches (3 m, 6 m); (b) it moves 2F12/2 5 F12.
first along the y-axis from the origin to the point (0, 6 m) and 6.2. (c) 1x does the most work. (b) x2 does the least. You can see
then parallel to the x-axis until it reaches (3 m, 6 m). this by plotting these two functions from x 5 0 to x 5 1 and
81. You’re an expert witness in a medical malpractice lawsuit. A hospi- comparing the areas under each. The case of x is intermediate.
tal patient’s leg slipped off a stretcher and his heel hit the floor. The 6.3. (a) Kinetic energy doesn’t change, so the net work done on the
defense attorney for the hospital claims the leg, with mass 8 kg, hit ball is zero. (b) Kinetic energy increases, so the net work is posi-
the floor with a force equal to the weight of the leg—about 80 N— tive. (c) Kinetic energy decreases, so the net work is negative.
and any damage was due to a prior injury. You argue that the leg 6.4. The megawatt is a unit of power; the “per time” is already built
and heel dropped freely for 0.7 m, then hit the floor and stopped in in. A correct statement would be that the power plant will pro-
2 cm. What do you tell the jury about the force on the heel? duce “energy at the rate of 50 megawatts.”
 7 Conservation of Energy

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Explain the difference between
conservative and nonconservative
forces (7.1).
■ Describe the concept of potential
energy, and calculate potential
energy given a conservative force as
a function of position (7.2).
■ Articulate and apply the principle
of conservation of mechanical
energy (7.3).
■ Show the relation between force and
energy using potential-energy
curves (7.4).
How many different energy conversions
take place as the Yellowstone River
plunges over Yellowstone Falls?

T he rock climber of Fig. 7.1a (next page) does work as she ascends the vertical cliff. So does
the mover of Fig. 7.1b (next page), as he pushes a heavy chest across the floor. But there’s
a difference. If the rock climber lets go, down she goes; the work she put into the climb comes
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ The material of this chapter builds
on the idea of work done against
back as the kinetic energy of her fall. If the mover lets go of the chest, though, he and the conservative forces. You should be
chest stay right where they are. familiar with the concept of work as
This contrast highlights a distinction between two types of forces, called conservative and introduced in Chapter 6 (6.1, 6.2).
nonconservative. From that distinction we’ll develop one of the most important principles in all ■ You should be able to calculate work
of physics: conservation of energy. In this chapter, we consider conservation of mechanical for both constant and position-varying
energy, which includes kinetic energy, introduced in Chapter 6, and potential energy, which forces (6.1, 6.2).
we’ll introduce here. In later chapters, we’ll expand the conservation-of-energy principle to ■ Kinetic energy is crucial to an
include other forms of energy. understanding of the all-important
conservation-of-energy principle (6.3).

101
102 Chapter 7 Conservation of Energy

7.1 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces

Both the climber and the mover in Fig. 7.1 are working against external forces—gravity
for the climber and friction for the mover. The difference is this: If the climber lets go, the
gravitational force “gives back” the work she did; that work manifests itself as kinetic
energy. But the frictional force doesn’t “give back” the mover’s work; that work can’t be
recovered as kinetic energy.
A conservative force is a force like gravity or a spring that “gives back” work done
against it. A force like friction is nonconservative. A more precise mathematical sense of
this distinction comes from considering the work involved in moving an object over a
closed path—one that ends where it started. Suppose our rock climber ascends a cliff of
height h and then descends to her starting point. How much work has the gravitational force
(a) done on her? That force has magnitude mg and points downward. As she climbs up, the
force is directed opposite to her motion, so gravity does work 2mgh. As she descends, the
force is in the same direction as her motion, so the gravitational work is 1mgh. The total
work that gravity does on the climber as she traverses the closed path up and down the cliff
is therefore zero.
Now suppose the mover in Fig. 7.1b pushes the chest a distance L across a room, dis-
covers it’s the wrong room, and pushes the chest back to the door. Like the climber, the
chest describes a closed path. How much work is done by the frictional force acting over
this path? That force has magnitude mn, where the normal force in this case of horizontal
motion is mg. But the force of kinetic friction always acts to oppose the motion, so it
(b) always does negative work. With frictional force mmg opposing the motion, the work
done as the chest crosses the width L of the room is 2mmgL. As the chest comes back,
FIGURE 7.1 Both the rock climber and the mover
the work is also 2mmgL, so the total work done by the frictional force is 22mmgL.
do work, but only the climber can recover that
work as kinetic energy. The difference between our answers for the work done by the gravitational and fric-
tional forces acting over closed paths provides one precise definition of the distinction
between conservative and nonconservative forces:

When the total work done by a force F acting as an object moves over any closed
path is zero, the force is conservative. Mathematically,
!
# ! 1conservative force2
C F dr 5 0 (7.1)

This expression
!
comes from the most general formula for work, Equation 6.11,
r2
! !
W 5 3 F # dr , which we introduced in Chapter 6. The circle on the integral sign in Equa-
!
r1
tion 7.1 indicates that the integral is to be taken over a closed path. A force for which the
It takes work WAB integral is nonzero, like friction, is nonconservative.
to move from A to B Equation 7.1 suggests a related property of conservative forces. Suppose we move an
on this path . . . object along the straight path between points A and B shown in Fig. 7.2, along which a con-
B
servative force acts; let the work done by the conservative force be WAB. Since the work
done over any closed path is zero, the work WBA done in moving back from B to A must
be 2WAB, whether we return along the straight path or the curved path or any other path.
So, going from A to B involves work WAB, regardless of the path taken. In other words:

The work done by a conservative force in! moving between two points is independent
B !
of the path taken; mathematically, #A F # dr depends only on the endpoints A and
A B, not on the path between them.

. . . so it must take –WAB

to move back along the In contrast, the work done by a nonconservative force does depend on the path. On a fric-
curved path—or any tional surface, for example, the least work is done over a straight-line path; any other path
other path. involves more work.
FIGURE 7.2 The work done by a conservative Important examples of conservative forces include gravity and the static electric force.
force is independent of path. The force of an ideal spring—fundamentally an electric force—is also conservative.
 7.2 Potential Energy 103

Nonconservative forces include friction and the electric force in the presence of time-
varying magnetic effects, which we’ll encounter in Chapter 27.

GOT IT? 7.1 Suppose it takes the same amount of work to push a trunk across a
rough floor as it does to lift a weight the same distance straight upward. How do the
amounts of work compare if the trunk and weight are moved instead on curved paths be-
tween the same starting and ending points?

7.2 Potential Energy

Work done against a conservative force is somehow “stored,” in the sense that we can get
it back again in the form of kinetic energy. The climber in Fig. 7.1a is acutely aware of
that “stored work”; it gives her the potential for a dangerous fall. Potential is an appropri-
ate word here: We can consider the “stored work” as potential energy U, in the sense that
it can be released as kinetic energy.
We define potential energy formally in terms of the work done by a conservative force.
Specifically:

The change DUAB in potential energy associated with a conservative force is the neg-
ative of the work done by that force as it acts over any path from point A to point B:
B
! !
DUAB 5 2 3 F # dr 1potential energy2 (7.2)
A

Why the minus sign? Because potential energy represents stored work. If a conservative
force does positive work (as does gravity on a falling object), then potential energy must
decrease—and that means DU must be negative. Conversely, if a conservative force does
negative work (as does gravity on a weight being lifted), then energy is stored, and DU
must be positive. The minus sign in Equation 7.2 handles both these cases. We’ll often
drop the subscript AB and write simply DU for potential-energy change. Keeping the sub-
script is important, though, when we need to be clear about whether we’re going from
A to B or from B to A.
Changes in potential energy are all that ever matter physically; the actual value of po-
tential energy is meaningless. Often, though, it’s convenient to establish a reference point
at which the potential energy is defined to be zero. When we say “the potential energy U,”
we really mean the potential-energy difference DU between that reference point and what-
ever other point we’re considering. Our rock climber, for example, might find it conven-
ient to take the zero of potential energy at the base of the cliff. But the choice is purely for
convenience; only potential-energy differences really matter.
Equation 7.2 is a completely general definition of potential energy, applicable in all
circumstances. Often, though, we can consider a path where force and displacement are
parallel (or antiparallel). Then Equation 7.2 simplifies to
x2
DU 5 2 3 F1x2 dx (7.2a)
x1

where x1 and x2 are the starting and ending points on the x-axis, taken to coincide with the
path. When the force is constant, this equation simplifies further to
DU 5 2F1x2 2 x12 (7.2b)

✓TIP Understand Your Equations

Equation 7.2b provides a very simple expression for potential-energy changes, but it ap-
plies only when the force is constant. Equation 7.2b is a special case of Equation 7.2a
that follows because a constant force can be taken outside the integral.
104 Chapter 7 Conservation of Energy

The potential energy (PE) change

is the same along either path, but
Gravitational Potential Energy
it's calculated more easily for We’re frequently moving things up and down, causing changes in potential energy.
the straight path.
Figure 7.3 shows two possible paths for a book that’s lifted from the floor to a shelf
of height h. Since the gravitational force is conservative, we can use either path to cal-
culate the potential-energy change. It’s easiest to use the path consisting of straight
segments. No work or potential-energy change is associated with the horizontal mo-
tion, since the gravitational force is perpendicular to the motion. For the vertical lift,
the force of gravity is constant and Equation 7.2b gives immediately DU 5 mgh,
where the minus sign in Equation 7.2b cancels with the minus sign associated with the
h
downward direction of gravity. This result is quite general: When a mass m undergoes
The PE change a vertical displacement Dy near Earth’s surface, its gravitational potential energy
on the vertical
segment is mgh. changes by
DU 5 mg Dy 1gravitational potential energy2 (7.3)
There’s no PE change on The quantity Dy can be positive or negative, depending on whether the object moves
the horizontal segments. up or down; correspondingly, the potential energy can either increase or decrease.
FIGURE 7.3 A good choice of path makes it easier
We emphasize that Equation 7.3 applies near Earth’s surface—that is, for distances
to calculate the potential-energy change. small compared with Earth’s radius. That assumption allows us to treat the gravita-
tional force as constant over the path. We’ll explore the more general case in the next
chapter.
Potential energy, U We’ve found the change in the book’s potential energy, but what about the potential
energy itself? That depends on where we define the zero of potential energy. If we choose
mgh
U 5 0 at the floor, then U 5 mgh on the shelf. But we could just as well take U 5 0 at
the shelf; then the book’s potential energy on the floor would be 2mgh. Negative poten-
tial energies arise frequently, and that’s OK because only differences in potential energy
really matter. Figure 7.4 shows a plot of potential energy versus height with U 5 0 taken
h Height, y at the floor. The linear increase in potential energy with height reflects the constant grav-
itational force.

EXAMPLE 7.1 Gravitational Potential Energy: Riding the Elevator

FIGURE 7.4 Gravitational force is constant,
A 55-kg engineer leaves her office on the 33rd floor of a skyscraper and takes an elevator up to
so potential energy increases linearly with
height.
the 59th floor. Later she descends to street level. If the engineer chooses the zero of potential en-
ergy at her office and if the distance from one floor to the next is 3.5 m, what’s the engineer’s po-
tential energy (a) in her office, (b) on the 59th floor, and (c) at street level?

INTERPRET This is a problem about gravitational potential energy relative to a specified point
of zero energy—namely, the engineer’s office.

DEVELOP Equation 7.3, DU 5 mg Dy, gives the change in gravitational energy associated with a
change Dy in vertical position. We’re given positions in floors, not meters, so we need to convert
using the given factor 3.5 m per floor.

EVALUATE (a) In her office, the engineer’s potential energy is zero, since she defined it that way.
(b) The 59th floor is 59 2 33 5 26 floors higher, so the potential energy there is
U59 5 mg Dy 5 155 kg219.8 m/s22126 floors213.5 m/floor2 5 49 kJ
Note that we can write U rather than DU because we’re calculating the potential-energy change
from the place where U 5 0. (c) The street level is 32 floors below the engineer’s office, so
Ustreet 5 mg Dy 5 155 kg219.8 m/s221232 floors213.5 m/floor2 5 260 kJ

ASSESS Makes sense: When the engineer goes up, the potential energy relative to her office is pos-
itive; when she goes down, it’s negative. And the distance down is a bit farther, so the magnitude of
the change is greater going down. ■
 7.2 Potential Energy 105

APPLICATION Pumped Storage

Electricity is a wonderfully versatile form of energy, but it’s not easy to

store. Large electric power plants are most efficient when operated contin-
uously, yet the demand for power fluctuates. Renewable energy sources
like wind and solar vary, not necessarily with demand. Energy storage can
help in both cases. Today, the only practical way to store large amounts of
excess electrical energy is to convert it to gravitational potential energy. In
so-called pumped-storage facilities, surplus electric power pumps water
from a lower reservoir to a higher one, thereby increasing the water’s grav-
itational potential energy. When power demand is high, water runs back
down, turning the pump motors into generators that produce electricity.
The photograph here shows the Northfield Mountain Pumped Storage
Project in Massachusetts. You can explore this facility quantitatively in
Problem 28.

Elastic Potential Energy

When you stretch or compress a spring or other elastic object, you do work against the
spring force, and that work ends up stored as elastic potential energy. For an ideal spring,
the force is F 5 2kx, where x is the distance the spring is stretched from equilibrium, and
the minus sign shows that the force opposes the stretching or compression. Since the force
varies with position, we use Equation 7.2a to evaluate the potential energy:
x2 x2 Potential energy, U
DU 5 2 3 F1x2 dx 5 2 3 12kx2 dx 5 1
2
kx22 2 1
2
kx 12
x1 x1

where x1 and x2 are the initial and final values of the stretch. If we take U 5 0 when
x 5 0—that is, when the spring is neither stretched nor compressed—then we can use this
result to write the potential energy at an arbitrary stretch (or compression) x as
U 5 12 kx2 1elastic potential energy2 (7.4)
Comparison with Equation 6.10, W 5 kx2, shows that this is equal to the work done in
1
2 x
stretching the spring. Of course: That work gets stored as potential energy. Figure 7.5 x50
Compression Equilibrium Stretch
shows potential energy as a function of the stretch or compression of a spring. The
parabolic shape of the potential-energy curve reflects the linear change of the spring force FIGURE 7.5 The potential-energy curve for a
with stretch or compression. spring is a parabola.

EXAMPLE 7.2 Energy Storage: Springs Versus Gasoline

A car’s suspension consists of springs with an overall effective spring EVALUATE At 44 MJ/kg, the energy in 1 g of gasoline is 44 kJ. Setting
constant of 120 kN/m. How much would you have to compress the this equal to the spring energy 12 kx2 and solving for x, we get
springs to store the same amount of energy as in 1 gram of gasoline?
2U 122144 kJ2
x5 5 5 86 cm
INTERPRET This problem is about the energy stored in a spring, as A k C 120 kN/m
compared with the chemical energy of gasoline.
ASSESS This answer is absurd. A car’s springs couldn’t compress
DEVELOP Equation 7.4, U 5 2 kx 2, gives a spring’s stored energy
1
anywhere near that far before the underside of the car hit the ground.
when it’s been compressed a distance x. Here we want that energy to And 1 g isn’t much gasoline. This example shows that springs, though
equal the energy in 1 gram of gasoline. We can get that value from the useful energy-storage devices, can’t possibly compete with chemical
“Energy Content of Fuels” table in Appendix C, which lists 44 MJ/kg fuels. ■
for gasoline.
106 Chapter 7 Conservation of Energy

EXAMPLE 7.3 Elastic Potential Energy: A Climbing Rope

Ropes used in rock climbing are “springy” so that they cushion a fall. EVALUATE Applying Equation 7.2 to this particular rope, we have
x
A particular rope exerts a force F 5 2kx 1 bx2, where k 5 223 N/m, x2 x

b 5 4.10 N/m2, and x is the stretch. Find the potential energy stored U 5 2 3 F1x2 dx 5 2 3 12kx 1 bx22 dx 5 12 kx2 2 13 bx3 `
x1 0
in this rope when it’s been stretched 2.62 m, taking U 5 0 at x 5 0. 0
5 12 kx2 2 13 bx3
INTERPRET Like Example 7.2, this one is about elastic potential energy. 5 A 12 B 1223 N/m212.62 m22 2 A 13 B 14.1 N/m2212.62 m23
But this one isn’t so easy because the rope isn’t a simple F 5 2kx 5 741 J
spring for which we already have a potential-energy formula.
ASSESS This result is about 3% less than the potential energy
DEVELOP Because the rope force varies with stretch, we’ll have to U 5 12 kx2 of an ideal spring with the same spring constant. This
integrate. Since force and displacement are in the same direction, we shows the effect of the extra term 1bx2, whose positive sign re-
x2
can use Equation 7.2a, DU 5 2 3 F1x2 dx. But that’s not so much a duces the restoring force and thus the work needed to stretch the
x1 spring. ■
formula as a strategy for deriving one.

GOT IT? 7.2 Gravitational force actually decreases with height, but that decrease is
negligible near Earth’s surface. To account for the decrease, would the exact value for the
potential-energy change associated with a height change h be (a) greater than, (b) less
than, or (c) equal to mgh, where g is the gravitational acceleration at Earth’s surface?

7.3 Conservation of Mechanical Energy

The work-energy theorem, introduced in Chapter 6, shows that the change DK in a body’s
kinetic energy is equal to the net work done on it:
DK 5 Wnet
Consider separately the work Wc done by conservative forces and the work Wnc done by
nonconservative forces. Then
DK 5 Wc 1 Wnc
We’ve defined the change in potential energy DU as the negative of the work done by con-
servative forces. So we can write
DK 5 2DU 1 Wnc
or
DK 1 DU 5 Wnc (7.5)
We define the sum of the kinetic and potential energy as the mechanical energy. Then
Equation 7.5 shows that the change in mechanical energy is equal to the work done by
nonconservative forces.
In the absence of nonconservative forces, the mechanical energy is unchanged:
DK 1 DU 5 0 (7.6)
conservation of
and, equivalently, a b
mechanical energy
K 1 U 5 constant 5 K0 1 U0 (7.7)
where K0 and U0 are the kinetic and potential energy of a body at some point, and K and U
are their values when the body is at any other point. Equations 7.6 and 7.7 express the law
of conservation of mechanical energy. They show that, in the absence of nonconserva-
tive forces, the mechanical energy K 1 U remains always the same. The kinetic energy K
may change, but that change is always compensated by an equal but opposite change in
potential energy.
 7.3 Conservation of Mechanical Energy 107

Conservation of mechanical energy is a powerful principle. Throughout physics, from

the subatomic realm through practical problems in engineering and on to astrophysics, the
principle of energy conservation is widely used in solving problems that would be
intractable without it.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 7.1 Conservation of Energy

Using energy conservation to solve problems is straightforward: Equation 7.7 basically tells it
all. Our IDEA problem-solving strategy adapts well to such problems.
INTERPRET First, interpret the problem to be sure that conservation of mechanical energy ap-
plies. Are all the forces conservative? If so, mechanical energy is conserved. Next, identify a
point at which you know both the kinetic and the potential energy; then you know the total me-
chanical energy, which is what’s conserved. If the problem doesn’t do so and it’s not implicit in
the equations you use, you may need to identify the zero of potential energy—although that’s
your own arbitrary choice. You also need to identify the quantity the problem is asking for, and
the situation in which it has the value you’re after. The quantity may be the energy itself or a
related quantity like height, speed, or spring compression.
DEVELOP Draw your object first in the situation where you know its energies and then in the
situation that contains the unknown. It’s helpful to draw simple bar charts suggesting the rela-
tive sizes of the potential- and kinetic-energy terms; we’ll show you how in several examples.
Then you’re ready to set up the quantitative statement of mechanical energy conservation,
Equation 7.7: K 1 U 5 K0 1 U0. Consider which of the four terms you know or can calculate
from the given information. You’ll probably need secondary equations like the expressions for
kinetic energy and for various forms of potential energy. Consider how the quantity you’re try-
ing to find is related to an energy.
EVALUATE Write Equation 7.7 for your specific problem, including expressions for kinetic or
potential energy that contain the quantity you’re after. Solving is then a matter of algebra.
ASSESS As usual, ask whether your answer makes physical sense. Does it have the right units?
Are the numbers reasonable? Do the signs make sense? Is your answer consistent with the bar
charts in your drawing?

EXAMPLE 7.4 Energy Conservation: Tranquilizing an Elephant

A biologist uses a spring-loaded gun to shoot tranquilizer darts
into an elephant. The gun’s spring has k 5 940 N/m and is com-
pressed a distance x0 5 25 cm before firing a 38-g dart. Assuming
the gun is pointed horizontally, at what speed does the dart leave
the gun?

INTERPRET We’re dealing with a spring, assumed ideal, so conserva-

tion of mechanical energy applies. We identify the initial state—dart
at rest, spring fully compressed—as the point where we know both
kinetic and potential energy. The state we’re then interested in is Initially There’s no
all energy energy in the
when the dart just leaves the gun, when its potential energy has been spring;
is in the
converted to kinetic energy and before gravity has changed its verti- U 5 0.
spring;
cal position. U0 5 1 kx2.
2

DEVELOP In Fig. 7.6 we’ve sketched the two states, giving the poten-
tial and kinetic energy for each. We’ve also sketched bar graphs show- Now all
Initially there’s the energy
ing the relative sizes of the energies. To use the statement of energy no kinetic energy; is kinetic;
conservation, Equation 7.7, we also need expressions for the kinetic K0 5 0. K 5 12 mv2.
energy A 12 mv2 B and the spring potential energy (12 kx2; Equation 7.4).
Incidentally, using Equation 7.4 implicitly sets the zero of elastic po- FIGURE 7.6 Our sketches for Example 7.4, showing bar charts for the initial and
final states.
tential energy when the spring is in its equilibrium position. We might

(continued)
108 Chapter 7 Conservation of Energy

as well set the zero of gravitational energy at the height of the gun, solves to give
since there’s no change in the dart’s vertical position between our ini- k 940 N/m
tial and final states. v5 x0 5 a b 10.25 m2 5 39 m/s
Am A 0.038 kg
EVALUATE We’re now ready to write Equation 7.7, K 1 U 5 K0 1 U0.
ASSESS Take a look at the answer in algebraic form; it says that a
We know three of the terms in this equation: The initial kinetic energy
stiffer spring or a greater compression will give a higher dart speed.
K0 is 0, since the dart is initially at rest. The initial potential energy is that
Increasing the dart mass, on the other hand, will decrease the speed.
of the compressed spring, U0 5 12 kx02. The final potential energy is
All this makes good physical sense. And the outcome shows quantita-
U 5 0 because the spring is now in its equilibrium position and we’ve
tively what our bar charts suggest—that the dart’s energy starts out all
taken the gravitational potential energy to be zero. What we don’t
potential and ends up all kinetic. ■
know is the final kinetic energy, but we do know that it’s given by
K 5 12 mv2. So Equation 7.7 becomes 12 mv2 1 0 5 0 1 12 kx2, which

Example 7.4 shows the power of the conservation-of-energy principle. If you had tried
to find the answer using Newton’s law, you would have been stymied by the fact that the
spring force and thus the acceleration of the dart vary continuously. But you don’t need to
worry about those details; all you want is the final! speed, and energy conservation gets
!
you there, shortcutting the detailed application of F 5 ma .

EXAMPLE 7.5 Conservation of Energy: A Spring and Gravity

The spring in Fig. 7.7 has k 5 140 N/m. A 50-g block is placed topmost point on the slope. We’ll take the zero of gravitational
against the spring, which is compressed 11 cm. When the block is potential energy at the bottom.
released, how high up the slope does it rise? Neglect friction.
DEVELOP Figure 7.7 shows the initial and final states, along with
bar charts for each. We’ve drawn separate bars for the spring and
gravitational potential energies, Us and Ug. Now apply Equation 7.7,
K 1 U 5 K0 1 U0.

EVALUATE In both states the block is at rest, so kinetic energy is

zero. In the initial state we know the potential energy U0: It’s the
spring energy 12 kx2. We don’t know the final-state potential energy,
but we do know that it’s gravitational energy—and with the zero of
potential energy at the bottom, it’s U 5 mgh. With K 5 K0 5 0,
U0 5 12 kx2, and U 5 mgh, Equation 7.7 reads 0 1 mgh 5 0 1 12 kx2.
We then solve for the unknown h to get
kx2 1140 N/m210.11 m2 2
h5 5 5 1.7 m
2mg 12210.050 kg219.8 m/s22

ASSESS Again, the answer in algebraic form makes sense; the stiffer
the spring or the more it’s compressed, the higher the block will go.
But if the block is more massive or gravity is stronger, then the block
won’t get as far.

✓TIP Save Steps

You might be tempted to solve first for the block’s speed when it
FIGURE 7.7 Our sketches for Example 7.5. leaves the spring and then equate 12 mv2 to mgh to find the height.
You could—but conservation of energy shortcuts all the details, get-
INTERPRET This example is similar to Example 7.4, but now we ting you right from the initial to the final state. As long as energy is
have changes in both elastic and gravitational potential energy. conserved, you don’t need to worry about what happens in between.
Since friction is negligible, we can apply conservation of energy.
We identify the initial state as the block at rest against the com-
pressed spring; the final state is the block momentarily at rest at its ■
 7.3 Conservation of Mechanical Energy 109

GOT IT? 7.3 A bowling ball is tied to the end of a long rope and suspended from the
ceiling. A student stands at one side of the room and holds the ball to her nose, then
releases it from rest. Should she duck as it swings back?

Nonconservative Forces
In these examples we’ve assumed that energy is strictly conserved. In the everyday world
of friction and other nonconservative forces, conservation of energy is sometimes a good
approximation and sometimes not. When it’s not, we can still apply our strategy, but now
Equation 7.5 shows that we need to subtract any energy lost to nonconservative forces.

EXAMPLE 7.6 Nonconservative Forces: A Sliding Block

A block of mass m is launched from a spring of constant k that’s ini- Initially there’s Eventually the block
tially compressed a distance x0. After leaving the spring, the block potential energy stops, its mechanical
slides on a horizontal surface with frictional coefficient m. Find an ex- in the compressed energy gone.
spring. vr
pression for the distance the block slides before coming to rest. Frictional r
ff
m surface m m
INTERPRET The presence of friction means that mechanical energy isn’t
conserved. But we can still identify the kinetic and potential energy in Frictional force acts
the initial state: The kinetic energy is zero and the potential energy is to oppose the motion.
that of the spring. In the final state, there’s no mechanical energy at x0 Dx
all. The nonconservative frictional force does negative work on the End of spring
block, reducing its total energy. The block comes to rest when all its when uncompressed
initial energy is gone.

DEVELOP Figure 7.8 shows the situation. With K0 5 0, we deter-

Energy

Energy

Energy

Energy

mine the total initial energy from Equation 7.4, U0 5 12 kx02. The
work Wf done by friction follows from Equation 6.1, W 5 Fx Dx.
0 0 0 0
Here the frictional force has magnitude ff 5 mn 5 mmg and so, K U K U K U K U
with its direction opposite the displacement, the frictional work is
FIGURE 7.8 Intermediate bar charts show gradual loss of mechanical energy.
negative: Wf 5 2mmg Dx. This is the work Wnc in Equation 7.5,
DK 1 DU 5 Wnc. The initial and final states here have no kinetic
energy, so DK 5 0. Then the block will have lost all its initial
energy when DU 5 2U0. Therefore, Equation 7.5 becomes 212 kx02 5
2mmg Dx. ASSESS Make sense? The stiffer the spring or the more it’s com-
pressed, the farther the block goes. The greater the friction or the nor-
EVALUATE We solve this equation for the unknown distance Dx to get mal force mg, the sooner the block stops. If m 5 0, mechanical energy
Dx 5kx02/2mmg. Since we weren’t given numbers, there’s nothing is once again conserved; then our result shows that the block would
further to evaluate. slide forever. ■
110 Chapter 7 Conservation of Energy

7.4 Potential-Energy Curves

hC
hA hB Figure 7.9 shows a frictionless roller-coaster track. How fast must a car be coasting at point
A if it’s to reach point D? Conservation of energy provides the answer. To get to D, the car
A B C D
must clear peak C. Clearing C requires that the car’s total energy exceed its potential energy
FIGURE 7.9 A roller-coaster track. at C; that is, 21 mvA2 1 mghA . mghC, where we’ve taken the zero of potential energy at the
bottom of the track. Solving for vA gives vA . 22g1hC 2 hA2. If vA satisfies this inequal-
ity, the car will reach C with some kinetic energy remaining and will coast over the peak.
Figure 7.9 is a drawing of the actual roller-coaster track. But because gravitational po-
tential energy is directly proportional to height, it’s also a plot of potential energy versus
position: a potential-energy curve. Conceptual Example 7.1 shows how we can study the
car’s motion by plotting its total energy on the same graph as the potential-energy curve.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 7.1 Potential-Energy Curves

Figure 7.10 plots the potential energy of our roller coaster, along EVALUATE We’re assuming there are no nonconservative forces (an
with three possible values for its total mechanical energy. Since approximation for a real roller coaster), so mechanical energy is con-
mechanical energy is conserved in the absence of nonconservative served. In each figure, the sum of kinetic and potential energy there-
forces, the total-energy curve is a horizontal line. Use these graphs fore remains equal to the value set by the line indicating the total
to describe the motion of a roller-coaster car, initially at point A and energy. When the roller-coaster car rises, its potential energy increases
moving to the right. and its kinetic energy consequently decreases. But as long as its po-
tential energy remains below its total energy, it still has kinetic energy
and is still moving. Anywhere its potential energy equals its total en-
ergy, it has no kinetic energy and is momentarily at rest.
Total energy is high enough
In Fig. 7.10a the car’s total energy exceeds the maximum potential
Potential energy, U

that the car can move anywhere.

E1 energy. Therefore it can move anywhere from its initial position at A.
Since it’s initially moving to the right, it will clear peaks B and C and
will end up at D still moving to the right—and, since D is lower than
A, it will be moving faster than it was at A.
A B C D In Fig. 7.10b the highest peak in the potential-energy curve exceeds
Position, x the total energy; so does the very leftmost portion of the curve. There-
fore, the car will move rightward from A, clearing peak B, but will come
(a)
to a stop just before peak C, at the point where its potential energy equals
With lower total energy, the car is its total energy—its right-hand turning point. Then it will roll back down
Potential energy, U

confined between these points. to the left, again clearing peak B and climbing to another turning point
E2 where the potential-energy curve and total-energy line again intersect.
Absent friction, it will run back and forth between the two turning points.
In Fig. 7.10c the total energy is lower, and the car can’t clear
peak B. So now it will run back and forth between the two turning
A B C D
points we’ve marked.
Position, x
(b) ASSESS Make sense? Yes: The higher the total energy, the larger the
extent of the car’s allowed motion. That’s because, for a given poten-
Potential energy, U

Now the car is confined tial energy, it has more energy available as kinetic energy.
to this region.
MAKING THE CONNECTION Find a condition on the speed at A
E3
that will allow the car to move beyond peak B.

A B C D EVALUATE With a total energy equal to UB, the car could just barely
Position, x clear peak B. Its initial energy is 12 mvA2 1 mghA, where vA and hA are
(c) the speed and height at A, and where we’ve taken the zero of potential
energy at the bottom of the curve. Requiring that this quantity exceed
FIGURE 7.10 Potential and total energy for a roller-coaster car. UB 5 mghB then gives vA . 22g1hB 2 hA2.

Even though the car in Figs. 7.10b and c can’t get to D, its total energy still exceeds the
potential energy at D. But it’s blocked from reaching D by the potential barrier of peak C.
We say that it’s trapped in a potential well between its turning points.
Potential-energy curves are useful even with nongravitational forces where there’s no di-
rect correspondence with hills and valleys. The terminology used here—potential barriers,
 7.4 Potential-Energy Curves 111

wells, and trapping—remains appropriate in such cases and indeed is widely used through-
out physics.
Figure 7.11 shows the potential energy of a pair of hydrogen atoms as a function of their
separation. This energy is associated with attractive and repulsive electrical forces involving
the electrons and the nuclei of the two atoms. The potential-energy curve exhibits a potential
well, showing that the atoms can form a bound system in which they’re unable to separate
fully. That bound system is a hydrogen molecule 1H 22. The minimum energy, 27.6 310219 J,
corresponds to the molecule’s equilibrium separation of 0.074 nm. It’s convenient to define
the zero of potential energy when the atoms are infinitely far apart; Fig. 7.11 then shows that
any total energy less than zero results in a bound system. But if the total energy is greater
than zero, the atoms are free to move arbitrarily far apart, so they don’t form a molecule.

6 The zero of energy

corresponds to a
4 large atomic separation.
Energy (10219 J)

2
Atomic separation (nm)
0
0.1 0.3 0.4
22

24 At total energies less

The minimum potential than zero, the atoms
energy gives the are bound into a
26
equilibrium separation molecule.
of the molecule.
28

FIGURE 7.11 Potential-energy curve for two hydrogen atoms.

EXAMPLE 7.7 Molecular Energy: Finding Atomic Separation

Very near the bottom of the potential well in Fig. 7.11, the potential 20.68
energy of the two hydrogen atoms is given approximately by Zero total energy is that way.
U 5 U0 1 a1x 2 x022, where U0 5 20.760 aJ, a 5 286 aJ/nm2, and 20.70
x0 5 0.0741 nm is the equilibrium separation. What range of atomic
Energy (a J)

separations is allowed if the total energy is 20.717 aJ? E 5 20.717 a J

20.72
INTERPRET This problem sounds complicated, with strange units and H H
talk of molecular energies. But it’s about just what’s shown in Figs. 7.10 20.74
and 7.11. Specifically, we’re given the total energy and asked to find the
turning points—the points where the line representing total energy inter- 20.76
sects the potential-energy curve. If the units look strange, remember the 0.06 0.07 0.08 0.09
SI prefixes (there’s a table inside the front cover), which we use to avoid Atomic separation (nm) A parabolic curve
writing large powers of 10. Here 1 aJ 5 10218 J and 1 nm 5 1029 m. shows the molecule
Here’s the equilibrium separation. acts like two H
DEVELOP Figure 7.12 is a plot of the potential-energy curve from the atoms connected
With total energy E, the atoms by a spring.
function we’ve been given. The straight line represents the total energy E. are trapped between these points.
The turning points are the values of atomic separation where the two
FIGURE 7.12 Analyzing the hydrogen molecule.
curves intersect. We could read them off the graph, or we can solve
algebraically by setting the total energy equal to the potential energy.
Then the turning points are at x0 6 0.0123 nm—namely, 0.0864 nm
EVALUATE With the potential energy given by U 5 U0 1 a1x 2 x022 and 0.0618 nm.
and the total energy E, we have turning points when E 5 U0 1
ASSESS Make sense? A look at Fig. 7.12 shows that we’ve correctly
a1x 2 x022. We could solve directly for x, but then we’d have to use
located the turning points. The fact that its potential-energy curve is
the quadratic formula. Solving for x 2 x0 is easier:
parabolic (like a spring’s U 5 12 kx2) shows that the molecule can be
E 2 U0 20.717 aJ 2 120.760 aJ2 modeled approximately as two atoms joined by a spring. Chemists
x 2 x0 5 6 56
B a B 286 aJ/nm2 frequently use such models and even talk of the “spring constant” of
5 60.0123 nm the bond joining atoms into a molecule. ■
112 Chapter 7 Conservation of Energy

Potential energy, U At peaks and valleys,

there’s no force.
Force and Potential Energy
Force is greater The roller-coaster track in Fig. 7.9 traces the potential-energy curve for a car on the track.
where the curve But it also shows the force acting to accelerate the car: Where the graph is steep—that is,
is steeper. where the potential energy is changing rapidly—the force is greatest. At the peaks and val-
leys, the force is zero. So it’s the slope of the potential-energy curve that tells us about the
force (Fig. 7.13).
Position, x
Just how strong is this force? Consider a small change Dx, so small that the force is
When the curve is essentially constant over this distance. Then we can use Equation 7.2b to write
rising to the right, DU 5 2Fx Dx, or Fx 5 2DU/Dx. In the limit Dx S 0, DU/Dx becomes the derivative,
force is to the left.
and we have
FIGURE 7.13 Force depends on the slope of the
dU
potential-energy curve. Fx 5 2 (7.8)
dx
This equation makes mathematical as well as physical sense. We’ve already written poten-
tial energy as the integral of force over distance, so it’s no surprise that force is the
derivative of potential energy. Equation 7.8 gives the force component in the x-direction
only. In a three-dimensional situation, we’d have to take derivatives of potential energy
with respect to y and z to find the full force vector.
Why the minus sign in Equation 7.8? You can see the answer in the molecular energy
curve of Fig. 7.11, where pushing the atoms too close together—moving to the left of
equilibrium—results in a repulsive force to the right, and pulling them apart—moving
to the right—gives an attractive force to the left. You can see the same thing for the
roller coaster in Fig. 7.13. In both cases the forces tend to drive the system back toward
a minimum-energy state. We’ll explore such minimum-energy equilibrium states further
in Chapter 12.

GOT IT? 7.4 The figure shows the potential energy for an electron in a microelec-
tronic device. From among the labeled points, find (a) the point where the force on the
electron is greatest; (b) the rightmost position possible if the electron has total energy E1;
(c) the leftmost position possible if the electron has total energy E2 and starts out to the
right of D; (d) a point where the force on the electron is zero; and (e) a point where the
force on the electron points to the left. In some cases there may be more than one answer.

E1
Potential energy, U

E2

A B C D E
CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is conservation of mechanical energy—the principle that the total energy of a system subject to only conservative forces cannot
change. Energy may change from kinetic to potential, and vice versa, but the total remains constant. Applying conservation of energy means
understanding the concept of potential energy as stored energy that results when work is done against a conservative force.

A block is against a A ball is rolling on a Later, the ball is

compressed spring; Later, the block is moving. slope. At the bottom still moving but
its energy is all It still has the same energy its energy is all more slowly. The vr
potential. but now it’s kinetic. kinetic. sum of its kinetic
and potential
r energy equals its
v vr h
initial energy.
Energy

Energy

Energy

Energy
0 0 0 0
K U K U K U K U

Key Concepts and Equations

The important new concept here is B x2
DUAB 5 23F # drr
r
potential energy, defined as the neg- DU 5 23F(x)dx DU 5 2F (x2 2 x1)
ative of the work done by a conser- A x1
vative force. Only the change DU
This one is the most general, but it’s This is a special case, when force This is the most specialized case,
has physical significance. Expres- mathematically involved. The force and displacement are in the same where the force is constant.
sions for potential energy include: can vary over an arbitrary path direction and force may vary with
between points A and B. position.

Given the concept of potential energy, the principle of conservation of We can describe a wide range of systems—from molecules to roller
mechanical energy follows from the work-energy theorem of Chapter 6. coasters to planets—in terms of potential-energy curves. Knowing
Here’s the mathematical statement of energy conservation: the total energy then lets us find turning points that determine the
range of motion available to the system.
K 1 U 5 K0 1 U0
With a little more A ball with
energy, the ball could total energy E
Potential energy, U

K and U are the The total energy K0 and U0 are clear this potential is trapped between
kinetic and potential is conserved, as the kinetic and barrier. two turning points.
energy at some point indicated by the potential energy Total
where we don’t know equal sign. at some point energy
one of these where both are E
quantities. known. K0 1 U0
is the total energy.

Position, x

Applications
Two important cases of potential energy are
the elastic potential energy of a spring, m
Unstretched spring defines U 5 0.
U 5 12 kx2, and the gravitational potential en-
ergy change, DU 5 mgh, associated with lift- Lifting an object
x
ing an object of mass m through a height h. Compression or stretch by a h a height h raises
x distance x gives the spring its potential energy
The former is limited to ideal springs for potential energy U 5 12 kx2. by DU 5 mgh.
m
which F 5 2kx, the latter to the proximity
of Earth’s surface, where the variation of
gravity with height is negligible.
114 Chapter 7 Conservation of Energy

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion Section 7.2 Potential Energy

12. Rework Example 7.1, now taking the zero of potential energy at
1. Figure 7.14 shows force vectors at different points in space for street level.
two forces. Which is conservative and which nonconservative? 13. Find the potential energy of a 70-kg hiker (a) atop New Hampshire’s
Explain. Mount Washington, 1900 m above sea level, and (b) in Death
Valley, California, 86 m below sea level. Take the zero of poten-
tial energy at sea level.
14. You fly from Boston’s Logan Airport, at sea level, to Denver, al-
titude 1.6 km. Taking your mass as 65 kg and the zero of poten-
tial energy at Boston, what’s your gravitational potential energy
(a) at the plane’s 11-km cruising altitude and (b) in Denver?
15. A 60-kg hiker ascending 1250-m-high Camel’s Hump mountain
(a) (b)
in Vermont has potential energy 2240 kJ; the zero of potential
energy is taken at the mountaintop. What’s her altitude?
FIGURE 7.14 For Thought and Discussion 1; Problem 29
16. How much energy can be stored in a spring with k 5 320 N/m
if the maximum allowed stretch is 18 cm?
2. Is the conservation-of-energy principle related to Newton’s laws, 17. How far would you have to stretch a spring with k 5 1.4 kN/m
or is it an entirely separate physical principle? Discuss. for it to store 210 J of energy?
3. Why can’t we define a potential energy associated with friction? 18. A biophysicist grabs the ends of a DNA strand with optical
4. Can potential energy be negative? Can kinetic energy? Can total BIO tweezers and stretches it 26 mm. How much energy is stored in
mechanical energy? Explain. the stretched molecule if its spring constant is 0.046 pN/mm?
5. If the potential energy is zero at a given point, must the force also
be zero at that point? Give an example. Section 7.3 Conservation of Mechanical Energy
6. If the force is zero at a given point, must the potential energy also
19. A skier starts down a frictionless 32° slope. After a vertical drop
be zero at that point? Give an example.
of 25 m, the slope temporarily levels out and then slopes down
7. If the difference in potential energy between two points is zero,
at 20°, dropping an additional 38 m vertically before leveling
does that necessarily mean that an object moving between those
out again. Find the skier’s speed on the two level stretches.
points experiences no force?
20. A 10,000-kg Navy jet lands on an aircraft carrier and snags a ca-
8. A tightrope walker follows an essentially horizontal rope be-
ble to slow it down. The cable is attached to a spring with
tween two mountain peaks of equal altitude. A climber descends
k 5 40 kN/m. If the spring stretches 25 m to stop the plane, what
from one peak and climbs the other. Compare the work done by
was its landing speed?
the gravitational force on the tightrope walker and the climber.
21. A 120-g arrow is shot vertically from a bow whose effective
9. If conservation of energy is a law of nature, why do we have
spring constant is 430 N/m. If the bow is drawn 71 cm before
programs—like mileage requirements for cars or insulation stan-
shooting, to what height does the arrow rise?
dards for buildings—designed to encourage energy conservation?
22. In a railroad yard, a 35,000-kg boxcar moving at 7.5 m/s is
stopped by a spring-loaded bumper mounted at the end of the
Exercises and Problems level track. If k 5 2.8 MN/m, how far does the spring compress
in stopping the boxcar?
Exercises 23. You work for a toy company, and you’re designing a spring-
Section 7.1 Conservative and Nonconservative Forces launched model rocket. The launching apparatus has room for a
10. Determine the work done by the frictional force in moving a spring that can be compressed 14 cm, and the rocket’s mass is
block of mass m from point 1 to point 2 over the two paths shown 65 g. If the rocket is to reach an altitude of 35 m, what should
in Fig. 7.15. The coefficient of friction has the constant value you specify for the spring constant?
over the surface. Note: The diagram lies in a horizontal plane.
Section 7.4 Potential-Energy Curves
(a) L 24. A particle slides along the frictionless track shown in Fig. 7.16,
2
starting at rest from point A. Find (a) its speed at B, (b) its speed
at C, and (c) the approximate location of its right-hand turning
L
point.
(b)

A
1
B

FIGURE 7.15 Exercises 10 and 11 3.8 m C

2.6 m
1.3 m
11. Now take Fig. 7.15 to lie in a vertical plane, and find the work 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
done by the gravitational force as an object moves from point 1 Position, x (m)

to point 2 over each of the paths shown.

FIGURE 7.16 Exercise 24
 Exercises and Problems 115

25. A particle slides back and forth on a frictionless track whose and c 5 3.1 N/m3. Find the stored energy when it’s been com-
height as a function of horizontal position x is y 5 ax2, where pressed 15 cm. !
a 5 0.92 m21. If the particle’s maximum speed is 8.5 m/s, find 36. The force on a particle is given by F 5 A ^ı/x2, where A is a posi-
its turning points. tive constant. (a) Find the potential-energy difference between
26. Figure 7.17 shows a particle’s potential-energy curve. Find the two points x1 and x2, where x1 . x2. (b) Show that the potential-
force on the particle at each of the labeled curve segments. energy difference remains finite even when x1 S `.
37. A particle moves along the x-axis under the influence of a force
3
(b) F 5 ax2 1 b, where a and b are constants. Find its potential en-
2
(a) (c) (f ) ergy as a function of position, taking U 5 0 at x 5 0.
1
38. As a highway engineer, you’re asked to design a runaway truck
U(x) (J)

0
lane on a mountain road. The lane will head uphill at 30° and
–1
1 2 4 5 6 should be able to accommodate a 16,000-kg truck with failed
(e)
(d) x (m) brakes entering the lane at 110 km/h. How long should you make
–2
the lane? Neglect friction.
–3
39. A spring of constant k, compressed a distance x, is used to launch
FIGURE 7.17 Exercise 26 a mass m up a frictionless slope at angle u. Find an expression for
the maximum distance along the slope that the mass moves after
leaving the spring.
27. A particle is trapped in a potential well described by
40. A child is on a swing whose 3.2-m-long chains make a maximum
U1x2 5 16x2 2 b, with U in joules, x in meters, and b 5 4.0 J.
angle of 50° with the vertical. What’s the child’s maximum speed?
Find the force on the particle when it’s at (a) x 5 2.1 m,
41. With x 2 x0 5 h and a 5 g, Equation 2.11 gives the speed of an
(b) x 5 0, and (c) x 5 21.4 m.
object thrown downward with initial speed v0 after it’s dropped a
Problems distance h: v 5 2v02 1 2gh. Use conservation of energy to
28. The reservoir at Northfield Mountain Pumped Storage Project is derive the same result.
214 m above the pump/generators and holds 2.1 31010 kg of wa- 42. The nuchal ligament is a cord-like structure that runs along the back
ter (see Application on p. 105). The generators can produce elec- BIO of the neck and supports much of the head’s weight in animals like
trical energy at the rate of 1.08 GW. Find (a) the total horses and cows. The ligament is extremely stiff for small stretches,
gravitational energy stored in the reservoir, taking zero potential but loosens as it stretches further, thus functioning as a biological
energy at the generators, and (b) the length of time the station can shock absorber. Figure 7.18 shows the force-distance curve for a
generate power before the reservoir is! drained. particular nuchal ligament; the curve can be modeled approximately
29. The force in Fig. 7.14a is given by Fa 5! F0 ^/, where F0 is a con- by the expression F1x2 5 0.43x 2 0.033x2 1 0.00086x3, with
stant. The force in Fig. 7.14b is given by Fb 5 F01x/a2 ^/, where the F in kN and x in cm. Find the energy stored in the ligament when
origin is at the lower left corner of the box, a is the width of the it’s been stretched (a) 7.5 cm and (b) 15 cm.
square box, and x increases ! horizontally
! to the right. Determine
the work done by forces Fa and Fb on an object moved counter- 2.0
clockwise around each box, starting at the lower left corner. 1.5
Force (kN)

30. An incline makes an angle u with the horizontal. Find the gravi-
1.0
tational potential energy associated with a mass m located a dis-
tance x measured along the incline. Take the zero of potential 0.5

energy at the bottom of the incline. 0.0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
31. A 1.50-kg brick measures 20.0 cm 3 8.00 cm 3 5.50 cm. Taking Stretch (cm)
the zero of potential energy when the brick lies on its broadest
face, what’s its potential energy (a) when the brick is standing on FIGURE 7.18 Problem 42
end and (b) when it’s balanced on its 8-cm edge? (Note: You can
treat the brick as though all its mass is concentrated at its center.) 43. A 200-g block slides back and forth on a frictionless surface be-
32. A carbon monoxide molecule can be modeled as a carbon atom tween two springs, as shown in Fig. 7.19. The left-hand spring
and an oxygen atom connected by a spring. If a displacement of has k 5 130 N/m and its maximum compression is 16 cm. The
the carbon by 1.6 310212 m from its equilibrium position relative right-hand spring has k 5 280 N/m. Find (a) the maximum com-
to the oxygen increases the molecule’s potential energy by pression of the right-hand spring and (b) the speed of the block
0.015 eV, what’s the spring constant? as it moves between the springs.
33. A more accurate expression for the force law of the rope in
Example 7.3 is F 5 2kx 1 bx2 2 cx3, where k and b have the
values given in Example 7.3 and c 5 3.1 N/m3. Find the energy
stored in stretching the rope 2.62 m. By what percentage does
your result differ from that of Example 7.3?
34. For small stretches, the Achilles tendon can be modeled as an
BIO ideal spring. Experiments using a particular tendon showed that FIGURE 7.19 Problem 43
it stretched 2.66 mm when a 125-kg mass was hung from it.
(a) Find the spring constant of this tendon. (b) How much would 44. Current automotive standards call for bumpers that sustain es-
it have to stretch to store 50.0 J of energy? sentially no damage in a 4-km/h collision with a stationary ob-
35. The force exerted by an unusual spring when it’s compressed a dis- ject. As an automotive engineer, you’d like to improve on that.
tance x from equilibrium is F 5 2kx 2 cx3, where k 5 220 N/m You’ve developed a spring-mounted bumper with effective
116 Chapter 7 Conservation of Energy

spring constant 1.3 MN/m. The springs can compress up to 55. A 190-g block is launched by compressing a spring of constant
5.0 cm before damage occurs. For a 1400-kg car, what do you k 5 200 N/m by 15 cm. The spring is mounted horizontally, and
claim as the maximum collision speed? the surface directly under it is frictionless. But beyond the equi-
45. A block slides on the frictionless loop-the-loop track shown in librium position of the spring end, the surface has frictional coef-
Fig. 7.20. Find the minimum height h at which it can start from ficient m 5 0.27.. This frictional surface extends 85 cm, followed
rest and still make it around the loop. by a frictionless curved rise, as shown in Fig. 7.22. After it’s
launched, where does the block finally come to rest? Measure
from the left end of the frictional zone.

h R

Frictionless m 5 0.27 Frictionless

FIGURE 7.20 Problem 45
FIGURE 7.22 Problem 55
46. The maximum speed of the pendulum bob in a grandfather clock
is 0.55 m/s. If the pendulum makes a maximum angle of 8.0° 56. A block slides down a frictionless incline that terminates in a 45°
with the vertical, what’s the pendulum’s length? ramp, as shown in Fig. 7.23. Find an expression for the horizontal
47. A mass m is dropped from height h above the top of a spring of range x shown in the figure as a function of the heights h1 and h2.
constant k mounted vertically on the floor. Show that the spring’s
maximum compression is given by 1mg/k211 1 11 1 2kh/mg2.
48. A particle with total energy 3.5 J is trapped in a potential well de-
scribed by U 5 7.0 2 8.0x 1 1.7x2, where U is in joules and x
x in meters. Find its turning points. h1
45°
49. (a) Derive an expression for the potential energy of an object h2

subject to a force Fx 5 ax 2 bx3, where a 5 5 N/m and

b 5 2 N/m3, taking U 5 0 at x 5 0. (b) Graph the potential- FIGURE 7.23 Problem 56
energy curve for x . 0 and use it to find the turning points for
an object whose total energy is 21 J.
57. An 840-kg roller-coaster car is launched from a giant spring with
50. In ionic solids such as NaCl (salt), the potential energy of a pair
k 5 31 kN/m into a frictionless loop-the-loop track of radius
of ions takes the form U 5 b/rn 2 a/r, where r is the separation
6.2 m, as shown in Fig. 7.24. What’s the minimum spring com-
of the ions. For NaCl, a and b have the SI values 4.04 310228 and
pression that will ensure the car stays on the track?
5.52 3 10298, respectively, and n 5 8.22. Find the equilibrium
separation in NaCl.
51. Repeat Exercise 19 for the case when the coefficient of kinetic
friction on both slopes is 0.11, while the level stretches remain
frictionless.
52. As an energy-efficiency consultant, you’re asked to assess a
pumped-storage facility. Its reservoir sits 140 m above its gener-
ating station and holds 8.5 3109 kg of water. The power plant
generates 330 MW of electric power while draining the reservoir
over an 8.0-h period. Its efficiency is the percentage of the stored
potential energy that gets converted to electricity. What effi- FIGURE 7.24 Problem 57
ciency do you report?
53. A spring of constant k 5 340 N/m is used to launch a 1.5-kg 58. A particle slides back and forth in a frictionless bowl whose
block along a horizontal surface whose coefficient of sliding fric- height is given by h 5 0.18x2, with x and h in meters. Find the
tion is 0.27. If the spring is compressed 18 cm, how far does the x coordinates of its turning points if the particle’s maximum
block slide? speed is 47 cm/s.
54. A bug slides back and forth in a bowl 11 cm deep, starting from 59. A child sleds down a frictionless hill whose vertical drop is
rest at the top, as shown in Fig. 7.21. The bowl is frictionless ex- 7.2 m. At the bottom is a level but rough stretch where the coeffi-
cept for a 1.5-cm-wide sticky patch on its flat bottom, where the cient of kinetic friction is 0.51. How far does she slide across the
coefficient of friction is 0.61. How many times does the bug level stretch?
cross the sticky region? 60. A bug lands on top of the frictionless, spherical head of a bald
man. It begins to slide down his head (Fig. 7.25). Show that the

11 cm

1.5 cm

FIGURE 7.21 Problem 54 FIGURE 7.25 Problem 60

 Answers to Chapter Questions 117

bug leaves the head when it has dropped a vertical distance one- Passage Problems
third of the head’s radius. ! Nuclear fusion is the process that powers the Sun. Fusion occurs when
61. A particle of mass m is subject to a force F 5 1a1x2 ı^, where a two low-mass atomic nuclei fuse together to make a larger nucleus, in
is a constant. The particle is initially at rest at the origin and is the process releasing substantial energy. This is hard to achieve be-
given a slight nudge in the positive x-direction. Find an expres- cause atomic nuclei carry positive electric charge, and their electrical
sion for its speed as a function of position x. repulsion makes it difficult to get them close enough for the short-
62. A 17-m-long vine hangs vertically from a tree on one side of a range nuclear force to bind them into a single nucleus. Figure 7.27
10-m-wide gorge, as shown in Fig. 7.26. Tarzan runs up, hoping shows the potential-energy curve for fusion of two deuterons (heavy
to grab the vine, swing over the gorge, and drop vertically off the hydrogen nuclei). The energy is measured in million electron volts
vine to land on the other side. How fast must he run? (MeV), a unit commonly used in nuclear physics, and the separation
is in femtometers 11 fm 5 10215 m2.

Potential energy (MeV)

17 m 0
5 10
21 Separation (fm)

22
10 m 23

FIGURE 7.27 Potential energy for two deuterons (Passage Problems 68–71)

68. The force between the deuterons is zero at approximately

a. 3 fm.
FIGURE 7.26 Problem 62 b. 4 fm.
c. 5 fm.
63. A block of weight 4.5 N is launched up a 30° inclined plane d. the force is never zero.
2.0 m long by a spring with k 5 2.0 kN/m and maximum com- 69. In order for initially two widely separated deuterons to get close
pression 10 cm. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.50. Does enough to fuse, their kinetic energy must be about
the block reach the top of the incline? If so, how much kinetic a. 0.1 MeV.
energy does it have there? If not, how close to the top, along the b. 3 MeV.
incline, does it get? c. 23 MeV.
64. Your engineering department is asked to evaluate the perform- d. 0.3 MeV.
ance of a new 250-hp sports car. You know that 30% of the en- 70. The energy available in fusion is the energy difference between
gine’s power can be converted to mechanical energy of the 1500-kg that of widely separated deuterons and the bound deutrons after
car, and that the power delivered is independent of the car’s ve- they’ve “fallen” into the deep potential well shown in the figure.
locity. What do you report for the time it will take to accelerate That energy is about
from rest to 60 mi/h on a level road? a. 0.3 MeV.
65. Your roommate is writing a science fiction novel and asks your b. 1 MeV.
advice about a plot point. Her characters are mining ore on the c. 3.3 MeV.
Moon and launching it toward Earth. Bins with 1000 kg of ore d. 3.6 MeV.
will be launched by a large spring, to be compressed 15 m. It
takes a speed of 2.4 km/s to escape the Moon’s gravity. What do 71. When two deuterons are 4 fm apart, the force acting on them
you tell her is an appropriate spring constant? a. is repulsive.
66. You have a summer job at your university’s zoology department, b. is attractive.
where you’ll be working with an animal behavior expert. She’s c. is zero.
assigned you to study videos of different animals leaping into the d. can’t be determined from the graph.
air. Your task is to compare their power outputs as they jump.
You’ll have the mass m of each animal from data collected in the Answers to Chapter Questions
field. From the videos, you’ll be able to measure both the verti-
cal distance d over which the animal accelerates when it pushes Answer to Chapter Opening Question
off the ground and the maximum height h it reaches. Your task Potential energy turns into kinetic energy, sound, and heat.
is to find an algebraic expression for power in terms of these
parameters. Answers to GOT IT? Questions
67. Biomechanical engineers developing artificial limbs for pros- 7.1. On the curved paths, the work is greater for the trunk. The gravi-
thetic and robotic applications have developed a two-spring de- tational force is conservative, so the work is independent of path.
sign for their replacement Achilles tendon. The first spring has The frictional force is nonconservative, however.
constant k and the second ak, where a . 1. When the artificial 7.2. (b) The potential-energy change will be slightly less because at
tendon is stretched from x 5 0 to x 5 x1, only the first spring is greater heights, the gravitational force is lower and so, therefore,
engaged. For x . x1, a mechanism engages the second spring, is the work done in traversing a given distance.
giving a configuration like that described in part (a) of Chapter 4’s 7.3. No. Mechanical energy is conserved, so if the ball is released
Problem 58. Find an expression for the energy stored in the arti- from rest, it cannot climb higher than its initial height.
ficial tendon when it’s stretched a distance 2x1. 7.4. (a) B; (b) E; (c) C; (d) A or D; (e) B or E.
 8 Gravity

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Calculate the gravitational force
between two objects (8.2).
■ Describe orbital motion and circular
orbits quantitatively (8.3).
■ Compute changes in gravitational
potential energy over large distances
(8.4).
■ Relate kinetic and potential energy in
the presence of gravity, and explain
the concept of escape speed (8.4).
■ Describe qualitatively the concept of
the gravitational field (8.5).
This TV dish points at a satellite in a fixed
position in the sky. How does the satellite
manage to stay at that position?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ Much of the material in this chapter
is an application of the concepts of
G ravity is the most obvious of nature’s fundamental forces. Theories of gravity have brought
us new understandings of the nature and evolution of the universe. We’ve used our knowl-
edge of gravity to explore the solar system and to engineer a host of space-based technologies.
potential and kinetic energy, in par- In nearly all applications we still use the theory of gravity that Isaac Newton developed in the
ticular the principle of conservation 1600s. Only in the most extreme astrophysical situations or where—as with Global Positioning
of mechanical energy (7.2, 7.3). System satellites—we need exquisite precision do we use the successor to Newtonian gravita-
■ You should understand that calculat- tion, namely, Einstein’s general theory of relativity.
ing potential energy for position-
varying forces requires integration,
as described in Equations 7.2a and
7.2b and Example 7.3 (7.2).

118
 8.2 Universal Gravitation 119

8.1 Toward a Law of Gravity First law: The orbit

is elliptical, with the
Newton’s theory of gravity was the culmination of two centuries of scientific revolution that Sun at one focus.
began in 1543 with Polish astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus’s radical suggestion that the plan-
ets orbit not Earth but the Sun. Fifty years after Copernicus’s work was published, the Danish B
noble Tycho Brahe began a program of accurate planetary observations. After Tycho’s death C
in 1601, his assistant Johannes Kepler worked to make sense of the observations. Success
came when Kepler took a radical step: He gave up the long-standing idea that the planets D
Semimajor axis
moved in perfect circles. Kepler summarized his new insights in three laws, described in
Fig. 8.1. Kepler based his laws solely on observation and gave no theoretical explanation.
So Kepler knew how the planets moved, but not why. A
Shortly after Kepler published his first two laws, Galileo trained his first telescopes on
the heavens. Among his discoveries were four moons orbiting Jupiter, sunspots that blem- Third law: The square Second law: If the
ished the supposedly perfect sphere of the Sun, and the phases of Venus (Fig. 8.2). His ob- of the orbital period is shaded areas are equal,
servations called into question the notion that all celestial objects were perfect and also proportional to the cube so are the times to go
of the semimajor axis. from A to B and from
lent credence to the Copernican view of the Sun as the center of planetary motion. C to D.
By Newton’s time the intellectual climate was ripe for the culmination of the revolution
FIGURE 8.1 Kepler’s laws.
that had begun with Copernicus. Legend has it that Newton was sitting under an apple tree
when an apple struck him on the head, causing him to discover gravity. That story is proba-
bly a myth, but if it were true the other half would be that Newton was staring at the Moon
when the apple struck. Newton’s genius was to recognize that the motion of the apple and
the motion of the Moon were the same, that both were “falling” toward Earth under the in-
fluence of the same force. Newton called this force gravity, from the Latin gravitas, “heavi-
ness.” In one of the most sweeping syntheses in human thought, Newton inferred that
everything in the universe, on Earth and in the celestial realm, obeys the same physical laws.

8.2 Universal Gravitation

Newton generalized his new understanding of gravity to suggest that any two particles in
the universe exert attractive forces on each other, with magnitude given by
Gm1 m2
F5 1universal gravitation2 (8.1)
r2
Here m1 and m2 are the particle masses, r the distance between them, and G the constant
of universal gravitation, whose value—determined after Newton’s time—is 6.67 3
10211 N # m2/kg 2. The constant G is truly universal; observation and theory suggest that it
has the same value throughout the universe.
The force of gravity acts between two particles; that is, m1 exerts an attractive force on
m2, and m2 exerts an equal but oppositely directed force on m1. The two forces therefore
obey Newton’s third law.
Newton’s law of universal gravitation applies strictly only to point particles that have no
extent. But, as Newton showed using his newly developed calculus, it also holds for spheri-
cally symmetric objects of any size if the distance r is measured from their centers. It also ap-
plies approximately to arbitrarily shaped objects provided the distance between them is large
compared with their sizes. For example, the gravitational force of Earth on the space station FIGURE 8.2 Phases of Venus. In an Earth-centered
is given accurately by Equation 8.1 because (1) Earth is essentially spherical and (2) the sta- system, Venus would always appear the same
tion, though irregular in shape, is vastly smaller than its distance from Earth’s center. size because of its constant distance from Earth.

EXAMPLE 8.1 The Acceleration of Gravity: On Earth and in Space

Use the law of universal gravitation to find the acceleration of gravity interpret this problem as being about the force between Earth (or
at Earth’s surface, at the 380-km altitude of the International Space Mars) and some arbitrary mass.
Station, and on the surface of Mars.
DEVELOP Since the problem involves universal gravitation, Equa-
INTERPRET The problem statement tells us this is about universal tion 8.1 applies. But we’re asked about acceleration, not force. Newton’s
gravitation, but what’s that got to do with the acceleration of gravity? second law, F 5 ma, relates the two. So our plan is to use Equation 8.1,
The gravitational force is what causes that acceleration, so we can (continued)
120 Chapter 8 Gravity

F 5 Gm1 m2/r2, to find the gravitational force on an arbitrary mass and This, of course, is the value of g—the acceleration due to gravity at
then use Newton’s second law to get the acceleration. There’s another Earth’s surface.
bit of planning: We need to find the masses of Earth and Mars and their At the space station’s altitude, we have r 5 RE 1 380 km, so
radii. Astrophysical data like these are in Appendix E. GME
a5
EVALUATE Equation 8.1 gives the force a planet of mass M exerts on an r2
arbitrary mass m a distance r from the planet’s center: F 5 GMm/r . 2 16.67 3 10211 N # m2/kg 2215.97 3 1024 kg2
5 5 8.74 m/s2
(Here we set m1 in Equation 8.1 to the large planetary mass M, and m2 16.37 3 106 m 1 380 3 103 m22
to the smaller mass m.) But Newton’s second law says that this force is
A similar calculation using Appendix E data yields 3.75 m/s2 for
equal to the product of mass and acceleration for a body in free fall, so
the acceleration of gravity at the surface of Mars.
we can write ma 5 GMm/r2. The mass m cancels, and we’re left with
the acceleration: ASSESS As we’ve seen, our result for Earth is just what we expect.
GM
a5 2 (8.2) The acceleration at the space station is lower but still about 90% of the
r surface value. This confirms Chapter 4’s point that weightlessness
The distance r is measured from the center of the object provid- doesn’t mean the absence of gravity. Rather, as Equation 8.2 shows,
ing the gravitational force, so to find the acceleration at Earth’s sur- an object’s gravitational acceleration is independent of its mass—so
face we use RE, the radius of the Earth, for r. Taking RE and ME from all objects “fall” together. Finally, our answer for Mars is lower than
Appendix E, we have for Earth, as befits its smaller mass—although not as much lower as
GME mass alone would imply. That’s because Mars is also smaller, so r in
a5 the denominator of Equation 8.2 is lower. ■
RE2
16.67 3 10211 N # m2/kg 2215.97 3 1024 kg2
5 5 9.81 m/s2
16.37 3 106 m22

✓TIP G and g
Don’t confuse G and g! Both quantities are associated with gravity, but G is a univer-
sal constant, while g describes the gravitational acceleration at a particular place—
namely, Earth’s surface—and its value depends on Earth’s size and mass.

The variation of gravitational acceleration with distance from Earth’s center provided
Newton with a clue that the gravitational force should vary as the inverse square of the dis-
tance. Newton knew the Moon’s orbital period and distance from Earth; from these he
could calculate its orbital speed and thus its acceleration v2/r. Newton found—as you can
in Exercise 12—that the Moon’s acceleration is about 1/3600 the gravitational accelera-
tion g at Earth’s surface. The Moon is about 60 times farther from Earth’s center than is
Earth’s surface; since 602 5 3600, the decrease in gravitational acceleration with distance
from Earth’s center is consistent with a gravitational force that varies as 1/r2.

TACTICS 8.1 Understanding “Inverse Square”

Newton’s universal gravitation is the first of several inverse-
Gravitational acceleration

g
square force laws you’ll encounter, and it’s important to un- At 2 RE, gravitational acceleration
derstand what this term means. In Equation 8.1 the distance has 1_4 of its surface value . . .
r between the two masses is squared, and it occurs in the
. . . and at 3 RE, it’s
denominator; hence the force depends on the inverse square
down to 1_9 .
of the distance. Double the distance and the force drops to 1_
4 g
1/22, or 1/4 of its original value. Triple the distance and the 1_
g
9
force drops to 1/32, or 1/9. Although you can always grind
1 2 3 4
through the arithmetic of Equation 8.1, you should use
Distance (Earth radii)
these simple ratio calculations whenever possible. The
same considerations apply to gravitational acceleration, FIGURE 8.3 Meaning of the inverse-square
since it’s proportional to force (Fig. 8.3). law.
 8.3 Orbital Motion 121

GOT IT? 8.1 Suppose the distance between two objects is cut in half. Is the gravita-
tional force between them (a) quartered, (b) halved, (c) doubled, or (d) quadrupled?

The Cavendish Experiment: Weighing the Earth

Given the mass and radius of the Earth and the measured value of g, we could use Equa-
tion 8.1 to determine the universal constant G. Unfortunately, the only way to determine
Earth’s mass accurately is to measure its gravitational effect and then use Equation 8.1.
But that requires knowing G.
To determine G, we need to measure the gravitational force of a known mass. Given the
weak gravitational force of normal-size objects, this is a challenging task. It was accom- The small spheres
plished in 1798 through an ingenious experiment by the British physicist Henry Cavendish. Thin fiber move, attracted by
Cavendish mounted two 5-cm-diameter lead spheres on the ends of a rod suspended from a gravity to the large
ones.
thin fiber. He then brought two 30-cm lead spheres nearby (Fig. 8.4). Their gravitational at-
traction caused a slight movement of the small spheres, twisting the fiber. Knowing the
properties of the fiber, Cavendish could determine the force. With the known masses and
their separation, he then used Equation 8.1 to calculate G. His result determined the mass
Rod
of the Earth; indeed, his published paper was entitled “On Weighing the Earth.”
Gravity is the weakest of the fundamental forces, and, as the Cavendish experiment sug-
gests, the gravitational force between everyday objects is negligible. Yet gravity shapes the FIGURE 8.4 The Cavendish experiment to
determine G.
large-scale structure of matter and indeed the entire universe. Why, if it’s so weak? The an-
swer is that gravity, unlike the stronger electric force, is always attractive; there’s no such
thing as “negative mass.” So large concentrations of matter produce substantial gravita-
tional effects. Electric charge, in contrast, can be positive or negative, and electric effects in
normal-sized objects tend to cancel. We’ll explore this distinction further in Chapter 20.

8.3 Orbital Motion

Orbital motion occurs when gravity is the dominant force acting on a body. It’s not just
planets and spacecraft that are in orbit. An individual astronaut floating outside the space
station is orbiting Earth. The Sun itself orbits the center of the galaxy, taking about 200 mil-
lion years to complete one revolution. If we neglect air resistance, even a baseball is tem-
porarily in orbit. Here we discuss quantitatively the special case of circular orbits; then we
describe qualitatively the general case.
Newton’s genius was to recognize that the Moon is held in its circular orbit by the Absent gravity, the
same force that pulls an apple to the ground. From there, it was a short step for Newton projectile would follow
a straight line.
to realize that human-made objects could be put into orbit. Nearly 300 years before the
first artificial satellites, he imagined a projectile launched horizontally from a high moun-
tain (Fig. 8.5). The projectile moves in a curve, as gravity pulls it from the straight-line Gravity pulls
path it would follow if no force were acting. As its initial speed is increased, the projec- the projectile
tile travels farther before striking Earth. Finally, there comes a speed for which the pro- into a curved
path.
jectile’s path bends in a way that exactly follows Earth’s curvature. It’s then in circular
orbit, continuing forever unless a nongravitational force acts.
Why doesn’t an orbiting object fall toward Earth? It does! Under the influence of grav-
ity, it gets ever closer to Earth than it would be on a straight-line path. It’s behaving ex- The circular orbit is
a special case where the
actly as Newton’s second law requires of an object under the influence of a force—by path is a circle.
accelerating. For a circular orbit, that acceleration amounts to a change in the direction,
but not the magnitude, of the orbiting object’s velocity. FIGURE 8.5 Newton’s “thought experiment”
showing that projectile and orbital motions
Remember that Newton’s laws aren’t so much about motion as they are about changes
are essentially the same.
in motion. To ask why a satellite doesn’t fall to Earth is to adopt the archaic Aristotelian
view. The Newtonian question is this: Why doesn’t the satellite move in a straight line?
And the answer is simple: because a force is acting. That force—gravity—is exactly anal-
ogous to the tension force that keeps a ball on a string whirling in its circular path.
122 Chapter 8 Gravity

We can analyze circular orbits quantitatively because we know that a force of magni-
tude mv2/r is required to keep an object of mass m and speed v in a circular path of radius
r. In the case of an orbit, that force is gravity, so we have
GMm mv2
5
r2 r
where m is the mass of the orbiting object and M the mass of the object about which it’s
orbiting. We assume here that M W m, so the gravitating object can be considered essen-
tially at rest—a reasonable approximation with Earth satellites or planets orbiting the
much more massive Sun. Solving for the orbital speed gives
GM
v5 (speed, circular orbit) (8.3)
A r
Often we’re interested in the orbital period, or the time to complete one orbit. In one
period T, the orbiting object moves the orbital circumference 2pr, so its speed is
v 5 2pr/T. Squaring Equation 8.3 then gives
2pr 2 GM
a b 5
T r
or
4p2 r3
T2 5 1orbital period, circular orbit2 (8.4)
GM
In deriving Equation 8.4, we’ve proved Kepler’s third law—that the square of the orbital
period is proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis—for the special case of a circular
orbit whose semimajor axis is its radius.
Note that orbital speed and period are independent of the orbiting object’s mass m—
another indication that all objects experience the same gravitational acceleration. Astronauts,
for example, have the same orbital parameters as the space station. That’s why astronauts
seem weightless inside the station and why they don’t float away if they step outside.

EXAMPLE 8.2 Orbital Speed and Period: The Space Station

The International Space Station is in a circular orbit at altitude or about 17,000 mi/h. We can get the orbital period from the speed
380 km. What are its orbital speed and period? and radius, or directly from Equation 8.4, T 5 24p2 r3/GME. Using
the numbers in the calculation for v gives T 5 5.5 3 103 s, or about
INTERPRET This problem involves the speed and period of a circular 90 min.
orbit about Earth.
ASSESS Make sense? Both answers have the correct units, and 90 min
DEVELOP We can compute the orbit’s radius and then use Equation 8.3, seems reasonable for the period of an orbit at a small fraction of the
v 5 1GM/r, to find the speed and Equation 8.4, T2 5 4p2 r3/GM, to Moon’s distance from Earth. Astronauts who want a circular orbit 380 km
find the period because the orbit is circular. up have no choice but this speed and period. In fact, for any “near-
Earth” orbit, with altitude much less than Earth’s radius, the orbital
EVALUATE As always, the distance is measured from the center of the
period is about 90 min. If there were no air resistance and if you could
gravitating body, so r in these equations is Earth’s 6.37-Mm radius
throw a baseball fast enough, it too would go into orbit, skimming
plus the station’s 380-km altitude. So we have
Earth’s surface with a roughly 90-min period. ■
GME 16.67 3 10211 N # m2/kg 2215.97 3 1024 kg2
v5 5
B r D 6.37 3 106 m 1 380 3 103 m
5 7.7 km/s

Example 8.2 shows that the near-Earth orbital period is about 90 min. The Moon, on the
other hand, takes 27 days to complete its nearly circular orbit. So there must be a distance
where the orbital period is 24 h—the same as Earth’s rotation. A satellite at this distance
will remain fixed with respect to Earth’s surface provided its orbit is parallel to the equator.
TV, weather, and communication satellites are often placed in this geosynchronous orbit.
 8.3 Orbital Motion 123

EXAMPLE 8.3 Geosynchronous Orbit: Finding the Altitude

What altitude is required for geosynchronous orbit? or 42,200 km from Earth’s center. Subtracting Earth’s radius then
gives an altitude of about 36,000 km, or 22,000 miles.
INTERPRET Here we’re given an orbital period—24 h or 86,400 s—and
asked to find the corresponding altitude for a circular orbit. ASSESS Make sense? This is a lot higher than the 90-min low-Earth
orbit, but a lot lower than the Moon’s 385,000 km distance. Our an-
DEVELOP Equation 8.4, T2 5 4p2 r3/GM, relates the period T and dis- swer defines one of the most valuable pieces of “real estate” in
tance r from Earth’s center. Our plan is to solve for r and then subtract space—a place where satellites appear suspended over a fixed spot
Earth’s radius to find the altitude (distance from the surface). on Earth. The dish antenna in this chapter’s opening photo points to
such a satellite, positioned 22,000 mi over the equator. A more care-
EVALUATE Solving for r, we get ful calculation would use Earth’s so-called sidereal rotation period,
GME T2 1/3
measured with respect to the distant stars rather than the Sun. Be-
r5 a b
4p2 cause Earth isn’t a perfect sphere, geosynchronous satellites drift
16.67 3 10211 N # m2/kg 2215.97 3 1024 kg218.64 3 104 s22 1/3 slightly and therefore fire small rockets every few weeks to stay in
5c d position. ■
4p2
7
5 4.22 3 10 m

Elliptical Orbits
Using his laws of motion and gravity, Newton was able to prove Kepler’s assertion that
the planets move in elliptical paths with the Sun at one focus. Circular orbits represent the
special case where the two foci of the ellipse coincide, so the distance from the gravitating
center remains constant. Most planetary orbits are nearly, but not quite, circular; Earth’s
distance from the Sun, for example, varies by about 3% throughout the year. But the orbits
of comets and other smaller bodies are often highly elliptical (Fig. 8.6). Their orbital
speeds vary, as they gain speed “falling” toward the Sun, whip quickly around the Sun at FIGURE 8.6 Orbits of most known comets, like
the one shown here, are highly elliptical.
the point of closest approach (perihelion), and then “climb” ever more slowly to their
most distant point (aphelion) before returning.
This section
In Chapter 3, we showed that the trajectory of a projectile is a parabola. But our deriva- approximates
tion neglected Earth’s curvature and the associated variation in g with altitude. In fact, a a parabola.
projectile is just like any orbiting body. If we neglect air resistance, it too describes an el-
liptical orbit with Earth’s center at one focus. Only for trajectories small compared with
Earth’s radius are the true elliptical path and the parabola of Chapter 3 essentially indistin-
guishable (Fig. 8.7).
Are missiles and baseballs really in orbit? Yes. But their orbits happen to intersect the
Earth. At that point, nongravitational forces put an end to orbital motion. If Earth suddenly
shrank to the size of a grapefruit (but kept the same mass), a baseball would continue hap-
pily in orbit, as Fig. 8.7 suggests. Newton’s ingenious intuition was correct: Barring air
resistance, there’s truly no difference between the motion of everyday objects near Earth
and the motion of celestial objects. Focus is Earth’s center.

Open Orbits FIGURE 8.7 Projectile trajectories are actually

elliptical.
With elliptical and circular orbits, the motion repeats indefinitely because the orbit is a
closed path. But closed orbits aren’t the only possibility. Imagine again Newton’s thought
Open
experiment—only now fire the projectile faster than necessary for a circular orbit (Fig. 8.8). (hyperbola)
The projectile rises higher than before, describing an ellipse with its low point at the launch
site. Faster, and the ellipse gets more elongated. But with great enough initial speed, the
projectile describes a trajectory that takes it ever farther from Earth. We’ll see in the next
section how energy determines the type of orbit.
Borderline
Closed (parabola)
(circle)
GOT IT? 8.2 Suppose the paths in Fig. 8.8 are the paths of four projectiles. Rank each
path (circular, elliptical, parabolic, and hyperbolic) according to the initial speed of the
corresponding projectile. Assume all are launched from their common point at the top of Closed (ellipse)
the figure.
FIGURE 8.8 Closed and open orbits.
124 Chapter 8 Gravity

8.4 Gravitational Energy

How much energy does it take to boost a satellite to geosynchronous altitude? Our simple
answer mgh won’t do here, since g varies substantially over the distance involved. So, as
we found in Chapter 7, we have to integrate to determine the potential energy.
r
F m drr Figure 8.9 shows two points at distances r1 and r2 from the center of a gravitating mass
M
r1 r2 M, in this case Earth. Equation 7.2 gives the change in potential energy associated with
moving a mass m from r1 to r2 :
FIGURE 8.9 Finding the potential-energy r2
! !
change requires integration. DU12 5 2 3 F # dr
r1

! and! has magnitude GMm/r , while the path element

2
Here the force points radially inward
!
d r points radially outward. Then F # dr 5 21GMm/r 2 dr, where the minus sign comes
2

from the factor cos 180° in the dot product of oppositely directed vectors. Then the poten-
tial energy difference is
r2 r r2
GMm 2
r21 1 1
DU12 5 3 dr 5 GMm 3 r22
dr 5 GMm ` 5 GMm a 2 b (8.5)
r1 r2
r1 21 r1 r1 r2

Since altitude doesn’t 2 Does this make sense? Yes: For r1 , r2, DU12 is positive, showing that potential energy
change, DU 5 0 increases with height—consistent with our simpler result DU 5 mgh near Earth’s surface.
on this path . . . Although we derived Equation 8.5 for two points on a radial line, Fig. 8.10 shows that it
holds for any two points at distances r1 and r2 from the gravitating center.
1
. . . so DU12 is
the same as if
we start here.

EXAMPLE 8.4 Gravitational Potential Energy: Steps to the Moon

FIGURE 8.10 Gravity is conservative, so we can
use any path to evaluate the potential-energy Materials to construct an 11,000-kg lunar observatory are boosted from Earth to geosynchronous
change. Only the radial part of the path con- orbit. There they are assembled and then launched to the Moon, 385,000 km from Earth. Compare
tributes to DU. the work that must be done against Earth’s gravity on the two legs of the trip.

INTERPRET This problem asks about work done against gravity, a conservative force.

DEVELOP As we saw in Chapter 7, the work done against a conservative force is equal to the
change in potential energy; here that change is given by Equation 8.5. For the first leg, we have
r1 5 RE and then, from Example 8.3, r2 5 42,200 km.

EVALUATE Since the quantity GME m that appears in Equation 8.5 will be used in both steps, we
calculate it first: GME m 5 4.38 3 1018 N # m2. Then for the first step we have
1 1
W 5 DU12 5 GME m a 2 b
r1 r2
1 1
5 14.38 3 1018 N # m22 a 2 b
6.37 3 106 m 4.22 3 107 m
5 5.8 3 1011 J
From geosynchronous orbit to the Moon, a similar calculation gives
1 1
W 5 14.38 3 1018 N # m22 a 2 b
4.22 3 107 m 3.85 3 108 m
5 9.2 3 1010 J

ASSESS Make sense? Even though the second leg is much longer, the rapid drop-off in the gravi-
tational force means that less work is required than for the shorter boost to geosynchronous alti-
tude. Our calculations here include only the work done against Earth’s gravity; additional energy
would be required to attain a circular geosynchronous orbit. On the other hand, the Moon’s gravi-
tational attraction would lower the required energy somewhat. ■
 8.4 Gravitational Energy 125

The Zero of Potential Energy

Equation 8.5 has an interesting feature: The potential-energy difference remains finite
even when the points are infinitely far apart, as you can see by setting either r1 or r2 to in-
finity. Although the gravitational force always acts, it weakens so rapidly that its effect
is finite over even infinite distances. This property makes it convenient to set the zero of
potential energy at infinity. Setting r1 5 ` and dropping the subscript on r2, we then have
an expression for the potential energy at an arbitrary distance r from a gravitating center:

Gravitational potential energy, U

E . 0: open orbits E3

Open
GMm
U1r2 5 2 1gravitational potential energy2 (8.6) 0
r1 Distance, r
r E2
The potential energy is negative because we chose U 5 0 at r 5 `. Any other point is

Closed
closer to the gravitating center and therefore has lower potential energy. E , 0: closed orbits E1
Knowing the gravitational potential energy allows us to apply the powerful conservation- r1 is maximum distance
of-energy principle. Figure 8.11 shows the potential-energy curve given by Equation 8.6. with energy E1.
Superposing three values of total energy E shows that orbits with E , 0 have a turning
point where they intersect the potential-energy curve, and are therefore closed. Orbits with
E . 0, in contrast, are open because they never intersect the curve and therefore extend to FIGURE 8.11 A gravitational potential-energy
infinity. curve.

EXAMPLE 8.5 Conservation of Energy: Blast Off!

A rocket is launched vertically upward at 3.1 km/s. How high does EVALUATE With our values of kinetic and potential energy, K 1 U 5
it go? K0 1 U0 becomes
GME m 1 GME m
INTERPRET This sounds like a problem from Chapter 2, but here grav- 2 5 2 mv02 2
ity changes, so the acceleration isn’t constant. The conservation-of- r RE
energy principle lets us cut through those details, so we can apply the where m is the rocket’s mass, r is the distance from Earth’s center at
methods of Chapter 7. “How high does it go?” in the problem state- the peak, and Earth’s radius RE is the distance at launch. Solving for r
ment means we’re dealing with the initial launch state and a final state gives
where the rocket is momentarily at rest at the top of its trajectory. 1 v02 21
r5 a 2 b
RE 2GME
DEVELOP Equation 7.7 describes conservation of energy: K 1 U 5
K0 1 U0. Here we’re given speed v at the bottom, so K0 5 12 mv2. 1 13100 m/s22 21
5a 2 b
We’re going to be using Equation 8.6, U1r2 5 2GMm/r, for poten- 6.37 3106 m 216.67 3 10211 N # m2/kg 2215.97 3 1024 kg2
tial energy, and that’s already established the zero of potential energy 5 6.90 Mm
at infinity. So U0 isn’t zero but is given by Equation 8.6 with r equal Again, this is the distance from Earth’s center; subtracting Earth’s
to Earth’s radius. Finally, at the top, K 5 0 and U is also given by radius then gives a peak altitude of 530 km.
Equation 8.6, but now we don’t know r. Our plan is to solve for that r
and from it get the rocket’s altitude. Figure 8.12 shows “before” and ASSESS Make sense? Yes. Our answer of 530 km is significantly
“after” diagrams with bar graphs, like those we introduced in Chapter 7. greater than the 490 km you’d get assuming a potential-energy change
of DU 5 mgh. That’s because the decreasing gravitational force lets
Final state: the rocket go higher before all its kinetic energy becomes potential.
K 5 0 GM m
U 5 2 rE
Energy

0
U
✓TIP All Conservation-of-Energy Problems Are the Same
K
This problem is essentially the same as throwing a ball straight up
U is negative and solving for its maximum height using U 5 mgh for the poten-
relative to `, but tial energy. The only difference is the more complicated potential-
it’s less negative
r energy function U 5 2GMm/r, used here because the variation in
farther from
Earth’s center. gravity is significant over the rocket’s trajectory. Recognize what’s
common to all similar problems, and you’ll begin to see how
Energy

Initial state: U
K0 5 12 mv 2 0 physics really is based on just a few simple principles.
GME m
K
U0 5 2 RE
RE
■

FIGURE 8.12 Diagrams for Example 8.5.

126 Chapter 8 Gravity

Escape Speed
What goes up comes down, right? Not always! Figure 8.11 shows that an object with total
energy zero or greater can escape infinitely far from a gravitating body, never to return.
Consider an object of mass m at the surface of a gravitating body of mass M and radius r.
It has gravitational potential energy given by Equation 8.6, U 5 2GMm/r. Toss it upward
with speed v, and it’s also got kinetic energy 12 mv2. Its total energy will be zero if
GMm
0 5 K 1 U 5 12 mv2 2
r
The speed v here that makes the total energy zero is called the escape speed because an
object with this speed or greater has enough energy to escape forever from the gravitating
body. Solving for v in the preceding equation gives the escape speed:
2GM
vesc 5 1escape speed2 (8.7)
A r
At Earth’s surface, vesc 5 11.2 km/s. Earth-orbiting spacecraft have lower speeds.
Moon-bound astronauts go at just under vesc, so if anything goes wrong (as with Apollo 13),
they can return to Earth. Planetary spacecraft have speeds greater than vesc. The Pioneer
and Voyager missions to the outer planets gained enough additional energy in their en-
counters with Jupiter that they now have escape speed relative to the Sun and will coast
indefinitely through interstellar space.

Energy in Circular Orbits

In the special case of a circular orbit, kinetic and potential energies are related in a simple
way. In Section 8.3, we found that the speed in a circular orbit is given by
GM
v2 5
r
where r is the distance from a gravitating center of mass M. So the kinetic energy of the
orbiting object is
GMm
K 5 12 mv2 5
2r
while the potential energy is given by Equation 8.6:
GMm
U52
r
Comparing these two expressions shows that U 5 22K for a circular orbit. The total en-
ergy is therefore
E 5 U 1 K 5 22K 1 K 5 2K (8.8a)
or, equivalently,
GMm
E 5 12 U 5 2 (8.8b)
2r
The total energy in these equations is negative, showing that circular orbits are—
obviously—bound orbits. We stress that these results apply only to circular orbits; in el-
liptical orbits, there’s a continuous interchange between kinetic and potential energy as
the orbiting object moves relative to the gravitating center.
Equation 8.8a shows that higher kinetic energy corresponds to lower total energy. This
surprising result occurs because higher orbital speed corresponds to a lower orbit, with
lower potential energy.
 8.5 The Gravitational Field 127

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 8.1 Space Maneuvers

Astronauts heading for the International Space Station find them-
selves in the right circular orbit, but well behind the station. How
should they maneuver to catch up?
EVALUATE To catch up, the astronauts will have to go faster than the
space station. That means increasing their kinetic energy—and, as
we’ve just seen, that corresponds to lowering their total energy. So
they’ll need to drop into a lower orbit.
Figure 8.13 shows the catch-up sequence. The astronauts fire their
rocket backward, decreasing their energy and dropping briefly into a
lower-energy elliptical orbit. They then fire their rocket to circularize (a)
the orbit. Now they’re in a lower-energy but faster orbit than the space
station. When they’re correctly positioned, they fire their rocket to
boost themselves into a higher-energy elliptical orbit, then fire again
to circularize that orbit in the vicinity of the station.
ASSESS Our solution sounds counterintuitive—as if a car, to speed
up, had to apply its brakes. But that’s what’s needed here, thanks to
the interplay between kinetic and potential energy in circular orbits.

MAKING THE CONNECTION Suppose the astronauts reach the

space station’s 380-km altitude, but find themselves one-fourth of an
orbit behind the station. If the maneuver described above drops their (b)
spacecraft into a 320-km circular orbit, how many orbits must they
FIGURE 8.13 Playing catch-up with the space station.
make before catching up with the station? Neglect the time involved
in transferring between circular orbits.
EVALUATE Applying Equation 8.4 gives periods T1 5 92.0 min for
the space station and T2 5 90.8 min for the astronauts in their lower
orbit. So with each orbit the astronauts gain 1.2 min on the station.
They’ve got to make up one-fourth of an orbit, or 23 min. That will
take 123 min2/11.2 min/orbit2 5 19 orbits, or just over a day.

GOT IT? 8.3 Two identical spacecraft A and B are in circular orbits about Earth, with
B at a higher altitude. Which of the following statements are true? (a) B has greater total
energy; (b) B is moving faster; (c) B takes longer to complete its orbit; (d) B has greater
potential energy; (e) a larger proportion of B’s total energy is potential energy.

8.5 The Gravitational Field

Our description of gravity so far suggests that a massive body like Earth somehow
“reaches out” across empty space to pull on objects like falling apples, satellites, or the
Moon. This view—called action-at-a-distance—has bothered both physicists and
philosophers for centuries. How can the Moon, for example, “know” about the presence
of the distant Earth?
An alternative view holds that Earth creates a gravitational field and that objects re-
spond to the field in their immediate vicinity. The field is described by vectors that give
the force per unit mass that would arise at each point if a mass were placed there. Near
Earth’s surface, for instance, the gravitational field vectors point vertically downward and
have magnitude 9.8 N/kg. We can express this field vectorially by writing
!
g 5 2g/^ 1gravitational field near Earth’s surface2 (8.9)
128 Chapter 8 Gravity

(a) (b)

FIGURE 8.14 Gravitational field vectors at points (a) near Earth’s surface and (b) on a larger scale.

More generally, the field points toward a spherical gravitating center, and its strength
decreases inversely with the square of the distance:
! GM
g 5 2 2 r^ 1gravitational field of a spherical mass M2 (8.10)
r
where r^ is a unit vector that points radially outward. Figure 8.14 shows pictorial represen-
tations of Equations 8.9 and 8.10. You can show that the units of gravitational field (N/kg)
are equivalent to those of acceleration 1m/s22, so the field is really just a vectorial repre-
sentation of g, the local acceleration of gravity.
What do we gain by this field description? As long as we deal with situations where
nothing changes, the action-at-a-distance and field descriptions are equivalent. But what
if, for example, Earth suddenly gains mass? How does the Moon know to adjust its orbit?
Under the field view, its orbit doesn’t change immediately; instead, it takes a small but
nonzero time for the information about the more massive Earth to propagate out to the
Moon. The Moon always responds to the gravitational field in its immediate vicinity, and
it takes a short time for the field itself to change. That description is consistent with Ein-
stein’s notion that instantaneous transmission of information is impossible; the action-
at-a-distance view is not.
More generally, the field view provides a powerful way of describing interactions in
physics. We’ll see fields again when we study electricity and magnetism, and you’ll find
that fields aren’t just mathematical or philosophical conveniences but are every bit as real
as matter itself.

APPLICATION Tides

If the gravitational field were uniform, all parts of a freely falling object would low tides a day. Tidal forces also cause internal heating of satellites like
experience exactly the same acceleration. But gravity does vary, and the result Jupiter’s moon Io and contribute to the formation of planetary rings.
is a force—not from gravity itself but from changes in gravity with position—
Force is weakest . . . and greatest
that tends to stretch or compress an object. Ocean tides result from this tidal
on the far on the near
force, as the nonuniform gravitational forces of Sun and Moon stretch the ocean . . . ocean.
oceans and create bulges that move across Earth as the planet rotates. The fig-
ure shows that the greatest force is on the ocean nearest the Moon, causing one
tidal bulge. The solid Earth experiences an intermediate force, pulling it away Moon
from the ocean on the far side. The water that’s “left behind” forms a second
bulge opposite the Moon. The bulges shown are highly exaggerated. Further- Earth
more, shoreline effects and the differing relative positions of the Moon and Sun This results in
complicate this simple picture that suggests two equal high tides and two equal two tidal bulges.
CHAPTER 8 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is universal gravitation—an attractive force that acts between all matter
with a strength that depends directly on the product of two interacting masses and inversely
on the square of the distance between them. Gravitation is responsible for the familiar
behavior of falling objects and also for the orbits of planets and satellites. Depending on
energy, orbits may be closed (elliptical/circular) or open (hyperbolic/parabolic).
Closed Borderline
Gravity governs Open
(ellipse/ (parabola)
both the falling (hyperbola)
circle)
apple and the
orbiting Moon.

Key Concepts and Equations

Mathematically, Newton’s law of universal gravitation describes the attractive force F between two r r
masses m1 and m2 located a distance r apart: m1
F F
m2
Gm1 m2
F5 1universal gravitation2 r
r2
This equation applies to point masses of negligible size and to spherically symmetric masses of any size. It’s an excellent approximation for any
objects whose size is much smaller than their separation. In all cases, r is measured from the centers of the gravitating objects.

Because the strength of gravity varies with distance, potential-energy changes over large distances Distance, r
aren’t just a product of force and distance. Integration shows that the potential energy change DU U50
involved in moving a mass m originally a distance r1 from the center of a mass M to a distance r2 is

Potential energy, U
It would take this
1 1
DU 5 GMm a 2 b 1change in potential energy2 much energy for
r1 r2 the satellite to
escape infinitely
With gravity, it’s convenient to choose the zero of potential energy at infinity; then far from Earth.
r
GMm
U52 1potential energy, U 5 0 at infinity2
r
Satellite
for the potential energy of a mass m located a distance r from the center of a mass M. Earth
The satellite’s potential
energy is negative.

Applications
A total energy—kinetic plus potential—of zero marks the dividing Circular orbits are readily analyzed using Newton’s laws and concepts
line between closed and open orbits. An object located a distance r from circular motion. A circular orbit of radius r about a mass M has a
from a gravitating mass M must have at least the escape speed to period given by
achieve an open orbit and escape M’s vicinity forever:
4p2 r3
T2 5
2GM GM
vesc 5
A r
Its kinetic and potential energies are related by U 5 22K. Total
energy is negative, as appropriate for a closed orbit, and the object
The gravitational field concept actually moves faster the lower its total energy.
provides a way to describe gravity Gravitational field
that avoids the troublesome action-
at-a-distance. A gravitating mass r A special orbit is the geosynchronous orbit, parallel to Earth’s equa-
F
creates a field in the space around tor at an altitude of about 36,000 km. Here the orbital period is 24 h, so
it, and a second mass responds to a satellite in geosynchronous orbit appears from Earth’s surface to
Force arises from field be fixed in the sky. TV, communications, and weather satellites use
the field in its immediate vicinity. at Moon’s location. geosynchronous orbits.
130 Chapter 8 Gravity

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 22. An astronaut hits a golf ball horizontally from the top of a lunar
mountain so fast that it goes into circular orbit. What’s its orbital
1. What do Newton’s apple and the Moon have in common? period?
2. Explain the difference between G and g. 23. The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter circles the red planet with a
3. When you stand on Earth, the distance between you and Earth is 112-min period. What’s the spacecraft’s altitude?
zero. So why isn’t the gravitational force infinite? Section 8.4 Gravitational Energy
4. The force of gravity on an object is proportional to the object’s
24. Earth’s distance from the Sun varies from 147 Gm at perihelion
mass, yet all objects fall with the same gravitational acceleration.
to 152 Gm at aphelion because its orbit isn’t quite circular. Find
Why?
the change in potential energy as Earth goes from perihelion to
5. A friend who knows nothing about physics asks what keeps an
aphelion.
orbiting satellite from falling to Earth. Give an answer that will
25. So-called suborbital missions take scientific instruments into
satisfy your friend.
space for brief periods without the expense of getting into orbit;
6. Could you put a satellite in an orbit that keeps it stationary over
their trajectories are often simple “up and down” vertical paths.
the south pole? Explain.
How much energy does it take to launch a 230-kg instrument on
7. Why are satellites generally launched eastward and from low
a vertical trajectory that peaks at 1800 km altitude?
latitudes? (Hint: Think about Earth’s rotation.)
26. A rocket is launched vertically upward from Earth’s surface at
8. Given Earth’s mass, the Moon’s distance and orbital period, and
5.1 km/s. What’s its maximum altitude?
the value of G, could you calculate the Moon’s mass? If yes,
27. What vertical launch speed is necessary to get a rocket to an alti-
how? If no, why not?
tude of 1100 km?
9. How should a satellite be launched so that its orbit takes it over
28. Find the energy necessary to put 1 kg, initially at rest on Earth’s
every point on the (rotating) Earth?
surface, into geosynchronous orbit.
10. Does the gravitational force of the Sun do work on a planet in a
29. What’s the total mechanical energy associated with Earth’s
circular orbit? In an elliptical orbit? Explain.
orbital motion?
30. The escape speed from a planet of mass 2.9 3 1024 kg is
7.1 km/s. Find the planet’s radius.
Exercises and Problems 31. Determine escape speeds from (a) Jupiter’s moon Callisto and
Exercises (b) a neutron star, with the Sun’s mass crammed into a sphere of
radius 6.0 km. See Appendix E for relevant data.
Section 8.2 Universal Gravitation 32. To what radius would Earth have to shrink, with no change in
11. Space explorers land on a planet that has the same mass as Earth, mass, for escape speed at its surface to be 30 km/s?
but find they weigh twice as much as they would on Earth. What’s
the planet’s radius? Problems
12. Use data for the Moon’s orbit from Appendix E to compute the 33. The gravitational acceleration at a planet’s surface is 22.5 m/s2.
Moon’s acceleration in its circular orbit, and verify that the result Find the acceleration at an altitude equal to half the planet’s
is consistent with Newton’s law of gravitation. radius.
13. To what fraction of its current radius would Earth have to shrink 34. One of the longest-standing athletic records is Cuban Javier
(with no change in mass) for the gravitational acceleration at its BIO Sotomayor’s 2.45-m high jump. How high could Sotomayor
surface to triple? jump on (a) Mars and (b) Earth’s Moon?
14. Calculate the gravitational acceleration at the surface of (a) Mer- 35. You’re the navigator on a spaceship studying an unexplored
cury and (b) Saturn’s moon Titan. planet. Your ship has just gone into a circular orbit around the
15. Two identical lead spheres with their centers 14 cm apart attract planet, and you determine that the gravitational acceleration at
each other with a 0.25-mN force. Find their mass. your orbital altitude is half what it would be at the surface. What
16. What’s the approximate value of the gravitational force between do you report for your altitude, in terms of the planet’s radius?
a 67-kg astronaut and a 73,000-kg spacecraft when they’re 84 m 36. If you’re standing on the ground 15 m directly below the center
apart? of a spherical water tank containing 4 3 106 kg of water, by what
17. A sensitive gravimeter is carried to the top of Chicago’s Willis fraction is your weight reduced due to the water’s gravitational
(formerly Sears) Tower, where its reading for the acceleration of attraction?
gravity is 1.36 mm/s2 lower than at street level. Find the build- 37. Given the Moon’s orbital radius of 384,400 km and period of
ing’s height. 27.3 days, calculate its acceleration in its circular orbit, and
compare with the acceleration of gravity at Earth’s surface.
Section 8.3 Orbital Motion Show that the Moon’s acceleration is lower by the ratio of the
18. At what altitude will a satellite complete a circular orbit of Earth square of Earth’s radius to the square of the Moon’s orbital
in 2.0 h? radius, thus confirming the inverse-square law for the gravita-
19. Find the speed of a satellite in geosynchronous orbit. tional force.
20. Mars’s orbit has a diameter 1.52 times that of Earth’s orbit. How 38. Equation 7.8 relates force to the derivative of potential energy.
long does it take Mars to orbit the Sun? Use this fact to differentiate Equation 8.6 for gravitational
21. Calculate the orbital period for Jupiter’s moon Io, which orbits potential energy, and show that you recover Newton’s law of
4.223105 km from the planet’s center. gravitation.
 Exercises and Problems 131

39. During the Apollo Moon landings, one astronaut remained with closest approach. (c) Will the second meteoroid ever return to
the command module in lunar orbit, about 130 km above the sur- Earth’s vicinity?
face. For half of each orbit, this astronaut was completely cut off
from the rest of humanity as the spacecraft rounded the far side 8500 km
of the Moon. How long did this period last?
40. A white dwarf is a collapsed star with roughly the Sun’s mass
compressed into the size of Earth. What would be (a) the orbital
speed and (b) the orbital period for a spaceship in orbit just above
the surface of a white dwarf?
41. Given that our Sun orbits the galaxy with a period of 200 My
at 2.6 31020 m from the galactic center, estimate the galaxy’s FIGURE 8.15 Problem 52
mass. Assume (incorrectly) that the galaxy is essentially spher-
53. Neglecting Earth’s rotation, show that the energy needed to
ical and that most of its mass lies interior to the Sun’s orbit.
launch a satellite of mass m into circular orbit at altitude h is
42. You’re preparing an exhibit for the Golf Hall of Fame, and you
GMEm RE 1 2h
realize that the longest golf shot in history was Astronaut Alan a ba b.
Shepard’s lunar drive. Shepard, swinging single-handed with a RE 21RE 1 h2
golf club attached to a lunar sample scoop, claimed his ball went 54. A projectile is launched vertically upward from a planet of mass
“miles and miles.” The record for a single-handed golf shot on M and radius R; its initial speed is twice the escape speed. Derive
Earth is 257 m. Could Shepard’s ball really have gone “miles and an expression for its speed as a function of the distance r from
miles”? Assume the ball’s initial speed is independent of gravita- the planet’s center.
tional acceleration. 55. A spacecraft is in circular orbit 5500 km above Earth’s surface.
43. Exact solutions for gravitational problems involving more than How much will its altitude decrease if it moves to a new circular
two bodies are notoriously difficult. One solvable problem in- orbit where (a) its orbital speed is 10% higher or (b) its orbital
volves a configuration of three equal-mass objects spaced in an period is 10% shorter?
equilateral triangle. Forces due to their mutual gravitation cause 56. Two meteoroids are 160,000 km from Earth’s center and heading
the configuration to rotate. Suppose three identical stars, each straight toward Earth, one at 10 km/s, the other at 20 km/s. At
of mass M, form a triangle of side L. Find an expression for the what speeds will they strike Earth?
period of their orbital motion. 57. Two rockets are launched from Earth’s surface, one at 12 km/s
44. Satellites A and B are in circular orbits, with A twice as far from and the other at 18 km/s. How fast is each moving when it
Earth’s center as B. How do their orbital periods compare? crosses the Moon’s orbit?
45. The asteroid Pasachoff orbits the Sun with period 1417 days. 58. A satellite is in an elliptical orbit at altitudes ranging from 230 to
Find the semimajor axis of its orbit from Kepler’s third law. Use 890 km. At its highest point, it’s moving at 7.23 km/s. How fast
Earth’s orbital radius and period, respectively, as your units of is it moving at its lowest point?
distance and time. 59. A missile’s trajectory takes it to a maximum altitude of 1200 km.
46. We still don’t have a permanent solution for the disposal of ra- If its launch speed is 6.1 km/s, how fast is it moving at the peak
dioactive waste. As a nuclear waste specialist with the Depart- of its trajectory?
ment of Energy, you’re asked to evaluate a proposal to shoot 60. A 720-kg spacecraft has total energy 20.53 TJ and is in circular
waste canisters into the Sun. You need to report the speed at orbit around the Sun. Find (a) its orbital radius, (b) its kinetic en-
which a canister, dropped from rest in the vicinity of Earth’s ergy, and (c) its speed.
orbit, would hit the Sun. What’s your answer? 61. Mercury’s orbital speed varies from 38.8 km/s at aphelion to
47. At perihelion in February 1986, Comet Halley was 8.79 3107 km 59.0 km/s at perihelion. If the planet is 6.99 31010 m from the
from the Sun and was moving at 54.6 km/s. What was Halley’s Sun’s center at aphelion, how far is it at perihelion?
speed when it crossed Neptune’s orbit in 2006? 62. Show that the form DU 5 mg Dr follows from Equation 8.5
48. Neglecting air resistance, to what height would you have to fire a when r1 . r2. [Hint: Write r2 5 r1 1 Dr and apply the binomial
rocket for the constant-acceleration equations of Chapter 2 to approximation (Appendix A).]
give a height in error by 1%? Would those equations overesti- 63. Two satellites are in geosynchronous orbit but in diametrically
mate or underestimate the height? opposite positions (Fig. 8.16). In order to catch up with the
49. Show that an object released from rest very far from Earth other, one satellite descends into a lower circular orbit (see
reaches Earth’s surface at essentially escape speed.
50. By what factor must an object’s speed in circular orbit be in-
creased to reach escape speed from its orbital altitude?
51. You’re in charge of tracking celestial objects that might pose a
danger to Earth. Astronomers have discovered a new comet that’s
moving at 45 km/s as it crosses Earth’s orbit. Determine whether
the comet will again return to Earth’s vicinity.
52. Two meteoroids are 250,000 km from Earth’s center and mov-
ing at 2.1 km/s. One is headed straight for Earth, while the
other is on a path that will come within 8500 km of Earth’s
center (Fig. 8.15). Find the speed (a) of the first meteoroid
when it strikes Earth and (b) of the second meteoroid at its FIGURE 8.16 Problem 63
132 Chapter 8 Gravity

Conceptual Example 8.1 for a description of this maneuver). GPS receivers. GPS satellites are in circular orbits at 20,200 km
How far should it descend if it’s to catch up in 10 orbits? altitude.
Neglect rocket firing times and time spent moving between the
two circular orbits.
64. We derived Equation 8.4 on the assumption that the massive
gravitating center remains fixed. Now consider two objects with
equal mass M orbiting each other, as shown in Fig. 8.17. Show
that the orbital period is given by T2 5 2p2d3/GM, where d is 20,200 km
the distance between the objects.

FIGURE 8.18 GPS satellites (Passage Problems 70–73)

70. What’s the approximate orbital period of GPS satellites?

a. 90 min
b. 8 h
c. 12 h
FIGURE 8.17 Problem 64 d. 24 h
e. 1 week
65. Tidal effects in the Earth-Moon system cause the Moon’s
71. What’s the approximate speed of GPS satellites?
orbital period to increase at a current rate of about 35 ms per
a. 9.8 m/s
century. Assuming the Moon’s orbit is circular, to what rate of
b. 500 m/s
change in the Earth-Moon distance does this correspond?
c. 1.7 km/s
(Hint: Differentiate Kepler’s third law, Equation 8.4, and con-
d. 4 km/s
sult Appendix E.)
e. 12 km/s
66. As a member of the 2040 Olympic committee, you’re consider-
BIO ing a new sport: asteroid jumping. On Earth, world-class high 72. What’s the approximate escape speed at GPS orbital distance?
jumpers routinely clear 2 m. Your job is to make sure athletes a. 4 km/s
jumping from asteroids will return to the asteroid. Make the sim- b. 5.5 km/s
plifying assumption that asteroids are spherical, with average c. 6.3 km/s
density 2500 kg/m3. For safety, make sure even a jumper capable d. 9.8 km/s
of 3 m on Earth will return to the surface. What do you report for e. 11 km/s
the minimum asteroid diameter? 73. The current generation of GPS satellites has masses of 844 kg.
67. The Olympic Committee is keeping you busy! You’re now asked What’s the approximate total energy of such a satellite?
to consider a proposal for lunar hockey. The record speed for a a. 6 GJ
hockey puck is 168 km/h. Is there any danger that hockey pucks b. 3 GJ
will go into lunar orbit? c. 23 GJ
68. Tidal forces are proportional to the variation in gravity with posi- d. 26 GJ
tion. By differentiating Equation 8.1, estimate the ratio of the e. 28 GJ
tidal forces due to the Sun and the Moon. Compare your answer
with the ratio of the gravitational forces that the Sun and Moon
exert on Earth. Use data from Appendix E.
Answers to Chapter Questions
69. Spacecraft that study the Sun are often placed at the so-called L1
C Lagrange point, located sunward of Earth on the Sun-Earth line. Answer to Chapter Opening Question
L1 is the point where Earth’s and Sun’s gravity together produce The satellite orbits Earth in 24 hours, so from Earth’s surface it ap-
an orbital period of one year, so that a spacecraft at L1 stays fixed pears at a fixed position in the sky.
relative to Earth as both planet and spacecraft orbit the Sun. This
Answers to GOT IT? Questions
placement ensures an uninterrupted view of the Sun, without be-
ing periodically eclipsed by Earth as would occur in Earth orbit. 8.1. (d) Quadrupled. If the original distance were r, the original force
Find L1’s location relative to Earth. (Hint: This problem calls would be proportional to 1/r2. At half that distance, the force is
for numerical methods or solving a higher-order polynomial proportional to 1/1r/222 5 4/r2.
equation.) 8.2. Hyperbolic . parabolic . elliptical . circular.
8.3. (a), (c), and (d). Since B has higher total energy, it must have
Passage Problems lower kinetic energy and is therefore moving slower. B is farther
from the gravitating body, so its potential energy is higher—still
The Global Positioning System (GPS) uses a “constellation” of
negative, but less so than A’s. For circular orbits, the ratio of po-
some 30 satellites to provide accurate positioning for any point on
tential energy to total energy is always the same—namely,
Earth (Fig. 8.18). GPS receivers time radio signals traveling at the
U 5 2E.
speed of light from three of the satellites to find the receiver’s posi-
tion. Signals from one or more additional satellites provide correc-
tions, eliminating the need for high-accuracy clocks in individual
 9 Systems of Particles

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Find the center of mass of systems of
individual particles and of continu-
ous distributions of matter (9.1).
■ Explain the principle of momentum
conservation, and apply it to systems
of particles (9.2).
■ Describe the difference between
inelastic and elastic collisions, and
apply the appropriate conservation
laws to analyze each (9.4–9.6).
As the skier flies through the air, most parts of his body
follow complex trajectories. But one special point follows
a parabola. What’s that point, and why is it special?

S o far we’ve treated objects as point particles, ignoring the fact that most objects are com-
posed of smaller parts. Here we deal explicitly with systems of many particles. These include
rigid bodies—objects such as baseballs, cars, and planets whose constituent particles are stuck
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ The material in this chapter draws
largely on the concept of momentum,
together in fixed orientations—as well as systems like human bodies, exploding fireworks, or introduced in Chapter 4 (4.2).
flowing rivers, whose parts move relative to one another. In subsequent chapters we’ll look at ■ Momentum is intimately connected
specific instances of many-particle systems, including the rotational motion of rigid bodies with Newton’s second and third laws,
(Chapter 10) and the behavior of fluids (Chapter 15). also introduced in Chapter 4 (4.2, 4.6).

9.1 Center of Mass

The motion of the skier in the photo above is complex, with each part of his body moving
on a different path. But the superimposed curve shows one point following the parabola we
expect of a projectile (Section 3.5). This point is the center of mass, an average position of
all the mass making up the skier. Since the net force on the skier as a! whole is gravity, the
!
photo suggests that the center of mass obeys Newton’s second law, Fnet 5 Ma cm, where M
!
is the skier’s total mass and a cm is the acceleration of the center of mass. (We’ll use the sub-
script cm for quantities associated with the center of mass.) To ! find the! center of! mass, we
therefore need to locate a point whose acceleration obeys Fnet 5 Ma cm, with Fnet the net
force on the entire system.

133
134 Chapter 9 Systems of Particles

Consider a system of many particles. To find the center of mass, we want an equa-
tion like Newton’s second law that involves the total mass of the system and the net
force on the entire system. If we apply Newton’s second law to the ith particle in the
system, we have
! !
! ! d2 ri d2mi ri
Fi 5 mi a i 5 mi 2 5
dt dt2
!
where Fi is the net force on the particle, mi is its mass, and we’ve written the acceleration
! !
a i as the second derivative of the position ri . The total force on the system is the sum of
the forces acting on all N particles. We write this sum compactly using the summation
symbol g:
!
! N ! N
d2mi ri
Ftotal 5 a Fi 5 a
i51 i51 dt2
where the sum runs over all particles composing the system, from i 5 1 to N. But the sum
of derivatives is the derivative of the sum, so
!
! d2 A a mi ri B
Ftotal 5
dt2
We can now put this equation in the form of Newton’s second law. Multiplying and divid-
ing the right-hand side by the total mass M 5 g mi, and distributing this constant M
through the differentiation, we have
!
! d2 a mi ri
Ftotal 5 M 2 a b (9.1)
dt M
Equation 9.1 has a form like Newton’s law applied to the total mass if we define
!
! a mi ri
rcm 5 1center of mass2 (9.2)
M
!
Then the derivative in Equation 9.1 becomes d2 rcm /dt2, !which we recognize as the center-
! !
of-mass acceleration, a cm. So now Equation 9.1 reads Ftotal 5 M a cm. This is almost New-
ton’s law—but not quite, because the force here is the sum of all the forces acting on all
the particles of the system, and we want just the net ! external force—the net force applied
from outside the system. We can write the force Ftotal as
! ! !
Ftotal 5 a Fext 1 a Fint
! !
where g Fext is the sum of all the external forces and g Fint the sum of the internal forces.
According to Newton’s third law, each of the internal forces has an equal but oppositely
directed force
! that itself acts on a particle of the system and is therefore included in the
sum g Fint. (Each external force is also part of a third-law pair, but forces paired with the
external forces act outside the system and therefore aren’t included ! !in the sum.) Added
!
vectorially, the internal forces therefore cancel in pairs, so g Fint 5 0, and the force Ftotal
!
in Equation 9.1 is just the net external force applied to the system. So the point rcm defined
in Equation 9.2 does obey Newton’s law, written in the form
!
! ! d2 rcm
Fnet ext 5 M a cm 5 M (9.3)
dt2
!
where Fnet ext is the net external force applied to the system and M is the total mass.
!
We’ve defined the center of mass rcm so we can apply Newton’s second law to the entire
system rather than to each individual particle. As far as its overall motion is concerned, a
complex system acts as though all its mass were concentrated at the center of mass.
 9.1 Center of Mass 135

Finding the Center of Mass

Equation 9.2 shows that the center-of-mass position is an average of the positions of the in-
dividual particles, weighted by their masses. For a one-dimensional system, Equation 9.2
becomes xcm 5 g mi xi /M; in two and three dimensions, there are similar equations for
the center-of-mass coordinates ycm and zcm. Finding the center of mass (CM) is a matter of
establishing a coordinate system and then using the components of Equation 9.2.

EXAMPLE 9.1 CM in One Dimension: Weightlifting

Find the center of mass of a barbell consisting of 50-kg and 80-kg Our plan is then to find the center-of-mass coordinate xcm using our
weights at the opposite ends of a 1.5-m-long bar of negligible mass. one-dimensional version of Equation 9.2.

INTERPRET This is a problem about center of mass. We identify the EVALUATE With x 5 0 at the left end of the barbell, the coordinate of
system as consisting of two “particles”—namely, the two weights. the 80-kg mass is x2 5 1.5 m. So our equation becomes
m1x1 1 m2x2 m2x2 180 kg211.5 m2
DEVELOP Figure 9.1 shows the barbell. Here, with just two particles, we xcm 5 5 5 5 0.92 m
! ! m1 1 m2 m1 1 m2 150 kg 1 80 kg2
have a one-dimensional situation and Equation 9.2, rcm 5 g mi ri /M,
becomes xcm 5 1m1x1 1 m2x22/1m1 1 m22. Before we can apply this where the equation simplified because of our choice x1 5 0.
equation, however, we need a coordinate system. Of course, any co-
ordinate system will do—but a smart choice makes the math easier. ASSESS As Fig. 9.1 shows, this result makes sense: The center of
Let’s take x 5 0 at the 50-kg mass, so the term m1x1 becomes zero. mass is closer to the heavier weight. If the weights had been equal, the
center of mass would have been right in the middle.

✓TIP Choosing the Origin

Choosing the origin at one of the masses here conveniently makes
one of the terms in the sum g mi xi zero. But, as always, the choice
of origin is purely for convenience and doesn’t influence the actual
physical location of the center of mass. Exercise 14 demonstrates
this point, repeating Example 9.1 with a different origin.

FIGURE 9.1 Our sketch of the barbell. ■

EXAMPLE 9.2 CM in Two Dimensions: A Space Station

Figure 9.2 shows a space station consisting of three modules arranged INTERPRET We’re after the center of mass of the system consisting of
in an equilateral triangle, connected by struts of length L and of negli- the three modules.
gible mass. Two modules have mass m, the other 2m. Find the center
of mass. DEVELOP Figure 9.2 is our drawing. We’ll use Equation 9.2,
! !
rcm 5 g mi ri /M, to find the center-of-mass coordinates xcm and ycm.
A sensible coordinate system has the origin at the module with mass
2m and the y-axis downward, as shown in Fig. 9.2.

EVALUATE Labeling the modules from left to right, we see that

x1 5 2L sin 30° 5 212 L, y1 5 L cos 30° 5 L13/2; x2 5 y2 5 0;
and x3 5 2x1 5 12 L, y3 5 y1 5 L13/2. Writing explicitly the x- and
y-components of Equation 9.2 for this case gives
mx1 1 mx3 m1x1 2 x12
xcm 5 5 50
4m 4m
my1 1 my3 2my1 1 13
ycm 5 5 5 y1 5 L . 0.43L
4m 4m 2 4
Although there are three “particles” here, our choice of coordinate
system left only two nonzero terms in the numerator, both associated
with the same mass m. The more massive module is still in the prob-
lem, though; its mass 2m contributes to make the total mass M in the
FIGURE 9.2 Our sketch of the space station. denominator equal to 4m.
(continued)
136 Chapter 9 Systems of Particles

ASSESS That xcm 5 0 is apparent from symmetry (more on this in the ✓TIP Exploit Symmetries
following Tip). How about the result for ycm? We have 2m at the top of
the triangle, and m 1 m 5 2m at the bottom—so shouldn’t the center It’s no accident that xcm here lies on the vertical line that bisects the
of mass lie midway up the triangle? It does! Expressing the center of triangle; after all, the triangle is symmetric about that line, so its mass
mass in terms of the triangle side L obscures this fact. The triangle’s is distributed evenly on either side. Exploit symmetry whenever you
height is h 5 L cos 30° 5 L13/2, and our answer for ycm is indeed can; that can save you a lot of computation throughout physics!
half this value. We marked the CM on Fig. 9.2.
■

6mi
Continuous Distributions of Matter
We’ve expressed the center of mass as a sum over individual particles. Ultimately, matter is
composed of individual particles. But it’s often convenient to consider that it’s continuously
distributed; we don’t want to deal with 1023 atoms to find the center of mass of a macro-
scopic object! We can consider continuous matter to be composed of individual pieces of
rri !
mass Dmi, with position vectors ri ; we call these pieces mass elements (Fig. 9.3). The cen-
! !
ter of mass of the entire chunk is then given by Equation 9.2: rcm 5 A g Dmi ri B /M, where
0 Origin is arbitrary. M 5 g Dmi is the total mass. In the limit as the mass elements become arbitrarily small,
this expression becomes an integral:
FIGURE 9.3 A chunk of continuous matter,
! !
showing one mass element Dmi and its
! ! a Dmi ri # r dm center of mass,
position vector r i. rcm 5 lim 5 a continuous matter b (9.4)
Dmi S 0 M M

where the integration is over the entire object. Like the sum in Equation 9.2, the integral
!
of the vector r stands for three separate integrals for the components of the center-of-mass
position.

EXAMPLE 9.3 Continuous Matter: An Aircraft Wing

A supersonic aircraft wing is an isosceles triangle of length L, width w, symmetry. The x-component of Equation 9.4 is xcm 5 A #x dm B /M.
and negligible thickness. It has mass M, distributed uniformly over the Developing a plan for dealing with an integral like this requires some
wing. Where’s its center of mass? thought; we’ll first do the work and then summarize the general steps
involved.
INTERPRET Here the matter is distributed continuously, so we need to Our goal is to find an appropriate mass element dm in terms of the
integrate to find the center of mass. We identify an axis of symmetry infinitesimal coordinate interval dx. As shown in Fig. 9.4, here it’s
through the wing, which we designate the x-axis. By symmetry, the easiest to use a vertical strip of width dx. Each such strip has a differ-
center of mass lies along this x-axis, so ycm 5 0 and we’ll need to cal- ent height h, depending on its position x. If we choose a coordinate
culate only xcm. system with origin at the wing apex, then, as you can see from the
figure, the height grows linearly from 0 at x 5 0 to w at x 5 L. So
DEVELOP Figure 9.4 shows the wing. Equation 9.4 applies, and we
h 5 1w/L2x. Now the strip is infinitesimally narrow, so the sloping
need only the x-component because the y-component is evident from edges don’t matter and its area is that of a very thin rectangle—
namely, h dx 5 1w/L2x dx. The strip’s mass dm is then the same frac-
Here’s a typical mass tion of the total wing mass M as its area is of the total wing area 21 wL;
element; in reality its that is,
width dx is infinitesimally
small. dm 1w/L2x dx 2x dx
5 5
M 1
2
wL L2
so dm 5 2Mx dx/L2.
In the integral we weight each mass element dm by its distance x
from the origin, and then sum—that is, integrate—over all mass ele-
ments. So, from Equation 9.4, we have
L L
1 1 2Mx 2
xcm 5 x dm 5 3 x a 2 dx b 5 2 3 x2 dx
The height h of
M3 M 0 L L 0
a mass element As always, constants can come outside the integral. We set the limits
depends on its position, x. 0 and L to cover all the mass elements in the wing. Now we’re finally
ready to find xcm.
FIGURE 9.4 Our sketch of the supersonic aircraft wing.
 9.1 Center of Mass 137

EVALUATE The hard part is done. All that’s left is to evaluate the integral: ASSESS Make sense? Yes. Our answer puts the center of mass toward
L L
2 2 x3 2L3 2 the back of the wing where, because of its increasing width, most of
xcm 5 2 3 x 2 dx 5 2 2 5 2 5 L the mass lies. In a complicated calculation like this one, it’s reassuring
L 0 L 3 0 3L 3
to see that the answer is a quantity with the units of length. ■

TACTICS 9.1 Setting Up an Integral

An integral like #x dm can be confusing because you see both x and dm after the integral sign and they don’t
seem related. But they are, and here’s how to proceed:
1. Find a suitable shape for your mass elements, preferably one that exploits any symmetry in the situa-
tion. One dimension of the elements should involve an infinitesimal interval in one of the coordinates
x, y, or z. In Example 9.3, the mass elements were strips, symmetric about the wing’s centerline and
with width dx.
2. Find an expression for the infinitesimal area of your mass elements (in a one-dimensional problem it
would be the length; in a three-dimensional problem, the volume). In Example 9.3, the infinitesimal
area of each mass element was the strip height h multiplied by the width dx. CMfuselage
3. Form ratios that relate the infinitesimal coordinate interval to the physical quantity in the integral—
which in Example 9.3 is the mass element dm. Here we formed the ratio of the area of a mass element ^ CMplane
to the total area, and equated that to the ratio of dm to the total mass M. CMwing
4. Solve your ratio statement for the infinitesimal quantity, in this case dm, that appears in your integral.
Then you’re ready to evaluate the integral.
Sometimes you’ll be given a density—mass per volume, per area, or per length—and then in place of
steps 3 and 4 you find dm by multiplying the density by the infinitesimal volume, area, or length you identi-
fied in step 2.
Although we described this procedure in the context of Example 9.3, it also applies to other integrals FIGURE 9.5 The center of mass of the airplane is
you’ll encounter in different areas of physics. found by treating the wing and fuselage as
point particles located at their respective
centers of mass.

With more complex objects, it’s convenient to find the centers of mass of sub-parts
and then treat those as point particles to find the center of mass of the entire object
(Fig. 9.5).
The center of mass need not lie within an object, as Fig. 9.6 shows. High jumpers
exploit this fact as they straddle the bar with arms and legs dangling on either side
(Fig. 9.7). Although the jumper’s entire body clears the bar, his center of mass doesn’t
need to! A

B
GOT IT? 9.1 A thick wire is bent into a semicircle, as shown in Fig. 9.6. Which of C
the points shown is the center of mass? FIGURE 9.6 Got it? The center of mass lies outside
the semicircular wire, but which point is it?

CM position at the
peak of the jump ^

CM’s
trajectory

FIGURE 9.7 A high jumper clears the bar, but his center of mass doesn’t!
138 Chapter 9 Systems of Particles

Motion of the Center of Mass

! !
We! defined the center of mass so its motion obeys Newton’s law F net ext 5 M a cm, with
Fnet ext the net external force on the system and M the total mass. When gravity is the only
external force, the center of mass follows the trajectory of a point particle. But if the net
!
external force is zero, then the center-of-mass acceleration a cm is also zero, and the center
of mass moves with constant velocity. In the special case of a system at rest, the center of
mass remains at rest despite any motions of its internal parts.

EXAMPLE 9.4 CM Motion: Circus Train

Jumbo, a 4.8-t elephant, stands near one end of a 15-t railcar at rest on two-object form we used in Example 9.1: xcm 5 1mJ xJ 1 mc xc2/M,
a frictionless horizontal track. (Here t is for tonne, or metric ton, equal where we use the subscripts J and c for Jumbo and the car, respectively,
to 1000 kg.) Jumbo walks 19 m toward the other end of the car. How and where M is the total mass. We have a before/after situation in which
far does the car move? the CM position can’t change, so we’ll write two versions of this expres-
sion, before and after Jumbo’s walk. We’ll then set them equal to state
INTERPRET We’re asked about the car’s motion, but we can interpret mathematically that the CM itself doesn’t move.
this problem as being fundamentally about the center of mass. We We chose the coordinates so that xci 5 0, where i designates the
identify the relevant system as comprising Jumbo and the car. Because initial state, so our initial expression is xcm 5 mJ xJi /M. After Jumbo’s
there’s no net external force acting on the system, its center of mass walk, our final expression is xcm 5 1mJ xJf 1 mc xcf2/M, with f for
can’t move. final. We don’t know either coordinate here, but we do know that
Jumbo walks 19 m with respect to the car. The elephant’s final posi-
DEVELOP Figure 9.8a shows the initial situation. The symmetric car has
tion xJf is therefore 19 m to the right of xJi, adjusted by the car’s dis-
its CM at its center (here we care only about the x-component). Let’s placement. Therefore Jumbo ends up at xJf 5 xJi 1 19 m 1 xcf. You
take a coordinate system with x 5 0 at this point—that is, at the initial might think we need a minus sign because the car moves to the left.
location of the car’s center. After the car moves, its center will be some- That’s true, but the sign of xcf will take care of that. Trust algebra! So
where else! Equation 9.2 applies—here in the simpler one-dimensional, our final expression is
mJ xJf 1 mc xcf mJ1xJi 1 19 m 1 xcf2 1 mc xcf
xcm 5 5
M M
^

EVALUATE Finally, we execute our plan, equating the two expressions

for the unchanging position of the center of mass. The total mass M
cancels, and we’re left with mJ xJi 5 mJ1xJi 1 19 m 1 xcf2 1 mc xcf.
xJi xcm x 5 xci 5 0
(a) We aren’t given xJi, but the term mJxJi is on both sides of this equation,
so it cancels, leaving 0 5 mJ119 m 1 xcf2 1 mcxcf. We solve for the
unknown xcf to get
119 m2mJ 119 m214.8 t2
xcf 5 2 52 5 24.6 m
1mJ 1 mc2 14.8 t 1 15 t2
^
The minus sign here indicates a displacement to the left, as we antici-
pated (Fig. 9.8b). Because the masses appear only in ratios, we didn’t
need to convert to kilograms.
xcf xcm x50 xJf ASSESS The car’s 4.6-m displacement is quite a bit less than Jumbo’s
(b)
(which is 19 m 2 4.6 m, or 14.4 m relative to the ground). That makes
FIGURE 9.8 Jumbo walks, but the center of mass doesn’t move. sense because Jumbo is considerably less massive than the car.
■

9.2 Momentum
! ! !
In Chapter 4 we defined the linear! momentum p of a particle as p 5 mv , and we first
!
wrote Newton’s law in the form F 5 dp /dt. We suggested that this form would play an
important role in many-particle systems. We’re now ready to explore that role.
! The momentum
! !
of a system of particles is the vector sum of the individual momenta:
!
P 5 g p i 5g mi v i, where mi and v i are the masses and velocities of the individual parti-
cles. But we really don’t want to keep track of all the particles in the system. Is there a
 9.2 Momentum 139

simpler way to express the total momentum? There is, and it comes from writing the indi-
! !
vidual velocities as time derivatives of position: v 5 dr /dt. Then
!
! d ri d !
P 5 a mi 5 a mi ri
dt dt
where the last step follows because the individual particle masses are constant and be-
cause the sum of derivatives is the derivative of the sum. In Section 9.1, we defined the
! !
center-of-mass position rcm as g mi ri /M, where M is the total mass. So the total momen-
tum becomes
! d !
P 5 M rcm
dt
or, assuming the system mass M remains constant,
!
! drcm !
P5M 5 Mv cm (9.5)
dt
! !
where v cm 5 d rcm /dt is the center-of-mass velocity. So a system’s momentum is given by
an expression similar to that of a single particle; it’s the product of the system’s mass and
its velocity—that is, the velocity of its center of mass. If this seems obvious, watch out!
We’ll see soon that the same is not true for the system’s total energy.
If we differentiate Equation 9.5 with respect to time, we have
! !
dP dv cm !
5M 5 Ma cm
dt dt
!
where a cm is the center-of-mass acceleration.
! But we defined
! the center of mass so its
!
motion obeyed Newton’s second law, F 5 Ma cm, with F the net external force on the sys-
tem. So we can write simply
!
! dP
Fnet ext 5 (9.6)
dt
showing that the momentum of a system of particles changes only if there’s a net external
force on the system. Remember the hidden role of Newton’s third law in all this: Only be-
cause forces internal to the system cancel in pairs can we ignore them and consider just
the external force.

Conservation of Momentum
! !
In the special case when the net external force is zero, Equation 9.6 gives dP/dt 5 0, so
!
P 5 constant 1conservation of linear momentum2 (9.7)

Equation 9.7 describes conservation of linear momentum, one of the most fundamental
laws of physics:

Conservation of linear momentum:

! When the net external force on a system is
zero, the total momentum P of the system—the vector sum of the individual mo-
!
menta mv of its constituent particles—remains constant.

Momentum conservation holds no matter how many particles are involved and no
matter how they’re moving. It applies to systems ranging from atomic nuclei to pool
balls, from colliding cars to galaxies. Although we derived Equation 9.7 from Newton’s
laws, momentum conservation is even more basic, since it applies to subatomic and nu-
clear systems where the laws and even the language of Newtonian physics are hopelessly in-
adequate. The following examples show the range and power of momentum conservation.
140 Chapter 9 Systems of Particles

!
GOT IT? 9.2 A 500-g fireworks rocket is moving with velocity v 5 60 ^/ m/s at the in-
stant it explodes. If you were to add the momentum vectors of all its fragments just after
the explosion, what would be the result?

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 9.1 Conservation of Momentum: Kayaking

Jess (mass 53 kg) and Nick (mass 72 kg) sit in a 26-kg kayak at rest on ASSESS We didn’t need any calculations here because the powerful
frictionless water. Jess tosses Nick a 17-kg pack, giving it horizontal conservation-of-momentum principle relates the initial and final
speed 3.1 m/s relative to the water. What’s the kayak’s speed after Nick states, without our having to know what happens in between.
catches the pack? Why can you answer without doing any calculations?
EVALUATE Figure 9.9 shows the kayak before Jess tosses the pack MAKING THE CONNECTION What’s the kayak’s speed while the
and again after Nick catches it. The water is frictionless, so there’s pack is in the air?
no net external force on the system, which comprises Jess, Nick, the
EVALUATE Momentum conservation still applies, and the system’s to-
kayak, and the pack. Since there’s no net external force, the sys-
tal momentum is still zero. Now it consists of the pack’s momentum
tem’s momentum is conserved. Everything is initially at rest, so that ! !
mpv p and the momentum 1mJ 1 mN 1 mk2v k of Jess, Nick, and
momentum is zero. Therefore, it’s also zero after Nick catches the !
pack. At that point Jess, Nick, pack, and kayak are all at rest with kayak, with common velocity v k (Fig. 9.10). Sum these momenta,
respect to each other. set the sum to zero, and solve, using the given quantities, to get
vk 5 20.35 m/s. Here we’ve dropped vector signs; the minus sign
then shows that the kayak’s velocity is opposite the pack’s. Since
Initially all momenta are zero . . . kayak and passengers are much more massive than the pack, it makes
sense that their speed is lower.

. . . and they’re zero again after Nick has caught the pack.

While the pack is in the air,

momenta still sum to zero.

FIGURE 9.9 Our sketch for Conceptual Example 9.1. FIGURE 9.10 Our sketch for Making the Connection 9.1.

EXAMPLE 9.5 Conservation of Momentum: Radioactive Decay

A lithium-5 nucleus 15Li2 is moving at 1.6 Mm/s when it decays into DEVELOP Figure 9.11 shows what we know: the velocities for the Li
a proton (1H, or p) and an alpha particle (4He, or a). [Superscripts are and He nuclei. You can probably guess that the proton must emerge
the total numbers of nucleons and give the approximate masses in uni- with a downward momentum component, but ! we’ll let the math con-
fied atomic mass units (u).] The alpha particle is detected moving at firm that. We determine that Equation 9.7, P 5 constant, applies, with
1.4 Mm/s, at 33° to the original velocity of the 5Li nucleus. What are the constant equal to the 5Li momentum. After the decay, we have two
the magnitude and direction of the proton’s velocity? momenta to account for, so Equation 9.7 becomes
! ! !
mLi v Li 5 mp vp 1 ma va
INTERPRET Although the physical situation here is entirely different
from the preceding example, we interpret this one, too, as being about
momentum conservation. But there are two differences: First, in this
case the total momentum isn’t zero, and, second, this situation in-
volves two dimensions. The fundamental principle is the same, how-
ever: In the absence of external forces, a system’s total momentum
can’t change. Whether a pack gets tossed or a nucleus decays makes
no difference. FIGURE 9.11 Our sketch for Example 9.5: what we’re given.
 9.2 Momentum 141

!
Let’s choose the x-axis along the direction of v Li. Then the two com- Thus the proton’s speed vp 5 2vpx2 1 vpy2 5 4.5 Mm/s, and its direc-
ponents of the momentum conservation equation become tion is u 5 tan211vpy /vpx2 5 243°. Note that here, as in Example 9.4,
x-component: mLivLi 5 mpvpx 1 mavax the masses appear only in ratios so we don’t need to change units.
y-component: 0 5 mpvpy 1 mavay
ASSESS Make sense? That negative u tells us the proton’s velocity is
Our plan is to solve these equations for the unknowns vpx and vpy. From downward, as we anticipated. Figure 9.12 makes our result clear. Here
these we can get the magnitude and direction of the proton’s velocity. we multiplied the velocities by the masses to get momentum vectors.
The two momenta after the decay event have equal but opposite verti-
EVALUATE From Fig. 9.11 it’s evident that vax 5 va cos f and
cal components, reflecting that the total momentum of the system
vay 5 va sin f. So we can solve our two equations to get
never had a vertical component. And the two horizontal components
mLivLi 2 mavax mLivLi 2 mava cos f sum to give the initial momentum of the lithium nucleus. Momentum
vpx 5 5
mp mp is indeed conserved.
15.0 u211.6 Mm/s2 2 14.0 u211.4 Mm/s21cos 33°2
5
1.0 u
5 3.30 Mm/s
mavay mava sin f
vpy 5 2 52
mp mp FIGURE 9.12 Our momentum
14.0 u211.4 Mm/s21sin 33°2 diagram for Example 9.5.
5 5 23.05 Mm/s ■
1.0 u

Defining the System: Internal and External Forces

Whether a force is internal or external to a system depends on how we choose to define
the system. Sometimes we’re interested in the force on a particular object, so it’s conven-
ient to define that object as our system. If an external force is acting, then Newton’s law
says that the system’s momentum will change at a rate equal to the net external force.
Example 9.6 makes this point.

EXAMPLE 9.6 Changing Momentum: Fighting a Fire

A firefighter directs a stream of water against the window of a burning EVALUATE The water strikes the window at 32 m/s, so each kilogram of
building, hoping to break the window so water can get to the fire. The water loses 32 kg # m/s of momentum. Water strikes the window at the
hose delivers water at the rate of 45 kg/s, and the water hits the window rate of 45 kg/s, so the rate at which it loses momentum to the window is
moving horizontally at 32 m/s. After hitting the window, the water drops dP
vertically. What horizontal force does the water exert on the window? 5 145 kg/s2132 m/s2 5 1400 kg # m/s2
dt
INTERPRET We’re asked about the window, but we’re told a lot more By Newton’s second law, that’s equal to the force on the water, and by
about the water. The water stops at the window, so clearly the window the third law, that in turn is equal in magnitude to the force on the win-
exerts a force on the water—and by Newton’s third law, that force is dow. So the window experiences a 1400-N force from the water. Since
equal in magnitude to the force we’re after—namely, the force of the the window is rigidly attached to the building and the Earth, it doesn’t
water on the window. So we identify the water as our system. experience significant acceleration—until it breaks and the glass frag-
! ! ments accelerate violently.
DEVELOP Newton’s law in the form F 5 dP/dt applies to the water.
So our plan is to find the rate at which the water’s momentum ASSESS 1400 N is about twice the weight of a typical person, and a
changes. By Newton’s second law, that’s equal to the window’s force fire hose produces quite a blast of water, so this number seems reason-
on the water, and by Newton’s third law, that’s equal to the water’s able. Check the units, too: 1 kg # m/s2 is equal to 1 N, so our answer
force on the window. does have the units of force. ■

GOT IT? 9.3 Two skaters toss a basketball back and forth on frictionless ice. Which
of the following does not change: (a) the momentum of an individual skater; (b) the mo-
mentum of the basketball; (c) the momentum of the system consisting of one skater and the
basketball; (d) the momentum of the system consisting of both skaters and the basketball?
142 Chapter 9 Systems of Particles

APPLICATION Rockets 9.3 Kinetic Energy of a System

Rockets provide propulsion in the vacuum of We’ve seen how the momentum of a many-particle system is determined entirely by the
space, where there’s nothing for a wheel or pro- motion of its center of mass; the detailed behavior of the individual particles doesn’t
peller to push against. If no external forces act, matter. For example, a firecracker sliding on ice has the same total momentum before and
total momentum stays constant. As the rocket’s after it explodes.
exhaust carries away momentum, the result is an
The same, however, is not true of a system’s kinetic energy. Energetically, that
equal but oppositely directed momentum gain
for the rocket. The rate of momentum change is firecracker is very different after it explodes; internal potential energy has become kinetic
the force on the rocket, which engineers call energy of the fragments. Nevertheless, the center-of-mass concept remains useful in cate-
thrust. As with the fire hose in Example 9.6, gorizing the kinetic energy associated with a system of particles.
thrust is the product of the exhaust rate dM/dt The total kinetic energy of a system is the sum of the kinetic energies of the constituent
and exhaust speed vex: F 5 vex dM/dt. Because !
particles: K 5 g 12 mi vi2. But the velocity v i of a particle can be written as the vector sum
the rocket has to carry the mass it’s going to ex- ! !
of the center-of-mass velocity vcm and a velocity v i rel of that particle relative to the center
haust, the most efficient rockets use high exhaust ! ! !
velocities and therefore need less fuel. of mass: v i 5 v cm 1 v i rel. Then the total kinetic energy of the system is
What actually propels the rocket? It’s ulti- ! ! ! ! ! !
mately hot gases inside the rocket engine pushing K 5 a 12 mi1v cm 1 v i rel2 # 1v cm 1 v i rel2 5 a 12 mi vcm2
1 a mi v cm # v i rel 1 a 12 mi vi2rel (9.8)
on the front of the engine chamber. The rocket
Let’s examine the three sums making up the total kinetic energy. Since the center-
doesn’t “push against” anything outside itself; all
the pushing is done inside the rocket engine, ac- of-mass speed vcm is common to all particles, it can be factored out of the first sum, so
celerating the rocket forward. That’s why rockets g 12 mi vcm
2
5 12 vcm
2
g mi 5 12 Mvcm 2
, where M is the total mass. This is the kinetic energy of
work just fine in the vacuum of space. a particle with mass M moving at speed vcm, so we call it Kcm, the kinetic energy of the
center of mass.
The center-of-mass velocity can also be factored out of the second term in Equation 9.8,
! ! ! ! !
giving g mi v cm # v i rel 5 v cm # g mi v i rel. Because the v i rel’s are the particle velocities rela-
tive to the center of mass, the sum here is the total momentum relative to the center of
mass. But that’s zero, so the entire second term in Equation 9.8 is zero.
The third term in Equation 9.8, g 12 mi vi 2rel, is the sum of the individual kinetic energies
measured in a frame of reference moving with the center of mass. We call this term Kint,
the internal kinetic energy.
With the middle term gone, Equation 9.8 shows that the kinetic energy of a system
breaks into two terms:

K 5 Kcm 1 Kint 1kinetic energy of a system2 (9.9)

The first term, the kinetic energy of the center of mass, depends only on the center-
of-mass motion. In our firecracker example, Kcm doesn’t change when the firecracker ex-
plodes. The second term, the internal kinetic energy, depends only on the motions of the
individual particles relative to the center of mass. The explosion dramatically increases
this internal energy.

9.4 Collisions
A collision is a brief, intense interaction between objects. Examples abound: automobile
collisions; collisions of balls on a pool table; the collision of a tennis ball and racket,
baseball and bat, or football and foot; an asteroid colliding with a planet; and collisions
of high-energy particles that probe the fundamental structure of matter. Less obvious are
collisions among galaxies that last a hundred million years, the interaction of a space-
craft with a planet as the craft gains energy for a voyage to the outer solar system, and
the repulsive interaction of two protons that approach but never touch. All these colli-
sions meet two criteria. First, they’re brief, lasting but a short time in the overall context
of the colliding objects’ motions. On a pool table, the collision time is short compared
with the time it takes for a ball to roll across the table. An automobile collision lasts a
fraction of a second. A baseball spends far more time coming from the pitcher than it
does interacting with the bat. And even 108 years is short compared with the lifetime of a
galaxy. Second, collisions are intense: Forces among the interacting objects are far larger
than any external forces that may be acting on the system. External forces are therefore
negligible during the collision, so the total momentum of the colliding objects remains
unchanged.
 9.5 Totally Inelastic Collisions 143

Impulse APPLICATION Crash Tests

The forces between colliding objects are internal to the system comprising those objects,
Automotive engineers perform crash tests to as-
so they can’t alter the total momentum. But they dramatically alter the motions of the col- sess the safety of their vehicles. Sensors measure
liding objects. How much depends on the magnitude of the force and how long it’s applied. the rapidly varying forces as the test car collides
!
If F is the average force acting on one object during a collision that lasts for time Dt, with a fixed barrier. The graph below is a force-
! ! versus-time curve from a typical crash test; im-
then Newton’s second law reads F 5 Dp /Dt or pulse is the area under the curve. In addition to
! ! force sensors on the vehicle, accelerometers in
Dp 5 F Dt (9.10a) crash-test dummies determine the maximum ac-
celerations of the heads and other body parts to
The product of average
! force and time that appears in this equation is called impulse. It’s assess potential injuries.
given the symbol J , and its units are newton-seconds. Equation 9.10a shows that a given
impulse results in! an equal change in momentum.
An impulse J produces the same momentum change regardless of whether it involves a
Impulse is the area
larger force exerted over a shorter time or a smaller force exerted over a longer time. The under the force-time
r
force in a collision usually isn’t constant and can fluctuate wildly. In that case, we find the curve. With F the
impulse by integrating the force over time, so the momentum change becomes average force, these

Force
two areas are the same.
! ! !
Dp 5 J 5 3 F1t2 dt 1impulse2 (9.10b)
r
F
Although we introduced impulse in the context of collisions, it’s useful in other situations
involving intense forces applied over short times. For example, small rocket engines are
characterized by the impulse they impart. Time

Energy in Collisions
Kinetic energy may or may not be conserved in a collision. If it is, then the collision is
elastic; if not, it’s inelastic. An elastic collision requires that the forces between colliding
objects be conservative; then kinetic energy is stored briefly as potential energy, and re-
leased when the collision is over. Interactions at the atomic and nuclear scales are often
truly elastic. In the macroscopic realm, nonconservative forces produce heat or perma-
nently deform the colliding objects, either way robbing the colliding system of kinetic en-
ergy. But even many macroscopic collisions are close enough to elastic that we can neglect
energy loss during the collision.

GOT IT? 9.4 Which of the following qualifies as a collision? Of the collisions, which
are nearly elastic and which inelastic? (a) a basketball rebounds off the backboard; (b) two
magnets approach, their north poles facing; they repel and reverse direction without touch-
ing; (c) a basketball flies through the air on a parabolic trajectory; (d) a truck strikes a parked
car and the two slide off together, crumpled metal hopelessly intertwined; (e) a snowball
splats against a tree, leaving a lump of snow adhering to the bark.

9.5 Totally Inelastic Collisions

In a totally inelastic collision, the colliding objects stick together to form a single object.
Even then, kinetic energy is usually not all lost. But a totally inelastic collision entails the
maximum energy loss consistent with momentum conservation. The motion after a totally
inelastic collision is determined entirely by momentum conservation, and that makes to-
tally inelastic collisions easy to analyze.
! !
Consider masses m1 and m2 with initial velocities v 1 and v 2 that undergo a totally in-
elastic collision. After colliding, they stick together to form a single object of mass
!
m1 1 m2 and final velocity v f. Conservation of momentum states that the initial and final
momenta of this system must be the same:
! ! !
m1 v 1 1 m2 v 2 5 1m1 1 m22v f 1totally inelastic collision2 (9.11)
! ! !
Given four of the five quantities m1, v 1, m2, v 2, and v f, we can solve for the fifth.
144 Chapter 9 Systems of Particles

EXAMPLE 9.7 An Inelastic Collision: Hockey

The hockey captain, a physics major, decides to measure the puck’s Before collision the puck
speed. He loads a small Styrofoam chest with sand, giving a total has all the momentum.
mass of 6.4 kg. He places it at rest on frictionless ice. The 160-g puck
strikes the chest and embeds itself in the Styrofoam. The chest moves
off at 1.2 m/s. What was the puck’s speed?

INTERPRET This is a totally inelastic collision. We identify the sys-

After collision, the
tem as consisting of puck and chest. Initially, all the system’s mo- FIGURE 9.13 Our
puck 1 chest has the
mentum is in the puck; after the collision, it’s in the combination same momentum. sketch for
puck 1 chest. In this case of a single nonzero velocity before colli- Example 9.7.
sion and a single velocity after, momentum conservation requires that
both motions be in the same direction. Therefore, we have a one- EVALUATE Here we want the initial puck velocity, so we solve for vp:
dimensional problem. 1mp 1 mc2vc 10.16 kg 1 6.4 kg211.2 m/s2
vp 5 5 5 49 m/s
mp 0.16 kg
DEVELOP Figure 9.13 is a sketch of the situation before and after the
collision. With a totally inelastic collision, Equation 9.11—the state- ASSESS Make sense? Yes: The puck’s mass is small, so it needs a
ment of momentum conservation—tells it all. In our one-dimensional much higher speed to carry the same momentum as the much more
situation, this equation becomes mpvp 5 1mp 1 mc2vc, where the sub- massive chest. Variations on this technique are often used to determine
scripts p and c stand for puck and chest, respectively. speeds that would be difficult to measure directly. ■

EXAMPLE 9.8 Conservation of Momentum: Fusion

In a fusion reaction, two deuterium nuclei 12H2 join to form helium motion of the first deuterium nucleus. We need the components of the
!
14He2. Initially, one of the deuterium nuclei is moving at 3.5 Mm/s, initial velocities in order to apply our equation for v f.
the second at 1.8 Mm/s at a 64° angle to the velocity of the first. Find !
the speed and direction of the helium nucleus. EVALUATE With v 1 in the x-direction, we have v1x 5 3.5 Mm/s and
v1y 5 0. Figure 9.14 shows that v2x 5 11.8 Mm/s21cos 64°2 5
INTERPRET Although the context is very different, this is another 0.789 Mm/s and v2y 5 11.8 Mm/s21sin 64°2 5 1.62 Mm/s. So the
totally inelastic collision. But here both objects are initially mov- components of our equation become
ing, and in different directions, so we have a two-dimensional situ- m1v1x 1 m2v2x
ation. We identify the system as consisting of initially the two vfx 5
m1 1 m2
deuterium nuclei and finally the single helium nucleus. We’re asked 12 u213.5 Mm/s2 1 12 u210.789 Mm/s2
for the final velocity of the helium, expressed as magnitude (speed) 5 5 2.14 Mm/s
and direction. 2u 1 2u
m1v1y 1 m2v2y
DEVELOP Figure 9.14 shows the situation. Momentum is conserved,
vfy 5
! m1 1 m2
so Equation 9.11 applies; solving that equation for v f gives
! ! ! 0 1 12 u211.62 Mm/s2
v f 5 1m1v 1 1 m2v 22/1m1 1 m22. In two dimensions, this represents 5 5 0.809 Mm/s
! 2u 1 2u
two equations for the two components of v f. We need a coordinate
system, and Fig. 9.14 shows our choice, with the x-axis along the As in Example 9.5, the superscripts are the nuclear masses in u, and
because the mass units cancel, there’s no need to convert to kilograms.
From these velocity components we can get the speed and direc-
tion: vf 5 2vfx2 1 vfy2 5 2.3 Mm/s and u 5 tan211vfy /vfx2 5 21°. We
show this final velocity on the diagram in Fig. 9.14.

ASSESS In this example the two incident particles have the same
masses, so their velocities are proportional to their momenta. Fig-
ure 9.14 shows that the total initial momentum is largely horizontal,
with a smaller vertical component, so the 21° angle of the final veloc-
!
FIGURE 9.14 Our sketch of ity makes sense. The magnitude of v f also makes sense: Now the total
the velocity vectors for momentum is contained in a single, more massive particle, so we ex-
Example 9.8. pect a final speed comparable to the initial speeds. ■
 9.6 Elastic Collisions 145

EXAMPLE 9.9 The Ballistic Pendulum

The ballistic pendulum measures the speeds of fast-moving objects Equation 9.11 applies. In one dimension, that reads mv 5 1m 1 M2V,
like bullets. It consists of a wooden block of mass M suspended from where v is the initial bullet speed and V is the speed of the block
vertical strings (Fig. 9.15). A bullet of mass m strikes and embeds it- with embedded bullet just after the collision. Solving gives
self in the block, and the block swings upward through a vertical dis- V 5 mv/1m 1 M2. Now the block swings upward. Momentum isn’t
tance h. Find an expression for the bullet’s speed. conserved, but mechanical energy is. Setting the zero of potential en-
ergy in the block’s initial position, we have U0 5 0 and—using the sit-
uation just after the collision as the initial state—K0 5 121m 1 M2V2.
At the peak of its swing the block is momentarily at rest, so K 5 0.
But it’s risen a height h, so its potential energy is U 5 1m 1 M2gh.
Conservation of mechanical energy reads K0 1 U0 5 K 1 U—in this
case, 121m 1 M2V2 5 1m 1 M2gh.
r
v
h FIGURE 9.15 A ballistic EVALUATE Now we’ve got two equations describing the two parts of
pendulum (Example 9.9). the problem. Using our expression for V from momentum conserva-
tion in the energy-conservation equation, we get
INTERPRET Interpreting this example is a bit more involved. We actu-
ally have two separate events: the bullet striking the block and the sub- 1 mv 2
a b 5 gh
sequent rise of the block. We can interpret the first event as a 2 m1M
one-dimensional totally inelastic collision, as in Example 9.7. Mo- Solving for the bullet speed v then gives our answer:
mentum is conserved during this event but, because the collision is in- m1M
elastic, energy is not. Then the block rises, and now a net external v5 a b 12gh
m
force—from string tension and gravity—acts to change the momen-
tum. But gravity is conservative, and the string tension does no work, ASSESS Make sense? Yes: The smaller the bullet mass m, the higher
so now mechanical energy is conserved. velocity it must have to carry a given momentum; that’s reflected by
the factor m alone in the denominator. The higher the rise h, obvi-
DEVELOP Figure 9.15 is our drawing. Our plan is to separate the two ously, the greater the bullet speed. But the speed scales not as h itself
parts of the problem and then to combine the results to get our final an- but as 1h. That’s because kinetic energy—which turned into poten-
swer. First is the inelastic collision; here momentum is conserved, so tial energy of the rise—depends on velocity squared. ■

9.6 Elastic Collisions

We’ve seen that momentum is essentially conserved in any collision. In an elastic colli-
sion, kinetic energy is conserved as well. In the most general case of a two-body collision,
! !
we consider two objects of masses m1 and m2, moving initially with velocities v 1i and v 2i,
! !
respectively. Their final velocities after collision are v 1f and v 2f. Then the conservation
statements for momentum and kinetic energy become
! ! ! !
m1 v 1i 1 m2 v 2i 5 m1 v 1f 1 m2 v 2f (9.12)
and

2 m 1 v 1i
1 2
1 12 m2 v2i2 5 12 m1 v1f2 1 12 m2 v2f2 (9.13)
Given initial velocities, we’d like to predict the outcome of a collision. In the totally in-
elastic two-dimensional collision, we had enough information to solve the problem. Here,
in the two-dimensional elastic case, we have the two components of the momentum con-
servation equation 9.12 and the single scalar equation for energy conservation 9.13. But
we have four unknowns—the magnitudes and directions of both final velocities. With
three equations and four unknowns, we don’t have enough information to solve the gen-
eral two-dimensional elastic collision. Later we’ll see how other information can help
solve such problems. First, though, we look at the special case of a one-dimensional elas-
tic collision.

Elastic Collisions in One Dimension

When two objects collide head-on, the internal forces act along the same line as the inci-
dent motion, and the objects’ subsequent motion must therefore be along that same line
146 Chapter 9 Systems of Particles

Here internal forces act (Fig. 9.16a). Although such one-dimensional collisions are a special case, they do occur
on the same line as the
incident velocities . . .
and they provide much insight into the more general case.
r
v1i
r
v2i In the one-dimensional case, the momentum conservation equation 9.12 has only one
nontrivial component:
m1 v1i 1 m2 v2i 5 m1 v1f 1 m2 v2f (9.12a)
(a) where the v’s stand for velocity components, rather than magnitudes, and can therefore be
positive or negative. If we collect together the terms in Equations 9.12a and 9.13 that are
. . . but here they don’t, so the motion
associated with each mass, we have
involves two dimensions.
m11v1i 2 v1f2 5 m21v2f 2 v2i2 (9.12b)
vr2i
and
m11v1i2 2 v1f22 5 m21v2f2 2 v2i22 (9.13a)
vr1i
But a2 2 b2 5 1a 1 b21a 2 b2, so Equation 9.13a can be written
(b)
m11v1i 2 v1f21v1i 1 v1f2 5 m21v2f 2 v2i21v2f 1 v2i2 (9.13b)
FIGURE 9.16 Only a head-on collision is
one-dimensional. Dividing the left and right sides of Equation 9.13b by the corresponding sides of Equa-
tion 9.12b then gives
v1i 1 v1f 5 v2f 1 v2i
Rearranging shows that
v1i 2 v2i 5 v2f 2 v1f (9.14)
What does this equation tell us? Both sides describe the relative velocity between the two
particles; the equation therefore shows that the relative speed remains unchanged after the
collision, although the direction reverses. If the two objects are approaching at a relative
speed of 5 m/s, then after collision they’ll separate at 5 m/s.
Continuing our search for the final velocities, we solve Equation 9.14 for v2f:
v2f 5 v1i 2 v2i 1 v1f
and use this result in Equation 9.12a:
m1 v1i 1 m2 v2i 5 m1 v1f 1 m2 1v1i 2 v2i 1 v1f2
Solving for v1f then gives

1 m1 2 m2 2m2
v1f 5 v1i 1 v (9.15a)
Before 2 m1 1 m2 m1 1 m2 2i
1
After 2 Problem 69 asks you to show similarly that
2m1 m2 2 m1
(a) m1 << m2 v2f 5 v1i 1 v (9.15b)
m1 1 m2 m1 1 m2 2i

Before 1 2 Equations 9.15 are our desired result, expressing the final velocities in terms of the initial
velocities alone.
After 1 2
To see that these results make sense, we suppose that v2i 5 0. (This really isn’t a spe-
cial case, since we can always work in a reference frame with m2 initially at rest.)
(b) m1 5 m2
We then consider the three special cases of one-dimensional elastic collisions illustrated
in Fig. 9.17.
2 Case 1: m1 V m2 (Fig. 9.17a) Picture a ping-pong ball colliding with a bowling ball, or
Before 1
any object colliding elastically with a perfectly rigid surface. If we set v2i 5 0 in Equations
2 9.15, and drop m1 as being negligible compared with m2, Equations 9.15 become simply
After 1
v1f 5 2v1i
(c) m1 >> m2
and
FIGURE 9.17 Special cases of elastic collisions
in one dimension. v2f 5 0
 9.6 Elastic Collisions 147

That is, the lighter object rebounds with no change in speed, while the heavier object remains
at rest. Does this make sense in light of the conservation laws that Equations 9.15 are sup-
posed to reflect? Clearly energy is conserved: The kinetic energy of m2 remains zero and the
kinetic energy 21 m1 v12 is unchanged. But what about momentum? The momentum of the
lighter object has changed, from m1 v1i to 2m1 v1i. But momentum is conserved; the momen-
tum given up by the lighter object is absorbed by the heavier object. In the limit of an arbitrar-
ily large m2, the heavier object can absorb huge amounts of momentum mv without acquiring
significant speed. If we “back off” from the extreme case that m1 can be neglected altogether
compared with m2, we would find that a lighter object striking a heavier one rebounds with
reduced speed and that the heavier object begins moving slowly in the opposite direction.
Case 2: m1 5 m2 (Fig. 9.17b) Again with v2i 5 0, Equations 9.15 now give
v1f 5 0
and
v2f 5 v1i
So the first object stops abruptly, transferring all its energy and momentum to the second.
For purposes of energy transfer, two equal-mass particles are perfectly “matched.” We’ll
encounter analogous instances of energy transfer “matching” when we discuss wave mo-
tion and again in connection with electric circuits.
Case 3: m1 W m2 (Fig. 9.17c) Now Equations 9.15 give
v1f 5 v1i
and
v2f 5 2v1i
where we’ve neglected m2 compared with m1. So here the more massive object barrels right
on with no change in motion, while the lighter one heads off with twice the speed of the mas-
sive one. This result is entirely consistent with our earlier claim that the relative speed remains
unchanged in a one-dimensional elastic collision. How are momentum and energy conserved
in this case? In the extreme limit where we neglect the mass m2, its energy and momentum
are negligible. Essentially all the energy and momentum remain with the more massive ob-
ject, and both these quantities are essentially unchanged in the collision. In the less extreme
case where an object of finite mass strikes a less massive object initially at rest, both objects
move off in the initial direction of the incident object, with the lighter one moving faster.

EXAMPLE 9.10 Elastic Collisions: Nuclear Engineering

Nuclear power reactors include a substance called a moderator, whose DEVELOP Since we have a one-dimensional elastic collision, Equa-
job is to slow the neutrons liberated in nuclear fission, making them tions 9.15 apply. We’re asked for the fraction of the neutron’s kinetic
more likely to induce additional fission and thus sustain a nuclear energy that gets transferred to the deuteron, so we need to express the
chain reaction. A Canadian reactor design uses so-called heavy water deuteron’s final velocity in terms of the neutron’s initial velocity. If
as its moderator. In heavy water, ordinary hydrogen atoms are re- we take the neutron to be particle 1, then we want Equation 9.15b.
placed by deuterium, the rare form of hydrogen whose nucleus con- With the deuteron initially at rest, v2i 5 0 and the equation becomes
sists of a proton and a neutron. The mass of this deuteron is thus about v2f 5 2m1 v1i /1m1 1 m22. Our plan is to use this equation to determine
2 u, compared with a neutron’s 1 u. Find the fraction of a neutron’s ki- the kinetic-energy ratio.
netic energy that’s transferred to an initially stationary deuteron in a
head-on elastic collision. EVALUATE The kinetic energies of the two particles are given by
K1 5 12 m1v12 and K2 5 12 m2v22. Using our equation for v2f gives
INTERPRET We have a head-on collision, so we’re dealing with a one- 1 2m1v1 2 2m2m12v12
dimensional situation. The system of interest consists of the neutron K2 5 m2 a b 5
2 m1 1 m2 1m1 1 m222
and the deuteron. We’re not told much else except the masses of the
two particles. That should be enough, though, because we’re not asked We want to compare this with K1:
for the final velocities but rather for a ratio of related quantities— K2 1 2m2m12v12 1 4m1m2
namely, kinetic energies. 5 K2 a b 5 a ba b5 (9.16)
K1 K1 1m1 1 m222 12 m1v12 1m1 1 m222
(continued)
148 Chapter 9 Systems of Particles

In this case m1 5 1 u and m2 5 2 u, so we have K2 /K1 5 8/9 . 0.89. all. In case 2, m1 5 m2, and Equation 9.16 becomes 4m2/12m22 5 1,
Thus 89% of the incident energy is transferred in a single collision, where m is the mass of both objects. That too agrees with our ear-
leaving the neutron with 11% of its initial energy. lier analysis: The incident object stops and transfers all its energy
to the struck object. Finally, in case 3, m1 W m2, so we neglect m2
ASSESS Let’s take a look at Equation 9.16 in the context of our three in the denominator. Now the energy ratio becomes 4m2/m1. As in
special cases. We numbered this equation because it’s a general re- case 1, this approaches zero as the mass ratio gets extremely large. So
sult for the fractional energy transfer in any one-dimensional elastic the maximum energy transfer occurs with two equal masses, and tails
collision. In case 1, m1 V m2, so we neglect m1 compared with m2 off toward zero if the mass ratio becomes extreme in either direction.
in the denominator; then our energy ratio is approximately 4m1/m2. For the particles in this example, the mass ratio 1:2 is close enough
This becomes zero in the extreme limit where m1’s mass is negligible— to equality that the energy transfer is nearly 90% efficient. Problem 82
consistent with our case 1 where the massive object didn’t move at explores further this energy transfer. ■

GOT IT? 9.5 One ball is at rest on a level floor. A second ball collides elastically with
the first, and the two move off separately but in the same direction. What can you conclude
about the masses of the two balls?

Elastic Collisions in Two Dimensions

Analyzing an elastic collision in two dimensions requires the full vector statement of mo-
mentum conservation (Equation 9.12), along with the statement of energy conservation
(Equation 9.13). But these equations alone don’t provide enough information to solve a
problem. In a collision between reasonably simple macroscopic objects, that information
may be provided by the so-called impact parameter, a measure of how much the colli-
sion differs from being head-on (Fig. 9.18). More typically—especially with atomic and
nuclear interactions—the necessary information must be supplied by measurements done
after the collision. Knowing the direction of motion of one particle after collision, for ex-
ample, provides enough information to analyze a collision if the masses and initial veloci-
ties are also known.

Impact parameter b is the . . . b determines where they hit and

distance between the spheres’ centers . . . thus the direction of the collision forces.
r
vr F

b
b
r
FIGURE 9.18 The impact parameter b F
determines the directions of the collision
forces. (a) (b)

EXAMPLE 9.11 A Two-Dimensional Elastic Collision: Croquet

A croquet ball strikes a stationary ball of equal mass. The collision is (momentum conservation) and 9.13 (energy conservation) both ap-
elastic, and the incident ball goes off at 30° to its original direction. ply. The masses are equal, so they cancel from both equations.
! ! !
In what direction does the other ball move? With v2i 5 0, we then have v 1i 5 v 1f 1 v 2f for momentum conser-
vation and v1i2 5 v1f2 1 v2f2 for energy conservation. The rest will be
INTERPRET We’ve got an elastic collision, so both momentum and ki- algebra.
netic energy are conserved. The system consists of the two croquet balls.
We aren’t given a lot of information, but since we’re asked only for a di- EVALUATE Solving for one unknown in terms of another is going to
rection, the magnitudes of the velocities won’t matter. Thus we’ve got get messy here, with some velocities squared and some not. Here’s a
what we need to know about the initial velocities, and we’ve got one more clever approach: Rather than write the momentum equation in
other piece of information, so we have enough to solve the problem. two components, let’s take the dot product of each side with itself.
That will bring in velocity-squared terms, letting us combine the mo-
DEVELOP Figure 9.19 shows the situation, in which we’re after the mentum and energy equations. And the dot product includes an
unknown angle u. Since the collision is elastic, Equations 9.12 angle—which is what we’re asked to find.
 9.6 Elastic Collisions 149

Recall that the dot product of two vectors is the product ! of! their magni-
tudes with the cosine of the angle between them: A # B 5 AB cos u.
Since the angle between a vector and itself is zero,! ! the dot product of a
vector with itself is the square of its magnitude: A # A 5 A2 cos102 5 A2.
So our equation becomes
v1i2 5 v1f2 1 v2f2 1 2v1f v2f cos1u 1 30°2
where the argument of the cosine follows because, as Fig. 9.19 shows,
! !
the angle between v 1f and v 2f is u 1 30°. We now subtract the energy
equation from this new equation to get
2v1f v2f cos1u 1 30°2 5 0
But neither of the final speeds is zero, so this equation requires that
cos1u 1 30°2 5 0. Thus u 1 30° 5 90°, and our answer follows:
u 5 60°.
FIGURE 9.19 Our sketch of the collision between croquet balls of equal mass ASSESS This result seems reasonable, although we don’t have a lot to
(Example 9.11). go on because we haven’t calculated the final speeds. But it’s intrigu-
ing that the two balls go off at right angles to each other. Is this a co-
The dot product is distributive and commutative, so here’s what we incidence? No: It happens in any two-dimensional elastic collision
get when we dot the momentum equation with itself: between objects of equal mass, when one is initially at rest. ■
! ! ! ! ! !
v 1i # v 1i 5 1v 1f 1 v 2f2 # 1v 1f 1 v 2f2
! # ! ! # ! ! !
5 v 1f v 1f 1 v 2f v 2f 1 2v 1f # v 2f

The Center-of-Mass Frame

Two-dimensional collisions take a particularly simple form in a frame of reference mov-
ing with the center of mass of the colliding particles, since the total momentum in such a
frame must be zero. That remains true after a collision, which involves only internal forces
that don’t affect the center of mass. Therefore, both the initial and final momenta form pr2f
pairs of oppositely directed vectors of equal magnitude, as shown in Fig. 9.20. In an elas-
Collision
tic collision, energy conservation requires further that the incident and final momenta have r point
p1i u pr2i
the same values, so a single number—the angle u in Fig 9.20—completely describes the
collision. m1 u m2
It’s often easier to analyze a collision by transforming to the center-of-mass frame, do-
ing the analysis, and then transforming the resulting momentum and velocity vectors back
pr1f
to the original or “lab” frame. High-energy physicists routinely make such transformations
as they seek to understand the fundamental forces between elementary particles. Those
FIGURE 9.20 An elastic collision viewed in the
forces are described most simply in the center-of-mass frame of colliding particles, but in center-of-mass frame, showing that the initial
some experiments—those where lighter particles slam into massive nuclei or stationary and final momentum vectors form pairs with
targets—the physicists and their particle accelerators are not in the center-of-mass frame. equal magnitudes and opposite directions.
CHAPTER 9 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea of this chapter is that systems consisting of many particles exhibit simple behaviors that don’t depend on the complexities of their in-
ternal structure or motions. That, in turn, allows us to understand those internal details. In particular, a system responds to external forces as though
it were a point particle located at the center of mass. If the net external force on a system is zero, then the center of mass does not accelerate and
the system’s total momentum is conserved. Conservation of momentum holds to a very good approximation during the brief, intense encounters
called collisions, allowing us to relate particles’ motions before and after colliding.

Newton’s second and third laws are behind these big ideas. The third law, in particular, says
that forces internal to a system cancel in pairs, and therefore they don’t contribute to the net

^
force on the system. That’s what allows us to describe a system’s overall motion without hav-
^
ing to worry about what’s going on internally.
^
Only the
The center of center of
Internal
Newton’s mass satisfies mass follows
forces cancel ^
3rd law in pairs Newton’s 2nd law the trajectory
of a point
particle.

Key Concepts and Equations

!
The center of mass position rcm is a weighted average of the positions of a A collision is a brief, intense interaction between particles involv-
system’s constituent particles: ing large internal forces. External forces have little effect during a
! ! collision, so to a good approximation the total momentum of the
! a mi ri ! #r dm interacting particles is conserved.
rcm 5 or, with continuous matter, rcm 5
M M
Here M is the system’s total mass and the sum or integral is taken over the In a totally inelastic collision, the colliding pr1
entire system. The center of mass obeys Newton’s second law: prf
objects stick together to form a composite;
!
! ! dP in that case momentum conservation en-
Fnet ext 5 M a cm 5 pr2
dt tirely determines the outcome:
! ! 1conservation of momentum,
where Fnet ext is the net external force on the system, a cm the acceleration of ! ! !
! m1v 1 1 m2v 2 5 1m1 1 m22v f totally inelastic collision2
the center of mass, and P the system’s total momentum.

An elastic collision conserves kinetic energy as well as momentum, and the colliding particles The incoming ball
separate after the collision: carries momentum pr2f After an
! ! ! ! and energy. elastic collision,
m1v 1i 1 m2v 2i 5 m1v 1f 1 m2v 2f 1conservation of momentum, elastic collision2 the two balls’
pr1i momenta and
1
m v2
2 1 1i
1 12 m2v2i2 5 12 m1v1f2 1 12 m2v2f2 1conservation of energy, elastic collision2 energy sum to
those of the
In the special case of a one-dimensional elastic collision, knowledge of the mass and initial veloci- Initially incoming ball.
ties is sufficient to determine the outcome. To analyze elastic collisions in two dimensions requires at rest. pr1f
an additional piece of information, such as the impact parameter or the direction of one of the par-
ticles after the collision.

Applications
One-dimensional collisions m1 < m2 m1 5 m2 m1 > m2
with one object initially at m1 m1 m2 m2
rest provide insights into the Before m2 m1
nature of collisions. There m1 m2
m1 m2
are three cases, depending After m2 m1
on the relative masses:
m1 reverses direction. m1 stops. m1 continues in
same direction.

Rockets provide an important technological application of momentum conservation. A rocket exhausts matter out the back at high velocity;
momentum conservation then requires that the rocket gain momentum in the forward direction. Rocket propulsion requires no interaction with any
external material, which is why rockets work in space.
 Exercises and Problems 151

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 19. A plutonium-239 nucleus at rest decays into a uranium-235 nu-
cleus by emitting an alpha particle 14He2 with kinetic energy
1. Roughly where is your center of mass when you’re standing? 5.15 MeV. Find the speed of the uranium nucleus.
2. Explain why a high jumper’s center of mass need not clear the bar. 20. A toboggan of mass 8.6 kg is moving horizontally at 23 km/h. As
3. The center of mass of a solid sphere is clearly at its center. If the it passes under a tree, 15 kg of snow drop onto it. Find its subse-
sphere is cut in half and the two halves are stacked as in Fig. 9.21, quent speed.
is the center of mass at the point where they touch? If not, roughly Section 9.3 Kinetic Energy of a System
where is it? Explain. 21. A 150-g trick baseball is thrown at 60 km/h. It explodes in flight
into two pieces, with a 38-g piece continuing straight ahead at
85 km/h. How much energy do the pieces gain in the explosion?
22. An object with kinetic energy K explodes into two pieces, each
of which moves with twice the speed of the original object.
Compare the internal and center-of-mass energies after the
FIGURE 9.21 For Thought and Discussion 3 explosion.
4. The momentum of a system of pool balls is the same before and Section 9.4 Collisions
after they are hit by the cue ball. Is it still the same after one of 23. Two 140-kg satellites collide at an altitude where g 5 8.7 m/s2,
the balls strikes the edge of the table? Explain. and the collision imparts an impulse of 1.83105 N # s to each. If
5. An hourglass is inverted and placed on a scale. Compare the scale the collision lasts 120 ms, compare the collisional impulse to that
readings (a) before sand begins to hit the bottom; (b) while sand imparted by gravity. Your result should show why you can neg-
is hitting the bottom; and (c) when all the sand is on the bottom. lect the external force of gravity.
6. Why are cars designed so that their front ends crumple during 24. High-speed photos of a 220-mg flea jumping vertically show that
an accident? BIO the jump lasts 1.2 ms and involves an average vertical accelera-
7. Give three everyday examples of inelastic collisions. tion of 100g. What (a) average force and (b) impulse does the
8. Is it possible to have an inelastic collision in which all the kinetic ground exert on the flea during its jump? (c) What’s the change
energy of the colliding objects is lost? If so, give an example. in the flea’s momentum during its jump?
If not, why not? 25. You’re working in mission control for an interplanetary space
9. If you want to stop the neutrons in a reactor, why not use massive probe. A trajectory correction calls for a rocket firing that
nuclei like lead? imparts an impulse of 5.64 N # s. If the rocket’s average thrust is
10. A pitched baseball moves no faster than the pitcher’s hand. But 135 mN, how long should the rocket fire?
a batted ball can move much faster than the bat. What’s the Section 9.5 Totally Inelastic Collisions
difference? 26. In a railroad switchyard, a 56-ton freight car is sent at 7.0 mi/h
11. Two identical satellites are going in opposite directions in the toward a 31-ton car moving in the same direction at 2.6 mi/h.
same circular orbit when they collide head-on. Describe their (a) What’s the speed of the cars after they couple? (b) What
subsequent motion if the collision is (a) elastic or (b) inelastic. fraction of the initial kinetic energy was lost in the collision?
27. In a totally inelastic collision between two equal masses, with one
Exercises and Problems initially at rest, show that half the initial kinetic energy is lost.
28. A neutron (mass 1 u) strikes a deuteron (mass 2 u), and they
Exercises combine to form a tritium nucleus. If the neutron’s initial veloc-
Section 9.1 Center of Mass ity was 28ı^ 1 17/^ Mm/s and if the tritium leaves the reaction
12. A 28-kg child sits at one end of a 3.5-m-long seesaw. Where with velocity 12ı^ 1 20/^ Mm/s, what was the deuteron’s velocity?
should her 65-kg father sit so the center of mass will be at the 29. Two identical trucks have mass 5500 kg when empty, and the
center of the seesaw? maximum permissible load for each is 8000 kg. The first truck,
13. Two particles of equal mass m are at the vertices of the base of an carrying 3800 kg, is at rest. The second truck plows into it at
equilateral triangle. The triangle’s center of mass is midway between 65 km/h, and the pair moves away at 40 km/h. As an expert
the base and the third vertex. What’s the mass at the third vertex? witness, you’re asked to determine whether the first truck was
14. Rework Example 9.1 with the origin at the center of the barbell, overloaded. What do you report?
showing that the physical location of the center of mass doesn’t Section 9.6 Elastic Collisions
depend on your coordinate system. 30. An alpha particle 14He2 strikes a stationary gold nucleus 1197Au2
15. Three equal masses lie at the corners of an equilateral triangle of head-on. What fraction of the alpha’s kinetic energy is trans-
side L. Find the center of mass. ferred to the gold? Assume a totally elastic collision.
16. How far from Earth’s center is the center of mass of the Earth- 31. Playing in the street, a child accidentally tosses a ball at 18 m/s
Moon system? (Hint: Consult Appendix E.) toward the front of a car moving toward him at 14 m/s. What’s
Section 9.2 Momentum the ball’s speed after it rebounds elastically from the car?
17. A popcorn kernel at rest in a hot pan bursts into two pieces, with 32. A block of mass m undergoes a one-dimensional elastic collision
masses 91 mg and 64 mg. The more massive piece moves hori- with a block of mass M initially at rest. If both blocks have the
zontally at 47 cm/s. Describe the motion of the second piece. same speed after colliding, how are their masses related?
18. A 60-kg skater, at rest on frictionless ice, tosses a 12-kg snowball 33. A proton moving at 6.9 Mm/s collides elastically head-on with a
!
with velocity v 5 53.0 ı^ 1 14.0 ^/ m/s, where the x- and y-axes second proton moving in the opposite direction at 11 Mm/s. Find
are in the horizontal plane. Find the skater’s subsequent velocity. their subsequent velocities.
152 Chapter 9 Systems of Particles

34. A head-on, elastic collision between two particles with equal ini- 42. A firecracker, initially at rest, explodes into two fragments. The
tial speed v leaves the more massive particle 1m12 at rest. Find first, of mass 14 g, moves in the 1x-direction at 48 m/s. The sec-
(a) the ratio of the particle masses and (b) the final speed of the ond moves at 32 m/s. Find the second fragment’s mass and the
less massive particle. direction of its motion.
43. An 11,000-kg freight car rests against a spring bumper at the end
Problems of a railroad track. The spring has constant k 5 0.32 MN/m. The
35. Find the center of mass of a pentagon with five equal sides car is hit by a second car of 9400-kg mass moving at 8.5 m/s, and
of length a, but with one triangle missing (Fig. 9.22). (Hint: See the two couple together. Find (a) the maximum compression of
Example 9.3, and treat the pentagon as a group of triangles.) the spring and (b) the speed of the two cars when they rebound
together from the spring.
44. On an icy road, a 1200-kg car moving at 50 km/h strikes a 4400-kg
a
truck moving in the same direction at 35 km/h. The pair is soon
hit from behind by a 1500-kg car speeding at 65 km/h, and all
three vehicles stick together. Find the speed of the wreckage.
45. A car of mass M is initially at rest on a frictionless surface. A jet
of water carrying mass at the rate dm/dt and moving horizontally
at speed v0 strikes the rear window of the car, which is at 45° to
the horizontal; the water bounces off at the same relative speed
FIGURE 9.22 Problem 35 with which it hit the window, as shown in Fig. 9.24. Find expres-
sions for (a) the car’s initial acceleration and (b) the maximum
36. Wildlife biologists fire 20-g rubber bullets to stop a rhinoceros
speed it reaches.
BIO charging at 0.81 m/s. The bullets strike the rhino and drop verti-
cally to the ground. The biologists’ gun fires 15 bullets each sec-
ond, at 73 m/s, and it takes 34 s to stop the rhino. (a) What
impulse does each bullet deliver? (b) What’s the rhino’s mass?
Neglect forces between rhino and ground.
37. Consider a system of three equal-mass particles moving in a plane;
their positions are given by ai ı^ 1 bi ^/, where ai and bi are functions
of time with the units of position. Particle 1 has a1 5 3t2 1 5 and
FIGURE 9.24 Problem 45
b1 5 0; particle 2 has a2 5 7t 1 2 and b2 5 2; particle 3 has
a3 5 3t and b3 5 2t 1 6. Find the center-of-mass position, veloc- !
46. A 950-kg compact car is moving with velocity v 1 5 32ı^ 1
ity, and acceleration of the system as functions of time. 17/^ m/s. It skids on a frictionless icy patch and collides with a
!
38. You’re with 19 other people on a boat at rest in frictionless 450-kg hay wagon with velocity v 2 5 12ı^ 1 14/^ m/s. If the two
water. The group’s total mass is 1500 kg, and the boat’s mass is stay together, what’s their velocity?
12,000 kg. The entire party walks the 6.5-m distance from bow 47. Masses m and 3m approach at the same speed v and collide
to stern. How far does the boat move? head-on. Show that mass 3m stops, while mass m rebounds at
39. A hemispherical bowl is at rest on a frictionless counter. A mouse speed 2v.
drops onto the bowl’s rim from a cabinet directly overhead. The 48. A 238U nucleus is moving in the x-direction at 5.03105 m/s when
mouse climbs down inside the bowl to eat crumbs at the bottom. it decays into an alpha particle 14He2 and a 234Th nucleus. The
If the bowl moves along the counter a distance equal to one-tenth alpha moves at 1.43107 m/s at 22° above the x-axis. Find the
of its diameter, how does the mouse’s mass compare with the recoil velocity of the thorium.
bowl’s mass? 49. A cylindrical concrete silo is 4.0 m in diameter and 30 m high. It
40. Physicians perform needle biopsies to sample tissue from internal consists of a 6000-kg concrete base and 38,000-kg cylindrical
BIO organs. A spring-loaded gun shoots a hollow needle into the tis- concrete walls. Locate the center of mass of the silo (a) when it’s
sue; extracting the needle brings out the tissue core. A particular empty and (b) when it’s two-thirds full of silage whose density is
device uses 8.3-mg needles that take 90 ms to stop in the tissue, 800 kg/m3. Neglect the thickness of the walls and base.
which exerts a stopping force of 41 mN. (a) Find the impulse im- 50. A 42-g firecracker is at rest at the origin when it explodes into
parted by the tissue. (b) How far into the tissue does the needle three pieces. The first, with mass 12 g, moves along the x-axis at
penetrate? 35 m/s. The second, with mass 21 g, moves along the y-axis at
41. Find the center of mass of the uniform, solid cone of height h, 29 m/s. Find the velocity of the third piece.
base radius R, and constant density r shown in Fig. 9.23. (Hint: 51. A 60-kg astronaut floating in space simultaneously tosses away a
Integrate over disk-shaped mass elements of thickness dy, as 14-kg oxygen tank and a 5.8-kg camera. The tank moves in the
shown in the figure.) x-direction at 1.6 m/s, and the astronaut recoils at 0.85 m/s in a
direction 200° counterclockwise from the x-axis. Find the cam-
era’s velocity.
52. Assuming equal-mass pieces in Exercise 22, find the angles of
h the two velocities relative to the direction of motion before the
} dy explosion.
53. A 55-kg sprinter stands on the left end of a 240-kg cart moving
leftward at 7.6 m/s. She runs to the right end and continues hori-
R zontally off the cart. What should be her speed relative to the cart
so that once she’s off the cart, she has no horizontal velocity rela-
FIGURE 9.23 Problem 41 tive to the ground?
 Exercises and Problems 153

54. You’re a production engineer in a cookie factory, where mounds final velocity of each block after all subsequent collisions are
of dough drop vertically onto a conveyer belt at the rate of one over. Assume all collisions are elastic.
12-g mound every 2 seconds. You’re asked to design a mecha- 69. Derive Equation 9.15b.
nism that will keep the conveyor belt moving at a constant 70. An object collides elastically with an equal-mass object initially
50 cm/s. What average force must the mechanism exert on the belt? at rest. If the collision isn’t head-on, show that the final velocity
55. Mass m, moving at speed 2v, approaches mass 4m, moving at vectors are perpendicular.
speed v. The two collide elastically head-on. Find expressions for 71. A proton (mass 1 u) collides elastically with a stationary
their subsequent speeds. deuteron (mass 2 u). If the proton is deflected 37° from its origi-
56. Verify explicitly that kinetic energy is conserved in the collision nal direction, what fraction of its kinetic energy does it transfer
of the preceding problem. to the deuteron?
57. While standing on frictionless ice, you (mass 65.0 kg) toss a 4.50-kg 72. Two identical billiard balls are initially at rest when they’re
rock with initial speed 12.0 m/s. If the rock is 15.2 m from you struck symmetrically by a third identical ball moving with veloc-
!
when it lands, (a) at what angle did you toss it? (b) How fast are ity v 0 5 v0^ı (Fig. 9.26). Find the velocities of all three balls after
you moving? this elastic collision.
58. You’re an accident investigator at a scene where a drunk driver in
a 1600-kg car has plowed into a 1300-kg parked car with its
vr0
brake set. You measure skid marks showing that the combined
wreckage moved 25 m before stopping, and you determine a fric-
tional coefficient of 0.77. What do you report for the drunk dri-
ver’s speed just before the collision? FIGURE 9.26 Problem 72
59. A fireworks rocket is launched vertically upward at 40 m/s. At
the peak of its trajectory, it explodes into two equal-mass frag- 73. Find an expression for the impulse imparted by a force
ments. One reaches the ground 2.87 s after the explosion. When F1t2 5 F0 sin1at2 during the time t 5 0 to t 5 p/a. Here a is a
does the second reach the ground? constant with units of s21.
60. Two objects moving in opposite directions with the same speed v 74. A 32-u oxygen molecule 1O22 moving in the 1x-direction at
undergo a totally inelastic collision, and half the initial kinetic 580 m/s collides with an oxygen atom (mass 16 u) moving at
energy is lost. Find the ratio of their masses. 870 m/s at 27° to the x-axis. The particles stick together to form
61. Explosive bolts separate a 950-kg communications satellite from an ozone molecule. Find the ozone’s velocity.
its 640-kg booster rocket, imparting a 350-N # s impulse. At what 75. A 114-g Frisbee is lodged on a tree branch 7.65 m above the
relative speed do satellite and booster separate? ground. To free it, you lob a 240-g dirt clod vertically upward.
62. You’re working in quality control for a model rocket manufac- The dirt leaves your hand at a point 1.23 m above the ground,
turer, testing a class-D rocket whose specifications call for an moving at 17.7 m/s. It sticks to the Frisbee. Find (a) the maxi-
impulse between 10 and 20 N # s. The rocket’s burn time is mum height reached by the Frisbee-dirt combination and (b) the
Dt 5 2.8 s, and its thrust during that time is F1t2 5 at1t 2 Dt2, speed with which the combination hits the ground.
where a 5 24.6 N/s2. Does the rocket meet its specs? 76. You set a small ball of mass m atop a large ball of mass M W m
63. A 1200-kg Toyota and a 2200-kg Buick collide at right angles in and drop the pair from height h. Assuming the balls are perfectly
an intersection. They skid together 22 m; the coefficient of fric- elastic, show that the smaller ball rebounds to height 9h.
tion is 0.91. Show that at least one car must have exceeded the 77. A car moving at speed v undergoes a one-dimensional collision
25 km/h speed limit at the intersection. with an identical car initially at rest. The collision is neither elas-
64. A 400-mg popcorn kernel is skittering across a nonstick frying tic nor fully inelastic; 5/18 of the initial kinetic energy is lost.
pan at 8.2 cm/s when it pops and breaks into two equal-mass Find the velocities of the two cars after the collision.
pieces. If one piece ends up at rest, how much energy was 78. A 200-g block is released from rest at a height of 25 cm on a fric-
released in the popping? tionless 30° incline. It slides down the incline and then along a
65. Two identical objects with the same initial speed collide and stick frictionless surface until it collides elastically with an 800-g
together. If the composite object moves with half the initial speed block at rest 1.4 m from the bottom of the incline (Fig. 9.27).
of either object, what was the angle between the initial velocities? How much later do the two blocks collide again?
66. A proton (mass 1 u) moving at 6.90 Mm/s collides elastically
head-on with a second particle moving in the opposite direction 25 cm
at 2.80 Mm/s. After the collision, the proton is moving opposite 30°
1.4 m
its initial direction at 8.62 Mm/s. Find the mass and final veloc-
ity of the second particle.
67. Two objects, one initially at rest, undergo a one-dimensional elastic FIGURE 9.27 Problem 78
collision. If half the kinetic energy of the initially moving object is 79. A 14-kg projectile is launched at 380 m/s at a 55° angle to the
transferred to the other object, what is the ratio of their masses? horizontal. At the peak of its trajectory it collides with a second
68. Blocks B and C have masses 2m and m, respectively, and are at projectile moving horizontally, in the opposite direction, at
rest on a frictionless surface. Block A, also of mass m, is heading 140 m/s. The two stick together and land 9.6 km horizontally
at speed v toward block B as shown in Fig. 9.25. Determine the downrange from the first projectile’s launch point. Find the mass
of the second projectile.
vr
80. During a crash test, a car moving at 50 km/h collides with a rigid
barrier and comes to a complete stop in 200 ms. The collision force
A B C as a function of time is given by F 5 at4 1 bt3 1 ct2 1 dt,
where a 5 28.86 GN/s4, b 5 3.27 GN/s3, c 5 2362 MN/s2,
FIGURE 9.25 Problem 68 and d 5 12.5 MN/s. Find (a) the total impulse imparted by the
154 Chapter 9 Systems of Particles

collision, (b) the average collisional force, and (c) the car’s 90. The collisions between ball and floor are
mass. a. totally elastic.
81. Use numerical or graphical techniques to estimate the peak force b. totally inelastic.
C of the collision in the preceding problem, and determine when it c. neither totally elastic nor totally inelastic.
occurs. 91. The fraction of the ball’s mechanical energy that’s lost in the sec-
82. A block of mass m1 undergoes a one-dimensional elastic colli- ond collision is
sion with an initially stationary block of mass m2. Find an ex- a. about 10%.
pression for the fraction of the initial kinetic energy transferred b. a little less than half.
to the second block, and plot your result for mass ratios m1/m2 c. a little more than half.
from 0 to 20. d. about 90%.
83. Two objects of unequal mass, one initially at rest, undergo a one-
92. The component of the ball’s velocity whose magnitude is most
dimensional elastic collision. For a given mass ratio, show that
affected by the collisions is
the fraction of the initial energy transferred to the initially sta-
a. horizontal.
tionary object doesn’t depend on which object it is.
b. vertical.
84. In Figure 9.6, the uniform semicircular wire has radius R. How
c. Both are affected equally.
far above the center of the semicircle is its center of mass?
85. Find the center of mass of a uniform slice of pizza with radius R 93. Compared with the time between bounces, the duration of each
and angular width u. collision is
86. In a ballistic pendulum demonstration gone bad, a 0.52-g pellet, a. a tiny fraction of the time between bounces.
fired horizontally with kinetic energy 3.25 J, passes straight b. a significant fraction of the time between bounces.
through a 400-g Styrofoam pendulum block. If the pendulum c. much longer than the time between bounces.
rises a maximum height of 0.50 mm, how much kinetic energy
did the pellet have after emerging from the Styrofoam? Answers to Chapter Questions
87. An 80-kg astronaut has become detached from the safety line
connecting her to the International Space Station. She’s 200 m
Answer to Chapter Opening Question
from the station, at rest relative to it, and has 4 min of air remain-
ing. To get herself back, she tosses a 10-kg tool kit away from the The skier’s center of mass follows the simple path of a projectile be-
station at 8.0 m/s. Will she make it back in time? cause, as Newton’s laws show, the skier’s mass acts like it’s all con-
88. Astronomers detect extrasolar planets by measuring the slight centrated at this point.
movement of stars around the center of mass of the star-planet Answers to GOT IT? Questions
system. Considering just the Sun and Jupiter, determine the ra-
9.1. The CM is the uppermost point A. You can see this by imagining
dius of the circular orbit the Sun makes about the Sun-Jupiter
horizontal strips through the loop; the higher the strip the more
center of mass.
mass is included, so the CM must lie nearer the top of the loop.
89. A thin rod extends from x 5 0 to x 5 L. It carries a nonuniform
The bottommost point would be the CM for a complete circle.
mass per unit length m 5 Mxa/L11a, where M is a constant with
9.2. Momentum is conserved, so the ! momentum both before and
units of mass, and a is a non-negative dimensionless constant. !
after the explosion is the same: P 5 mv 5 10.50 kg2160/^ m/s2 5
Find expressions for (a) the rod’s mass and (b) the location of its
30/^ kg # m/s.
center of mass. (c) Are your results what you expect when
9.3. Only (d). The individual skaters experience external forces from
a 5 0?
the ball, as does the ball from the skaters. A system consisting of
Passage Problems the ball and one skater experiences external forces from the other
You’re interested in the intersection of physics and sports, and you rec- skater. Only the system of all three has no net external force and
ognize that many sporting events involve collisions—bat and base- therefore has conserved momentum.
ball, foot and football, hockey stick and puck, basketball and floor. 9.4. All but (c) are collisions; (a) and (b) are nearly elastic; (d) and
Using strobe photography, you embark on a study of such collisions. (e) are inelastic.
Figure 9.28 is your strobe photo of a ball bouncing off the floor. The ball 9.5. The ball initially at rest is less massive; otherwise, the incident
is launched from a point near the top left of the photo and your camera ball would have reversed direction (or stopped if the masses were
then captures it undergoing three subsequent collisions with the floor. equal).

vrin
r
vout

FIGURE 9.28 Passage Problems 90–93

 10 Rotational Motion

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Describe the rotational motion of
rigid bodies using the concepts of
angular velocity and acceleration,
rotational inertia, torque, and the
rotational analog of Newton’s law
(10.1–10.3).
■ Calculate the rotational inertias of
objects with sufficient symmetry by
summing or integrating (10.3).
■ Solve problems that involve both
linear and rotational motion (10.3).
■ Calculate rotational kinetic energy,
and explain its relation to torque and
work (10.4).
■ Describe rolling motion (10.5).
For a given blade mass, how should you engineer a wind
turbine’s blades so it’s easiest for the wind to get the
turbine rotating?

Y ou’re sitting on a rotating planet. The wheels of your car rotate. Your favorite movie comes
from a rotating DVD. A circular saw rotates to rip its way through a board. A dancer pirou-
ettes, and a satellite spins about its axis. Even molecules rotate. Rotational motion is common-
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ The description of rotational motion
here is directly analogous to Chapter
place throughout the physical universe. 2’s material on one-dimensional
In principle, we could treat rotational motion by analyzing the motion of each particle in a linear motion (2.1–2.4).
rotating object. But that would be a hopeless task for all but the simplest objects. Instead, we’ll ■ This chapter’s rotational analog of
describe rotational motion by analogy with linear motion as governed by Newton’s laws. Newton’s law builds on the one-
This chapter parallels our study of one-dimensional motion in Chapters 2 and 4. In the next dimensional applications of Newton’s
chapter we introduce a full vector description to treat multidimensional rotational motion. second law in Chapter 4 (4.2, 4.5).
■ You should be comfortable with the
concepts of work and kinetic energy
10.1 Angular Velocity and Acceleration introduced in Chapter 6 (6.1, 6.3).
You slip a DVD into a player, and it starts spinning. You could describe its motion
by giving the speed and direction of each point on the disc. But it’s much easier just to
say that the disc is rotating at 800 revolutions per minute (rpm). As long as the disc is a
155
156 Chapter 10 Rotational Motion

The full circumference is rigid body—one whose parts remain in fixed positions relative to one another—then
2pr, so 1 revolution is 2p that single statement suffices to describe the motion of the entire disc.
radians. That makes 1 radian
360°/2p or about 57.3°.
Angular Velocity
s The rate at which a body rotates is its angular velocity—the rate at which the angular posi-
u tion of any point on the body changes. With our 800-rpm DVD, the unit of angle was one
r u 5 r–s
full revolution (360°, or 2p radians), and the unit of time was the minute. But we could
equally well express angular speed in revolutions per second (rev/s), degrees per second
1°/s2, or radians per second (rad/s or simply s21 since radians are dimensionless). Because
of the mathematically simple nature of radian measure, we often use radians in calcula-
Angle in radians is the
ratio of arc s to radius r: tions involving rotational motion (Fig. 10.1).
u 5 s/r. Here u is a little We use the Greek symbol v (omega) for angular velocity and define average angular
less than 1 radian. velocity v as
FIGURE 10.1 Radian measure of angles. Du
v5 1average angular velocity2 (10.1)
Dt
The arm rotates through where Du is the angular displacement—that is, the change in angular position—occurring
the angle Du in time Dt,
so its average angular
in the time Dt (Fig. 10.2). When angular velocity is changing, we define instantaneous
velocity is v 5 Du/Dt. angular velocity as the limit over arbitrarily short time intervals:
Du du
v 5 lim 5 1instantaneous angular velocity2 (10.2)
Dt S 0 Dt dt
These definitions are analogous to those of average and instantaneous linear velocity in-
Du
troduced in Chapter 2. Just as we use the term speed for the magnitude of velocity, so we
define angular speed as the magnitude of the angular velocity.
Direction is Velocity is a vector quantity, with magnitude and direction. Is angular velocity also a
counterclockwise (CCW). vector? Yes, but we’ll wait until the next chapter for the full vector description of rota-
tional motion. In this chapter, it’s sufficient to know whether an object’s rotation is clock-
FIGURE 10.2 Average angular velocity.
wise (CW) or counterclockwise (CCW) about a fixed axis—as suggested by the curved
arrow in Fig. 10.2. This restriction to a fixed axis is analogous to Chapter 2’s restriction to
one-dimensional motion.

Angular and Linear Speed

Linear speed is proportional Individual points on a rotating object undergo circular motion. Each point has an instanta-
to distance from the rotation axis. !
neous linear velocity v whose magnitude is the linear speed v. We now relate this linear
speed v to the angular speed v. The definition of angular measure in radians (Fig. 10.1) is
u 5 s/r. Differentiating this expression with respect to time, we have
du 1 ds
5
v
v 5 vr dt r dt
r
r
v because the radius r is constant. But du/dt is the angular velocity, and ds/dt is the linear
speed v, so v 5 v/r, or
vr
v 5 vr (10.3)
The point on the rim has
the same angular speed v Thus the linear speed of any point on a rotating object is proportional both to the angular
but a higher linear speed v speed of the object and to the distance from that point to the axis of rotation (Fig. 10.3).
than the inner point.

FIGURE 10.3 Linear and rotational speeds. ✓TIP Radian Measure

Equation 10.3 was derived using the definition of angle in radians and therefore holds
for only angular speed measured in radians per unit time. If you’re given other angu-
lar measures—degrees or revolutions, for example—you should convert to radians
before using Equation 10.3.
 10.1 Angular Velocity and Acceleration 157

EXAMPLE 10.1 Angular Speed: A Wind Turbine

A wind turbine’s blades are 28 m long and rotate at 21 rpm. Find the EVALUATE One revolution is 2p rad, and 1 min is 60 s, so we have
angular speed of the blades in radians per second, and determine the 121 rev/min212p rad/rev2
linear speed at the tip of a blade. v 5 21 rpm 5 5 2.2 rad/s
60 s/min
INTEPRET This problem is about converting between two units of an- The speed at the tip of a 28-m-long blade then follows from Equation
gular speed, revolutions per minute and radians per second, as well as 10.3: v 5 vr 5 12.2 rad/s2128 m2 5 62 m/s.
finding linear speed given angular speed and radius.
ASSESS With v in radians per second, multiplying by length in me-
DEVELOP We’ll first convert the units to radians per second and then ters gives correct velocity units of meters per second because radians
calculate the linear speed using Equation 10.3, v 5 vr. are dimensionless. ■

Angular Acceleration
If the angular velocity of a rotating object changes, then the object undergoes angular
acceleration a, defined analogously to linear acceleration:
Dv dv
a 5 lim 5 1angular acceleration2 (10.4)
Dt S 0 Dt dt
Taking the limit gives the instantaneous angular acceleration; if we don’t take the limit,
then we have an average over the time interval Dt. The SI units of angular acceleration are
rad/s2, although we sometimes use other units such as rpm/s or rev/s2.
Angular acceleration has the same direction as angular velocity—CW or CCW—if the
angular speed is increasing, and the opposite direction if it’s decreasing. These situations
are analogous to a car that’s speeding up (acceleration and velocity in the same direction)
or braking (acceleration opposite velocity).
When a rotating object undergoes angular acceleration, points on the object speed up or at is the tangential
component of
slow down. Therefore, they have tangential acceleration dv/dt directed parallel or anti- acceleration ar and is
parallel to their linear velocity (Fig. 10.4). We introduced this idea of tangential accelera- parallel to the linear
r
tion back in Chapter 3; here we can recast it in terms of the angular acceleration: velocity v.

dv dv vr
at 5 5r 5 ra 1tangential acceleration2 (10.5) v at 5 ra
dt dt
ar
Whether or not there’s angular acceleration, points on a rotating object also have radial accel-
ar 5 v2r
eration because they’re in circular motion. Radial acceleration is given, as usual, by ar 5 v2/r;
r
using v 5 vr from Equation 10.3, we can recast this equation in angular terms as ar 5 v2r. u
Because angular velocity and acceleration are defined analogously to linear velocity and ac-
celeration, all the relations among linear position, velocity, and acceleration automatically ap-
ply among angular position, angular velocity, and angular acceleration. If angular acceleration
is constant, then all our constant-acceleration formulas of Chapter 2 apply when we make the
substitutions u for x, v for v, and a for a. Table 10.1 summarizes this direct analogy between v

Table 10.1 Angular and Linear Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

ar is the radial component,
r
Linear Quantity Angular Quantity perpendicular to v.

Position x Angular position u FIGURE 10.4 Radial and tangential acceleration.

dx du
Velocity v 5 Angular velocity v 5
dt dt
dv d2x dv d 2u
Acceleration a 5 5 2 Angular acceleration a 5 5 2
dt dt dt dt
Equations for Constant Linear Acceleration Equations for Constant Angular Acceleration

v 5 121v0 1 v2 (2.8) v 5 121v0 1 v2 (10.6)

v 5 v0 1 at (2.7) v 5 v0 1 at (10.7)
x 5 x0 1 v0 t 1 12 at2 (2.10) u 5 u0 1 v0 t 1 12 at2 (10.8)
v2 5 v02 1 2a1x 2 x02 (2.11) v2 5 v02 1 2a1u 2 u02 (10.9)
158 Chapter 10 Rotational Motion

linear and rotational quantities. With Table 10.1, problems involving rotational motion are
analogous to the one-dimensional linear problems you solved in Chapter 2.

EXAMPLE 10.2 Linear Analogies: Spin-down

When the wind dies, the turbine of Example 10.1 spins down with we’re solving for. In Table 10.1, Equation 10.9 is the analogous equa-
constant angular acceleration of magnitude 0.12 rad/s2. How many tion for rotational motion: v2 5 v02 1 2aDu, where we’ve written
revolutions does the turbine make before coming to a stop? u 2 u0 5 Du for the rotational displacement during the spin-down.

INTERPRET The key to problems involving rotational motion is to EVALUATE We solve for Du:
identify the analogous situation for linear motion. This problem is v2 2 v02 0 2 12.2 rad/s22
analogous to asking how far a braking car travels before coming to a Du 5 5 5 20 rad 5 3.2 revolutions
stop. We identify the number of rotations—the angular displace- 2a 122120.12 rad/s22
ment—as the analog of the car’s linear displacement. The given angu- where the last conversion follows because 1 revolution is 2p radians.
lar acceleration is analogous to the car’s braking acceleration. The
initial angular speed (2.2 rad/s, from Example 10.1) is analogous to ASSESS The turbine blades are turning rather slowly—less than 1 rev-
the car’s initial speed. And in both cases the final state we’re interested olution every second—so it’s not surprising that a small angular
in has zero speed—whether linear or angular. acceleration can bring them to a halt in a short angular “distance.”
Note, too, how the units work out. Also, by taking v as positive, we
DEVELOP Our plan is to develop the analogy further so we can find the needed to treat a as negative because the angular acceleration is oppo-
angular displacement. The easiest way to solve the linear problem would site the angular velocity when the rotation rate is slowing—just as the
be to use Equation 2.11, v2 5 v02 1 2a1x 2 x02, with v 5 0, v0 the ini- braking car’s linear acceleration is opposite its velocity. ■
tial velocity, a the car’s acceleration, and Dx 5 x 2 x0 the distance

The same force is applied

at different points on the 10.2 Torque ! !
wrench. Newton’s second law, F 5 ma , proved very powerful in our study of motion. Ultimately
Newton’s law governs all motion, but its application to every particle in a rotating object
Closest to O, t is smallest.
would be terribly cumbersome. Can we instead formulate an analogous law that deals with
rr rotational quantities?
O To develop such a law, we need rotational analogs of force, mass, and acceleration.
Angular acceleration a is the analog of linear acceleration; in the next two sections we
develop analogs for force and mass.
r
F How can a small child balance her father on a seesaw? By sitting far from the seesaw’s
rotation axis; that way, her smaller weight at a greater distance from the pivot is as effective
(a)
as her father’s greater weight closer to the pivot. In general, the effectiveness of a force in
Farther away, t becomes larger. bringing about changes in rotational motion—a quantity called torque—depends not only
rr on the magnitude of the force but also on how far from the rotation axis it’s applied
O (Fig. 10.5). The effectiveness of the force also depends on the direction in which it’s applied,
as Fig. 10.6 suggests. Based on these considerations, we define torque as the product of
r
the distance r from the rotation axis and the component of force perpendicular to that
F axis. Torque is given the symbol t (Greek tau, pronounced to rhyme with “how”). Then
(b)
we can write

Farthest away, t becomes greatest.

t 5 rF sin u (10.10)
rr
O The same force is applied at different angles.
r
r Torque decreases when F Torque
r
is zero when
Torque is greatest when F is no longer perpendicular r
F is parallel to r.
r r
F is perpendicular to r. to r.r
rr rr rr
(c)
O O O r
F
FIGURE 10.5 Torque increases with the distance r
from the rotation axis O to the point where
r
force is applied. r
F F

(a) (b) (c)

! !
FIGURE 10.6 Torque is greatest with F and r at right angles, and diminishes to zero as they become colinear.
 10.2 Torque 159

r' is the lever arm—the r

effective distance at which F acts.
F' is the effective force;
Fi doesn’t produce torque. r' 5 r sinu
r
r Fi rr
O O
u
ri u
F' 5 F sinu
r r
F F FIGURE 10.7 Two ways of thinking about torque.
(a) (b) (a) t 5 rF' ; (b) t 5 r'F. Both give t 5 rF sin u.

!
where u is the angle between the force vector and the vector r from the rotation axis to the force
application point. Figure 10.7 shows two interpretations of Equation 10.10. Figure 10.7b also
defines the so-called lever arm.
Torque, which you can think of as a “twisting force,” plays the role of force in the rota-
tional analog of Newton’s second law. Equation 10.10 shows that torque is measured in
newton-meters. Although this is the same unit as energy, torque is a different physical
quantity, so we reserve the term joule 151 N # m2 for energy.
Does torque have direction? Yes, and we’ll extend our notion of torque to provide a
vector description in the next chapter. For now we’ll specify the direction as either clock-
wise or counterclockwise.

EXAMPLE 10.3 Torque: Changing a Tire

You’re tightening your car’s wheel nuts after changing a flat tire. The
instructions specify a tightening torque of 95 N # m so the nuts won’t
come loose. If your 45-cm-long wrench makes a 67° angle with the
horizontal, with what force must you pull horizontally to produce the
required torque?

INTERPRET We need to find the force required to produce a specific

torque, given the distance from the rotation axis and the angle the
force makes with the wrench.

DEVELOP Figure 10.8 is our drawing, and we’ll calculate the torque
using Equation 10.10, t 5 rF sin u. With the force applied horizon-
tally, comparison of Figs. 10.7a and 10.8 shows that the angle u in
Equation 10.10 is 180° 2 67° 5 113°.
FIGURE 10.8 Our sketch of the
EVALUATE We solve Equation 10.10 for the force F: wrench and wheel nut.
t 95 N # m
F5 5 5 230 N
r sin u 10.45 m21sin 113°2
example, are often specified for nuts and bolts in critical applications.
ASSESS Is a 230-N force reasonable? Yes: It’s roughly the force Mechanics use specially designed “torque wrenches” that provide a
needed to lift a 23-kg 1,50-lb2 suitcase. Tightening torques, as in this direct indication of the applied torque. ■

✓TIP Specify the Axis

Torque depends on where the force is applied relative to some rotation axis. The same
physical force results in different torques about different axes. Be sure the rotation
axis is specified before you make a calculation involving torque.

GOT IT? 10.1 The forces in Figs. 10.5 and 10.6 all have the same magnitude. (a) Which
of Figs. 10.5a, 10.5b, and 10.6b has the greatest torque? (b) Which of these has the least
torque?
160 Chapter 10 Rotational Motion

Rotating the
mass near the
Farther away,
it’s harder 10.3 Rotational Inertia and the Analog
axis is easy. to spin. of Newton’s Law
Rotation axis Torque and angular acceleration are the rotational analogs of force and linear acceleration.
To develop a rotational analog of Newton’s law, we still need the rotational analog of mass.
The mass m in Newton’s law is a measure of a body’s inertia—of its resistance to
changes in motion. So we want a quantity that describes resistance to changes in rotational
motion. Figure 10.9 shows that it’s easier to set an object rotating when its mass is con-
centrated near the rotation axis. Therefore, our rotational analog of inertia must depend
not only on mass itself but also on the distribution of mass relative to the rotation axis.
Suppose the object in Fig. 10.9 consists of an essentially massless rod of length R with a
ball of mass m on the end. We
! allow the object to rotate about an axis through the free end of
the rod and apply a force F to the ball, always at right angles to the rod (Fig. 10.10). The ball
undergoes a tangential acceleration given by Newton’s law: F 5 mat. (There’s also a tension
force in the rod, but because it acts along the rod, it doesn’t contribute to the torque or angular
acceleration.) We can use Equation 10.5 to express the tangential acceleration in terms of the
angular acceleration a and the distance R from the rotation axis: F 5 mat 5 maR. We can
FIGURE 10.9 It’s easier to set an object rotating also express the force F in terms of its associated torque. Since the force is perpendicular to
if the mass is concentrated near the axis. the rod, Equation 10.10 gives t 5 RF. Using our expression for F, we have
t 5 1mR22a
r
r
F
F Here we have Newton’s law, F 5 ma, written in terms of rotational quantities. The
torque—analogous to force—is the product of the angular acceleration and the quantity
mR2, which must therefore be the rotational analog of mass. We call this quantity the
r
F rotational inertia or moment of inertia and give it the symbol I. Rotational inertia is
measured in kg # m2 and accounts for both an object’s mass and the distribution of that
mass. Like torque, the value of the rotational inertia depends on the location of the rota-
FIGURE 10.10 A force applied perpendicular tion axis. Given the rotational inertia I, our rotational analog of Newton’s law becomes
to the rod results in angular acceleration.
t 5 Ia 1rotational analog of Newton’s 2 nd law2 (10.11)
Although we derived Equation 10.11 for a single, localized mass, it applies to extended
objects if we interpret t as the net torque on the object and I as the sum of the rotational
inertias of the individual mass elements making up the object.

Calculating the Rotational Inertia

When an object consists of a number of discrete mass points, its rotational inertia about an
axis is the sum of the rotational inertias of the individual mass points:
I 5 a mi r i2 1rotational inertia2 (10.12)
Here mi is the mass of the ith mass point, and ri is its distance from the rotation axis.

EXAMPLE 10.4 Rotational Inertia: A Sum

A dumbbell-shaped object consists of two equal masses m 5 0.64 kg
on the ends of a massless rod of length L 5 85 cm. Calculate its rota-
tional inertia about an axis one-fourth of the way from one end of the
rod and perpendicular to it.

INTERPRET Here we have two discrete masses, so this problem is ask-

ing us to calculate the rotational inertia by summing over the individ-
ual masses. FIGURE 10.11 Our sketch for Example 10.4, showing rotation about an axis
perpendicular to the page.
DEVELOP Figure 10.11 is our sketch. We’ll use Equation 10.12,
ASSESS Make sense? Even though there are two masses, our answer
I 5 g mi ri 2, to sum the two individual rotational inertias. is less than the rotational inertia mL2 of a single mass rotated about a
rod of length L. That’s because distance from the rotation axis is
I 5 a mi ri 2 5 m A 14L B 1 m A 34L B 2 5 58 mL2
2
EVALUATE
squared, so it contributes more in determining rotational inertia than
5 5810.64 kg210.85 m22 5 0.29 kg # m2 does mass. ■
 10.3 Rotational Inertia and the Analog of Newton’s Law 161

GOT IT? 10.2 Would the rotational inertia of the two-mass dumbbell in Exam-
ple 10.4 (a) increase, (b) decrease, or (c) stay the same if the rotation axis were at the cen-
ter of the rod? If it were at one end?

With continuous distributions of matter, we consider a large number of very small mass The mass element dm contributes
elements dm throughout the object, and sum the individual rotational inertias r2 dm over rotational inertia r 2 dm.
the entire object (Fig. 10.12). In the limit of an arbitrarily large number of infinitesimally
small mass elements, that sum becomes an integral: dm

rotational inertia, r
I 5 3 r2 dm a b (10.13)
continuous matter
Rotation
where the limits of integration cover the entire object. axis

FIGURE 10.12 Rotational inertia can be found by

integrating the rotational inertias r 2 dm of the
mass elements making up an object.

EXAMPLE 10.5 Rotational Inertia by Integration: A Rod

Find the rotational inertia of a uniform, narrow rod of mass M and short piece of the rod. (3) Now we form ratios to relate dx and the mass
length L about an axis through its center and perpendicular to the rod. element dm. The total mass of the rod is M, and its total length is L.
With the mass distributed uniformly, that means dx is the same fraction
INTERPRET The rod is a continuous distribution of matter, so calcu- of L that dm is of M, or dx/L 5 dm/M. (4) We solve for the mass ele-
lating the rotational inertia is going to involve integration. We identify ment: dm 5 1M/L2 dx.
the rotation axis as being in the center of the rod. We’re almost done. But the integral in Equation 10.13 contains r,
and we’ve related dm and dx. No problem: On the one-dimensional
DEVELOP Figure 10.13 shows the rod and rotation axis; we added a rod, distances from the rotation axis are just the coordinates x. So r
coordinate system with x-axis along the rod and the origin at the rota- becomes x in our integral, and we have
tion axis. With a continuous distribution, Equation 10.13, I 5 #r2 dm, L/2
applies. To develop a solution plan, we need to set up the integral in M
I 5 3 r2 dm 5 3 x2 dx
Equation 10.13. That equation may seem confusing because the inte- 2L/2 L
gral contains both the geometric variable r and the mass element dm. We chose the limits to include the entire rod; with the origin at the
How are they related? At this point you might want to review Tactics center, it runs from 2L/2 to L/2.
9.1 (page 137); we’ll follow its steps here. (1) We’re first supposed to
find a suitable mass element; here, with a one-dimensional rod, that EVALUATE The constants M and L come outside the integral, so we
can be a short section of the rod. We marked a typical mass element in have
Fig. 10.13. (2) This step is straightforward in this one-dimensional L/2 L/2 L/2
M M M x3 2
case; the length of the mass element is dx, signifying an infinitesimally I5 3 x2 dx 5 3 x2 dx 5 5 1 ML2 (10.14)
2L/2 L L 2L/2 L 3 2L/2 12
The mass element
has mass dm and
ASSESS Make sense? In Example 10.4 we found I 5 8 mL2 for a rod
5
length dx.
with two masses m on the ends. If you thought about GOT IT? 10.2, you
probably realized that the rotational inertia would be 12 mL2 for rotation
about the rod’s center. The total mass for that one was M 5 2m, so in
terms of total mass the rotational inertia about the center would be
I 5 14 ML2—a lot larger than what we’ve found for the continuous rod.
That’s because much of the continuous rod’s mass is close to the rotation
axis, so it contributes less to the rotational inertia. ■
FIGURE 10.13 Our sketch of the uniform rod of Example 10.5.
162 Chapter 10 Rotational Motion

EXAMPLE 10.6 Rotational Inertia by Integration: A Ring

Find the rotational inertia of a thin ring of radius R and mass M about EVALUATE Because the sum of the mass elements over the ring is the
the ring’s axis. total mass M, we find
I 5 MR2 1thin ring2 (10.15)
INTERPRET This example is similar to Example 10.5, but the geome-
try has changed from a rod to a ring.
ASSESS The rotational inertia of the ring is the same as if all the mass
DEVELOP Figure 10.14 shows the ring with a mass element dm. All the were concentrated in one place a distance R from the rotation axis; the
mass elements in the ring are the same distance R from the rotation axis, angular distribution of the mass about the axis doesn’t matter. Notice,
so r in Equation 10.13 is the constant R, and the equation becomes too, that it doesn’t matter whether the ring is narrow like a loop of wire
or long like a section of hollow pipe, as long as it’s thin enough that all
I 5 3 R2 dm 5 R2 3 dm of it is essentially equidistant from the rotation axis (Fig. 10.15).
where the integration is over the ring.

FIGURE 10.15 The rotational inertia is MR 2 for any thin ring, whether
it’s narrow like a wire loop or long like a pipe. ■

FIGURE 10.14 Our sketch of a thin ring, showing one mass element dm.

EXAMPLE 10.7 Rotational Inertia by Integration: A Disk

A disk of radius R and mass M has uniform density. Find the rotational dm. Think of “unwinding” the ring shown in Fig. 10.16; it becomes
inertia of the disk about an axis through its center and perpendicular essentially a rectangle whose area dA is its circumference multiplied
to the disk. by its width: dA 5 2pr dr. Next, we form ratios. The ring area dA is
to the total disk area pR2 as the ring mass dm is to the total mass M:
INTERPRET Again we need to find the rotational inertia for a piece of 2pr dr/pR2 5 dm/M. Solving for dm gives dm 5 12Mr/R22 dr.
continuous matter, this time a disk.
EVALUATE We now evaluate the integral:
DEVELOP Because the disk is continuous, we need to integrate using R R
2Mr
Equation 10.13, I 5 #r2 dm. We’ll condense the strategy we applied I 5 3 r2 dm 5 3 r2 a 2 b dr
in Example 10.5. The result of Example 10.6 suggests dividing the 0 0 R
R R
disk into rings, as shown in Fig. 10.16. Equation 10.15, with 2M 2M r4
5 r3 dr 5 2 2 5 1MR2 1disk2 (10.16)
M S dm, shows that a ring of radius r and mass dm contributes r2 dm 2 3
R 0 R 4 0 2

to the rotational inertia of the disk. Then the total inertia will be
R
I 5 #0 r2 dm, where we chose the limits to pick up contributions ASSESS Again, this result makes sense. In the disk, some of the mass
from all the mass elements on the disk. Again we need to relate r and is closer to the rotation axis, so the rotational inertia should be less
than the value MR2 for the ring.

✓TIP Constants and Variables

Note the different roles of R and r here. R represents a fixed
quantity—the actual radius of the disk—and it’s a constant that can
go outside the integral. In contrast, r is the variable of integration,
and it changes as we range from the disk’s center to its edge, adding
up all the infinitesimal mass elements. Because r is a variable over
the region of integration, we can’t take it outside the integral.
FIGURE 10.16 A disk may be divided into ring-shaped mass elements
of mass dm, radius r, and width dr. ■
 10.3 Rotational Inertia and the Analog of Newton’s Law 163

Table 10.2 Rotational Inertias

Solid sphere about diameter Flat plate about perpendicular axis

I 5 25 MR2 1 M a 2 1 b2
I 5 12

r
r

L
b
Thin rod about center Thin ring or hollow cylinder
1 a
I 5 12 ML2 about its axis
I 5 MR2

Hollow spherical shell about diameter

I 5 23 MR2

Flat plate about central axis

1
I 5 12 Ma2

r r

L Thin rod about end

I 5 13 ML2
Disk or solid cylinder b
about its axis a
I 5 12 MR2

The rotational inertias of other shapes about various axes are found by integration as in
these examples. Table 10.2 lists results for some common shapes. Note that more than one
rotational inertia is listed for some shapes, since the rotational inertia depends on the rota-
tion axis.
This axis is through
If we know the rotational inertia Icm about an axis through the center of mass of a body, the sphere’s center,
a useful relation called the parallel-axis theorem allows us to calculate the rotational in- so I 5 25 MR2.
ertia I through any parallel axis. The parallel-axis theorem states that
I 5 Icm 1 Md2 (10.17)
where d is the distance from the center-of-mass axis to the parallel axis and M is the total mass
of the object. Figure 10.17 shows the meaning of the parallel-axis theorem, which you can
prove in Problem 78.

GOT IT? 10.3 Explain why the rotational inertia of the solid sphere in Table 10.2 is
less than that of the spherical shell with the same radius and the same mass.
d5R

(a) (b)
This parallel axis is
Rotational Dynamics a distance d 5 R away
Knowing a body’s rotational inertia, we can use the rotational analog of Newton’s second from the original axis,
so I 5 25 MR2 1 Md2 5 7
5
MR2.
law (Equation 10.11) to determine its behavior, just as we used Newton’s law itself to ana-
lyze linear motion. Like the force in Newton’s law, the torque in Equation 10.11 is the net FIGURE 10.17 Meaning of the parallel-axis
external torque—the sum of all external torques acting on the body. theorem.
164 Chapter 10 Rotational Motion

EXAMPLE 10.8 Rotational Dynamics: De-Spinning a Satellite

A cylindrical satellite is 1.4 m in diameter, with its 940-kg mass dis- to the jets using Equation 10.10, t 5 rF sin u. (3) Use the rotational
tributed uniformly. The satellite is spinning at 10 rpm but must be analog of Newton’s law—Equation 10.11, t 5 Ia—to find the angu-
stopped so that astronauts can make repairs. Two small gas jets, each lar acceleration. (4) Use the change in angular speed to get the time.
with 20-N thrust, are mounted on opposite sides of the satellite and
EVALUATE Following our plan, (1) the rotational inertia from Table
fire tangent to the satellite’s rim. How long must the jets be fired in
10.2 is I 5 12 MR2. (2) With the jets tangent to the satellite, sin u in
order to stop the satellite’s rotation?
Equation 10.10 is 1, so each jet contributes a torque of magnitude RF,
INTERPRET This is ultimately a problem about angular acceleration, where R is the satellite radius and F the jet thrust force. With two jets,
but we’re given the forces the jets exert. So it becomes a problem the net torque then has magnitude t 5 2RF. (3) Equation 10.11 gives
about calculating torque and then acceleration—that is, a problem in a 5 t/I 5 12RF2/ A 12 MR2 B 5 4F/MR. (4) We want this torque to
rotational dynamics using the rotational analog of Newton’s law. drop the angular speed from v0 5 10 rpm to zero, so the magnitude of
the speed change is
DEVELOP Figure 10.18 shows the situation. We’re asked about the Dv 5 10 rev/min 5 110 rev/min212p rad/rev2/160 s/min2
time, which we can get from the angular acceleration and initial angu- 5 1.05 rad/s
lar speed. We can find the acceleration using the rotational analog of
Since angular acceleration is a 5 Dv/Dt, our final answer is
Newton’s law, Equation 10.11, if we know both torque and rotational
inertia. So here’s our plan: (1) Find the satellite’s rotational inertia Dv MR Dv
Dt 5 5
from Table 10.2, treating it as a solid cylinder. (2) Find the torque due a 4F
1940 kg210.70 m211.05 rad/s2
5 5 8.6 s
142120 N2

ASSESS Make sense? Yes: The thrust F appears in the denominator,

showing that a larger force and hence torque will bring the satellite
more rapidly to a halt. Larger M and R contribute to a larger rotational
inertia, thus lengthening the stopping time—although a larger R also
means a larger torque, an effect that reduces the R dependence from
the R2 that appears in the expression for rotational inertia. ■

FIGURE 10.18 Torque from the jets stops the satellite’s rotation.

A single problem can involve both rotational and linear motion with more than one ob-
ject. The strategy for dealing with such problems is similar to the multiple-object strategy
we developed in Chapter 5, where we identified the objects whose motions we were inter-
ested in, drew a free-body diagram for each, and then applied Newton’s law separately to
each object. We used the physical connections among the objects to relate quantities ap-
pearing in the separate Newton’s law equations. Here we do the same thing, except that
when an object is rotating, we use Equation 10.11, the rotational analog of Newton’s law.
Often the physical connection will entail relations between the force on an object in linear
motion and the torque on a rotating object, as well as between the objects’ linear and rota-
tional accelerations.

EXAMPLE 10.9 Rotational and Linear Dynamics: Into the Well

A solid cylinder of mass M and radius R is mounted on a frictionless
horizontal axle over a well, as shown in Fig. 10.19. A rope of negligi-
ble mass is wrapped around the cylinder and supports a bucket of
mass m. Find an expression for the bucket’s acceleration as it falls
down the well shaft.

INTERPRET If it weren’t connected to the cylinder, the bucket would!

fall with acceleration g. But the rope exerts an upward tension force T
on the bucket, reducing its acceleration and at the same time exerting
a torque on the cylinder. So we have a problem involving both rota-
tional and linear dynamics. We identify the bucket and the cylinder as
the objects of interest; the bucket is in linear motion while the cylin- FIGURE 10.19 Example 10.9.
der rotates. The connection between them is the rope.
 10.4 Rotational Energy 165

DEVELOP Figure 10.20 shows the free-body !diagrams for the two ob- have the rotational analog of Newton’s second law: t 5 Ia. But here
jects; note that both involve the rope tension, T. We chose the downward the torque is due to the rope tension, which exerts a force T at right an-
direction as positive in the bucket diagram and the clockwise direction as gles to a line from the rotation axis and so produces torque RT. Then
positive in the cylinder diagram. Now we’re ready to write Newton’s sec- the Newton’s law analog becomes RT 5 Ia. As the rope unwinds, the
ond law and its analog—Equation 10.11, t 5 Ia—for the two objects. tangential acceleration of the cylinder’s edge must be equal to the
Our plan is to formulate both equations and solve using the connection bucket’s linear acceleration; thus, using Equation 10.5, we have
between them—physically the rope and mathematically the magnitude a 5 a/R, and the cylinder equation becomes RT 5 Ia/R or
of the rope tension. We have to express the torque on the cylinder in T 5 Ia/R2. But the cylinder’s rotational inertia, from Table 10.2, is
terms of the tension force, using Equation 10.10, t 5 rF sin u. We also I 5 12 MR2, so T 5 12 Ma. Using this result in the bucket equation gives
need to relate the cylinder’s angular acceleration to the bucket’s linear ma 5 mg 2 T 5 mg 2 12 Ma; solving for a, we then have
acceleration, using Equation 10.5, at 5 ra. mg
a5
EVALUATE With the downward direction positive, Newton’s second m 1 12 M
law for the bucket reads Fnet 5 mg 2 T 5 ma. For the cylinder we
ASSESS Make sense? If M 5 0, there would be no rotational inertia
and we would have a 5 g. Of course: With no torque needed to accel-
erate the cylinder, there would be no rope tension and the bucket
would fall freely. But as the cylinder’s mass M increases, the bucket’s
deceleration drops as greater torque and thus rope tension are needed
to give the cylinder its rotational acceleration. You may be surprised
to see that the cylinder radius doesn’t appear in our answer. That, too,
makes sense: The rotational inertia scales as R2, but both the torque
and the tangential acceleration scale with R. Since the cylinder’s tan-
gential acceleration is the same as the bucket’s acceleration, the in-
creases in torque and tangential acceleration cancel the effect of a
FIGURE 10.20 Our free-body diagrams for the bucket and cylinder. greater rotational inertia. ■

GOT IT? 10.4 The figure shows two identical masses m Pulley mass M
connected by a string that passes over a frictionless pulley m
whose mass M is not negligible. One mass rests on a frictionless
table; the other hangs vertically, as shown. Is the magnitude of
the tension force in the vertical section of the string (a) greater m
than, (b) equal to, or (c) less than that in the horizontal section?
Explain.

10.4 Rotational Energy A mass element dm has linear

speed v 5 vr, giving it kinetic
A rotating object clearly has kinetic energy. We define an object’s rotational kinetic energy dK 5 1 (dm)(vr)2.
2
energy as the sum of the kinetic energies of all its mass elements, taken with respect to the
rotation axis. Figure 10.21 shows that an individual mass element dm a distance r from the
rotation axis has kinetic energy given by dK 5 121dm21v22 5 121dm21vr22. The rotational v 5 vr
kinetic energy is given by summing—that is, integrating—over the entire object:
dm
Krot 5 3 dK 5 3 121dm21vr22 5 12 v2 3 r2 dm
r
where we’ve taken v2 outside the integral because it’s the same for every mass element in
the rigid, rotating object. The remaining integral is just the rotational inertia I, so we have
v
Krot 5 12 Iv2 1rotational kinetic energy2 (10.18)
This formula should come as no surprise: Since I and v are the rotational analogs of
mass and speed, Equation 10.18 is the rotational equivalent of K 5 12 mv2. FIGURE 10.21 Kinetic energy of a mass element.
166 Chapter 10 Rotational Motion

EXAMPLE 10.10 Rotational Energy: Flywheel Storage

EVALUATE Table 10.2 gives the rotational inertia, I 5 2 MR 2 5
1
A flywheel has a 135-kg solid cylindrical rotor with radius 30 cm and
spins at 31,000 rpm. How much energy does it store? A B 1135 kg210.30 m2 5 6.1 kg # m , and 31,000 rpm is equivalent to
1
2
2 2

131,000 rev/min212p rad/rev2/160 s/min2 5 3246 rad/s. Then Equa-

INTERPRET We’re being asked about kinetic energy stored in a rotat- tion 10.18 gives
ing cylinder. Krot 5 12 Iv2 5 A 12 B 16.1 kg # m2213246 rad/s22 5 32 MJ

DEVELOP Equation 10.18, Krot 5 2 Iv2, gives the rotational energy.

1 ASSESS That 32 MJ is roughly the energy contained in a liter of gaso-
To use it, we need the rotational inertia from Table 10.2, and we need line. The advantages of the flywheel over a fuel or a chemical battery are
to convert the rotation rate in revolutions per minute to angular speed more concentrated energy storage and greater efficiency at getting en-
v in radians per second. ergy into and out of storage; see the Application below. ■

✓TIP When to Use Radians

We derived Equation 10.18, K 5 12 Iv2, using Equation 10.3, v 5 vr. Since that equa-
tion works only with radian measure, the same is true of Equation 10.18.

Energy and Work in Rotational Motion

In Section 6.3 we proved the work-energy theorem, which states that the change in an object’s
linear kinetic energy is equal to the net work done on the object. There the work was the prod-
uct (or the integral, for a changing force) of the net force and the distance the object moves.
Not surprisingly, there’s an analogous relation for rotational motion: The change in an ob-
ject’s rotational kinetic energy is equal to the net work done on the object. Now the work is,
analogously, the product (or the integral) of the torque and the angular displacement:
uf
work-energy theorem,
W 5 3 t du 5 DKrot 5 12 Ivf2 2 12 Ivi2 a b (10.19)
ui rotational motion
Here the subscripts refer to the initial and final states.

APPLICATION Flywheel Energy Storage

management on the electric grid, and uninterruptible power supplies.

Flywheel-based hybrid vehicles would achieve high efficiency by storing me-
chanical energy in the flywheel during braking, rather than dissipating it as
heat in conventional brakes or even storing it in a chemical battery as in
today’s hybrids.
Equation 10.18 shows that the stored energy can be substantial, pro-
vided the flywheel has significant rotational inertia and angular speed—the
latter being especially important because the energy scales as the square of
the angular speed. Modern flywheels can supply tens of kilowatts of power
for as long as a minute; unlike batteries, their output isn’t reduced in cold
weather. They achieve rotation rates of 30,000 rpm and more using ad-
vanced carbon composite materials that can withstand the forces needed to
maintain the radial acceleration of magnitude v2r. Advanced flywheels
spin in vacuum, using magnetic bearings to minimize friction. Some even
use superconducting materials, which eliminate electrical losses that we’ll
Flywheels provide an attractive alternative to batteries in applications requir- examine in Chapter 26. The photo shows a high-speed flywheel used in a
ing short bursts of power. Examples include acceleration and hill climbing in prototype hybrid bus operating in Austin, Texas. The flywheel helps the bus
hybrid vehicles, industrial lifting equipment and amusement park rides, power achieve 30% fuel savings.

EXAMPLE 10.11 Work and Rotational Energy: Balancing a Tire

An automobile wheel with tire has rotational inertia 2.7 kg # m2. What INTERPRET The wheel’s rotational kinetic energy changes as it spins
constant torque does a tire-balancing machine need to apply in order up, so the machine must be doing work by applying a torque. There-
to spin this tire up from rest to 700 rpm in 25 revolutions? fore, the concept behind this problem is the work-energy theorem for
rotational motion.
 10.5 Rolling Motion 167

DEVELOP The work-energy theorem of Equation 10.19 relates the angular displacement Du is 125 rev212p rad/rev2 5 157 rad. Then
work to the change in rotational kinetic energy: Equation 10.19 becomes W 5 t Du 5 12 Ivf2, which gives
uf
W 5 3 t du 5 DKrot 5 12 Ivf2 2 12 Ivi 2.
1
Ivf2 A 12 B 12.7 kg # m22173.3 rad/s22
5 46 N # m
2
ui t5 5
Du 157 rad
We’re given the initial and final angular velocities, although we have to
convert them to radians per second. With constant torque, the integral
in Equation 10.19 becomes the product t Du, so we can solve for the ASSESS If this torque results from a force applied at the rim of a typi-
torque. cal 40-cm-radius tire, then the magnitude of the force would be just
over 100 N, about the weight of a 10-kg mass and thus a reasonable
EVALUATE The initial angular speed vi is zero, and the final value. ■
speed vf 5 1700 rev/min212p rad/rev2/160 s/min2 5 73.3 rad/s. The

10.5 Rolling Motion

A rolling object exhibits both rotational motion and translational motion—the motion of
the whole object from place to place. How much kinetic energy is associated with each?
In Section 9.3, we found that the kinetic energy of a composite object comprises two
terms: the kinetic energy of the center of mass and the internal kinetic energy relative to
the center of mass: K 5 Kcm 1 Kinternal. A wheel of mass M moving with speed v has cen-
ter-of-mass kinetic energy Kcm 5 12 Mv2. In the center-of-mass frame, the wheel is simply
rotating with angular speed v about the center of mass, so its internal kinetic energy is
Kinternal 5 12 Icmv2, where the rotational inertia is taken about the center of mass. We now
sum Kcm and Kinternal to get the total kinetic energy:

Ktotal 5 12 Mv2 1 12 Icmv2 (10.20)

When a wheel is rolling—moving without slipping against the ground—its transla- The wheel travels a distance
equal to half its circumference.
tional speed v and angular speed v about its center of mass are related. Imagine a
wheel that rolls half a revolution and therefore moves horizontally half its circumfer- pR
ence (Fig. 10.22). Then the wheel’s angular speed is the angular displacement Du, here
half a revolution, or p radians, divided by the time Dt: v 5 p/Dt. Its translational speed
is the actual distance the wheel travels divided by the same time interval. But we’ve just R
argued that the wheel travels half a circumference, or pR, where R is its radius. So its
translational speed is v 5 pR/Dt. Comparing our expressions for v and v, we see that R

v 5 vR 1rolling motion2 (10.21)

Equation 10.21 looks deceptively like Equation 10.3. But it says more. In Equation FIGURE 10.22 A rolling wheel turns through
10.3, v 5 vr, v is the linear speed of a point a distance r from the center of a rotating ob- half a revolution.
ject. In Equation 10.21, v is the translational speed of the whole object and R is its radius.
The two equations look similar because, as our argument leading to Equation 10.21
shows, an object that rolls without slipping moves with respect to the ground at the same
rate that a point on its rim moves in the center-of-mass frame.
Our description of rolling motion leads to a point you may at first find absurd: In a
rolling wheel, the point in contact with the ground is, instantaneously, at rest! Figure 10.23
shows how this surprising situation comes about.

Motion of . . . motion about . . . motion of individual

the CM plus . . . the CM equals . . . points on the wheel.
vrcm 2vrcm

vrcm vrcm
+ = The bottom of
the wheel is at
rest! But
These two velocity only for an
instant.
vectors sum to give 2vrcm vr 5 0
zero velocity at bottom.

FIGURE 10.23 Motion of a rolling wheel, decomposed into translation of the entire wheel plus rotation about
the center of mass.
168 Chapter 10 Rotational Motion

Friction keeps the Why would an object roll without slipping? The answer is friction. On an icy slope, a
wheel from slipping. wheel just slides down without rolling. Normally, though, the force of static friction keeps
it from sliding. Instead, it rolls (Fig. 10.24). Because the contact point is at rest, the fric-
tional force does no work and therefore mechanical energy is conserved. This lets us use
the conservation-of-energy principle to analyze rolling objects.
r
fs

FIGURE 10.24 Rolling down a slope.

EXAMPLE 10.12 Energy Conservation: Rolling Downhill

A solid ball of mass M and radius R starts from rest and rolls down a K0 1 U0 5 K 1 U. Here K0 5 0 and, if we take the zero of potential
hill. Its center of mass drops a total distance h. Find the ball’s speed at energy at the bottom, then U0 5 Mgh and U 5 0. Finally, K consists
the bottom of the hill. of both translational and rotational kinetic energy as expressed in
Equation 10.20, Ktotal 5 12 Mv2 1 12 Iv2. Our plan is to use this expres-
INTERPRET This is similar to conservation-of-energy problems from sion in the conservation-of-energy statement and solve for v. It looks
Chapter 7, but now we identify two types of kinetic energy: transla- like there’s an extra variable, v, that we don’t know. But the ball isn’t
tional and rotational. The ball starts on the slope with some gravita- slipping, so Equation 10.21 holds and gives v 5 v/R. Then conserva-
tional potential energy, which ends up as kinetic energy at the bottom. tion of energy becomes
The frictional force that keeps the ball from slipping does no work, so
v 2
we can apply conservation of energy. Mgh 5 12 Mv2 1 12 Iv2 5 12 Mv2 1 12 A 25 MR2 B a b 5 107 Mv2
R
DEVELOP Figure 10.25 shows the situation, including bar graphs where we found the rotational inertia of a solid sphere, 25 MR2, from
showing the distribution of energy in the ball’s initial and final states. Table 10.2.
We’ve determined that conservation of energy holds, so
EVALUATE Solving for v gives our answer:
10
v5 gh
A7

ASSESS This result is less than the speed v 5 12gh for an object that
slides down a frictionless incline. Make sense? Yes: Some of the energy
the rolling object gains goes into rotation, leaving less for translational
motion. As often happens with gravitational problems, mass doesn’t mat-
ter. Neither does radius: That factor 107 results from the distribution of
FIGURE 10.25 How fast is mass that gives the sphere its particular rotational inertia and would be
the ball moving at the the same for all spheres regardless of radius or mass. ■
bottom of the hill?

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 10.1 A Rolling Race

A solid ball and a hollow ball roll without slipping down a ramp. ASSESS Make sense? Yes: Energy is conserved for both balls, but for
Which reaches the bottom first? the hollow ball more of that energy is in rotation and less in transla-
tion. As Example 10.12 shows, neither the mass nor the radius of a
EVALUATE Example 10.12 shows that when a ball rolls down a slope,
ball affects its speed; all that matters is its mass distribution and hence
some of its potential energy gets converted into rotational kinetic
its rotational inertia.
energy—leaving less for translational kinetic energy. As a result,
it moves more slowly, and therefore takes more time, than an object that
slides without rolling. Here we want to compare two rolling objects— MAKING THE CONNECTION Compare the final speeds of the two
the solid ball treated in Example 10.12 and a hollow one. With its balls in this example.
mass concentrated at its surface, far from the rotation axis, the hollow
EVALUATE Example 10.12 gives 110gh/7 for the speed of the solid
ball has greater rotational inertia. Thus more of its energy goes into
rotation, meaning its translational speed is lower, so it reaches the ball after it’s rolled down a vertical drop h. Substituting the hollow
bottom later. ball’s rotational inertia, I 5 23MR2 from Table 10.2, in the calculation
of Example 10.12 gives v 5 16gh/5. So the solid ball is faster by a
factor 110/7/16/5 . 1.1.
CHAPTER 10 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea of this chapter is rotational mo- Rotational
tion, quantified as the rate of change of angular motion
Displacement

An Ang cement
position of any point on a rotating object. All Linear

gul ular
the quantities used to describe linear motion motion

dis

ar p
have analogs in rotational motion. The analogs

pla

osition, u
of force, mass, and acceleration are, respec- Position, x
tively, torque, rotational inertia, and angular
acceleration—and together they obey the rota-
tional analog of Newton’s second law.
Rotation
axis

Key Concepts and Equations

The defining relations for rotational quantities are analogous to those for linear quantities, as is the statement of Newton’s second law for rotational
motion. Key concepts include angular velocity and acceleration, torque, and rotational inertia.
Angular velocity, v Torque, t Rotational inertia, I

Du Rotation axis

rr
u Mass closer Same mass,
Time t t 1 Dt
r to axis: farther from axis:
F lower I greater I
v5
Du t 5 rF sinu
Dt
I5 Y mir 2 i
2
3r dm
Discrete Continuous
masses matter

This table summarizes the analogies between linear Linear Quantity Angular Quantity Relation Between Linear
and rotational quantities, along with quantitative rela- or Equation or Equation and Angular Quantities
tions that link rotational and linear quantities. Many Position x Angular position u
of these relations require that angles be measured in Speed v 5 dx/dt Angular speed v 5 du/dt v 5 vr
radians, and most require explicit specification of a Acceleration a Angular acceleration a at 5 ar
rotation axis.
Mass m Rotational inertia I I 5 #r2 dm
Force F Torque t t 5 rFsin u
Kinetic energy Ktrans 5 12 mv2 Kinetic energy Krot 5 12 Iv2
Newton’s second law (constant mass or rotational inertia):
F 5 ma t 5 Ia

Applications
Constant angular acceleration: When angular accelera- Equations for Constant Equations for Constant
tion is constant, equations analogous to those of Chapter 2 Linear Acceleration Angular Acceleration
apply. v 5 121v0 1 v2 (2.8) v 5 121v0 1 v2 (10.6)
v 5 v0 1 at (2.7) v 5 v0 1 at (10.7)
x 5 x0 1 v0 t 1 12 at2 (2.10) u 5 u0 1 v0 t 1 12 at2 (10.8)
v2 5 v02 1 2a1x 2 x02 (2.11) v2 5 v02 1 2a1u 2 u02 (10.9)

Rolling motion: When an object of radius R rolls without slipping, the point in contact with the ground is Rolling:
instantaneously at rest. In this case the object’s translational and rotational speeds are related by v 5 vR.
The object’s kinetic energy is shared among translational kinetic energy 12 Mv2 and rotational kinetic energy v
v 5 vR
2 Iv ,
1 2
with the division between these forms dependent on the rotational inertia. v50
at bottom
R
170 Chapter 10 Rotational Motion

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 16. A 25-cm-diameter circular saw blade spins at 3500 rpm. How
fast would you have to push a straight hand saw to have the teeth
1. Do all points on a rigid, rotating object have the same angular move through the wood at the same rate as the circular saw teeth?
velocity? Linear speed? Radial acceleration? 17. A compact disc’s rotation varies from about 200 rpm to 500 rpm.
2. A point on the rim of a rotating wheel has nonzero acceleration, If the disc plays for 74 min, what’s its average angular accelera-
since it’s moving in a circular path. Does it necessarily follow tion in (a) rpm/s and (b) rad/s2?
that the wheel is undergoing angular acceleration? 18. During startup, a power plant’s turbine accelerates from rest at
3. Why doesn’t it make sense to talk about a body’s rotational iner- 0.52 rad/s2. (a) How long does it take to reach its 3600-rpm oper-
tia unless you specify a rotation axis? ating speed? (b) How many revolutions does it make during this
4. Two forces act on an object, but the net force is zero. Must the time?
net torque be zero? If so, why? If not, give a counterexample. 19. A merry-go-round starts from rest and accelerates with angular
5. Is it possible to apply a counterclockwise torque to an object that’s acceleration 0.010 rad/s2 for 14 s. (a) How many revolutions does
rotating clockwise? If so, how will the object’s motion change? it make during this time? (b) What’s its average angular speed?
If not, why not? Section 10.2 Torque
6. A solid sphere and a hollow sphere of the same mass and radius 20. A 320-N frictional force acts on the rim of a 1.0-m-diameter
are rolling along level ground. If they have the same total kinetic wheel to oppose its rotational motion. Find the torque about the
energy, which is moving faster? wheel’s central axis.
7. A solid cylinder and a hollow cylinder of the same mass and ra- 21. A 110-N # m torque is needed to start a revolving door rotating. If
dius are rolling along level ground at the same speed. Which has a child can push with a maximum force of 90 N, how far from the
more kinetic energy? door’s rotation axis must she apply this force?
8. A circular saw takes a long time to stop rotating after the power 22. A car tune-up manual calls for tightening the spark plugs to a
is turned off. Without the saw blade mounted, the motor stops torque of 35.0 N # m. To achieve this torque, with what force must
much more quickly. Why? you pull on the end of a 24.0-cm-long wrench if you pull (a) at a
9. A solid sphere and a solid cube have the same mass, and the side right angle to the wrench shaft and (b) at 110° to the wrench
of the cube is equal to the diameter of the sphere. The cube’s rota- shaft?
tion axis is perpendicular to two of its faces. Which has greater 23. A 55-g mouse runs out to the end of the 17-cm-long minute hand
rotational inertia about an axis through the center of mass? of a grandfather clock when the clock reads 10 past the hour.
10. The lower part of a horse’s leg contains essentially no muscle. What torque does the mouse’s weight exert about the rotation
BIO How does this help the horse to run fast? Explain in terms of axis of the clock hand?
rotational inertia. 24. You have your bicycle upside-down for repairs. The front wheel
11. Given a fixed amount of a material, what shape should you make a is free to rotate and is perfectly balanced except for the 25-g
flywheel so it will store the most energy at a given angular speed? valve stem. If the valve stem is 32 cm from the rotation axis and
12. A ball starts from rest and rolls without slipping down a slope, at 24° below the horizontal, what’s the resulting torque about the
then starts up a frictionless slope (Fig. 10.26). Compare its maxi- wheel’s axis?
mum height on the frictionless slope with its starting height on
Section 10.3 Rotational Inertia and the Analog
the first slope.
of Newton’s Law
25. Four equal masses m are located at the corners of a square of side
L, connected by essentially massless rods. Find the rotational in-
Frictionless
ertia of this system about an axis (a) that coincides with one side
No slip and (b) that bisects two opposite sides.
h
26. The shaft connecting a power plant’s turbine and electric genera-
tor is a solid cylinder of mass 6.8 Mg and diameter 85 cm. Find
its rotational inertia.
FIGURE 10.26 For Thought and Discussion 12, Problem 64 27. The chamber of a rock-tumbling machine is a hollow cylinder
with mass 65 g and radius 7.1 cm. The chamber is closed by end
caps in the form of uniform circular disks, each of mass 22 g.
Exercises and Problems Find (a) the rotational inertia of the chamber about its central
Exercises axis and (b) the torque needed to give the chamber an angular ac-
celeration of 3.4 rad/s2.
Section 10.1 Angular Velocity and Acceleration 28. A wheel’s diameter is 92 cm, and its rotational inertia is
13. Determine the angular speed, in rad/s, of (a) Earth about its axis; 7.8 kg # m2. (a) What’s the minimum mass it could have? (b) How
(b) the minute hand of a clock; (c) the hour hand of a clock; and could it have more mass?
(d) an eggbeater turning at 300 rpm. 29. Three equal masses m are located at the vertices of an equilateral
14. What’s the linear speed of a point (a) on Earth’s equator and triangle of side L, connected by rods of negligible mass. Find ex-
(b) at your latitude? pressions for the rotational inertia of this object (a) about an axis
15. Express each of the following in radians per second: (a) 720 rpm; through the center of the triangle and perpendicular to its plane
(b) 50°/h; (c) 1000 rev/s; (d) 1 rev/year (Earth’s angular speed in and (b) about an axis that passes through one vertex and the mid-
its orbit). point of the opposite side.
 Exercises and Problems 171

30. (a) Estimate Earth’s rotational inertia, assuming it to be a uni- being read moving at a constant linear speed of 1.30 m/s. Com-
form solid sphere. (b) What torque applied to Earth would cause pare the rotation rates of a 12.0-cm-diameter CD when informa-
the length of a day to change by 1 second every century? tion is being read (a) from its outer edge and (b) from a point
31. A neutron star is an extremely dense, rapidly spinning object that 3.75 cm from the center. Give your answers in rad/s and rpm.
results from the collapse of a massive star at the end of its life. A 45. You rev your car’s engine and watch the tachometer climb steadily
neutron star of 1.8 times the Sun’s mass has an approximately from 1200 rpm to 5500 rpm in 2.7 s. What are (a) the engine’s an-
uniform density of 131018 kg/m3. (a) What’s its rotational iner- gular acceleration and (b) the tangential acceleration of a point on
tia? (b) The neutron star’s spin rate slowly decreases as a result the edge of the engine’s 3.5-cm-diameter crankshaft? (c) How
of torque associated with magnetic forces. If the spin-down rate many revolutions does the engine make during this time?
is 531025 rad/s2, what’s the magnetic torque? 46. A circular saw spins at 5800 rpm, and its electronic brake is sup-
32. A 108-g Frisbee is 24 cm in diameter and has half its mass spread posed to stop it in less than 2 s. As a quality-control specialist,
uniformly in the disk and the other half concentrated in the rim. you’re testing saws with a device that counts the number of blade
(a) What’s the Frisbee’s rotational inertia? (b) With a quarter-turn revolutions. A particular saw turns 75 revolutions while stopping.
flick of the wrist, a student sets the Frisbee rotating at 550 rpm. Does it meet its specs?
What’s the magnitude of the torque, assumed constant, that the 47. Full-circle rotation is common in mechanical systems, but less
student applied? BIO evident in biology. Yet many single-celled organisms are pro-
33. At the MIT Magnet Laboratory, energy is stored in huge solid pelled by spinning, tail-like flagella. The flagellum of the bac-
flywheels of mass 7.73104 kg and radius 2.4 m. The flywheels terium E. coli spins at some 600 rad/s, propelling the bacterium
ride on shafts 41 cm in diameter. If a frictional force of 34 kN at speeds around 25 mm/s. How many revolutions does E. coli’s
acts tangentially on the shaft, how long will it take the flywheel flagellum make as the bacterium crosses a microscope’s 150-mm-
to come to a stop from its usual 360-rpm rotation rate? wide field of view?
Section 10.4 Rotational Energy 48. A pulley 12 cm in diameter is free to rotate about a horizontal
axle. A 220-g mass and a 470-g mass are tied to either end of a
34. A 25-cm-diameter circular saw blade has mass 0.85 kg, distrib-
massless string, and the string is hung over the pulley. Assuming
uted uniformly in a disk. (a) What’s its rotational kinetic energy
the string doesn’t slip, what torque must be applied to keep the
at 3500 rpm? (b) What average power must be applied to bring
pulley from rotating?
the blade from rest to 3500 rpm in 3.2 s?
49. A square frame is made from four thin rods, each of length L and
35. Humankind uses energy at the rate of about 15 TW. If we found
mass m. Calculate its rotational inertia about the three axes shown
a way to extract this energy from Earth’s rotation, how long
in Fig. 10.27.
would it take before the length of the day increased by 1 minute?
36. A 150-g baseball is pitched at 33 m/s spinning at 42 rad/s. You
can treat the baseball as a uniform solid sphere of radius 3.7 cm.
What fraction of its kinetic energy is rotational?
37. (a) Find the energy stored in the flywheel of Exercise 33 when
it’s rotating at 360 rpm. (b) The wheel is attached to an electric
generator and the rotation rate drops from 360 rpm to 300 rpm in
(a) (b) (c)
3.0 s. What’s the average power output?
Section 10.5 Rolling Motion FIGURE 10.27 Problem 49
38. A solid 2.4-kg sphere is rolling at 5.0 m/s. Find (a) its transla-
tional kinetic energy and (b) its rotational kinetic energy. 50. Use integration to show that the rotational inertia of a thick ring
39. What fraction of a solid disk’s kinetic energy is rotational if it’s of mass M and inner and outer radii R1 and R2 is given by
rolling without slipping? 1
2
M1R12 1 R222. (Hint: See Example 10.7.)
40. A rolling ball has total kinetic energy 100 J, 40 J of which is 51. A uniform rectangular flat plate has mass M and dimensions a by
rotational energy. Is the ball solid or hollow? b. Use the parallel-axis theorem in conjunction with Table 10.2 to
show that its rotational inertia about the side of length b is 13Ma2.
Problems 52. Each propeller on a King Air twin-engine airplane consists of
41. A wheel turns through 2.0 revolutions while accelerating from three blades, each of mass 10 kg and length 125 cm. The blades
rest at 18 rpm/s. (a) What’s its final angular speed? (b) How long may be treated approximately as uniform, thin rods. (a) What’s
does it take? the propeller’s rotational inertia? (b) If the plane’s engine devel-
42. You’re an engineer designing kitchen appliances, and you’re work- ops a torque of 2.7 kN # m, how long will it take to spin up the pro-
ing on a two-speed food blender, with 3600 rpm and 1800 rpm peller from 1400 rpm to 1900 rpm?
settings. Specs call for the blender to make no more than 60 revo- 53. The cellular motor driving the flagellum in E. coli (see Problem
lutions while it’s switching from high to low speed. If it takes BIO 47) exerts a typical torque of 400 pN # nm on the flagellum. If this
1.4 s to make the transition, does it meet its specs? torque results from a force applied tangentially to the outside of
43. An eagle with 2.1-m wingspan flaps its wings 20 times per the 12-nm-radius flagellum, what’s the magnitude of that force?
BIO minute, each stroke extending from 45° above the horizontal to 54. Verify by direct integration Table 10.2’s entry for the rotational
45° below. Downward and upward strokes take the same time. On inertia of a flat plate about a central axis. (Hint: Divide the plate
a given downstroke, what’s (a) the average angular velocity of the into strips parallel to the axis.)
wing and (b) the average tangential velocity of the wingtip? 55. You’re an astronaut in the first crew of a new space station. The
44. A compact disc (CD) player varies the rotation rate of the disc station is shaped like a wheel 22 m in diameter, with essentially
in order to keep the part of the disc from which information is all its 53105-kg mass at the rim. When the crew arrives, it will be
172 Chapter 10 Rotational Motion

set rotating at a rate that requires an object at the rim to have ra- the new rotational inertia about the central axis. (Hint: Find the
dial acceleration g, thereby simulating Earth’s surface gravity. rotational inertia of the missing piece, and subtract it from that of
This will be accomplished using two small rockets, each with the whole disk. You’ll find the parallel-axis theorem helpful.)
100-N thrust, mounted on the station’s rim. Your job is to deter-
mine how long to fire the rockets and the number of revolutions
the station will make during the firing.
56. A motor is connected to a solid cylindrical drum with diameter
R
1.2 m and mass 51 kg. A massless rope is attached to the drum 1
–R
4
and tied at the other end to a 38-kg weight, so the rope will wind
onto the drum as it turns. What torque must the motor apply if the
weight is to be lifted with acceleration 1.1 m/s2?
57. A 2.4-kg block rests on a slope and is attached by a string of neg-
ligible mass to a solid drum of mass 0.85 kg and radius 5.0 cm, FIGURE 10.29 Problems 65 and 70
as shown in Fig. 10.28. When released, the block accelerates
down the slope at 1.6 m/s2. Find the coefficient of friction be-
66. A 50-kg mass is tied to a massless rope wrapped around a solid
tween block and slope.
cylindrical drum, mounted on a frictionless horizontal axle. When
the mass is released, it falls with acceleration a 5 3.7 m/s2. Find
(a) the rope tension and (b) the drum’s mass.
67. Each wheel of a 320-kg motorcycle is 52 cm in diameter and has
rotational inertia 2.1 kg # m2. The cycle and its 75-kg rider are
coasting at 85 km/h on a flat road when they encounter a hill. If
30° the cycle rolls up the hill with no applied power and no signifi-
cant internal friction, what vertical height will it reach?
FIGURE 10.28 Problem 57 68. A solid marble starts from rest and rolls without slipping on the
loop-the-loop track in Fig. 10.30. Find the minimum starting
height from which the marble will remain on the track through
58. You’ve got your bicycle upside-down for repairs, with its 66-cm-
the loop. Assume the marble’s radius is small compared with R.
diameter wheel spinning freely at 230 rpm. The wheel’s mass is
1.9 kg, concentrated mostly at the rim. You hold a wrench against
the tire for 3.1 s, applying a 2.7-N normal force. If the coefficient
of friction between wrench and tire is 0.46, what’s the final an-
gular speed of the wheel?
59. A potter’s wheel is a stone disk 90 cm in diameter with mass
120 kg. If the potter’s foot pushes at the outer edge of the initially h
stationary wheel with a 75-N force for one-eighth of a revolution,
what will be the final speed? R
60. A ship’s anchor weighs 5000 N. Its cable passes over a roller of
negligible mass and is wound around a hollow cylindrical drum
of mass 380 kg and radius 1.1 m, mounted on a frictionless axle. FIGURE 10.30 Problem 68
The anchor is released and drops 16 m to the water. Use energy
considerations to determine the drum’s rotation rate when the an-
chor hits the water. Neglect the cable’s mass. 69. A disk of radius R and thickness w has a mass density that increases
61. Starting from rest, a hollow ball rolls down a ramp inclined at an- from the center outward, given by r 5 r0 r/R, where r is the dis-
gle u to the horizontal. Find an expression for its speed after it’s tance from the disk axis. Calculate (a) the disk’s total mass M and
gone a distance d along the incline. (b) its rotational inertia about its axis in terms of M and R. Compare
62. A hollow ball rolls along a horizontal surface at 3.7 m/s when it with the results for a solid disk of uniform density and for a ring.
encounters an upward incline. If it rolls without slipping up the 70. The disk in Fig. 10.29 is rotating freely about a frictionless hori-
incline, what maximum height will it reach? zontal axle. Since the disk is unbalanced, its angular speed varies
63. As an automotive engineer, you’re charged with improving the fuel as it rotates. If the maximum angular speed is vmax, find an
economy of your company’s vehicles. You realize that the rotational expression for the minimum speed. (Hint: How does potential
kinetic energy of a car’s wheels is a significant factor in fuel con- energy change as the wheel rotates?)
sumption, and you set out to lower it. For a typical car, the wheels’ 71. Consider the rotational inertia of a thin, flat object about an axis
rotational energy is 40% of their translational kinetic energy. You perpendicular to the plane of the object. Show that this is equal
propose a redesigned wheel with the same radius but 10% lower ro- to the sum of the rotational inertias about two perpendicular axes
tational inertia and 20% less mass. What do you report for the de- in the plane of the object, passing through the given axis. (This is
crease in the wheel’s total kinetic energy at a given speed? called the perpendicular-axis theorem.)
64. A solid ball of mass M and radius R starts at rest at height h above 72. Use the perpendicular-axis theorem in Problem 71 (a) to verify
the bottom of the path in Fig. 10.26. It rolls without slipping down the entry in Table 10.2 for a flat rectangular plate about a perpen-
the left side. The right side of the path, starting at the bottom, is dicular axis and (b) to find the rotational inertia of a uniform thin
frictionless. To what height does the ball rise on the right? disk of radius R and mass M about an axis along a diameter.
65. A disk of radius R has an initial mass M. Then a hole of radius 73. Calculate the rotational inertia of a uniform right circular cone of
R/4 is drilled, with its edge at the disk center (Fig. 10.29). Find mass M, height h, and base radius R about its axis.
 Answers to Chapter Questions 173

74. Show that the rotational inertia of a uniform solid spheroid about and side views of two centrifuge designs. In both designs, the round
its axis of revolution is 25 MR2, where M is its mass and R is the holes are for tubes holding samples to be separated; the side views
semi-axis perpendicular to the rotation axis. Why does this result show two tubes in place. The total mass and radius of the rotating
look the same for both a prolate or oblate spheroid and a sphere? structure are the same for both, the sample-hole tubes are at the same
75. A thin rod of length L and mass M is free to pivot about one end. radius, and the sample tubes are identical.
If it makes an angle u with the horizontal, find the torque due to 79. Which design has greater rotational inertia?
gravity about the pivot. (Hint: Integrate the torques on the mass a. design A
elements composing the rod.) b. design B
76. The local historical society has asked your assistance in writing c. Both have the same rotational inertia.
the interpretive material for a display featuring an old steam lo-
80. If both centrifuges are made thicker in the vertical direction,
comotive. You have information on the torque in a flywheel but
without changing their masses or mass distribution, their rota-
need to know the force applied by means of an attached horizon-
tional inertias will
tal rod. The rod joins the wheel with a flexible connection 95 cm
a. remain the same.
from the wheel’s axis. The maximum torque the rod produces on
b. increase.
the flywheel is 10.1 kN # m. What force does the rod apply?
c. decrease.
77. You’re skeptical about a new hybrid car that stores energy in a
flywheel. The manufacturer claims the flywheel stores 12 MJ of 81. If the sample tubes are made longer, the rotational inertia of the
energy and can supply 40 kW of power for 5 minutes. You dig centrifuges with sample tubes inserted will
deeper and find that the flywheel is a 39-cm-diameter ring with a. remain the same.
mass 48 kg that rotates at 30,000 rpm. Are the specs correct? b. increase.
78. Figure 10.31 shows an object of mass M with one axis through its c. decrease.
center of mass and a parallel axis through an arbitrary point A. 82. While the centrifuges are spinning, the net force on samples in
Both axes are perpendicular to the page. The figure shows an ar- the tubes is
bitrary mass element dm and vectors connecting the center of a. outward.
mass, A, and dm. (a) Use! the law of cosines (Appendix A) to show b. inward.
!
that r2 5 r2cm 1 h2 2 2h # rcm. (b) Use this result in I 5 #r2 dm to c. zero.
calculate the object’s rotational inertia about the axis through A. 83. If a centrifuge’s radius and mass are both doubled without other-
Each term in your expression for r2 leads to a separate integral. wise changing the design, its rotational inertia will
Identify one as the rotational inertia about the CM, another as the a. double.
quantity Mh2, and argue that the third is zero. Your result is a b. quadruple.
statement of the parallel-axis theorem (Equation 10.17). c. increase by a factor of 8.
d. increase by a factor of 16.

r
A
rr
Answers to Chapter Questions
h
CM dm Answer to Chapter Opening Question
rrCM
The blade mass should be concentrated toward the rotation axis, thus
lowering the turbine’s rotational inertia—the rotational analog of mass.

Answers to GOT IT? Questions

FIGURE 10.31 Problem 78 10.1. (a) 10.5b; (b) 10.5a.
10.2. (b) Rotational inertia would decrease with the axis at the center
Passage Problems 1mL2/22 and (a) increase 1mL22 with the axis at one end.
Centrifuges are widely used in biology and medicine to separate cells 10.3. The mass of the shell is farther from the rotation axis.
and other particles from liquid suspensions. Figure 10.32 shows top 10.4. (a). There must be a net torque acting to increase the pulley’s
clockwise angular velocity. The difference in the two tension
forces provides that torque.

Top view

Side view

(a) (b)

FIGURE 10.32 Two centrifuge designs, shown from the top and the side
(Passage Problems 79–83)
 Rotational Vectors
11 and Angular Momentum

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Specify the vector direction of angular
velocity, angular acceleration, and
torque (11.1, 11.2).
■ Define the vector cross product and
use it in expressing torque and angu-
lar momentum (11.2, 11.3).
■ Solve quantitative problems involv-
ing colinear angular momentum vec-
tors and the conservation of angular
momentum (11.4).
■ Describe qualitatively the precession
of a rotation axis under the influence
of a torque (11.5).
Earth isn’t quite round. How does this affect its rotation axis, and
what’s this got to do with ice ages? (The deviation from roundness is
exaggerated in this photo.)

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter generalizes concepts of S ummer, fall, winter, spring: the cycle of the seasons is ultimately determined by the vector di-
rection of Earth’s angular velocity. The changing angular velocity of protons in living tissue
produces MRI images that give physicians a noninvasive look inside the human body. Rising and
rotational motion developed in
Chapter 10. You should have a solid rotating, moist, heated air forms itself into the ominous funnel of a tornado. You ride your bicy-
understanding of angular velocity, cle, the rotating wheels helping stabilize what seems a precarious balance. These examples all in-
angular acceleration, and torque volve rotational motion in which not only the magnitude but also the direction matters. They’re
(10.1, 10.2). best understood in terms of the rotational analog of Newton’s law, which we introduce here in
full vector form involving a rotational analog of momentum. The transition from Chapter 10 to
Chapter 11 is analogous to the leap from Chapter 2’s one-dimensional description of motion to
the full vector description in Chapter 3. Here, as there, we’ll find a new richness of phenomena
involving motion.

11.1 Angular Velocity and Acceleration Vectors

So far we’ve ascribed direction to rotational motion using the terms “clockwise” and
“counterclockwise.” But that’s not enough: To describe rotational motion fully we need to
!
specify the direction of the rotation axis. We therefore define angular velocity v as a vec-
tor whose magnitude is the angular speed v and whose direction is parallel to the rotation
axis. There’s an ambiguity in this definition, since there are two possible directions paral-
lel to the axis. We resolve the ambiguity with the right-hand rule: If you curl the fingers
of your right hand to follow the rotation, then your right thumb points in the direction of
174
 11.2 Torque and the Vector Cross Product 175

!
the angular velocity (Fig. 11.1). This refinement means that v not only gives the angular
speed and the direction of the rotation axis but also distinguishes what we would have de-
scribed previously as clockwise or counterclockwise rotation.
By analogy with the linear acceleration vector, we define angular acceleration as the
rate of change of the angular velocity vector: vr
! !
! Dv dv
a 5 lim 5 1angular acceleration vector2 (11.1)
Dt S 0 Dt dt
where, as with Equation 10.4, we get the average angular acceleration if we don’t take the limit.
Equation 11.1 says that angular acceleration points in the direction of the change in an-
! !
gular velocity. If that change is only in magnitude, then v simply grows or shrinks, and a vr
is parallel or antiparallel to the rotation axis (Fig. 11.2a, b). But a change in direction is
!
also a change in angular velocity. When the angular velocity v changes only in direction,
!
then the angular acceleration vector is perpendicular to v (Fig. 11.2c). More generally,
! !
both the magnitude and direction of v may change; then a is neither parallel nor perpen-
!
dicular to v . These cases are exactly analogous to the situations we treated in Chapter 3,
where acceleration parallel to velocity changes only the speed, while acceleration perpen-
dicular to velocity changes only the direction of motion.
ar
r r
vfinal ar r
v a
initial r
v initial vr
r
v final
r r
v initial v final

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 11.2 Angular acceleration can (a) increase or (b) decrease the
FIGURE 11.1 The right-hand rule gives the
magnitude of the angular velocity, or (c) change its direction.
direction of the angular velocity vector.

11.2 Torque and the Vector Cross Product

Figure 11.3 shows a wheel, initially stationary, with a force applied at its rim. The torque
associated with this force sets the wheel rotating in the direction shown; applying the
!
right-hand rule, we see that angular velocity vector v points upward. Since the angular vr ar
! r
F tr
speed is increasing, the angular acceleration a also points upward. So that our rotational rr u
analog of Newton’s law—angular acceleration proportional to torque—will hold for
directions as well as magnitudes, we’d like the torque to have an upward direction, too.
We already know the magnitude of the torque:! From Equation 10.10, it’s t 5 rF sin u,
!
where u is the angle between the vectors r and F ! in Fig. 11.3. We define the direction of FIGURE 11.3! The torque vector is perpendicular
! !
the torque as being perpendicular to both r and F, as given by the right-hand rule shown in to r and F, and in the same direction
! as the
angular acceleration. Here F lies in the plane
Fig. 11.4. You can verify that this rule gives an upward direction for the torque in Fig. 11.3.
of the disk.

Start with the

vectors tail to Curl your fingers in a
tail. direction that rotates
the first vector (rr)
r
onto the second (F ).
r
F rr

Then your
thumb points
tr (out of page) in the direction FIGURE 11.4 The right-hand rule for the
r
of tr 5 rr 3 F. direction of torque.
176 Chapter 11 Rotational Vectors and Angular Momentum

The Cross Product

The magnitude
! ! of the torque, t 5 rF sin u, is determined by the magnitudes of the vec-
tors r and F and the !angle between them; the direction of the torque is determined
!
by the vectors
! r! and F through the
! right-hand rule. This operation—forming from two
vectors A and B a third vector C of magnitude C 5 AB sin u and direction given by the
right-hand rule—occurs frequently in physics and is called the cross product:

! ! !
The cross product C of two vectors A and B is written
! ! !
C5A3B
! !
and is a vector with magnitude
! AB sin u, where u is the angle between A and B, and
where the direction of C is given by the right-hand rule of Fig. 11.4.

Torque is an instance of the cross product, and we can write the torque vector simply as
! ! !
t5r3F 1torque vector2 (11.2)
Both direction and magnitude are described succinctly in this equation.

TACTICS 11.1 Multiplying Vectors

! !
The cross product A! 3! B is the second way of multiplying vectors that you’ve encountered. The first was
the scalar product A # B 5 AB cos u introduced in Chapter 6 and also called the dot product. Both depend
on the product of the vector magnitudes and on the angle between them. But where the dot product de-
pends on the cosine of the angle and is therefore maximum when the two vectors are parallel, the cross
product depends on the sine and is therefore maximum for perpendicular vectors. There’s another crucial
distinction between dot product and cross product: The dot product is a scalar—a single number, with no
direction—while the cross product is a vector. That’s why AB cos u completely specifies the dot product,
but AB sin u gives only the magnitude of the cross product; it’s also necessary to specify the direction via
the right-hand rule. ! ! ! ! ! ! !
The cross product obeys the usual distributive rule: A 3 1B 1 C2 5 A 3 B 1 A 3 C, but it’s not
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
commutative; in fact, as you can see by rotating F onto r instead of r onto F in Fig. 11.4, B 3 A 5 2A 3 B.

GOT IT? 11.1 The figure shows four pairs of force and radius vectors and eight
torque vectors. Which numbered torque vector goes with each pair of force-radius vec-
tors? Consider only direction, not magnitude.

r
F

rr rr
r
r
rr
F F r
F
r
r

(a) (b) (c) (d)

tr3 tr4
tr1 tr2 tr5 tr6 tr7 tr8
 11.3 Angular Momentum 177

11.3 Angular Momentum

! !
! !
We first used Newton’s law in the form F 5 ma , but later found the form F 5 d p /dt es-
pecially powerful. The same is true in rotational motion: To explore fully some surprising
aspects of rotational dynamics, we need to define angular momentum and develop a rela-
tion between its rate of change and the applied torque. Once we’ve done that, we’ll be able
to answer questions like why a gyroscope doesn’t fall over and how spinning protons yield
MRI images of your body’s innards.
Like other rotational quantities, angular momentum is ! specified with respect to a given
point or axis. We begin with the angular momentum L of a single particle:

! !
If a particle with linear momentum
! p is at position r with respect to some point, then
its angular momentum L about that point is defined as
! ! !
L5r3p 1angular momentum2 (11.3)

EXAMPLE 11.1 Calculating Angular Momentum: A Single Particle

A particle of mass m moves counterclockwise at speed v around a circle
of radius r in the x-y plane. Find its angular momentum about the cen-
ter of the circle, and express the answer in terms of its angular velocity.

INTERPRET We’re given the motion of a particle—namely, uniform

motion in a circle—and asked to find the corresponding angular mo-
mentum and its relation to angular velocity.

DEVELOP Figure 11.5 is our sketch, showing the particle in its circu- vr is perpendicular
r
to r.
lar path. We added an xyz coordinate
! system with the circular path in
! !
the x-y plane. Equation 11.3, L 5 r 3 p , gives the angular momen-
! !
tum in terms of the vector r and the linear momentum p . We know
!
that linear momentum is the product mv , so we have everything we !
FIGURE 11.5 Finding the angular momentum L of a particle moving
need to apply Equation 11.3. We’ll then express our result in terms of
in a circle.
angular velocity using v 5 vr.
!
EVALUATE Figure 11.5 shows that the linear momentum mv is per-
!
pendicular to r , so sin u 5 1 in the cross product, and the magnitude ASSESS Make sense? The faster the particle is going, the more linear
of the angular momentum ! becomes L 5 mvr. Applying the right- momentum it has. But angular momentum depends on linear momen-
hand
! rule shows that L points in the z-direction, so we can write tum and distance from the rotation axis, so at a given angular speed,
!
L 5 mvrk^ . But v 5 vr, and the right-hand rule shows that v , too, the angular momentum scales as the square of the radius. ■
points in the z-direction. So we can write
! !
L 5 mvrk^ 5 mr2vk^ 5 mr2 v

! !
Angular momentum is the rotational analog of linear momentum p 5 mv . Since rota-
!
tional inertia I is the analog of mass m, and angular velocity v is the analog of linear
!
velocity v , you might expect that we could write
! !
L 5 Iv (11.4)
The rotational inertia of a !single particle is mr2, so you can see that the result of Example 11.1
!
can indeed be written L 5 Iv . Equation 11.4 also holds for symmetric objects like a
wheel or sphere rotating about! a fixed axis. But in more complicated cases, Equation 11.4
!
may not hold; surprisingly, L and v can even have different directions. We’ll leave such
cases for more advanced courses.
178 Chapter 11 Rotational Vectors and Angular Momentum

Torque and Angular Momentum

!
We’re
! now ready to! develop the full vector analog of Newton’s law ! in the form F 5
dP/dt. Recall that F here is the net external force on a system, and P is the system’s mo-
mentum—the vector! sum of the momenta of its constituent particles. Can we write, by
!
analogy, t 5 dL/dt? To see that we can, we write the angular momentum of a system as
the sum of the angular momenta of its constituent particles:
! ! ! !
L 5 a Li 5 a 1ri 3 p i2
where the subscript i refers to the ith particle. Differentiating gives
! ! !
dL ! d pi d ri !
5 a a ri 3 1 3 pi b
dt dt dt
where we’ve applied the product rule for differentiation, being careful to preserve the or-
!
der of the cross product since it’s not commutative. But dri /dt is the velocity of the ith
!
particle, so the second term in the sum is the cross product of velocity v and momentum
! !
p 5 mv . Since these two vectors are parallel, their cross product is zero, and we’re left
with only the first term in the sum:
! !
dL ! d pi ! !
5 a a ri 3 b 5 a 1ri 3 Fi2
dt dt
vr ! !
! ! !
where we’ve used Newton’s law to write d p i /dt 5 Fi. But ri 3 Fi is the torque ti on the
ith particle, so
!
dL !
Arms and leg 5 a ti
far from axis: dt
large I, small v
The sum here includes both external and internal torques—the latter due to interactions
among the particles of the system. Newton’s third law assures us that internal forces can-
cel in pairs, but what about torques? They’ll cancel, too, provided the internal forces act
along lines joining pairs of particles. This condition is stronger than Newton’s third law
(a) alone, and it usually but not always holds. When it does, the sum of torques reduces to the
net external torque, and we have
!
vr dL ! rotational analog,
5t a b (11.5)
dt Newton’s 2 nd law
Mass closer to !
axis: small I,
where t is the net external torque. Thus our analogy between linear and rotational motion
large v, same holds for momentum as well as for the other quantities we’ve discussed.
L 5 Iv

11.4 Conservation of Angular Momentum

When there’s no external torque on a system, Equation 11.5 tells us that angular mo-
mentum is constant. This statement—that the angular momentum of an isolated system
cannot change—is of fundamental importance in physics, and applies to systems rang-
ing from subatomic particles to galaxies. Because a composite system can change its
configuration—and hence its rotational inertia I—conservation of angular momentum
(b) requires that angular speed increase if I decreases, and vice versa. The classic example
FIGURE 11.6 As the skater’s rotational inertia is a figure skater who starts spinning relatively slowly with arms and leg extended and
decreases, her angular speed increases to then pulls in her limbs to spin rapidly (Fig. 11.6). A more dramatic example is the col-
conserve angular momentum. lapse of a star at the end of its lifetime, explored in the next example.

EXAMPLE 11.2 Conservation of Angular Momentum: Pulsars

A star rotates once every 45 days. At the end of its life, it undergoes a star emits regular pulses of radio waves, making it a pulsar. Calculate
supernova explosion, hurling much of its mass into the interstellar the rotation rate, which is the same as the pulse rate that radio
medium. But the inner core of the star, whose radius is initially 20 Mm, astronomers detect. Consider the core to be a uniform sphere, and
collapses into a neutron star only 6 km in radius. As it rotates, the neutron assume that no external torques act during the collapse.
 11.4 Conservation of Angular Momentum 179

INTERPRET Here we’re given the radius and rotation rate of the stellar EVALUATE Given I, our statement of angular momentum conservation
core before collapse and asked for the rotation rate afterward. That becomes 25MR12v1 5 25MR22v2, or
kind of “before and after” question often calls for the application of a R1 2 1 rev 23107 m 2
conservation law. In this case there’s no external torque, so it’s angu- v2 5 v1 a b 5 a ba b 5 2.53105 rev/day
R2 45 day 63103 m
lar momentum that’s conserved.
ASSESS Our answer is huge, about 3 revolutions per second. But that
DEVELOP The magnitude of the angular momentum is Iv, so our plan
makes sense. This neutron star is a fantastic thing—an object with
is to write this expression before and after collapse, and then equate
more mass than the entire Sun, crammed into a diameter of about
the two to find the new rotation rate: I1v1 5 I2v2. We need to use
8 miles. It’s because of that dramatic reduction in radius—and thus in
Table 10.2’s expression for the rotational inertia of a solid sphere:
rotational inertia—that the pulsar’s rotation rate is so high. Note that
I 5 25MR2.
in a case like this, where v appears on both sides of the equation, it
isn’t necessary to convert to radian measure. ■

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 11.1 On the Playground

A merry-go-round is rotating freely when a boy runs radially inward, adds mass, and thus increases the rotational inertia—which, as in the
straight toward the merry-go-round’s center, and leaps on. Later, a girl boy’s case, tends to decrease angular speed. So which wins out? That
runs tangent to the merry-go-round’s edge, in the same direction the depends on her speed. Without knowing that, we can’t tell whether the
edge is moving, and also leaps on. Does the merry-go-round’s angular merry-go-round speeds up or slows down.
speed increase, decrease, or stay the same in each case?
ASSESS The angular momentum the girl adds is the product of her lin-
EVALUATE Because the merry-go-round is rotating freely, the only ear momentum mv and the merry-go-round’s radius R, while she in-
torques are those exerted by the children as they leap on. If we con- creases the rotational inertia by mR2. With small m and large v, she
sider a system consisting of the merry-go-round and both children, could add a lot of angular momentum without increasing the rota-
then those torques are internal, and the system’s angular momentum tional inertia significantly. That would increase the merry-go-round’s
is conserved. In Fig. 11.7 we’ve sketched the situation, before either rotation rate. But with a large m and small v—giving the same addi-
child leaps onto the merry-go-round and after both are on board. tional angular momentum—the increase in rotational inertia would
The boy, running radially, carries no angular momentum (his linear! more than offset the angular momentum added, and the merry-go-
momentum and the radius vector are in the same direction, making L round would slow down. We can’t answer the question about the
zero), so you might think he doesn’t change the merry-go-round’s an- merry-go-round’s angular speed without knowing the numbers. Prob-
gular speed. Yet he does, because he adds mass and therefore rotational lem 45 explores a similar situation in more detail.
inertia. At the same time he doesn’t change the angular momentum, so
with I increased, v must therefore drop.
Running in the same direction as the merry-go-round’s tangential MAKING THE CONNECTION Take the merry-go-round’s radius to
velocity, the girl clearly adds angular momentum to the system—an be R 5 1.3 m, its rotational inertia I 5 240 kg # m2, and its initial angular
addition that would tend to increase the angular speed. But she also speed vinitial 5 11 rpm. The boy’s and girl’s masses are, respectively,
28 kg and 32 kg, and they run, respectively, at 2.5 m/s and 3.7 m/s. Find
the merry-go-round’s angular speed vfinal after both children are on board.
EVALUATE Following the conceptual example, take the system to in-
clude the merry-go-round and the two children. Before the children
leap on, both the merry-go-round itself and the girl carry angular mo-
mentum; afterward, with children and merry-go-round rotating with a
common angular speed, they all do. Thus conservation of angular mo-
mentum reads
Ivinitial 1 mgvg R 5 Ivfinal 1 mbR2vfinal 1 mgR2vfinal
Solving with the given numbers yields vfinal 5 12 rpm. That’s not
much change, so the girl’s effect must have been a speed increase,
Running straight but only a little more than enough to overcome the boy’s slowing ef-
toward the axis, the fect. Note that the boy’s speed didn’t matter, since it didn’t con-
boy carries no
angular momentum. tribute to angular momentum or rotational inertia. And be careful
Running tangentially, the with units: You’ve got to express all angular momenta in the same
girl carries additional units. That means converting angular speeds to radians per second
angular momentum. or expressing the girl’s angular momentum mgvgR in unusual units,
FIGURE 11.7 Our diagrams for Conceptual Example 11.1 kg # m2 # rpm.
180 Chapter 11 Rotational Vectors and Angular Momentum

The student stands on a ✓TIP Angular Momentum in Straight-line Motion

stationary turntable holding a
wheel that spins counterclockwise; You don’t have to be rotating to have angular momentum. The girl in Conceptual
the wheel’s angular momentum
points upward.
Example 11.1 was running in a straight line, yet she had nonzero angular momentum
with respect to the merry-go-round’s rotation axis. Problem 34 explores this point further.
r r
Ltotal 5 Lwheel

In a popular demonstration, a student stands on a stationary turntable holding a wheel

rotating about a vertical axis. The student flips the wheel upside down, and the turntable
starts rotating. Figure 11.8 shows how angular momentum conservation explains this be-
havior. Once again, though, mechanical energy isn’t conserved. In this case the student
does work, exerting forces that result in torques on her body and the turntable. The end
result is a greater rotational kinetic energy than was initially present.

(a)
GOT IT? 11.2 Suppose you step onto a nonrotating turntable like the one shown in
She flips the spinning Fig. 11.8, holding a nonrotating wheel with its axis vertical. (a) If you spin the wheel
wheel, reversing its angular counterclockwise as viewed from above, which way will you rotate? (b) If you now turn
momentum. The total angular
momentum is conserved, so r
the spinning wheel upside down, will your rotation rate increase, decrease, or remain
turntable and student (ts) must Lts unchanged? What about your direction of rotation?
rotate the other way.
r
Ltotal

r
11.5 Gyroscopes and Precession
Lwheel Angular momentum—a vector quantity with direction as well as magnitude—is conserved
in the absence of external torques. For symmetric objects, angular momentum has the
same direction as the rotation axis, so the axis can’t change direction unless an external
torque acts. This is the principle behind the gyroscope—a spinning object whose rotation
axis remains fixed in space. The faster a gyroscope spins, the larger its angular momen-
tum and thus the harder it is to change its orientation. Gyroscopes are widely used for nav-
igation, where their direction-holding capability provides an alternative to the magnetic
(b) compass. More sophisticated gyroscope systems guide missiles and submarines, stabilize
FIGURE 11.8 A demonstration of angular
cruise ships in heavy seas, and track the orientation of wireless computer mice. Space tele-
momentum conservation. scopes start and stop gyroscopic wheels oriented along three perpendicular axes; to con-
serve angular momentum, the entire telescope reorients itself to point toward a desired
astronomical object. This approach avoids rocket exhaust that would foul the telescope’s
superb viewing, and ensures that there’s no fuel to run out. Instead, solar-generated elec-
tricity operates the wheels’ drive motors.

r
Precession
Change DL is also into the page,
If an object does experience a net external
! torque, then, according to the rotational analog
so the gyroscope precesses, its tip !
describing a circle. of Newton’s law (Equation 11.5, dL/dt 5 t ), its angular momentum must change. For
r
rapidly rotating objects, the result is the surprising phenomenon of precession—a contin-
DL ual change in the direction of the rotation axis, which traces out a circle. You may have
r
L
seen a toy gyroscope or top precess instead of simply falling over as you might expect.
Figure 11.9 shows that precession comes about because the direction of the angular mo-
tr mentum change is the same as the direction of the torque.
rr r
t points into
the page.
Precession on the atomic scale helps explain the medical imaging technique MRI
r
Fg (magnetic resonance imaging). Protons in the body’s abundant hydrogen precess be-
cause of torque resulting from a strong magnetic field. The MRI imager detects signals
Gravity exerts
a torque about ther emitted at the precession frequency. By spatially varying the magnetic field, the device
pivot; tr 5 rr 3 F is localizes the precessing protons and thus constructs high-resolution images of the
into the page. body’s interior.
FIGURE 11.9 Why doesn’t the spinning On a much larger scale, Earth itself precesses. Because of its rotation, the planet bulges
gyroscope fall over? slightly at the equator. Solar gravity exerts a torque on the equatorial bulge, causing
 11.5 Gyroscopes and Precession 181

Earth’s rotation axis to precess with a period of about 26,000 years (Fig. 11.10). The axis
now points toward Polaris, which for that reason we call the North Star, but it won’t al-
ways do so. This precession, in connection with deviations in Earth’s orbit from a perfect
circle, results in subtle climatic changes that are believed partly responsible for the onset
of ice ages.

Torque causes axis

to precess.

r
Now L 13,000 years Near side is closer
in future to Sun, so F1 > F2;
the result is a
r torque.
F1

r
F2 Sun
Earth

FIGURE 11.10 Earth’s precession. The equatorial

bulge is highly exaggerated.

GOT IT? 11.3 You push horizontally at right angles to the

shaft of a spinning gyroscope, as shown in the figure. Does the
shaft move (a) upward, (b) downward, (c) in the direction of
your push, or (d) opposite the direction of your push?

APPLICATION Bicycling

The rotational analog of Newton’s second law helps explain why bicycles don’t
tip over. The photo shows why. If the bicycle is perfectly vertical, the gravita-
tional force exerts no torque. But
! if it tips to the rider’s left, as in the photo,
! !
then there’s a torque t 5 r 3 Fg toward the rear. A stationary bicycle, with no
angular momentum, would respond by tipping further left, rotating about a
front-to-back axis and gaining angular momentum toward the rear. That’s just
as Newton requires: a change in angular momentum in the direction ! of the
torque. But a moving bicycle already has angular momentum L of its rotating
wheels; as the photo shows, it points generally to the rider’s left. A rearward
change in the angular momentum then requires just a slight turn of the front
r
rr
Gravitational
wheel to the left. The rider subconsciously makes that turn, at once satisfying
Newton and helping to keep the bicycle stable.
Fg torque is toward
back of bicycle,
The physics of cycling is a complicated subject, and the role of angular mo- into page.
mentum described here is only one of several effects that contribute to bicycle
stability.
tr
Wheel turns to
r left, changing
L angular
momentum
vector in
direction of
torque.
CHAPTER 11 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea of this chapter is that rotational quantities can be described as
vectors, with the vector direction at right angles to the plane in which the
action—motion, acceleration, or effects associated with torque—is occurring. vr
The direction is given by the right-hand rule. A new concept, angular mo-
mentum, is the rotational analog of linear momentum. The rotational analog
of Newton’s law equates the net torque on a system with the rate of change of
Curl your fingers in . . . then your thumb
its angular momentum. In the absence of a net torque, angular momentum is the direction of gives the direction
conserved. rotation . . . of the angular velocity.

Key Concepts and Equations

! ! !
The vector cross product is a way of multiplying two vectors A and B to produce a third vector C of Start with the
vectors tail to Curl your fingers in a
magnitude C 5 AB sin u and direction at right angles to the other two, as given by the right-hand rule.
tail. direction that rotates
It’s written as the first vector (rr)
! ! ! r
C5A3B onto the second (F).
r rr
! F
Torque! is defined as the cross product of the radius vector r from a given axis to the point where a
force F is applied:
! ! !
t5r3F
Then your
thumb points
tr (out of page) in the direction
r
of tr 5 rr 3 F.

! !
Angular momentum L is the rotational analog of linear momentum p . It’s always defined with respect to a particular axis. For a point particle
! ! !
at position r with respect to the axis, moving with linear momentum p 5 mv , the angular momentum is defined as
! ! !
L5r3p
! ! !
For a symmetric object with rotational inertia I rotating with angular velocity v , angular momentum becomes L 5 I v .
In terms of angular momentum, the rotational analog of Newton’s law states that the rate of change of angular momentum is equal to the net
external torque:
!
dL !
5t
dt

If the external torque on a system is zero, then its angular momentum cannot change.

Applications
Conservation of angular momentum explains the action of gyroscopes—spinning The axis of the precessing
objects whose rotation axis remains fixed in the absence of a net external torque. If gyroscope traces out a circle.
an external torque is applied, the rotation axis undergoes a circular motion known r
DL
r
as precession. Precession occurs in systems ranging from subatomic particles to L
tops and gyroscopes and on to planets.
tr
rr tr points into
the page.
r
Fg
 Exercises and Problems 183

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion Section 11.2 Torque and the Vector Cross Product
17. A 12-N force is applied at the point x 5 3 m, y 5 1 m. Find the
1. Does Earth’s angular velocity vector point north or south? torque about the origin if the force points in (a) the x-direction,
2. Figure 11.11 shows four forces acting on a body. In what direc- (b) the y-direction,
! and (c) the z-direction.
tions are the associated torques about point O? About point P? 18. A force F 5 1.3ı^ 1 2.7/^ N is applied at the point x 5 3.0 m,
y 5 0 m. Find the torque about (a) the origin and (b) the point
r
F2 x 5 21.3 m, y 5 2.4 m.
19. When you hold your arm outstretched, it’s supported primarily
BIO by the deltoid muscle. Figure 11.12 shows a case in which the
r
F4 deltoid exerts a 67-N force at 15° to the horizontal. If the force-
P application point is 18 cm horizontally from the shoulder joint,
O
what torque does the deltoid exert about the shoulder?
r
F1
r
F3 Deltoid muscle
F 5 67 N

15°

FIGURE 11.11 For Thought and Discussion 2

18 cm
3. You stand with your right arm extended horizontally. What’s the
direction of the gravitational torque about your shoulder?
! ! ! FIGURE 11.12 Exercise 19
4. Although it contains no parentheses, the expression A 3 B # C is
unambiguous. Why?
5. What’s the angle between two vectors if their dot product is equal Section 11.3 Angular Momentum
to the magnitude of their cross product? 20. Express the units of angular momentum (a) using only the funda-
6. Why does a tetherball move faster as it winds up its pole? mental units kilogram, meter, and second; (b) in a form involving
7. Why do helicopters have two rotors? newtons; (c) in a form involving joules.
8. A group of polar bears is standing around the edge of a slowly 21. In the Olympic hammer throw, a contestant whirls a 7.3-kg steel
rotating ice floe. If the bears all walk to the center, what happens ball on the end of a 1.2-m cable. If the contestant’s arms reach an
to the rotation rate? additional 90 cm from his rotation axis and if the ball’s speed just
9. Tornadoes in the northern hemisphere rotate counterclockwise as prior to release is 27 m/s, what’s the magnitude of the ball’s an-
viewed from above. A far-fetched idea suggests that driving on gular momentum?
the right side of the road may increase the frequency of torna- 22. A gymnast of rotational inertia 62 kg # m2 is tumbling head over heels
does. Does this idea have any merit? Explain in terms of the an- with angular momentum 470 kg # m2/s. What’s her angular speed?
gular momentum imparted to the air as two cars pass. 23. A 640-g hoop 90 cm in diameter is rotating at 170 rpm about its
10. Does a particle moving at constant speed in a straight line have central axis. What’s its angular momentum?
angular momentum about a point on the line? About a point not 24. A 7.4-cm-diameter baseball has mass 145 g and is spinning at
on the line? In either case, is its angular momentum constant? 2000 rpm. Treating the baseball as a uniform solid sphere, what’s
11. When you turn on a high-speed power tool such as a router, the its angular momentum?
tool tends to twist in your hands. Why?
12. Why is it easier to balance a basketball on your finger if it’s
Section 11.4 Conservation of Angular Momentum
spinning?
25. A potter’s wheel with rotational inertia 6.40 kg # m2 is spinning
freely at 19.0 rpm. The potter drops a 2.70-kg lump of clay onto
Exercises and Problems the wheel, where it sticks 46.0 cm from the rotation axis. What’s
Exercises the wheel’s subsequent angular speed?
26. A 3.0-m-diameter merry-go-round with rotational inertia
Section 11.1 Angular Velocity and Acceleration Vectors 120 kg # m2 is spinning freely at 0.50 rev/s. Four 25-kg children sit
13. A car is headed north at 70 km/h. Give the magnitude and direc- suddenly on the edge of the merry-go-round. (a) Find the new an-
tion of the angular velocity of its 62-cm-diameter wheels. gular speed, and (b) determine the total energy lost to friction be-
14. If the car of Exercise 13 makes a 90° left turn lasting 25 s, deter- tween children and merry-go-round.
mine the average angular acceleration of the wheels. 27. A uniform, spherical cloud of interstellar gas has mass
15. A wheel is spinning at 45 rpm with its axis vertical. After 15 s, 2.031030 kg, has radius 1.031013 m, and is rotating with period
it’s spinning at 60 rpm with its axis horizontal. Find (a) the mag- 1.43106 years. The cloud collapses to form a star 7.03108 m in
nitude of its average angular acceleration and (b) the angle the radius. Find the star’s rotation period.
average angular acceleration vector makes with the horizontal. 28. A skater has rotational inertia 4.2 kg # m2 with his fists held to his
16. A wheel is spinning about a horizontal axis with angular speed chest and 5.7 kg # m2 with his arms outstretched. The skater is
140 rad/s and with its angular velocity pointing east. Find the spinning at 3.0 rev/s while holding a 2.5-kg weight in each out-
magnitude and direction of its angular velocity after an angular stretched hand; the weights are 76 cm from his rotation axis. If
acceleration of 35 rad/s2, pointing 68° west of north, is applied he pulls his hands in to his chest, so they’re essentially on his ro-
for 5.0 s. tation axis, how fast will he be spinning?
184 Chapter 11 Rotational Vectors and Angular Momentum

Problems upside down, student and turntable begin rotating at 70 rpm.

29. You slip a wrench over a bolt. Taking the origin at the bolt, the (a) Find the student’s mass, considering her to be a 30-cm-diameter
other end! of the wrench is at x 5 18 cm, y 5 5.5 cm. You apply cylinder. (b) Neglecting the distance between the axes of the
a force F 5 88 ı^ 2 23 ^/ N to the end of the wrench. What’s the turntable and wheel, determine the work she did in turning the
torque on! the bolt? wheel upside down.
!
Vector A points 30° counterclockwise 41. You’re choreographing your school’s annual ice show. You call
30. ! ! Vector B
from the! x-axis.
has twice the magnitude of A. Their product A 3 B has magni- for eight 60-kg skaters to join hands and skate side by side in a
tude A2 and points line extending 12 m. The skater at one end is to stop abruptly, so
! in the negative z-direction. What’s the direc-
tion of vector B? the line will rotate rigidly about that skater. For safety, you don’t
31. A baseball player extends his arm straight up to catch a 145-g base- want the fastest skater to be moving at more than 8.0 m/s, and
BIO ball moving horizontally at 42 m/s. It’s 63 cm from the player’s you don’t want the force on that skater’s hand to exceed 300 N.
shoulder joint to the point the ball strikes his hand, and his arm re- What do you determine is the greatest speed the skaters can have
mains stiff while it rotates about the shoulder during the catch. The before they execute their rotational maneuver?
player’s hand recoils 5.00 cm horizontally while he stops the ball. 42. Find the angle between two vectors whose dot product is twice
What average the magnitude of their cross product.
! torque
! does! the player’s arm exert! on the! ball?
32. Show that A # 1A 3 B2 5 0 for any vectors A and B. 43. A circular bird feeder 19 cm in radius has rotational inertia
33. A weightlifter’s barbell consists of two 25-kg masses on the ends 0.12 kg # m2. It’s suspended by a thin wire and is spinning slowly
of a 15-kg rod 1.6 m long. The weightlifter holds the rod at its at 5.6 rpm. A 140-g bird lands on the feeder’s rim, coming in tan-
center and spins it at 10 rpm about an axis perpendicular to the gent to the rim at 1.1 m/s in a direction opposite the feeder’s ro-
rod. What’s the magnitude of the barbell’s angular momentum? tation. What’s
! the rotation rate after the bird lands?
34. A particle of mass m moves in a straight line at constant speed v. 44. A force F applied at the point x 5 2.0 m, y 5 0 m produces !
Show that its angular momentum about a point located a perpen- a torque 4.6k^ N # m about the origin. If the x-component of F is
dicular distance b from its line of motion is mvb regardless of 3.1 N, what angle does it make with the x-axis?
where the particle is on the line. 45. A turntable has rotational inertia I and is rotating with angular
35. Biomechanical engineers have developed micromechanical de- speed v about a frictionless vertical axis. A wad of clay with
mass m is tossed onto the turntable and sticks a distance d from
BIO vices for measuring blood flow as an alternative to dye injection !
following angioplasty to remove arterial plaque. One experimental the rotation axis. The clay hits horizontally with its velocity v
device consists of a 300-mm-diameter, 2.0-mm-thick silicon rotor at right angles to the turntable’s radius, and in the same direction
inserted into blood vessels. Moving blood spins the rotor, whose as the turntable’s rotation (Fig. 11.14). Find an expression for v
rotation rate provides a measure of blood flow. This device exhib- that will result in (a) the turntable’s angular speed dropping to
ited an 800-rpm rotation rate in tests with water flows at several half its initial value, (b) no change in the turntable’s angular
m/s. Treating the rotor as a disk, what was its angular momentum speed, and (c) the angular speed doubling.
at 800 rpm? (Hint: You’ll need to find the density of silicon.)
36. Figure 11.13 shows the dimensions of a 880-g wooden baseball bat
whose rotational inertia about its center of mass is 0.048 kg # m2. If d
the bat is swung so its far end moves at 50 m/s, find (a) its angular
momentum about the pivot P and (b) the constant torque applied
vr
about P to achieve this angular momentum in 0.25 s. (Hint: Re-
member the parallel-axis theorem.) FIGURE 11.14 Problem 45
P CM 46. A uniform, solid, spherical asteroid with mass 1.231013 kg and
^ radius 1.0 km is rotating with period 4.3 h. A meteoroid moving
in the asteroid’s equatorial plane crashes into the equator at
43 cm 31 cm FIGURE 11.13 Problem 36 8.4 km/s. It hits at a 58° angle to the vertical and embeds itself at
37. As an automotive engineer, you’re charged with redesigning a the surface. After the impact the asteroid’s rotation period is
car’s wheels with the goal of decreasing each wheel’s angular mo- 3.9 h. Find the meteoroid’s mass.
mentum by 30% for a given linear speed of the car. Other design 47. About 99.9% of the solar system’s total mass lies in the Sun. Us-
considerations require that the wheel diameter go from 38 cm to ing data from Appendix E, estimate what fraction of the solar
35 cm. If the old wheel had rotational inertia 0.32 kg # m2, what do system’s angular momentum about its center is associated with
you specify for the new rotational inertia? the Sun. Where is most of the rest of the angular momentum?
38. A turntable of radius 25 cm and rotational inertia 0.0154 kg # m2 48. You’re a civil engineer for an advanced civilization on a solid
is spinning freely at 22.0 rpm about its central axis, with a 19.5-g spherical planet of uniform density. Running out of room for the
mouse on its outer edge. The mouse walks from the edge to the expanding population, the government asks you to redesign your
center. Find (a) the new rotation speed and (b) the work done by planet to give it more surface area. You recommend reshaping the
the mouse. planet, without adding any material or angular momentum, into a
39. A 17-kg dog is standing on the edge of a stationary, frictionless hollow shell whose thickness is one-fifth its outer radius. How
turntable of rotational inertia 95 kg # m2 and radius 1.81 m. The much will your design increase the surface area, and how will it
dog walks once around the turntable. What fraction of a full cir- change the length of the day?
cle does the dog’s motion make with respect to the ground? 49. In Fig. 11.15, the lower disk, of mass 440 g and radius 3.5 cm, is
40. A physics student is standing on an initially motionless, friction- rotating at 180 rpm on a frictionless shaft of negligible radius.
less turntable with rotational inertia 0.31 kg # m2. She’s holding a The upper disk, of mass 270 g and radius 2.3 cm, is initially not
wheel with rotational inertia 0.22 kg # m2 spinning at 130 rpm rotating. It drops freely down onto the lower disk, and frictional
about a vertical axis, as in Fig. 11.8. When she turns the wheel forces bring the two disks to a common rotational speed. Find
 Answers to Chapter Questions 185

(a) that common speed and (b) the fraction of the initial kinetic Passage Problems
energy lost to friction. Figure 11.18 shows a demonstration gyroscope, consisting of a solid
disk mounted on a shaft. The disk spins about the shaft on essentially
frictionless bearings. The shaft is mounted on a stand so it’s free to
pivot both horizontally and vertically. A weight at the far end of the
shaft balances the disk, so in the configuration shown there’s no
torque on the system. An arrowhead mounted on the disk end of the
shaft indicates the direction of the disk’s angular velocity.

Initial Final Disk spinning

Nonspinning on frictionless
bearing
FIGURE 11.15 Problem 49 weight
Shaft You push in
50. A massless spring with constant k is mounted on a turntable of ro- this region.
tational inertia I, as shown in Fig. 11.16. The turntable is on a fric- Shaft can pivot
tionless vertical axle, though initially it’s not rotating. The spring is horizontally and Arrowhead
vertically.
compressed a distance Dx from its equilibrium, with a mass m Stand
placed against it. When the spring is released, the mass moves at Base FIGURE 11.18 A gyroscope
right angles to a line through the turntable’s center, at a distance b (Passage Problems 55–58)
from the center, and slides without friction across the table and over
the edge. Find expressions for (a) the linear speed of the mass and 55. If you push on the shaft between the arrowhead and the disk,
(b) the rotational speed of the turntable. (Hint: What’s conserved?) pushing horizontally away from you (that is, into the page in Fig.
11.18), the arrowhead end of the shaft will move
v a. away from you (i.e., into the page).
b. toward you (i.e., out of the page).
b c. downward.
vr d. upward.
FIGURE 11.16 Problem 50 56. If you push on the shaft between the arrowhead and the disk,
pushing directly upward on the bottom of the shaft, the arrow-
51. A solid ball of mass M and radius R is spinning with angular ve- head end of the shaft will move
locity v0 about a horizontal axis. It drops vertically onto a sur- a. away from you (i.e., into the page).
face where the coefficient of kinetic friction with the ball is mk b. toward you (i.e., out of the page).
(Fig. 11.17). Find expressions for (a) the final angular velocity c. downward.
once it’s achieved pure rolling motion and (b) the time it takes to d. upward.
achieve this motion.
57. If an additional weight is hung on the left end of the shaft, the
arrowhead will
v0 a. pivot upward until the weighted end of the shaft hits the base.
b. pivot downward until the arrowhead hits the base.
c. precess counterclockwise when viewed from above.
v d. precess clockwise when viewed from above.
58. If the system is precessing, and only the disk’s rotation rate is
increased, the precession rate will
a. decrease.
Initial Final b. increase.
c. stay the same.
FIGURE 11.17 Problem 51
d. become zero.
52. A time-dependent torque given by t 5 a 1 b sin ct is applied to
an object that’s initially stationary but is free to rotate. Here a, b,
and c are constants. Find an expression for the object’s angular Answers to Chapter Questions
momentum as a function of time, assuming the torque is first ap-
plied at t 5 0. Answer to Chapter Opening Question
53. Consider a rapidly spinning gyroscope whose axis is precessing
The rotation axis precesses—changes orientation—over a 26,000-year
uniformly in a !horizontal circle of radius r, as shown in Fig. 11.9.
! cycle. This alters the relation between sunlight intensity and seasons,
Apply t 5 dL/dt to show that the angular speed of precession
triggering ice ages.
about the vertical axis through the center of the circle is mgr/L.
54. When a star like our Sun exhausts its fuel, thermonuclear reac-
tions in its core cease, and it collapses to become a white dwarf. Answers to GOT IT? Questions
! ! ! !
Often the star will blow off its outer layers and lose some mass 11.1. (a) t3; (b) t 5; (c) t1; (d) t4
before it collapses. Suppose a star with the Sun’s mass and radius 11.2. (a) You’ll go clockwise to keep total angular momentum at zero.
is rotating with period 25 days and then it collapses to a white (b) Total angular momentum remains unchanged at zero, so now
dwarf with 60% of the Sun’s mass and a rotation period of 131 s. you’ll spin counterclockwise but at the same rate, assuming the
What’s the radius of the white dwarf? Compare your answer with wheel hasn’t slowed.
the radii of Sun and Earth. 11.3. (a)
 12 Static Equilibrium

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Describe the two conditions
necessary for a system to be in
static equilibrium (12.1).
■ Calculate the forces and torques
necessary to ensure static
equilibrium (12.3).
■ Determine whether an equilibrium
is stable or unstable (12.4).
The Alamillo Bridge in Seville, Spain, is the work of architect Santiago
Calatrava. What conditions must be met to ensure the stability of
this dramatic structure?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter draws on Newton’s
second law as applied in Chapter 5,
A rchitect Santiago Calatrava envisioned the boldly improbable bridge shown above. But
it took engineers to make sure that the bridge would be stable in the face of what looks like
an obvious tendency to topple to the left. The key to the engineers’ success is static equilibrium—
including the concept of force and the condition in which a structure or system experiences neither a net force nor a net torque.
the addition of force vectors to Engineers use the principles of static equilibrium to design buildings, bridges, and aircraft. Scien-
determine the net force (5.1–5.3). tists apply equilibrium principles at scales from molecular to astrophysical. Here we explore the
■ This chapter is also based on the conditions for static equilibrium required by the laws of physics.
concepts of torque and the
rotational analog of Newton’s second
law (10.2, 10.3), and the idea of
12.1 Conditions for Equilibrium
torque as a vector (11.2). A body is in equilibrium when the net external force and torque on it are both zero. In the
■ The material here is a special case of special case when the body is also at rest, it’s in static equilibrium. Systems in static
what you’ve learned before, now with equilibrium include not only engineered structures but also trees, molecules, and even
zero net force and torque in Newton’s your bones and muscles when you’re at rest.
law and its rotational analog. We can write the conditions for static equilibrium mathematically by setting the sums
of all the external forces and torques both to zero:
! !
a Fi 5 0 (12.1)
and
! ! ! !
a ti 5 a 1ri 3 Fi2 5 0 (12.2)
! !
Here the subscripts i label the forces F acting on an object, the positions r of the force-
!
186
application points, and the associated torques t .
 12.1 Conditions for Equilibrium 187

In Chapters 10 and 11, we noted that torque depends on the choice of a rotation axis.
Actually, the issue is not so much an axis but! a single point—the point of origin of the vec-
! ! !
tors r that enter the expression t 5 r 3 F. In this chapter, where we have objects in equi-
librium so they aren’t rotating,
! we’ll talk of this “pivot point” rather than a rotation axis.
! !
So the torque t 5 r 3 F depends on the choice of pivot point. Then there seems to be an
ambiguity in Equation 12.2, since we haven’t specified a pivot point.
For an object to be in static equilibrium it can’t rotate about any point, so Equation 12.2
must hold no matter what point we choose. Must we then check every possible point? For-
tunately, no. If the first equilibrium condition holds—that is, if the net force on an object
is zero—and if the net torque about some point is zero, then the net torque about any other
point is also zero. Problem 53 leads you through the proof of this statement.
In solving equilibrium problems, we’re thus free to choose any convenient point about
which to evaluate the torques.! An appropriate choice is often the application ! point of one
! !
of the forces; then r 5 0 for that force, and the associated torque r 3 F is zero. This
leaves Equation 12.2 with one term fewer than it would otherwise have.

EXAMPLE 12.1 Choosing the Pivot: A Drawbridge

The raised span of the drawbridge shown in Fig. 12.1a has its 11,000-kg DEVELOP Here we’ll demonstrate how a sensible choice of the pivot
mass distributed uniformly over its 14-m length. Find the magnitude point can make solving static-equilibrium problems easier. Fig-
of the tension in the supporting cable. ure 12.1b is a simplified diagram of the bridge, showing the three
forces acting on it. These forces must satisfy both! Equations 12.1 and
12.2, but we aren’t asked about the hinge force Fh, so it makes sense
m to choose! the pivot at the hinge. We can then focus on Equation 12.2,
14 !
g ti 5 0 , in which the only torques are due to gravity and tension.
15° Gravity acts at the center of mass, half the bridge length L from the
30° pivot (we’ll prove this shortly). Therefore, it exerts a torque
tg 5 21L/22mg sin u1, where u1 is the angle between the gravita-
tional force and a vector from the pivot. This torque is into the page,
or in the negative z-direction—hence the negative sign. Similarly,
the tension force, applied at the full length L, exerts a torque
tT 5 LT sin u2. Equation 12.2 then becomes
(a) L
2 mg sin u1 1 LT sin u2 5 0
We don’t know 2
the exact direction
of the hinge force. EVALUATE We solve for the tension T:
Tension force mg sin u1 111,000 kg219.8 m/s221sin 120°2
acts at 15° below T5 5 5 180 kN
the horizontal. 2 sin u2 1221sin 165°2
Gravity acts ASSESS This tension force is considerably larger than the approxi-
downward.
mately 110-kN weight of the bridge because the tension acts at a small
(b)
angle to produce a torque that balances the torque due to gravity.
The point of this example is that a wise choice of the pivot point
can eliminate a lot of work—in this case, allowing us to solve the
FIGURE 12.1 (a) A drawbridge. (b) Our sketch showing forces supporting problem using only Equation 12.2. If we had chosen a different pivot,
the bridge. then the force Fh would have appeared in the torque equation, and we
would have had to eliminate it using the force equation, Equation 12.1
INTERPRET Because the drawbridge is at rest, it’s in static equilibrium. (see Exercise 15). ■

GOT IT? 12.1 The figure shows three pairs of r

r
forces acting on an object. Which pair, acting as the B1 C2
r r
only forces on the object, results in static equilib- A1 A2
rium? Explain why the others don’t.
r
r
C1 B2
188 Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium

O
12.2 Center of Gravity
rri In Fig. 12.1b we drew the gravitational force acting at the center of mass of the bridge.
That seems sensible, but is it correct? After all, gravity acts on all parts of an object. How
mi
do we know that the resulting torque is equivalent to the torque due to a single force act-
ing at the center of mass? To see that it is, consider the gravitational forces on all parts of
!
r
Fi 5 migr an object of mass M. The vector sum of those forces is Mg , but what about the ! torques?
! !
Figure 12.2 shows the ingredients we need to calculate the torque t 5 r 3 F associated
FIGURE 12.2 The gravitational force on the mass with one mass element; summing gives the total torque:
element mi produces a torque about point O. ! ! ! ! ! ! !
t 5 a ri 3 Fi 5 a ri 3 mi g 5 A a mi ri B 3 g
We can rewrite this equation by multiplying the right-hand side by M/M, with M the total
mass:
!
! a mi ri !
t5a b 3 Mg
M
The term in parentheses is the position of the center of mass (Section 9.1), and the right-
hand term is the total weight. Therefore, the net torque on the body due to gravity is that
!
of the gravitational force Mg acting at the center of mass. In general, the point at which
the gravitational force seems to act is called the center of gravity. We’ve just proven an
important point: The center of gravity coincides with the center of mass when the
gravitational field is uniform.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 12.1 Finding the Center of Gravity

Explain how you can find an object’s center of gravity by suspending ASSESS Here’s a quick, easy, and practical way to find the center of
it from a string. gravity—at least for two-dimensional objects.
EVALUATE Suspend an object from a string and it will quickly come
to equilibrium, as shown in Figs. 12.3a, b. In equilibrium there’s no MAKING THE CONNECTION Do the experiment! Determine the
torque on the object and so, as Fig. 12.3b shows, its center of gravity center of gravity of an isosceles triangle made from material of uni-
(CG) must be directly below the suspension point. So far all we know form density.
is that the CG lies on a vertical line extending from the suspension
EVALUATE Cut a triangle of cardboard or wood and follow the proce-
point. But two intersecting lines determine a point, so all we have to
do is suspend the object from a different point. In its new equilibrium, dure described here. You should get good agreement with Example
the CG again lies on a vertical line from the suspension point. Where 9.3: The triangle’s CG (which is the same as its center of mass) lies
the two lines meet is the center of gravity (Fig. 12.3c). two-thirds of the way from the apex to the base.

There’s a net . . . so the

torque because object swings
the CG isn’t until the CG
directly below is below the
the suspension rr suspension
rr
point . . . point. CG
CG CG
Line from . . . and
r first suspension from second
Fg r point . . . point
Fg
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 12.3 Finding the center of gravity.

 12.3 Examples of Static Equilibrium 189

GOT IT? 12.2 The dancer in the figure is balanced; that is,
she’s in static equilibrium. Which of the three lettered points could
be her center of gravity?
A C
B

12.3 Examples of Static Equilibrium

It’s frequently the case that all the forces acting on a system lie in a plane, so Equation 12.1—
the statement that there’s no net force in static equilibrium—becomes two equations for the
two force components in that plane. And with all the forces in a plane, the torques are all at
right angles to that plane, so Equation 12.2—the statement that there’s no net torque—
becomes a single equation. We’ll restrict ourselves to such cases in which the conditions for
static equilibrium reduce to three scalar equations. Sometimes, as in Example 12.1, the
torque equation alone will give what we’re looking for, but usually that’s not the case.
Solving static-equilibrium problems is much like solving Newton’s law problems; after
all, the equations for static equilibrium are Newton’s law and its rotational analog, both
with acceleration set to zero. Here we adapt our Newton’s law strategy from Chapter 4 to
problems of static equilibrium. The examples that follow illustrate the use of this strategy.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 12.1 Static-Equilibrium Problems

INTERPRET Interpret the problem to be sure it’s about static equilibrium, and identify the object
that you want to keep in equilibrium. Next, identify all the forces acting on the object.
DEVELOP Draw a diagram showing the forces acting on your object. Since you’ve got torques
to calculate, it’s important to show where each force is applied. So don’t represent your object
as a single dot but show it semirealistically with
! the ! force-application points.
! This is a static-
!
equilibrium problem, so Equations 12.1, g Fi 5 0 , and 12.2, g ti 5 0 , apply. Develop your
solution by choosing a coordinate system that will help resolve the force vectors into compo-
nents and choose its origin at an appropriate pivot point—usually the application point of one
of the forces. In some problems the unknown is itself a force; in that case, draw a force vector
that you think is appropriate and let the algebra take care of the signs and angles.
EVALUATE At this point the physics is done, and you’re ready to evaluate your answer. Begin
by writing the two components of Equation 12.1 in your coordinate system. Then evaluate the
torques about your chosen origin, and write Equation 12.2 as a single scalar equation showing
that the torques sum to zero. Now you’ve got three equations, and you’re ready to solve. Since
there are three equations, there will be three unknowns even if you’re asked for only one final
answer. You can use the equations to eliminate the unknowns you don’t want.
ASSESS Assess your solution to see whether it makes sense. Are the numbers reasonable? Do
the directions of forces and torques make sense in the context of static equilibrium? What hap-
pens in special cases—for example, when a force or mass goes to zero or gets very large, or for
special values of angles among the various vectors?

EXAMPLE 12.2 Static Equilibrium: Ladder Safety

A ladder of mass m and length L is leaning against a wall, as shown in INTERPRET This problem is about static equilibrium, and the ladder is
Fig. 12.4a (next page). The wall is frictionless, and the coefficient of the object we want to keep in equilibrium. We identify four forces
static friction between ladder and ground is m. Find an expression for acting on the ladder: gravity, normal forces from the floor and wall,
the minimum angle f at which the ladder can lean without slipping. and static friction from the ground.
(continued)
190 Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium

DEVELOP Figure 12.4b shows the four forces and the unknown angle leaves only the gravitational torque and the torque due to the wall’s
f. We’ll get the minimum angle when static friction is greatest: normal force; both involve the unknown angle f. The gravitational
fs 5 mn1. Since we’re dealing with static equilibrium, Equations 12.1 torque is into the page, or the negative z-direction, so it’s given by
and 12.2 apply. In a horizontal/vertical coordinate system, Equa- tg 5 21L/22mg sin190° 2 f2 5 21L/22mg cos f. The torque due
tion 12.1 has the two components: to the wall is out of the page: tw 5 Ln2 sin1180° 2 f2 5 Ln2 sin f.
Force, x: mn1 2 n2 5 0 We used two trig identities here: sin190° 2 f2 5 cos f and
sin1180° 2 f2 5 sin f. Then Equation 12.2 becomes
Force, y: n1 2 mg 5 0
L
Now for the torques: If we choose the bottom of the ladder as the Torque: Ln2 sin f 2 mg cos f 5 0
pivot, we eliminate two forces from the torque equation. That 2

EVALUATE We have three unknowns: n1, n2, and f. The y-component

of the force equation gives n1 5 mg, showing that the ground sup-
ports the ladder’s weight. Using this result in the x-component of the
force equation gives n2 5 mmg. Then the torque equation becomes
mmgL sin f 2 1L/22mg cos f 5 0. The term mgL cancels, giving
m sin f 2 12 cos f 5 0. We solve for the unknown angle f by forming
its tangent:
sin f 1
tan f 5 5
L cos f 2m

ASSESS Make sense? The larger the frictional coefficient, the more
horizontal force holding the ladder in place, and the smaller the angle
at which it can safely lean. On the other hand, a very small frictional
f coefficient makes for a very large tangent—meaning the angle ap-
proaches 90°. With no friction, you could stand the ladder only if it
were strictly vertical. A word of caution: We worked this example
(a) (b) with no one on the ladder. With the extra weight of a person, espe-
cially near the top, the minimum safe angle will be a lot larger. Prob-
FIGURE 12.4 (a) At what angle will the ladder slip? (b) Our sketch. lem 31 explores this situation. ■

EXAMPLE 12.3 Static Equilibrium: In the Body

Figure 12.5a shows a human arm holding a pumpkin, with masses and Biceps
distances marked. Find the magnitudes of the biceps tension and the
contact force at the elbow joint. Humerus
m 5 2.7 kg M 5 4.5 kg
INTERPRET This problem is about static equilibrium, with the
Elbow pivot 80°
arm/pumpkin being the object in equilibrium. We identify four forces: CM
^
the weights of the arm and the pumpkin, the biceps tension, and the
contact force at the elbow.
3.6 cm
DEVELOP Figure
! 12.5b shows the four forces, including the elbow 14 cm
contact force Fc, whose exact direction we don’t know. We can read
32 cm
the horizontal and vertical components of Equation 12.1, the force
balance equation, from the diagram: (a)

Force, x: Fcx 2 T cos u 5 0

Force, y: T sin u 2 Fcy 2 mg 2 Mg 5 0
Choosing the elbow as the pivot eliminates the contact force from the
torque equation, giving
Torque: x1T sin u 2 x2mg 2 x3Mg 5 0
where the x values are the coordinates of the three force-application
points.

EVALUATE We begin by solving the torque equation for the biceps

tension:
(b)
1x2m 1 x3M2g
T5 5 500 N
x1 sin u FIGURE 12.5 (a) Holding a pumpkin. (b) Our sketch.
 12.4 Stability 191

where we used the values in Fig. 12.5 to evaluate the numerical an- ASSESS These answers may seem huge—both the biceps tension and
swer. The force equations then give the components of the elbow the elbow contact force are roughly ten times the weight of the pumpkin,
contact force: on the order of 100 pounds. But that’s because the biceps muscle is at-
Fcx 5 T cos u 5 87 N and Fcy 5 T sin u 2 1m 1 M2g 5 420 N tached so close to the elbow; given this small lever arm, it takes a large
force to balance the torque from the weight of pumpkin and arm. This
The magnitude of the elbow contact force then becomes
example shows that the human body routinely experiences forces sub-
Fc 5 2872 1 4202 N 5 430 N. stantially greater than the weights of objects it’s lifting. ■

GOT IT? 12.3 The figure shows a person in static equilibrium leaning
against a wall. Which of the following must be true: (a) There must be a
frictional force at the wall but not necessarily at the floor. (b) There must be
a frictional force at the floor but not necessarily at the wall. (c) There must
be frictional forces at both floor and wall.

12.4 Stability
If a body is disturbed from equilibrium, it generally experiences nonzero torques or forces
that cause it to accelerate. Figure 12.6 shows two very different possibilities for the subse-
quent motion of two cones initially in equilibrium. Tip the cone on the left slightly, and a
torque develops that brings it quickly back to equilibrium. Tip the cone on the right, and
over it goes. The torque arising from even a slight displacement swings the cone perma-
nently away from its original equilibrium. The former situation is an example of stable
equilibrium, the latter of unstable equilibrium. Nearly all the equilibria we encounter in
nature are stable, since a body in unstable equilibrium won’t remain so. The slightest dis- FIGURE 12.6 Stable (left) and unstable (right)
turbance will set it in motion, bringing it to a very different equilibrium state. equilibria.

APPLICATION Restoring the Statue of Liberty

The Statue of Liberty, France’s famous gift to the United States, was shipped
to New York in 300 pieces, assembled, and dedicated in 1886. Liberty was the
artistic work of French sculptor Frédéric-Auguste Bartholdi, who suggested
that his creation should last as long as Egypt’s pyramids. But after only 100
years, Liberty was ready for a major renovation. Corrosive air pollution had
taken its toll, along with a chemical reaction between the statue’s iron frame
and its copper skin. And an assembly error had resulted in excessive torques
on the statue’s structural members.
Sculptor Bartholdi was no engineer, and without the work of French engi-
neer Gustave Eiffel—designer of the famous tower—the statue could not have
maintained itself in static equilibrium. Eiffel designed an inner skeleton of iron
to provide the forces necessary to counteract the forces and torques associated
with the weights of the statue’s components and also with the wind. But Lib-
erty’s head and upper arm were mounted contrary to Eiffel’s plans, probably as
a result of a conscious aesthetic decision. The figure shows how the incorrect
arm mounting—a two-foot offset and a correspondingly greater angle—
resulted in excessive torques about the shoulder. As built
Liberty underwent extensive renovations during its centennial year. For his-
torical integrity, renovators chose not to correct the original assembly error. In-
stead, they reinforced the support structure so it would withstand better the
excess forces and torques.

Eiffel’s plan
192 Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium

Figure 12.7 shows a ball in four different equilibrium situations. Clearly (a) is stable
and (b) is unstable. Situation (c) is neither stable nor unstable; it’s called neutrally stable.
But what about (d)? For small disturbances, the ball will return to its original state, so the
equilibrium is stable. But for larger disturbances—large enough to push the ball over the
highest points on the hill—it’s unstable. Such an equilibrium is conditionally stable or
(a) metastable.
A system disturbed from stable equilibrium may not return immediately. In Fig. 12.7a,
for example, displacing the ball results in its rolling back and forth. Eventually friction
dissipates its energy, and it comes to rest at equilibrium. Back-and-forth motion is com-
mon to many systems—from nuclei and atoms to skyscrapers and bridges—that are dis-
placed from stable equilibrium. Such motion is the topic of the next chapter.
Stability is closely associated with potential energy. Because gravitational potential
(b) energy is directly proportional to height, the shapes of the hills and valleys in Fig. 12.7
are in fact potential-energy curves. In all cases of equilibrium, the ball is at a minimum
or maximum of the potential-energy curve—at a place where the force (that is, the de-
rivative of potential energy with respect to position) is zero. For the stable and
(c)
metastable equilibria, the potential energy at equilibrium is a local minimum. A devia-
tion from equilibrium requires that work be done against the force that tends to restore
the ball to equilibrium. The unstable equilibrium, in contrast, occurs at a maximum in
potential energy. Here, a deviation from equilibrium results in lower potential energy
(d)
and in a force that accelerates the ball farther from equilibrium. For the neutrally stable
equilibrium, there’s no change in potential energy as the ball moves; consequently it ex-
FIGURE 12.7 (a) Stable, (b) unstable, (c) neutrally periences no force. Figure 12.8 gives another example of equilibria in the context of
stable, and (d) metastable equlilibria. potential energy.

This block is in
This block is in metastable equilibrium;
stable equilibrium; it takes a little energy
its potential energy to tip it on edge, but
can’t get any lower. then it would fall over.

FIGURE 12.8 Identical blocks in stable and metastable equilibria.

We can sum up our understanding of equilibrium and potential energy in two simple
mathematical statements. First, the force must be zero; that requires a local maximum or
minimum in the potential energy:
dU
50 1equilibrium condition2 (12.3)
dx
where U is the potential energy of a system and x is a variable describing the system’s con-
figuration. For the simple systems we’ve been considering, x measures the position or ori-
entation of an object, but for more complicated systems, it could be another quantity such
as the system’s volume or even its composition. For a stable equilibrium, we require a
local minimum, so the potential-energy curve is concave upward. (See Tactics 12.1 to
review the relevant calculus.) Mathematically,
d2U
.0 1stable equilibrium2 (12.4)
dx2
 12.4 Stability 193

This condition applies to metastable equilibria as well because they’re locally stable. In
contrast, unstable equilibrium occurs where the potential energy has a local maximum, or
d2U
,0 1unstable equilibrium2 (12.5)
dx2
The intermediate case d 2U/dx2 5 0 corresponds to neutral stability.

TACTICS 12.1 Finding Maxima and Minima

1. Begin by sketching a plot of the function, which will give a visual check for your numerical answers.
2. Next take the function’s first derivative and set it to zero. As Fig. 12.7 suggests, a hill (maximum) or
valley (minimum) is level right at its top or bottom. So by setting the first derivative to zero, you’re re-
quiring that its slope be zero and therefore requiring the function to be at a maximum or minimum.
3. Find the sign of the function’s second derivative at the points where you found the first derivative is
zero. Your sketch should show this; where the curve is concave upward, as in Figs. 12.7a and d, the sec-
ond derivative is positive and the point is a minimum. Where it’s concave downward, as in Fig. 12.7b,
d2U/dt2 is negative and you’ve got a maximum. If it wasn’t obvious how to sketch the function, you can
use calculus to determine the second derivative and then find its sign at the equilibrium points.
4. Check that the values you found for maxima and minima agree with your plot of the function.

EXAMPLE 12.4 Stability Analysis: Semiconductor Engineering

Physicists develop a new semiconductor device in which an electron’s Equilibria occur
potential energy is given by U1x2 5 ax2 2 bx4, where x is the elec- where the curve is flat . . .
tron’s position in nm, U is its potential energy in aJ 110218 J2, and
constants a and b are 8 aJ/nm2 and 1 aJ/nm4, respectively. Find the
equilibrium positions for the electron, and describe their stability.

INTERPRET This problem is about stability in the context of a given

potential-energy function. We’re interested in the electron, and we’re . . . but only this
asked to find the values of x where it’s in equilibrium and then exam- equilibrium is stable . . .
ine their stability.
. . . and it’s only
DEVELOP The potential-energy curve gives us insight into this prob- metastable because
lem, so we’ve drawn it by plotting the function U1x2 in Fig. 12.9. the curve goes
Equation 12.3, dU/dx 5 0, determines the equilibria, while Equa- lower.
tions 12.4, d2U/dx2 . 0, and 12.5, d2U/dx2 , 0, determine the
FIGURE 12.9 Our sketch of the potential-energy curve for Example 12.4.
stability. Our plan is first to find the equilibrium positions using Equa-
tion 12.3 and then to examine their stability.

EVALUATE Equation 12.3 states that equilibria occur where the poten- at a local minimum of the potential-energy curve, so this equilibrium
tial energy has a maximum or minimum—that is, where its derivative is metastable. The other two equilibria, at maxima of U, are unstable.
is zero. Taking the derivative of U and setting it to zero gives
ASSESS Do our numerical answers make sense? Yes: You can see that
dU the potential-energy curve has zero slope at the points x 5 22 nm,
05 5 2ax 2 4bx3 5 2x1a 2 2bx22
dx x 5 0, and x 5 2 nm, so we’ve found all the equilibria. Note that the
This equation has solutions when x 5 0 and when a 5 2bx2 or equilibrium at x 5 0 is only metastable; given enough energy, an
x 5 6 2a/2b 5 62 nm. We could take second derivatives to evalu- electron disturbed from this position could make it all the way over
ate the stability, but the situation is evident from our plot: x 5 0 lies the peaks and never return to x 5 0. ■
194 Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium

Stability considerations apply to the overall arrangements of matter. A mixture of hy-

drogen and oxygen, for example, is in metastable equilibrium at room temperature. Light-
ing a match puts some atoms over the maxima in their potential-energy curves, at which
point they rearrange into a state of lower potential energy—the state we call H 2O. Simi-
larly, a uranium nucleus is at a local minimum of its potential-energy curve, and a little
excess energy can result in its splitting into two smaller nuclei whose total potential
energy is much lower. That transition from a less stable to a more stable equilibrium
describes the basic physics of nuclear fission.
Point P is stable
Potential-energy curves for complex structures like molecules or skyscrapers can’t be
in this direction . . . described fully with one-dimensional graphs. If potential energy varies in different ways
when the structure is altered in different directions, then in order to determine stability we
P need to consider all possible ways potential energy might vary. For example, a snowball
sitting on a mountain pass—or any other system with a saddle-shaped potential-energy
curve—is stable against displacements in one direction but not another (Fig. 12.10). Sta-
bility analysis of complex physical systems, ranging from nuclei and molecules to bridges
and buildings and machinery, and on to stars and galaxies, is an important part of contem-
porary work in engineering and science.

GOT IT? 12.4 Which of the labeled points

Potential energy, U
. . . but not this one.
C
in the figure are stable, metastable, unstable, or A
FIGURE 12.10 Equilibrium on a saddle-shaped neutrally stable equilibria? E
potential-energy curve.
B D

Position, x
CHAPTER 12 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is static equilibrium—the state in Torque due to the horizontal cable
which a system at rest remains at rest because there’s counters the gravitational torque.
no net force to accelerate it and no net torque to start it
rotating. An equilibrium is stable if a disturbance of the
system results in its returning to the original equilib-
The normal force
rium state.
of the rock
counters
gravity.

CM
^

Torque due to gravity

50° tends to rotate the
crane this way.

Key Concepts and Equations

Static equilibrium requires that there be no Equilibria occur where a system’s potential energy U1x2 has a maximum or a minimum:
net force and no net torque on a system; mathe- dU
matically: 50 (equilibrium condition)
! ! dx
a Fi 5 0 d 2U
and .0 (stable equilibrium)
! ! ! ! dx2
a ti 5 a ri 3 Fi 5 0 d 2U
where the sums include all the forces applied to ,0 (unstable equilibrium)
dx2
the system. Solving an equilibrium ! problem in-
volves identifying all the forces Fi acting on the Stable equilibria occur at minima of U and unstable equilibria at maxima.
system, choosing an appropriate origin about Metastable: Locally
which to evaluate the torques, and requiring that stable but a large
Metastable enough disturbance
forces and torques sum to zero.
U(x) could result in a
Stable transition to the stable
Unstable equilibrium at left.

Applications
The center of gravity of a system is the point where the force of grav- Four different types of equilibrium are stable, unstable, neutrally
ity appears to act. When the gravitational field is uniform over the sys- stable, and metastable.
tem, the center of gravity coincides with the center of mass. This
provides a handy way to locate the center of mass. The lowest point The highest point
in a valley is stable. on a hill is unstable.

Suspend the The same is

object from true for any
any point; the ^ other point,
CM lies so the CM is
somewhere where the A level surface This point is Note that the
directly lines cross. is neutrally stable. metastable. hill goes lower
below. over here.
196 Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion meet both conditions for static equilibrium? If so, specify the
force and a suitable application point. If not, why not?
1. Give an example of an object on which the net force is zero, but
that isn’t in static equilibrium. Section 12.2 Center of Gravity
2. Give an example of an object on which the net torque about the 17. Figure 12.12a shows a thin, uniform square plate of mass m and
center of gravity is zero, but that isn’t in static equilibrium. side L. The plate is in a vertical plane. Find the magnitude of the
3. The best way to lift a heavy weight is to squat with your back gravitational torque on the plate about each of the three points
vertical, rather than to lean over. Why? shown.
4. Pregnant women often assume a posture with their shoulders
held far back from their normal position. Why? B
B
5. When you carry a bucket of water with one hand, you instinc-
tively extend your opposite arm. Why? C C
6. Is a ladder more likely to slip when you stand near the top or the
bottom? Explain. A A
7. How does a heavy keel help keep a boat from tipping over? (a) (b)
8. In addition to the wings, most airplanes have a smaller set of hor-
izontal surfaces near the tail. Why? What does this suggest about FIGURE 12.12 Exercises 17 and 18
the airplane’s center of gravity?
9. Does choosing a pivot point in an equilibrium problem mean that 18. Repeat the preceding problem for the equilateral triangle in
something is necessarily going to rotate about that point? Fig. 12.12b, which has side L.
10. If you take the pivot point at the application point of one force 19. A 23-m-long log of irregular cross section lies horizontally,
in a static-equilibrium problem, that force doesn’t enter the supported by a wall at one end and a cable attached 4.0 m from
torque equation. Does that make the force irrelevant to the prob- the other end, as shown in Fig. 12.13. The log weighs 7.5 kN
lem? Explain. and the tension in the cable is 6.2 kN. Find the log’s center of
11. You’re hanging a heavy picture on a wall, using wire attached to gravity.
the top corners of the picture. Is the wire more likely to break if
you run it tightly between the corners or if you give it some
slack? Explain.
12. A short dog and a tall person are standing on a slope. If the slope
angle increases, which will fall over first? Why?
4.0 m
13. A stiltwalker is standing motionless on one stilt. What can you
say about the location of the stiltwalker’s center of mass?
23 m
Exercises and Problems
FIGURE 12.13 Exercise 19
Exercises
Section 12.1 Conditions for Equilibrium Section 12.3 Examples of Static Equilibrium
!
! F1 5 2ı^ 1 2/^ N, applied
14. A body is subject to three forces: 20. A 60-kg uniform board 2.4 m long is supported by a pivot 80 cm
at the point x 5 2 m, y 5 0! m; F2 5 22ı^ 2 3/^ N, applied at from the left end and by a scale at the right end (Fig. 12.14).
x 5 21 m, y 5 0 m; and F3 5 1/^ N, applied at x 5 27 m, How far from the left end should a 40-kg child sit for the scale
y 5 1 m. Show that (a) the net force and (b) the net torque about to read zero?
the origin are both zero.
15. To demonstrate that the choice of pivot point doesn’t matter,
show that the torques in Exercise 14 sum to zero when evaluated
about the points (3 m, 2 m) and (27 m, 1 m).
16. In Fig. 12.11 the forces shown all have the same magnitude F.
For each case shown, is it possible to place a third force so as to
y (m) y (m)
r
r
F1 F1 FIGURE 12.14 Exercises 20 and 21
2 2
r r
F2 F2
1 1
21. Where should the child in Fig. 12.14 sit if the scale is to read
x (m) x (m) (a) 100 N and (b) 300 N?
–2 –1 1 2 –2 –1 1 2
–1 –1 22. A 4.2-m-long beam is supported by a cable at its center. A 65-kg
–2
steelworker stands at one end of the beam. Where should a 190-kg
–2
bucket of concrete be suspended for the beam to be in static
(a) (b) equilibrium?
23. Figure 12.15 shows how a scale with a capacity of only 250 N
FIGURE 12.11 Exercise 16 can be used to weigh a heavier person. The 3.4-kg board is 3.0 m
 Exercises and Problems 197

long and has uniform density. It’s free to pivot about the end horizontal at a point 18 cm from the shoulder joint (Fig. 12.17b),
farthest from the scale. Assume that the beam remains essentially what’s the force exerted by the muscle?
horizontal. What’s the weight of a person standing 1.2 m from
the pivot end if the scale reads 210 N?
56 cm

21 cm

^ CG
6.0 kg
15°
0 250 N

Board (a)

1.2 m
Deltoid muscle
3.0 m
5.0°
FIGURE 12.15 Exercise 23
15°

18 cm
Section 12.4 Stability
24. A portion of a roller-coaster track is described by (b)
h 5 0.94x 2 0.010x2, where h and x are the height and horizon-
tal position in meters. (a) Find a point where the roller-coaster FIGURE 12.17 Problem 27
car could be in static equilibrium on this track. (b) Is this equilib-
rium stable or unstable? 28. A uniform sphere of radius R is supported by a rope attached to a
25. A particle’s potential energy as a function of position is given by vertical wall, as shown in Fig. 12.18. The rope joins the sphere at
U 5 2x3 2 2x2 2 7x 1 10, with x in meters and U in joules. a point where a continuation of the rope would intersect a hori-
Find the positions of any stable and unstable equilibria. zontal line through the sphere’s center a distance 12 R beyond the
center, as shown. What’s the smallest possible value for the coef-
ficient of friction between wall and sphere?
Problems
26. You’re a highway safety engineer, and you’re asked to specify
bolt sizes so the traffic signal in Fig. 12.16 won’t fall over. The
figure indicates the masses and positions of the structure’s vari-
ous parts. The structure is mounted with two bolts, located 30°
symmetrically about the vertical member’s centerline, as
shown. What tension force must the left-hand bolt be capable
of withstanding?
R 1–
R
2

3.5 m 170 kg
^
CM FIGURE 12.18 Problem 28

65 kg 29. You work for a garden equipment company, and you’re design-
ing a new garden cart. Specifications to be listed include the hor-
8.0 m
izontal force that must be applied to push the fully loaded cart
320 kg (mass 55 kg, 60-cm-diameter wheels) up an abrupt 8.0-cm step,
as shown in Fig. 12.19. What do you specify for the force?
Bolts

r
76 cm F

FIGURE 12.16 Problem 26 8.0 cm

60 cm

27. Figure 12.17a shows an outstretched arm with mass 4.2 kg. The
BIO arm is 56 cm long, and its center of gravity is 21 cm from the FIGURE 12.19 Problem 29
shoulder. The hand at the end of the arm holds a 6.0-kg mass.
(a) Find the torque about the shoulder due to the weight of the 30. Figure 12.20 shows the foot and lower leg of a person standing
arm and the 6.0-kg mass. (b) If the arm is held in equilibrium BIO on the ball of one foot. Three
! forces act to maintain this equilib-
by the deltoid muscle, whose force on the arm acts below the rium: the tension force T in the Achilles tendon, the contact force
198 Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium
! !
Fc at the ankle joint, and the normal force n of the ground that 34. Figure 12.23 shows a 1250-kg car that has slipped over an em-
supports the person’s weight. The person’s mass is 70 kg, and the bankment. People are trying to hold the car in place by pulling on
force-application points are as indicated in Fig. 12.20. Find the a horizontal rope. The car’s bottom is pivoted on the edge of the
magnitude of (a) the tension in the Achilles tendon and (b) the con- embankment, and its center of mass lies farther back, as shown.
tact force at the ankle joint. If the car makes a 34° angle with the horizontal, what force must
r
the people apply to hold it in place?
T
25°
Achilles
tendon
2.4 m
1.8 m
Ankle
joint

34°
13 cm r ^
Fc r CM
n

12 cm
7.0 cm FIGURE 12.23 Problem 34

FIGURE 12.20 Problem 30

35. Repeat Example 12.2, now assuming that the coefficient of fric-
31. A uniform 5.0-kg ladder is leaning against a frictionless vertical
tion at the ground is m1 and at the wall is m2. Show that the mini-
wall, with which it makes a 15° angle. The coefficient of friction
mum angle at which the ladder won’t slip is now given by
between ladder and ground is 0.26. Can a 65-kg person climb to the
f 5 tan213(1 2 m1m2)/2m14.
top of the ladder without it slipping? If not, how high can that per-
36. You are headwaiter at a new restaurant, and your boss asks you
son climb? If so, how massive a person would make the ladder slip?
to hang a sign for her. You’re to hang the sign, whose mass is 66 kg,
32. The boom in the crane of Fig. 12.21 is free to pivot about point P
in the configuration shown in Fig. 12.24. A uniform horizontal
and is supported by the cable attached halfway along its 18-m
rod of mass 8.2 kg and length 2.3 m holds the sign. At one end
length. The cable passes over a pulley and is anchored at the back
the rod is attached to the wall by a pivot; at the other end it’s sup-
of the crane. The boom has mass 1700 kg distributed uniformly
ported by a cable that can withstand a maximum tension of 800 N.
along its length, and the mass hanging from the boom is 2200 kg.
You’re to determine the minimum height h above the pivot for
The boom makes a 50° angle with the horizontal. Find the ten-
anchoring the cable to the wall.
sion in the cable.

2.3 m
18 m

50°
P

FIGURE 12.24 Problem 36

FIGURE 12.21 Problem 32

37. Climbers attempting to cross a stream place a 340-kg log against
a vertical, frictionless ice cliff on the opposite side (Fig. 12.25).
33. A uniform board of length L and weight W is suspended between The log slopes up at 27° and its center of gravity is one-third of
two vertical walls by ropes of length L/2 each. When a weight w
is placed on the left end of the board, it assumes the configura-
tion shown in Fig. 12.22. Find the weight w in terms of the board
weight W.

CG

–L –L 27°
2 2
35° 60°
w L
9.2°

FIGURE 12.22 Problem 33 FIGURE 12.25 Problem 37

 Exercises and Problems 199

the way along its 6.3-m length. If the coefficient of friction be- angle u. The coefficient of static friction at the floor is m. Your
tween the left end of the log and the ground is 0.92, what’s the job is to find an expression for the maximum mass of a person
maximum mass for a climber and pack to cross without the log who can climb to the top of the ladder without its slipping. With
slipping? that result, you’re to show that anyone can climb to the top if
38. A crane in a marble quarry is mounted on the quarry’s rock walls m $ tan u but that no one can if m , 12 tan u.
and is supporting a 2500-kg marble slab as shown in Fig. 12.26. 48. A 2.0-m-long rod has density l in kilograms per meter of length
The center of mass of the 830-kg boom is located one-third of the described by l 5 a 1 bx, where a 5 1.0 kg/m, b 5 1.0 kg/m2,
way from the pivot end of its 15-m length, as shown. Find the and x is the distance from the left end of the rod. The rod rests
tension in the horizontal cable that supports the boom. horizontally with each end supported by a scale. What do the two
scales read?
49. What horizontal force applied at its highest point is necessary to
keep a wheel of mass M from rolling down a slope inclined at an-
gle u to the horizontal?
50. A rectangular block twice as high as it is wide is resting on a
board. The coefficient of static friction between board and incline
CM is 0.63. If the board is tilted as shown in Fig. 12.27, will the block
^
first tip over or first begin sliding?

50° 1
–h
2

FIGURE 12.26 Problem 38

1–
39. A uniform rectangular block is twice as long as it is wide. Let- 3h
ting u be the angle that the long dimension makes with the hori-
u
zontal, determine the angular positions of any static equilibria,
and comment on their stability. FIGURE 12.27 Problems 50, 51, and 52
40. The potential energy as a function of position for a particle is
given by 51. What condition on the coefficient of friction in Problem 50 will
x 3
x 2
x cause the block to slide before it tips?
U1x2 5 U0 a 1a 214 b 52. A uniform solid cone of height h and base diameter 3 h sits on the
1
x03 x0 x0
board of Fig. 12.27. The coefficient of static friction between the
where x0 and a are constants. For what values of a will there be cone and incline is 0.63. As the slope of the board is increased,
two static equilibria? Comment on the stability of these equilibria. will the cone first tip over or first begin sliding? (Hint: Start with
41. A cubical block rests on an inclined board with two sides parallel an integration to find the center of mass.)
to the incline. The coefficient of static friction between block and 53. Prove the statement in Section 12.1 that the choice of pivot point
board is 0.95. If the inclination angle of the board is increased, doesn’t matter when applying conditions for static equilibrium.
will the block first slide or first tip over? Figure 12.28 shows an object on which the net force is assumed
42. A 160-kg highway sign of uniform density is 2.3 m wide and 1.4 m to be zero. The net torque about the point O is also zero. Show
high. At one side it’s secured to a pole with a single bolt, that the net torque about any other point P is also ! zero. To do so,
! !
mounted a distance d from the top of the sign. The only other write the net torque about P as tP 5 a rPi 3 Fi, where the vec-
!
place where the sign contacts the pole is at its bottom corner. If tors rP go from P to the force-application points, and the index !i
! !
the bolt can sustain a horizontal tension of 2.1 kN, what’s the ! different forces. In Fig. 12.28, note that rPi 5 rOi 1 R,
labels the
maximum permissible value for the distance d? where R is a vector from P to O. Use this result in your expres-
!
43. A 5.0-m-long ladder has mass 9.5 kg and is leaning against a sion for tP and apply the distributive! !law to! get !two separate
frictionless wall, making a 66° angle with the horizontal. If the sums. Use the assumptions that Fnet 5 0 and tO 5 0 to argue that
coefficient of friction between ladder and ground is 0.42, what’s both terms are zero. This completes the proof.
the mass of the heaviest person who can safely ascend to the top
r
of the ladder? (The center of mass of the ladder is at its center.) F3

44. To what vertical height on the ladder in Problem 43 could a

95-kg person reach before the ladder starts to slip?
45. A uniform, solid cube of mass m and side s is in stable equilibrium O rrO2 r
when sitting on a level tabletop. How much energy is required to F2
r
bring it to an unstable equilibrium where it’s resting on its corner? r R rrP2
F1 P
46. An isosceles triangular block of mass m and height h is in stable
equilibrium, resting on its base on a horizontal surface. How
much energy does it take to bring it to unstable equilibrium, rest- FIGURE 12.28 Problem 53
ing on its apex?
47. You’re investigating ladder safety for the Consumer Product 54. Three identical books of length L are stacked over the edge of a
Safety Commission. Your test case is a uniform ladder of mass m table as shown in Fig. 12.29. The top book overhangs the middle
leaning against a frictionless vertical wall with which it makes an one by L/2, so it just barely avoids falling. The middle book
200 Chapter 12 Static Equilibrium

overhangs the bottom one by L/4. How much of the bottom book the nuchal ligament? (Note: Your answer will be an overestimate
can overhang the edge of the table without the books falling? because muscles also provide support.)
76 cm CMhead
L nuchal ligament
28 cm

27°^
CMneck
50°

1– 1–
? 4
L
2
L
FIGURE 12.32 Problem 58

59. A 4.2-kg plant hangs from the bracket shown in Fig. 12.33. The
bracket’s mass is 0.85 kg, and its center of mass lies 9.0 cm from
FIGURE 12.29 Problem 54 the wall. A single screw holds the bracket to the wall, as shown.
Find the horizontal tension in the screw. (Hint: Imagine that the
55. A uniform pole of mass M is at rest on an incline of angle u se- bracket is slightly loose and pivoting about its bottom end. As-
cured by a horizontal rope as shown in Fig. 12.30. Find the sume the wall is frictionless.)
minimum frictional coefficient that will keep the pole from
28 cm
slipping. 9 cm
^
CM

7.2 cm
M

FIGURE 12.30 Problems 55 and 56

FIGURE 12.33 Problem 59

56. For what angle does the situation in Problem 55 require the 60. The wheel in Fig. 12.34 has mass M and is weighted with an ad-
greatest coefficient of friction? ditional mass m as shown. The coefficient of friction is sufficient
57. Figure 12.31 shows a popular system for mounting book- to keep the wheel from sliding; however, it might still roll.
shelves. An aluminum bracket is mounted on a vertical alu- M sin u
Show that it won’t roll only if m . .
minum support by small tabs inserted into vertical slots. 1 2 sin u
Contact between the bracket and support occurs only at the
upper tab and at the bottom of the bracket, 4.5 cm below the M
upper tab. If each bracket in the shelf system supports 32 kg of
m
books, with the center of gravity 12 cm out from the vertical
support, what is the horizontal component of the force exerted
on the upper bracket tab?
u

FIGURE 12.34 Problem 60

61. An interstellar spacecraft from an advanced civilization is hover-

ing above Earth, as shown in Fig. 12.35. The ship consists of
two pods of mass m separated by a rigid shaft of negligible mass
Shelf
RE
4.5 cm Bracket m m
12 cm
r
RE
Fg

FIGURE 12.31 Problem 57

58. The nuchal ligament is a thick, cordlike structure that supports

BIO the head and neck in animals like horses. Figure 12.32 shows the Earth
nuchal ligament and its attachment points on a horse’s skeleton,
along with an approximation to the spine as a rigid rod. Centers 2RE
of mass of head and neck are also shown. If the masses of head
and neck are 29 kg and 68 kg, respectively, what’s the tension in FIGURE 12.35 Problem 61
 Answers to Chapter Questions 201

and one Earth radius (RE) long. Find (a) the magnitude and direc- mounted on a pivot, a vertical support, and a rope with pulley for rais-
tion of the net gravitational force on the ship and (b) the net torque ing and lowering the boom so its end can extend different distances
about the center of mass. (c) Show that the ship’s center of gravity over the river. In addition, there’s a separate rope and pulley for drop-
is displaced approximately 0.083RE from its center of mass. ping the sampling apparatus so it’s just above the river.
62. You’re called to testify in a product liability lawsuit. An infant sit- 64. When the boom rope is horizontal, it can’t exert any vertical
ting in the portable seat shown in Fig. 12.36 was injured when it fell force. Therefore,
to the floor. The manufacturer claims the child was too heavy for a. it’s impossible to hold the boom with the boom rope horizontal.
the seat; the parents claim the seat was defective. Tests show that b. the boom rope tension becomes infinite.
the seat can safely hold a child if forces at A and B do not exceed c. the pivot supplies the necessary vertical force.
96.2 N and 229 N, respectively. The seat’s mass is 2.0 kg, the in- d. the boom rope exerts no torque.
jured child’s is 10 kg, and the center of mass of child and seat was
65. The tension in the boom rope will be greatest when
16 cm from the table edge. In whose favor should the jury rule?
a. the boom is horizontal.
b. the boom rope is horizontal.
c. the boom is vertical.
r
d. in some orientation other than (a), (b), or (c).
FA
66. If you secure the boom at a fixed angle and lower the sampling
Tabletop B apparatus at constant speed, the boom rope tension will
r
A FB a. increase.
b. decrease.
c. remain the same.
d. increase only if the sampling apparatus is more massive than
22 cm 16 cm the boom.
67. If you pull the boom rope with constant speed, the angle the
FIGURE 12.36 Problem 62
boom makes with the horizontal will
63. You’re designing a vacation cabin at a ski resort. The cabin has a a. increase at a constant rate.
cathedral ceiling as shown in Fig. 12.37, and you estimate that b. increase at an increasing rate.
each roof rafter needs to support up to 170 kg of snow and build- c. increase at a decreasing rate.
ing materials. The horizontal tie beam near the roof peak can d. decrease.
withstand a 7.5-kN force. You can neglect any horizontal force
from the vertical walls, and treat contact forces as concentrated Answers to Chapter Questions
at the roof peak and the outside edge of the rafter/wall junctions.
Will the tie beam hold? Will it be in tension or compression? Answer to Chapter Opening Question
Both the net force and the net torque on all parts of the bridge must be
Tie beam 0.8 m zero.
Roof rafter
3.2 m Answers to GOT IT? Questions
12.1. Pair C; pair A produces nonzero net force, and pair B produces
nonzero net torque.
12.2. B; it’s located directly over the point of contact with the floor,
Wall ensuring there’s no gravitational torque.
9.6 m
12.3. (b); a frictional force at the floor is necessary to balance the
normal force from the wall.
12.4. D: stable; B: metastable; A and C: unstable; E: neutrally stable.
FIGURE 12.37 Problem 63

Passage Problems
You’ve been hired by your state’s environmental agency to monitor
carbon dioxide levels just above rivers, with the goal of understanding
whether river water acts as a source or sink of CO2. You’ve con-
structed the apparatus shown in Fig. 12.38, consisting of a boom

Boom
rope
Sampling
rope
Pulley
Pulley
Boom

Pivot Sampling
apparatus

FIGURE 12.38 Passage Problems 64–67

PART ONE SUMMARY

Mechanics
The big idea of Part One is Newton’s realization that forces—pushes From the concept of force and Newton’s laws follow the essential
and pulls—don’t cause motion but instead cause changes in motion. ideas of work and energy, including kinetic and potential energy and
! !
Newton’s second law quantifies this idea. With momentum p 5 mv as the conservation of mechanical energy in the absence of nonconserva-
Newton’s measure of “quantity of motion,” the second law equates the tive forces like friction. One important force is gravity, which Newton
net
! force on an object to the rate! of change of its momentum: described through his law of universal gravitation and applied to ex-
! !
F 5 dp /dt or, for constant mass, F 5 ma . The second law encom- plain the motions of the planets. Application of Newton’s laws to sys-
passes the first, the law of inertia: In the absence of a net force, an ob- tems of objects gives us the concept of center of mass and lets us
ject continues in uniform motion, unchanging in speed or direction—a describe the interactions of colliding objects. Finally, Newton’s laws
state that includes the special case of being at rest. Newton’s third law explain circular and rotational motion, the latter through the analogy
rounds out the picture, providing a fully consistent description of mo- between force and torque. That, in turn, gives us the tools needed to
tion with its statement that forces come in pairs: If object A exerts determine static equilibrium—the state in which an object at rest re-
a force on B, then B exerts a force of equal magnitude but opposite mains at rest, subject neither to a net force nor to a net torque.
direction on A.

Newton’s laws provide a full description of motion. Work and energy are closely related
Newton’s 1st law: Force
! causes a change in motion. ! concepts. !
! ! !
Newton’s 2nd law: F! 5 dp /dt! or, for constant mass, F 5 ma Work: W 5 F # Dr or, for a varying
Newton’s 3rd law: FAB 5 2FBA ! !
force, W 5 3 F # dr
Book pushes Hand pushes on r With mass m the book
on hand book with force FAB. accelerates with magnitude Work-energy theorem: DK 5 W with
r
with
r
force r a 5 FAB/m. kinetic energy K 5 12 mv2
FBA. FAB ar
For conservative forces, work is K U K U
r
FBA stored as potential energy U. Then
K 1 U 5 constant.

Universal gravitation describes the attractive Momentum is conserved in a system that’s not subject to external forces.
force between all matter in the universe.
Initial state Final state
Gm1m2
F5
r2
r
r r
m1 F21 F12 m2
Initial momentum 5 Final momentum
! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
Pi 5 S mi v i 5 m1 v 1i 1 Pf 5 S mf vf 5 m1 v 1f 1 m2 v 2f 1 m3 v 3f

Rotational motion is described by quantities analogous to those of lin- A system is in static equilibrium when the net force and the net torque
ear motion. on the system are both zero:
! ! ! ! ! !
vr vS v Fnet 5 0 and tnet 5 0
! !
aS a
! !
pSL
! !
FS t
mSI
! ! ! ! Stable Unstable
F 5 ma S t 5 Ia equilibrium equilibrium
K 5 2 mv2 S K 5 2 Iv2
1 1

Part One Challenge Problem

A solid ball of radius R is set spinning with angular speed v about a horizontal axis. The ball
v vr
is then lowered vertically with negligible speed until it just touches a horizontal surface and is
released (see figure). If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the ball and the surface is m,
find (a) the linear speed of the ball once it achieves pure rolling motion, (b) the distance it trav-
els before it achieves this motion, and (c) the fraction of the ball’s initial rotational kinetic
energy that’s been lost to friction.
PART TWO OVERVIEW

Oscillations, Waves,
and Fluids

A tsunami crashes on shore, dissipating energy that has traveled across thousands of High-speed photo shows complex fluid
kilometers of open ocean. Near the epicenter of the earthquake that spawned the behavior and spreading circular waves
on water.
tsunami, a skyscraper sways in response, but suffers no damage thanks to a carefully
engineered system that counters quake-induced vibrations. An electric guitar sounds
loud during a rock concert, the sound waves following the vibrations of the guitar
strings. Inside your watch, a tiny quartz crystal vibrates 32,768 times each second to
keep near-perfect time. A radar-equipped police officer waits around the next turn in
the highway ready to ticket your speeding car, while astrophysicists use the same
principle to measure the expansion of the universe. A rafting party enters a narrow
gorge, getting a wild ride as the river’s speed increases. A plane cruises far overhead,
supported by the force of air on its wings. All these examples involve the collective
motion of many particles. In the next three chapters, we first explore the repetitive
motion called oscillation and then show how oscillations in many-particle systems
lead to wave motion. Finally, we apply the laws of motion to reveal the fascinating and
sometimes surprising behavior of fluids like air and water.
203
 13 Oscillatory Motion

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Describe the relations between the
period and frequency of oscillatory
motion and between ordinary
frequency and angular frequency
(13.1, 13.2).
■ State what simple harmonic motion
is, and explain why it occurs univer-
sally in the physical world (13.2).
■ Describe simple harmonic motion
quantitatively (13.2–13.5).
■ Explain damped harmonic motion
and the phenomenon of resonance
(13.6, 13.7).
Dancers from the Bandaloop Project perform on vertical
surfaces, executing graceful slow-motion jumps. What
determines the duration of these jumps?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ The material in this chapter draws on
Newton’s second law as applied in
D isplace a system from stable equilibrium, and forces or torques tend to restore that equilib-
rium. But, like the ball in Fig. 13.1, the system often overshoots its equilibrium and goes into
oscillatory motion back and forth about equilibrium. In the absence of friction, this oscillation
Chapter 5 and its rotational analog would continue forever; in reality, the system eventually settles into equilibrium.
as introduced in Chapter 10 Oscillatory motion occurs throughout the physical world. A uranium nucleus oscillates before
(5.1–5.3, 10.3). it fissions. Water molecules oscillate to heat the food in a microwave oven. Carbon dioxide mole-
■ You should be familiar with the be- cules in the atmosphere oscillate, absorbing energy and thus contributing to global warming.
havior of springs (4.6) and with the A watch—whether an old-fashioned mechanical one or a modern quartz timepiece—is a carefully
potential energy of a spring (7.2). engineered oscillating system. Buildings and bridges undergo oscillatory motion, sometimes
■ You should have a solid understand- with disastrous results. Even stars oscillate. And waves—from sound to ocean waves to seismic
ing of the sine and cosine functions waves in the solid Earth—ultimately involve oscillatory motion.
and be able to take derivatives of
Disturb the ball,
both these functions (Appendix A).
Here the ball and it oscillates about
is in stable its equilibrium
equilibrium. position.

FIGURE 13.1 Disturbing a system results in

oscillatory motion.

204
 13.2 Simple Harmonic Motion 205

Oscillatory motion is universal because systems in stable equilibrium naturally tend to return Both motions have
toward equilibrium no matter how they’re displaced. And it’s not just the qualitative phenome- the same period T
(and therefore
non of oscillation that’s universal: Remarkably, the mathematical description of oscillatory mo- 1
frequency f 5 ).
T
tion is the same for systems ranging from atoms and molecules to cars and bridges and on to
stars and galaxies. Period

Position
13.1 Describing Oscillatory Motion 0 Time

Figure 13.2 shows two quantities that characterize oscillatory motion: Amplitude is the
maximum displacement from equilibrium, and period is the time it takes for the motion
to repeat itself. Another way to express the time aspect is frequency, or number of oscil- They also
Period have the same
lation cycles per unit time. Frequency f and period T are complementary ways of convey- amplitude A.
ing the same information, and mathematically they’re inverses: A

Position
0 Time
1
f5 (13.1)
T
The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz), named after the German Heinrich Hertz FIGURE 13.2 Position-time graphs for two oscil-
(1857–1894), who was the first to produce and detect radio waves. One hertz is equal to latory motions with the same amplitude A and
one oscillation cycle per second. period T (and therefore frequency).

EXAMPLE 13.1 Amplitude, Period, Frequency: An Oscillatory Distraction

Tired of homework, a student holds one end of a flexible plastic ruler DEVELOP We can work from the definitions of these quantities:
against a desk and idly strikes the other end, setting it into oscillation Amplitude is the maximum displacement from equilibrium, period is
(Fig. 13.3). The student notes that 28 complete cycles occur in 10 s the time to complete a full oscillation, and frequency is the inverse of
and that the end of the ruler moves a total distance of 8.0 cm. What are the period (Equation 13.1).
the amplitude, period, and frequency of this oscillatory motion?
EVALUATE The ruler moves a total of 8.0 cm from one extreme to
the other. Since the motion takes it to both sides of its equilibrium
position, the amplitude is 4.0 cm. With 28 cycles in 10 s, the time
per cycle, or the period, is
8.0 cm 10 s
T5 5 0.36 s
28
The frequency is the inverse of the period: f 5 1/T 5 1/0.36 s 5
2.8 Hz. We can also get this directly: 28 cycles/10 s 5 2.8 Hz.

FIGURE 13.3 A ruler undergoing oscillatory motion. ASSESS Make sense? With a period that’s less than 1 s, the frequency
must be more than 1 cycle per second or 1 Hz. By the way, our defini-
tion of amplitude as the maximum displacement from equilibrium led
INTERPRET We’ve got a case of oscillatory motion, and we’re asked to to our 4.0-cm amplitude; the full 8.0 cm between extreme positions is
describe it quantitatively in terms of amplitude, period, and frequency. called the peak-to-peak amplitude. ■

Amplitude and frequency don’t provide all the details of oscillatory motion, since two
quite different motions can have the same frequency and amplitude (Fig. 13.2). The differ-
ences reflect the restoring forces that return systems to equilibrium. Remarkably, though,
restoring forces in many physical systems have the same mathematical form—a form we
encountered before, when we introduced the force of an ideal spring in Chapter 4.

13.2 Simple Harmonic Motion

In many systems, the restoring force that develops when the system is displaced from
equilibrium increases approximately in direct proportion to the displacement—meaning
that if you displace the system twice as far from equilibrium, the force tending to restore
equilibrium becomes twice as great. In the rest of this chapter, we therefore consider the
case where the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement. This is an
206 Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion

approximation for most real systems, but often a very good approximation, especially
for small displacements from equilibrium.
The type of motion that results from a restoring force proportional to displacement
is called simple harmonic motion (SHM). Mathematically, we describe such a force
by writing
F 5 2kx 1restoring force in SHM2 (13.2)
where F is the force, x the displacement, and k a constant of proportionality between them.
The minus sign in Equation 13.2 indicates a restoring force: If the object is displaced in
one direction, the force is in the opposite direction, so it tends to restore the equilibrium.
We’ve seen Equation 13.2 before: It’s the force exerted by an ideal spring of spring
constant k. So a system consisting of a mass attached to a spring undergoes simple har-
k monic motion (Fig. 13.4). Many other systems—including atoms and molecules—can be
m modeled as miniature mass-spring systems.
How does a body in simple harmonic motion actually move? We can find out by apply-
ing Newton’s second law, F 5 ma, to the mass-spring system of Fig. 13.4. Here the force
FIGURE 13.4 A mass attached to a spring on the mass m is 2kx, so Newton’s law becomes 2kx 5 ma, where we take the x-axis
undergoes simple harmonic motion.
along the direction of motion, with x 5 0 at the equilibrium position. Now, the accelera-
tion a is the second derivative of position, so we can write our Newton’s law equation as
d2x
m 5 2kx 1Newton’s 2 nd law for SHM2 (13.3)
dt2
The solution to this equation is the position x as a function of time. What sort of func-
tion might it be? We expect periodic motion, so let’s try periodic functions like sine and
cosine. Suppose we pull the mass in Fig. 13.4 to the right and, at time t 5 0, release it.
Since it starts with a nonzero displacement, cosine is the appropriate function (recall that
cos102 5 1, and sin102 5 0). We don’t know the amplitude or frequency, so we’ll try a
form that has two unknown constants:
x1t2 5 A cos vt (13.4)
A full cycle occurs Because the cosine function itself varies between 11 and 21, A in Equation 13.4 is the
as vt increases from amplitude—the greatest displacement from equilibrium (Fig. 13.5). What about v? The
0 to 2p.
cosine function undergoes a full cycle as its argument increases by 2p radians, or 360°, as
1 cycle shown in Fig. 13.5. In Equation 13.4, the argument of the cosine is vt. Since the time for a
A
full cycle is the period T, the argument vt must go from 0 to 2p as the time t goes from 0
Displacement, x

to T. So we have vT 5 2p, or
T
t 5 _2 t 5 T Time, t 2p
vt 5 p T5 (13.5)
vt 5 2p v
–A
The frequency of the motion is then
The displacement x swings
between A and –A. 1 v
f5 5 (13.6)
T 2p
FIGURE 13.5 The function A cos vt.
Equation 13.6 shows that v is a measure of the frequency, although it differs from the fre-
quency f by the factor 2p. The quantity v is called the angular frequency, and its units
are radians per second or, since radians are dimensionless, simply inverse seconds 1s212.

✓TIP Why Radians?

Here, as in Chapter 10, we use the angular quantity v because it provides the simplest
mathematical description of the motion. In fact, the relationship between angular fre-
quency and frequency in hertz is the same as Chapter 10’s relationship between angu-
lar speed in radians per second and in revolutions per second. We’ll explore this
similarity further in Section 13.4.
 13.2 Simple Harmonic Motion 207

Writing the displacement x in the form 13.4 doesn’t guarantee that we have a solution; we
still need to see whether this form satisfies Equation 13.3. With x1t2 given by Equation 13.4,
its first derivative is
dx d
5 1A cos vt2 5 2Av sin vt
dt dt
where we’ve used the chain rule for differentiation (see Appendix A). Then the second
derivative is
d2x d dx d
5 a b 5 12Av sin vt2 5 2Av2 cos vt
dt 2 dt dt dt
We can now try out our assumed solution for x (Equation 13.4) and its second derivative
in Equation 13.3. Substituting x1t2 and d2x/dt2 in the appropriate places gives
m12Av2 cos vt2 0 2k1A cos vt2
where the ? indicates that we’re still trying to find out whether this is indeed an equality. If it
is, the equality must hold for all values of time t. Why? Because Newton’s law holds at all
times, and we derived our questionable equality from Newton’s law. Fortunately, the time-
dependent term cos vt appears on both sides of the equation, so we can cancel it. Also, the
amplitude A and the minus sign cancel from the equation, leaving only mv2 5 k, or
k
v5 1angular frequency, simple harmonic motion2 (13.7a)
Am
Thus, Equation 13.4 is a solution of Equation 13.3, provided the angular frequency v is
given by Equation 13.7a.

Frequency and Period in Simple Harmonic Motion

We can recast Equation 13.7a in terms of the more familiar frequency f and period T
using Equation 13.6, f 5 v/2p. This gives
v 1 k 1 m
f5 5 and T 5 5 2p (13.7b, c)
2p 2p A m f Ak
Do these relationships make sense? If we increase the mass m, it becomes harder to ac-
celerate and we expect slower oscillations. This is reflected in Equations 13.7a and b,
where m appears in the denominator. Increasing k, on the other hand, makes the spring
stiffer and therefore results in greater force. That increases the oscillation frequency—as
shown by the presence of k in the numerators of Equations 13.7a and b.
Physical systems display a wide range of m and k values and a correspondingly large
range of oscillation frequencies. A molecule, with its small mass and its “springiness” pro-
vided by electric forces, may oscillate at 1014 Hz or more. A massive skyscraper, in con-
trast, typically oscillates at about 0.1 Hz.

Amplitude in Simple Harmonic Motion

The amplitude A canceled from our equations, so our analysis works for any value of A.
This means that the oscillation frequency doesn’t depend on amplitude. Independence of
frequency and amplitude is a feature of simple harmonic motion, and arises because the
restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement. When the restoring force does
not have the simple form F 5 2kx, then frequency does depend on amplitude and the
analysis of oscillatory motion becomes much more complicated. In many systems the re-
lation F 5 2kx breaks down if the displacement x gets too big; for this reason, simple
harmonic motion usually occurs only for small oscillation amplitudes.

Phase
Equation 13.4 isn’t the only solution to Equation 13.3; you can readily show that x 5 A sin vt
works just as well. We chose the cosine because we took time t 5 0 at the point of maximum
displacement. Had we set t 5 0 as the mass passed through its equilibrium point, sine would
208 Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion

f50 have been the appropriate function. More generally we can take the zero of time at some arbi-
f 5 2p
4
trary point in the oscillation cycle. Then, as Fig. 13.6 shows, we can represent the motion by
f 5 2p
2
the form
x1t2 5 A cos1vt 1 f2 1simple harmonic motion2 (13.8)
Displacement, x

where the phase constant f has the effect of shifting the cosine curve to the left (for
vt
f . 0) or right 1f , 02 but doesn’t affect the frequency or amplitude.

Velocity and Acceleration in Simple Harmonic Motion

FIGURE 13.6 A negative phase constant shifts Equation 13.4 (or, more generally, Equation 13.8) gives the position of an object in simple
the curve to the right. harmonic motion as a function of time, so its first derivative must be the object’s velocity:
dx d
v1t2 5 5 1A cos vt2 5 2vA sin vt (13.9)
dt dt
Because the maximum value of the sine function is 1, this expression shows that the maxi-
Displacement, x

A
mum velocity is vA. This makes sense because a higher-frequency oscillation requires that
0 vt the object traverse the distance A in a shorter time—so it must move faster. Equation 13.9
1_
2
p p 3_
2
p 2p shows that the velocity v1t2 is a sine function when the displacement x1t2 is a cosine.
2A Thus velocity is a maximum when displacement is zero, and vice versa; mathematically,
(a) Velocity is zero when displacement is largest. we express this by saying that displacement and velocity differ in phase by p2 radians or
90°. Does this make sense? Sure, because at the extremes of its motion, the object is in-
stantaneously at rest as it reverses direction: maximum displacement, zero speed. And
vA
when it passes through its equilibrium position, the object is going fastest. Figures 13.7a
Velocity, v

0 vt and b show graphically the relationship between displacement and velocity in simple har-
1_
2p p
3_
2p
2p monic motion.
2vA Just as velocity is the derivative of position, so acceleration is the derivative of velocity,
or the second derivative of position:
(b) Acceleration peaks when velocity is zero.
dv d
a1t2 5 5 12vA sin vt2 5 2v2A cos vt (13.10)
dt dt
Acceleration, a

v2A

0 vt Thus the maximum acceleration is v2A. Since acceleration is a cosine function if velocity
1_ 3_
2
p p 2
p 2p is a sine, each reaches its maximum value when the other is zero (Fig. 13.7b, c).
2v2A

(c)
GOT IT? 13.1 Two identical mass-spring systems are displaced different amounts
FIGURE 13.7 Displacement, velocity, and from equilibrium and then released at different times. Of the amplitudes, frequencies, pe-
acceleration in simple harmonic motion. riods, and phase constants of the subsequent motions, which are the same for both systems
and which are different?

EXAMPLE 13.2 Simple Harmonic Motion: A Tuned Mass Damper

The tuned mass damper in New York’s Citicorp Tower (see Applica- EVALUATE First we solve Equation 13.7c for the spring constant:
tion on next page) consists of a 373-Mg concrete block that com- 14p2213.733105 kg2
4p2m
pletes one oscillation in 6.80 s. The oscillation amplitude in a high k5 5 5 3.183105 N/m
wind is 110 cm. Determine the spring constant and the maximum T 2
16.80 s22
speed and acceleration of the block. The angular frequency is v 5 2p/T 5 0.924 s21. Then we have vmax5
vA 5 10.924 s21211.10 m2 5 1.02 m/s and amax 5 v2A 5 0.939 m/s2.
INTERPRET This is a problem involving simple harmonic motion,
with the concrete block and spring making up the oscillating system. ASSESS The large spring constant and relatively low velocity and ac-
We’re given the period, mass, and amplitude. celeration make sense given the huge mass involved. Note that we had
to convert the mass, given as 373 Mg 13733106 g2, to kilograms before
DEVELOP Equation 13.7c, T 5 2p1m/k, gives us the spring con- evaluating. ■
stant. Equations 13.9 and 13.10 show that the maximum speed and ac-
celeration are vmax 5 vA and amax 5 v2A, and we can get the angular
frequency v from the period using Equation 13.5: v 5 2p/T.
 13.3 Applications of Simple Harmonic Motion 209

13.3 Applications of Simple Harmonic Motion When a block is added

weight causes the spring
. . . so the block
oscillates about
Simple harmonic motion occurs in any system where the tendency to return to equilibrium to stretch this much . . . the new equilibrium.
increases in direct proportion to the displacement from equilibrium. Analysis of such sys-
tems is like that of the mass-spring system we just considered but may involve different
physical quantities.
k
The Vertical Mass-Spring System
A mass hanging vertically from a spring is subject to gravity as well as the spring force x1
(Fig. 13.8). In equilibrium the spring stretches enough for its force to balance gravity: m
mg 2 kx1 5 0, where x1 is the new equilibrium position. Stretching the spring an addi-
tional amount Dx increases the spring force by k Dx, and this increased force tends to re- (a) (b)
store the equilibrium. So once again we have a restoring force that’s directly proportional
to displacement. And here, with the same spring constant k and mass m, our previous FIGURE 13.8 A vertical mass-spring system
oscillates about a new equilibrium
analysis still applies and we get simple harmonic motion with frequency v 5 1k/m.
position x1, with the same frequency
Thus gravity changes only the equilibrium position and doesn’t affect the frequency. v 5 1k/m.

APPLICATION Swaying Skyscrapers

Skyscrapers are tall, thin, flexible structures. High winds and earthquakes can set
them oscillating, much like the ruler of Example 13.1. Wind-driven oscillations
are uncomfortable to occupants of a building’s upper floors, and earthquake-
induced oscillations can be downright destructive.
Modern skyscrapers use so-called tuned mass dampers to counteract build-
ing oscillations. These devices are essentially large mass-spring systems
mounted high in the building. They’re engineered to oscillate with the same
frequency as the building (hence the term “tuned”) but 180° out of phase, thus
reducing the amplitude of the building’s own oscillation. The result is increased
comfort for the building’s occupants and improved safety for buildings in earth-
quake-prone regions. Tuned mass dampers also find applications in tall smoke-
stacks, airport control towers, power-plant cooling towers, bridges, ski lifts, and
even the new Grand Canyon skywalk. By suppressing vibrations, tuned mass
dampers enable architects and engineers to design structures that don’t need as
much intrinsic stiffness, so they can be lighter and less expensive. The photos
show the world’s largest tuned mass damper and the building that houses it, Tai-
wan’s Taipei 101 skyscraper. The damper helps the building survive earthquakes
and typhoons. Example 13.2 explores another tuned mass damper.

The Torsional Oscillator

Figure 13.9 shows a disk suspended from a wire. Rotate the disk slightly, and a torque de-
velops in the wire. Let go, and the disk oscillates by rotating back and forth. This is a
torsional oscillator, and it’s best described using the language of rotational motion. The
angular displacement u, restoring torque t, and torsional constant k relate the torque
and displacement: t 5 2ku, where again the minus sign indicates that the torque is oppo-
site the displacement, tending to restore the system to equilibrium. The rotational analog
of Newton’s law, t 5 Ia, describes the system’s behavior; here the rotational inertia I
plays the role of mass. But the angular acceleration a is the second derivative of the angu-
lar position, so Newton’s law becomes
FIGURE 13.9 A torsional oscillator.
d2u
I 5 2ku (13.11)
dt2
This is identical to Equation 13.3 for the linear oscillator, with I replacing m, u replacing x,
and k replacing k. So we can immediately write u1t2 5 A cos vt for the angular displace-
ment and, in analogy with Equation 13.7a,
k
v5 (13.12)
AI
for the angular frequency.
210 Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion

Torsional oscillators constitute the timekeeping mechanism in mechanical watches, and

they can provide accurate measures of rotational inertia.

The Pendulum
Pivot A simple pendulum consists of a point mass suspended from a massless string. Real sys-
There’s no torque tems approximate this ideal when a suspended object’s size is negligible compared with the
from the tension suspension length and its mass is much greater than that of the suspension. The dancers in
u because it acts
L along the line to the chapter’s opening photo are essentially simple pendulums, as is the pendulum in a grand-
the pivot. father clock. Figure 13.10 shows a pendulum of mass m and length L displaced slightly from
r
T equilibrium. The gravitational force exerts a torque given by t 5 2mgL sin u, where the mi-
nus sign indicates that the torque tends to rotate the pendulum back toward equilibrium. The
r u rotational analog of Newton’s law, t 5 Ia, then becomes
Gravitational force mg
produces a torque d2u
of magnitude I 5 2mgL sin u
mgL sinu. dt2

FIGURE 13.10 Forces on a pendulum. where we’ve written the angular acceleration as the second derivative of the angular dis-
placement. This looks like Equation 13.11 for the torsional oscillator—but not quite, since
the torque involves sin u rather than u itself. Thus the restoring torque is not directly pro-
portional to the angular displacement, and the motion is therefore not simple harmonic.
If, however, the amplitude of the motion is small, then it approximates simple harmonic
p
_ u
2
At small angles,
motion. Figure 13.11 shows that for small angles, sin u and u are essentially equal. For a
u and sinu small-amplitude pendulum we can therefore replace sin u with u to get
are nearly
equal. d2u
1 sin u I 5 2mgLu
dt2

0.5 At larger angles This is essentially Equation 13.11, with mgL playing the role of k. So the small-amplitude
this approximation pendulum undergoes simple harmonic motion, with its angular frequency given by Equa-
fails.
tion 13.12 with k 5 mgL:
0 p
_ mgL
0.5 1
2 v5 (13.13)
A I
u (radians)

FIGURE 13.11 For u much less than

For a simple pendulum, the rotational inertia I is that of a point mass m a distance L from
1 radian, sin u and u are nearly equal. the rotation axis, or I 5 mL2, as we found in Chapter 10. Then we have
mgL g
v5 5 1simple pendulum2 (13.14)
B mL2 AL
or, from Equation 13.5,
2p L
T5 5 2p 1simple pendulum2 (13.15)
v Ag

These equations show that the frequency and period of a simple pendulum are independ-
ent of its mass, depending only on length and gravitational acceleration.

EXAMPLE 13.3 A Pendulum: Rescuing Tarzan

Tarzan stands on a branch as a leopard threatens. Fortunately, Jane is time for a full swing back and forth, so the answer we’re after—the
on a nearby branch of the same height, holding a 25-m-long vine at- time to reach Tarzan—is half the period.
tached directly above the point midway between her and Tarzan. She
grasps the vine and steps off with negligible velocity. How soon does DEVELOP We sketched the situation in Fig. 13.12. Equation 13.15,
she reach Tarzan? T 5 2p 1L/g, determines the period, so we can use this equation to
find the half-period.
INTERPRET This is a problem about a pendulum, which we identify as
consisting of Jane and the vine. The period of the pendulum is the
 13.3 Applications of Simple Harmonic Motion 211

EVALUATE Equation 13.15 gives

1 1 L 25 m
T 5 a b 12p2 5 1p2 5 5.0 s
2 2 Ag A 9.8 m/s2

ASSESS This seems a reasonable answer for a problem involving

human-scale objects and many meters of vine. One caution: Jane’s
rescue will be successful only if the vine is strong enough—not
only to support her weight but also to provide the acceleration that
FIGURE 13.12 Our sketch for
Example 13.3. Vine length keeps her moving in a circular arc. You can explore that issue in
is not to scale. Problem 56. ■

GOT IT? 13.2 What happens to the period of a pendulum if (a) its mass is doubled;
(b) it’s moved to a planet whose gravitational acceleration is one-fourth that of Earth; and
(c) its length is quadrupled?

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 13.1 The Nonlinear Pendulum

A pendulum consists of a weight on the end of a rigid rod of umax,,1
negligible mass, hanging vertically from a frictionless pivot

Angular position
at the opposite end of the rod. For small-amplitude distur-
bances from equilibrium, the system constitutes a simple
pendulum. But for larger disturbances it becomes a nonlinear
pendulum, so named because the restoring torque is no
longer proportional to the displacement. Quantitative analysis
of a nonlinear pendulum is difficult, but you can still under- (a)
stand it conceptually. Time

(a) As the pendulum’s amplitude increases, how will its pe- umax&p/2
riod change?

Angular position
(b) If you start the pendulum by striking it when it’s hang-
ing vertically, will it undergo oscillatory motion no mat-
ter how hard it’s hit?

EVALUATE (a) Before we made the small-amplitude approxi-

(b)
mation, we showed that a pendulum’s restoring torque is, in
general, proportional to sin u. But Figure 13.11 shows that Time
sin u doesn’t increase as fast as u itself. So for large-amplitude 3p
swings, the restoring torque is less than it would be in the
Angular position

small-amplitude approximation. This suggests the pendulum

2p
should return more slowly toward equilibrium—and thus its
period should increase.
(b) When you strike the pendulum, you give it kinetic en- p
ergy. If that energy is insufficient to invert it completely, then
the pendulum will swing to one side, eventually stop, and re- 0
turn, undergoing back-and-forth oscillatory motion. But hit it (c) 0 Time
hard enough, and it will go “over the top,” reaching its fully in-
FIGURE 13.13 Conceptual Example 13.1: (a) Small-amplitude oscillations;
verted position with kinetic energy to spare. Round and round
(b) large-amplitude oscillations; (c) circular motion.
it goes, executing motion that’s periodic and circular, but not
oscillatory. This circular motion isn’t uniform, because it
moves more slowly at the top and faster at the bottom.

ASSESS Make sense? Yes: Consider a pendulum with just a little less MAKING THE CONNECTION If the pendulum has length L,
energy than it takes to go “over the top.” It will move very slowly near what’s the minimum speed that will get it “over the top,” into periodic
the top of its trajectory, so its period will be quite long. And its angular- nonuniform circular motion?
position-versus-time curve will be flatter than the sine curve of a simple
pendulum. Give it just a little more energy, and it goes into circular EVALUATE Potential energy at the top is U 5 mg12L2, so kinetic energy
motion. Figure 13.13 illustrates all three situations. K 5 12 mv2 has to be at least this large. That gives v . 2 1gL.
212 Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion

The Physical Pendulum

A physical pendulum is an object of arbitrary shape that’s free to swing (Fig. 13.14). It
differs from a simple pendulum in that mass may be distributed over its entire length.
Pivot Physical pendulums are everywhere: Examples include the legs of humans and other ani-
mals (see Example 13.4), a skier on a chair lift, a boxer’s punching bag, a frying pan hang-
L
e ing from a rack, and a crane lifting any object of significant extent. In our analysis of the
simple pendulum, we used the fact that mass was concentrated at the bottom only in the
Center of
gravity
final step, when we wrote mL2 for the rotational inertia. Our analysis before that step
therefore applies to the physical pendulum as well.
In particular, a physical pendulum displaced slightly from equilibrium undergoes sim-
ple harmonic motion with frequency given by Equation 13.13. But how are we to interpret
the length L in that equation? Because gravity—which provides the restoring torque for
any pendulum—acts on an object’s center of gravity, L must be the distance from the pivot
FIGURE 13.14 A physical pendulum. to the center of gravity, as marked in Fig. 13.14.

EXAMPLE 13.4 A Physical Pendulum: Walking

When walking, the leg not in contact with the ground swings forward,
acting like a physical pendulum. Approximating the leg as a uniform
rod, find the period of this pendulum motion for a leg of length 90 cm.
A uniform rod
INTERPRET This problem is about a physical pendulum, here identi- approximates the
leg.
fied as a uniform rod approximating the leg. The effective
length L is
DEVELOP Figure 13.15 is our drawing, showing the leg as a rod pivot- half the
ing at the hip. The center of mass of a uniform rod is at its center, so the leg’s length.
effective length L is half the leg’s length, or 45 cm. Equation 13.13,
v 5 1mgL/I, determines the angular frequency, from which we can
get the period using Equation 13.5, T 5 2p/v. We also need the rota- FIGURE 13.15 A human leg treated as a pendulum.
tional inertia; from Table 10.2, that’s I 5 13 M12L22, where we use 2L
because Table 10.2’s expression involves the full length of the rod.

EVALUATE Putting this all together, we evaluate to get the answer: ASSESS The leg swings forward to complete a full stride in half a
period, or 0.8 s. This seems a reasonable value for the pace in
2p I 3m
1
12L2 2
4L walking. ■
T5 5 2p 5 2p 5 2p
v A mgL D mgL A 3g
Using L 5 0.45 m gives T 5 1.6 s.

13.4 Circular and Harmonic Motion

Look down on the solar system, and you see Earth in circular motion about the Sun
(Fig. 13.16a). But look in from the plane of Earth’s orbit, and Earth appears to be moving
back and forth (Fig. 13.16b). Figure 13.17 shows that this apparent back-and-forth motion
is a single component of the actual circular motion, and that this component describes a
!
sinusoidal function of time. Specifically, the position vector r for Earth or any other ob-
ject in circular motion makes an angle that increases linearly with time: u 5 vt, where we
measure u with respect to the x-axis and take t 5 0 when the object is on the x-axis. Then
the two components x 5 r cos u and y 5 r sin u of the object’s position become
x1t2 5 r cos vt and y1t2 5 r sin vt
These are the equations for two different simple harmonic motions, one in the x-direction
and the other in the y-direction. Because one is a cosine and the other is a sine, they’re out
of phase by p2 or 90°.
 13.5 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion 213

Looking down on Earth

and the Sun, we see Earth’s
orbit around the Sun as an
essentially circular path of
radius R.

y y
r
y r sinu
y5
rr
u 5 vt x
x 5 r cosu 0 vt
p 2p

(a) –r

(a) (b)
In the plane of Earth’s orbit,
we don’t see the component of –r 0 x r
motion toward or away from us.
Instead, we see Earth undergoing
oscillatory motion with
amplitude R.
p

2p
x 5 2R x50 x5R vt
(b) (c)
!
FIGURE 13.16 Two views of Earth’s FIGURE 13.17 As the position vector r traces out a circle, its x- and
orbital motion. y-components are sinusoidal functions of time.

So we can think of circular motion as resulting from perpendicular simple harmonic

motions, with the same amplitude and frequency but 90° out of phase. This should help
you to understand why we use the term “angular frequency” for simple harmonic motion
even though there’s no angle involved. The argument vt in the description of simple har-
monic motion is the same as the physical angle u in the corresponding circular motion.
The time for one cycle of simple harmonic motion is the same as the time for one revolu-
tion in the circular motion, so the values of T and therefore v are exactly the same. y
You can verify that two mutually perpendicular simple harmonic motions of the same
amplitude and frequency sum vectorially to give circular motion (see Problem 53). If the x
amplitudes or frequencies aren’t the same, then interesting complex motions occur, as
shown in Fig. 13.18.

GOT IT? 13.3 Figure 13.18 shows the paths traced in the horizontal plane by two (a) (b)
pendulums swinging with different frequencies in two perpendicular directions. What’s
the ratio of x-direction frequency to y-direction frequency for the two paths shown? FIGURE 13.18 Complex paths resulting from
different frequencies in different directions.
Can you determine the frequency ratios?

13.5 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

Displace a mass-spring system from equilibrium, and you do work as you build up
potential energy in the spring. Release the mass, and it accelerates toward equilib-
rium, gaining kinetic energy at the expense of potential energy. It passes through its
214 Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion

Energy Time Position equilibrium position with maximum kinetic energy and no potential energy, then slows
v50 and builds potential energy as it compresses the spring. If there’s no energy loss, this
vt 5 0 process continues indefinitely. In oscillatory motion, energy is continuously transferred
U K
back and forth between its kinetic and potential forms (Fig. 13.19).
For a mass-spring system, the potential energy is given by Equation 7.4: U 5 12 kx2,
where x is the displacement from equilibrium. Meanwhile, the kinetic energy is
K 5 12 mv2. We can illustrate explicitly the interchange of kinetic and potential energy in
U K
simple harmonic motion by using x from Equation 13.4 and v from Equation 13.9 in the
p expressions for potential and kinetic energy. Then we have
vt 5 _2
U K U 5 12 kx 2 5 12 k1A cos vt22 5 12 kA2 cos2 vt
and

U K K 5 12 mv2 5 12 m12vA sin vt22 5 12 mv2A2 sin2 vt 5 12 kA2 sin2 vt

v50 where we used v2 5 k/m. Both energy expressions have the same maximum value—12 kA2—
vt 5 p equal to the initial potential energy of the stretched spring. But the potential energy is a maxi-
U K mum when the kinetic energy is zero, and vice versa. What about the total energy? It’s
E 5 U 1 K 5 12 kA2 cos2 vt 1 12 kA2 sin2 vt 5 12 kA2

U K where we used sin2 vt 1 cos2 vt 5 1.

Our result is a statement of the conservation of mechanical energy—the principle we
3p introduced in Chapter 7—applied to a simple harmonic oscillator. Although the kinetic
vt 5 __
2
U K
and potential energies K and U both vary with time, their sum—the total energy E—does
not (Fig. 13.20).

U K
v50 Total energy E is constant . . .
vt 5 2p E5U1K

U K Equilibrium
x50
U
Energy

FIGURE 13.19 Kinetic and potential energy

in simple harmonic motion. . . . while potential energy U
and kinetic energy K oscillate.
K

p
_ p p
3__ 2p
2 2
vt

FIGURE 13.20 Energy of a simple harmonic oscillator.

EXAMPLE 13.5 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion

A mass-spring system undergoes simple harmonic motion with angu- we’re after occurs when the kinetic energy has half this value, or
lar frequency v and amplitude A. Find its speed at the point where the K 5 12 mv2 5 12 A 12 mv2A2 B 5 14 mv2A2.
kinetic and potential energies are equal.
EVALUATE Solving for v gives our answer:
INTERPRET This example involves the concept of energy conservation vA
in simple harmonic motion. We’re asked to find a speed, which is re- v5
12
lated to kinetic energy.

DEVELOP When the kinetic energy equals the potential energy, each ASSESS Make sense? Yes. The speed at this point must obviously be
must be half the total energy. What is that total? The speed is at its less than the maximum speed, since half the energy is tied up as po-
maximum, vmax 5 vA from Equation 13.9, when the energy is all ki- tential energy in the spring. And because kinetic energy depends on
netic. Thus the total energy is E 5 12 mvmax
2
5 12 mv2A2. The speed v the square of the speed, it’s lower not by a factor of 2 but by 12. ■
 13.6 Damped Harmonic Motion 215

Potential-Energy Curves and Simple Harmonic Motion

We arrived at the expression U 5 12 kx2 for the potential energy of a spring by integrating the “Best fit” parabola
spring force, 2kx, over distance. Since every simple harmonic oscillator has a restoring

Potential energy
force or torque proportional to displacement, integration always results in a potential energy
proportional to the square of the displacement—that is, in a parabolic potential-energy
curve. Conversely, any system with a parabolic potential-energy curve exhibits simple har-
monic motion. The simplest mathematical approximation to a smooth curve near a minimum
is a parabola, and for that reason potential-energy curves for complex systems often approx- Displacement
imate parabolas near their stable equilibrium points (Fig. 13.21). Small disturbances from FIGURE 13.21 Near their minima, potential-
these equilibria therefore result in simple harmonic motion, and that’s why simple harmonic energy curves often approximate parabolas;
motion is so common throughout the physical world. the result is simple harmonic motion.

GOT IT? 13.4 Two different mass-spring systems are oscillating with the same am-
plitude and frequency. If one has twice as much total energy as the other, how do (a) their
masses and (b) their spring constants compare? (c) What about their maximum speeds?

13.6 Damped Harmonic Motion

In real oscillating systems, forces such as friction or air resistance normally dissipate the
oscillation energy. This energy loss causes the oscillation amplitude to decrease, and the
motion is said to be damped.
If dissipation is sufficiently weak that only a small fraction of the system’s energy is The object still oscillates
lost in each oscillation cycle, then we expect that the system should behave essentially as sinusoidally . . .
A

Displacement, x
in the undamped case, except for a gradual decrease in amplitude (Fig. 13.22).
In many systems the damping force is approximately proportional to the velocity and
in the opposite direction: 0
Time, t
dx
Fd 5 2bv 5 2b 2A . . . but the amplitude decreases
dt within the “envelope” of a
decaying exponential.
where b is a constant giving the strength of the damping. We can write Newton’s law as
before, now including the damping force along with the restoring force. For a mass-spring FIGURE 13.22 Weakly damped motion.
system, we have
d2x dx
m 5 2kx 2 b (13.16)
dt2 dt

We won’t solve this equation, but simply state its solution:

x1t2 5 Ae2bt/2m cos1vt 1 f2 (13.17)
This equation describes sinusoidal motion whose amplitude decreases exponentially with A
time. How fast depends on the damping constant b and mass m: When t 5 2m/b, the am-
Displacement, x

(c)
plitude has dropped to 1/e of its original value. When the damping is so weak that only a (b)
0
small fraction of the total energy is lost in each cycle, the frequency v in Equation 13.17 Time, t
(a)
is essentially equal to the undamped frequency 1k/m. But with stronger damping, the
damping force slows the motion, and the frequency becomes lower. As long as oscillation 2A
occurs, the motion is said to be underdamped (Fig. 13.23a). For sufficiently strong
damping, though, the effect of the damping force is as great as that of the spring force. FIGURE 13.23 (a) Underdamped, (b) critically
damped, and (c) overdamped oscillations.
Under this condition, called critical damping, the system returns to its equilibrium state
without undergoing any oscillations (Fig. 13.23b). If the damping is made still stronger,
the system becomes overdamped. The damping force now dominates, so the system
returns more slowly to equilibrium (Fig. 13.23c).
Many physical systems, from atoms to the human leg, can be modeled as damped os-
cillators. Engineers often design systems with specific amounts of damping. Automobile
shock absorbers, for example, coordinate with the springs to give critical damping. This
results in rapid return to equilibrium while absorbing the energy imparted by road bumps.
216 Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion

EXAMPLE 13.6 Damped Simple Harmonic Motion: Bad Shocks

A car’s suspension acts like a mass-spring system with m 5 1200 kg and k 5 58 kN/m. Its worn-
out shock absorbers provide a damping constant b 5 230 kg/s. After the car hits a pothole, how
many oscillations will it make before the amplitude drops to half its initial value?

INTERPRET We interpret this problem as being about damped simple harmonic motion, and we
identify the car as the oscillating system.

DEVELOP Our plan is to find out how long it takes the amplitude to decrease by half and then find the
number of oscillation cycles in this time. Equation 13.17, x1t2 5 Ae2bt/2m cos1vt 1 f2, describes
the motion, with the factor e2bt/2m giving the decrease in amplitude. At t 5 0 this factor is 1, so we
want to know when it’s equal to one-half: e2bt/2m 5 12.

EVALUATE Taking the natural logarithms of both sides gives bt/2m 5 ln 2, where we used the facts
that ln1x2 and ex are inverse functions and ln11/x2 5 2ln1x2. Then
2m 12211200 kg2
t5 ln 2 5 ln 2 5 7.23 s
b 230 kg/s
is the time for the amplitude to drop to half its original value. For weak damping, the period is very
close to the undamped period, which is
m 1200 kg
T 5 2p 5 2p 5 0.904 s
Ak B 583103 N/m
Then the number of cycles during the 7.23 s it takes the amplitude to drop in half is
7.23 s
58
0.904 s

ASSESS That the number of oscillations is much greater than 1 tells us that the damping is weak,
justifying our use of the undamped period. It also tells us that those are really bad shocks! ■

13.7 Driven Oscillations and Resonance

Pushing a child on a swing, you can build up a large amplitude by giving a relatively small
push once each oscillation cycle. If your pushing were not in step with the swing’s natural
oscillatory motion, then the same force would have little effect.
When an external force acts on an oscillatory system, we say that the system is driven.
Hand moves with Consider a mass-spring system, which you might drive as suggested in Fig. 13.24. Sup-
the driving frequency. pose the driving force is given by F0 cos vdt, where vd is called the driving frequency.
Then Newton’s law is
d2x dx
m 5 2kx 2 b 1 F0 cos vdt (13.18)
dt 2 dt
Block responds at
the same frequency,
where the first term on the right-hand side is the restoring force, the second the damping
but possibly larger force, and the third the driving force. Since the system is being driven at the frequency vd,
amplitude. we expect it to undergo oscillatory motion at this frequency. So we guess that the solution
to Equation 13.18 might have the form
FIGURE 13.24 Driving a mass-spring system
x 5 A cos1vdt 1 f2
results in a large amplitude if the driving fre-
quency is near the natural frequency 1k/m. Substituting this expression and its derivatives into Equation 13.18 (see Problem 79)
shows that the equation is satisfied if
F0
A1v2 5 (13.19)
m 21 vd2 2 v0222 1 b2vd2/m2
where v0 is the undamped natural frequency 1k/m, as distinguished from the driving
frequency vd.
 13.7 Driven Oscillations and Resonance 217

Figure 13.25 shows resonance curves—plots of Equation 13.19 as a function of driving

frequency—for three values of the damping constant. As long as the system is under- b 5 1_ v
__
2m 8 0
damped, the curve has a maximum at some nonzero frequency, and for weak damping, that
maximum occurs at very nearly the natural frequency. The weaker the damping, the more

Amplitude, A
sharply peaked is the resonance curve. Thus, in weakly damped systems, it’s possible to b 5 1_ v
__
2m 4 0
build up large-amplitude oscillations with relatively small driving forces—a phenomenon
known as resonance.
Most physical systems, from molecules to cars, and loudspeakers to buildings and b 5 1_ v
__
2m 2 0
bridges, exhibit one or more natural modes of oscillation. If these oscillations are weakly
damped, then the buildup of large-amplitude oscillations through resonance can cause se- v0 2v0 3v0
rious problems—sometimes even destroying the system (Fig. 13.26). Engineers designing Driving frequency, vd
complex structures spend a lot of their time exploring all possible oscillation modes and FIGURE 13.25 Resonance curves for three
taking steps to avoid resonance. In an earthquake-prone area, for example, a building’s damping strengths; v0 is the undamped
natural frequencies would be designed to avoid the frequency of typical earthquake mo- natural frequency 1k/m.
tions. A loudspeaker should be engineered so its natural frequency isn’t in the range of
sound it’s intended to reproduce. Damping systems such as the shock absorbers of Exam-
ple 13.6 or the tuned mass damper of Example 13.2 help limit resonant oscillations in
cases where natural frequencies aren’t easily altered.
Resonance is also important in microscopic systems. The resonant behavior of elec-
trons in a special tube called a magnetron produces the microwaves that cook food in a
microwave oven; the same resonant process heats ionized gases in some experiments de-
signed to harness fusion energy. Carbon dioxide in Earth’s atmosphere absorbs infrared
radiation because CO2 molecules—acting like miniature mass-spring systems—resonate
at some of the frequencies of infrared radiation. The result is the greenhouse effect, which
now threatens Earth with significant climatic change. The process called nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR) uses the resonant behavior of protons to probe the structure of matter
FIGURE 13.26 Collapse of the Tacoma Narrows
and is the basis of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) used in medicine. In NMR, the res- Bridge—only four months after its opening in
onance involves the natural precession frequency of the protons due to magnetic torques; 1940—followed the resonant growth of large-
we described the classic model of this process in Chapter 11. amplitude oscillations.
CHAPTER 13 SUMMARY
Big Picture
x(t)
The big idea here is simple harmonic motion (SHM), oscilla-
tory motion that is ubiquitous and that occurs whenever a distur- A T
bance from equilibrium results in a restoring force or torque that
is directly proportional to the displacement. Position in SHM is a t
sinusoidal function of time:
x1t2 5 A cos vt

Key Concepts and Equations

Period T is the time to complete Another measure of frequency is
one oscillation cycle; its inverse is angular frequency v, given by
frequency, or number of oscilla- rr
2p

Position
tions per unit time: v 5 2pf 5 u 5 vt
T vt
1 p 2p
f5 Angular frequency can be understood
T
in terms of the close relationship
between circular motion and simple
harmonic motion.

In the absence of friction and other Total energy U 1 K When dissipative forces act, the mo- e–bt/2m
dissipative forces, energy in SHM U 5 1_2 kx2 tion is damped. For small dissipative
is conserved, although it’s trans- forces the oscillation amplitude de-
formed back and forth between K 5 1_2 mv2 creases over time:
kinetic and potential forms:
x1t2 5 Ae2bt/2m cos1vt 1 f2
E5 2 mv
1 2
1 2 kx
1 2
5 constant

If a system is driven at a frequency near its natural oscillation

frequency v0, then large-amplitude oscillations can build;
Amplitude

this is resonance. The amplitude A depends on the driving

force F0, the driving frequency vd, the natural frequency
v0 5 1k/m, and the damping constant b:
F0
A1v2 5 v0
m 21vd2 2 v0222 1 b2vd2/m2 Driving frequency, vd

Applications
In mass-spring systems, the In systems involving rotational oscillations, the
angular frequency is given by k analogous relation involves the torsional con-
m stant and rotational inertia:
k k
v5
Am k
v5
m AI

A special case is the Pivot In the case of a simple pendulum, the angular
pendulum, for which (with frequency reduces to
small-amplitude oscillations) L Center of
g L
gravity v5
mgL AL
v5
A I
m
 Exercises and Problems 219

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion Section 13.2 Simple Harmonic Motion

22. A 200-g mass is attached to a spring of constant k 5 5.6 N/m
1. Is a vertically bouncing ball an example of oscillatory motion? and set into oscillation with amplitude A 5 25 cm. Determine
Of simple harmonic motion? Explain. (a) the frequency in hertz, (b) the period, (c) the maximum veloc-
2. The vibration frequencies of molecules are much higher than ity, and (d) the maximum force in the spring.
those of macroscopic mechanical systems. Why? 23. An automobile suspension has an effective spring constant of
3. What happens to the frequency of a simple harmonic oscilla- 26 kN/m, and the car’s suspended mass is 1900 kg. In the ab-
tor when the spring constant is doubled? When the mass is sence of damping, with what frequency and period will the car
doubled? undergo simple harmonic motion?
4. If the spring of a simple harmonic oscillator is cut in half, what 24. The quartz crystal in a watch executes simple harmonic motion
happens to the frequency? at 32,768 Hz. (This is 2 15 Hz, chosen so that 15 divisions by 2
5. How does the frequency of a simple harmonic oscillator depend give a signal at 1.00000 Hz.) If each face of the crystal undergoes
on its amplitude? a maximum displacement of 100 nm, find the maximum velocity
6. How would the frequency of a horizontal mass-spring system and acceleration of the crystal faces.
change if it were taken to the Moon? Of a vertical mass-spring 25. A 50-g mass is attached to a spring and undergoes simple har-
system? Of a simple pendulum? monic motion. Its maximum acceleration is 15 m/s2 and its max-
7. When in its cycle is the acceleration of an undamped simple har- imum speed is 3.5 m/s. Determine the (a) angular frequency,
monic oscillator zero? When is the velocity zero? (b) spring constant, and (c) amplitude.
8. Explain how simple harmonic motion might be used to determine 26. A particle undergoes simple harmonic motion with amplitude
the masses of objects in an orbiting spacecraft. 25 cm and maximum speed 4.8 m/s. Find the (a) angular fre-
9. One pendulum consists of a solid rod of mass m and length L, quency, (b) period, and (c) maximum acceleration.
and another consists of a compact ball of the same mass m on the 27. A particle undergoes simple harmonic motion with maximum
end of a massless string of the same length L. Which has the speed 1.4 m/s and maximum acceleration 3.1 m/s2. Find the
greater period? Why? (a) angular frequency, (b) period, and (c) amplitude.
10. The x- and y-components of motion of a body are both simple Section 13.3 Applications of Simple Harmonic Motion
harmonic with the same frequency and amplitude. What shape is
28. How long should you make a simple pendulum so its period is
the path of the body if the component motions are (a) in phase,
(a) 200 ms, (b) 5.0 s, and (c) 2.0 min?
(b) p/2 out of phase, and (c) p/4 out of phase?
29. At the heart of a grandfather clock is a simple pendulum 1.45 m
11. Why is critical damping desirable in a car’s suspension?
long; the clock ticks each time the pendulum reaches its maxi-
12. Explain why the frequency of a damped system is lower than that
mum displacement in either direction. What’s the time interval
of the equivalent undamped system.
between ticks?
13. Opera singers have been known to break glasses with their
30. A 640-g hollow ball 21 cm in diameter is suspended by a wire
voices. How?
and is undergoing torsional oscillations at 0.78 Hz. Find the tor-
14. What will happen to the period of a mass-spring system if it’s
sional constant of the wire.
placed in a jetliner accelerating down a runway? What will hap-
31. A meter stick is suspended from one end and set swinging. Find
pen to the period of a pendulum in the same situation?
the period of the resulting small-amplitude oscillations.
15. How can a system have more than one resonant frequency?
Section 13.4 Circular and Harmonic Motion
32. A wheel rotates at 600 rpm. Viewed from the edge, a point on the
Exercises and Problems wheel appears to undergo simple harmonic motion. What are
(a) the frequency in Hz and (b) the angular frequency for this
Exercises SHM?
Section 13.1 Describing Oscillatory Motion 33. The x- and y-components of an object’s motion are harmonic with
16. A doctor counts 77 heartbeats in 1 minute. What are the corre- frequency ratio 1.75:1. How many oscillations must each compo-
BIO sponding period and frequency? nent undergo before the object returns to its initial position?
17. A violin string playing the note A oscillates at 440 Hz. What’s its Section 13.5 Energy in Simple Harmonic Motion
oscillation period? 34. A 450-g mass on a spring is oscillating at 1.2 Hz, with total en-
18. The vibration frequency of a hydrogen chloride molecule is ergy 0.51 J. What’s the oscillation amplitude?
8.6631013 Hz. How long does it take the molecule to complete 35. A torsional oscillator of rotational inertia 1.6 kg # m2 and torsional
one oscillation? constant 3.4 N # m/rad has total energy 4.7 J. Find its maximum
19. Write expressions for simple harmonic motion (a) with amplitude angular displacement and maximum angular speed.
10 cm, frequency 5.0 Hz, and maximum displacement at t 5 0, 36. You’re riding in a friend’s 1400-kg car with bad shock ab-
and (b) with amplitude 2.5 cm, angular frequency 5.0 s21, and sorbers, bouncing down the highway at 20 m/s and executing
maximum velocity at t 5 0. vertical SHM with amplitude 18 cm and frequency 0.67 Hz.
20. The top of a skyscraper sways back and forth, completing 9 os- Concerned about fuel efficiency, your friend wonders what
cillation cycles in 1 minute. Find the period and frequency of its percentage of the car’s kinetic energy is tied up in this oscilla-
motion. tion. Make an estimate, neglecting the wheels’ rotational en-
21. A hummingbird’s wings vibrate at about 45 Hz. What’s the cor- ergy and the fact that not all of the car’s mass participates in
BIO responding period? the oscillation.
220 Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion

Sections 13.6 and 13.7 Damped Harmonic Motion 46. A pendulum of length L is mounted in a rocket. Find its period if
and Resonance the rocket is (a) at rest on its launch pad; (b) accelerating upward
37. The vibration of a piano string can be described by an equation with acceleration a 5 12 g; (c) accelerating downward with
analogous to Equation 13.17. If the quantity analogous to b/2m a 5 12 g; and (d) in free fall.
in that equation has the value 2.8 s21, how long will it take the 47. The protein dynein powers the flagella that propel some unicel-
amplitude to drop to half its original value? BIO lular organisms. Biophysicists have found that dynein is intrinsi-
38. A mass-spring system has b/m 5 v0/5, where b is the damping cally oscillatory, and that it exerts peak forces of about 1.0 pN
constant and v0 the natural frequency. How does its amplitude at when it attaches to structures called microtubules. The resulting
v0 compare with its amplitude when driven at frequencies 10% oscillations have amplitude 15 nm. (a) If this system is modeled
above and below v0? as a mass-spring system, what’s the associated spring constant?
39. A car’s front suspension has a natural frequency of 0.45 Hz. The (b) If the oscillation frequency is 70 Hz, what’s the effective
car’s front shock absorbers are worn and no longer provide criti- mass?
cal damping. The car is driving on a bumpy road with bumps 48. A mass is attached to a vertical spring, which then goes into os-
40 m apart. At a certain speed, the driver notices that the car be- cillation. At the high point of the oscillation, the spring is in the
gins to shake violently. What is this speed? original unstretched equilibrium position it had before the mass
was attached; the low point is 5.8 cm below this. Find the oscil-
Problems lation period.
40. A simple model for carbon dioxide consists of three mass points 49. Derive the period of a simple pendulum by considering the hori-
(atoms) connected by two springs (electric forces), as shown in zontal displacement x and the force acting on the bob, rather than
Fig. 13.27. One way this system can oscillate is if the carbon atom the angular displacement and torque.
stays fixed and the two oxygens move symmetrically on either 50. A solid disk of radius R is suspended from a spring of spring con-
side of it. If the frequency of this oscillation is 4.031013 Hz, stant k and torsional constant k, as shown in Fig. 13.29. In terms
what’s the effective spring constant? (Note: The mass of an oxy- of k and k, what value of R will give the same period for the ver-
gen atom is 16 u.) tical and torsional oscillations of this system?

O C O

FIGURE 13.27 Problem 40

41. Two identical mass-spring systems consist of 430-g masses on

springs of constant k 5 2.2 N/m. Both are displaced from equi-
librium, and the first is released at time t 5 0. How much later
should the second be released so their oscillations differ in phase
by p/2?
42. The human eye and muscles that hold it can be modeled as a mass- FIGURE 13.29 Problem 50
BIO spring system with typical values m 5 7.5 g and k 5 2.5 kN/m.
What’s the resonant frequency of this system? Shaking your head 51. A thin steel beam 8.0 m long is suspended from a crane and is
at this frequency blurs vision, as the eyeball undergoes resonant undergoing torsional oscillations. Two 75-kg steelworkers leap
oscillations. onto opposite ends of the beam, as shown in Fig. 13.30. If the
43. A mass m slides along a frictionless horizontal surface at speed frequency of torsional oscillations diminishes by 20%, what’s the
v0. It strikes a spring of constant k attached to a rigid wall, as beam’s mass?
shown in Fig. 13.28. After an elastic encounter with the spring,
the mass heads back in the direction it came from. In terms of
k, m, and v0, determine (a) how long the mass is in contact with
the spring and (b) the spring’s maximum compression.

FIGURE 13.30 Problem 51

r
v0 52. A cyclist turns her bicycle upside down to repair it. She then notices
m
that the front wheel is executing a slow, small-amplitude, back-and-
forth rotational motion with period 12 s. Treating the wheel as a
FIGURE 13.28 Problem 43 thin ring of mass 600 g and radius 30 cm, whose only irregularity is
the tire valve stem, determine the mass of the valve stem.
44. Show by substitution that x1t2 5 A sin vt is a solution to 53. An object undergoes simple harmonic motion in two mutually
!
Equation 13.3. perpendicular directions, its position given by r 5 A sin vtı^ 1
45. A physics student, bored by a lecture on simple harmonic mo- A cos vt/^. (a) Show that the object remains a fixed distance from
tion, idly picks up his pencil (mass 9.2 g, length 17 cm) by the tip the origin (i.e., that its path is circular), and find that distance.
with his frictionless fingers, and allows it to swing back and forth (b) Find an expression for the object’s velocity. (c) Show that the
with small amplitude. If the pencil completes 6279 full cycles speed remains constant, and find its value. (d) Find the angular
during the lecture, how long does the lecture last? speed of the object in its circular path.
 Exercises and Problems 221

54. The muscles that drive insect wings minimize the energy needed 63. A solid cylinder of mass M and radius R is mounted on an axle
BIO for flight by “choosing” to move at the natural oscillation fre- through its center. The axle is attached to a horizontal spring of
quency of the wings. Biologists study this phenomenon by clip- constant k, and the cylinder rolls back and forth without slipping
ping an insect’s wings to reduce their mass. If the wing system is (Fig. 13.33). Write the statement of energy conservation for this
modeled as a simple harmonic oscillator, by what percent will system, and differentiate it to obtain an equation analogous to
the frequency change if the wing mass is decreased by 25%? Will Equation 13.3 (see Problem 62). Comparing your result with
it increase or decrease? Equation 13.3, determine the angular frequency of the motion.
55. A pendulum consists of a 320-g solid ball 15.0 cm in diameter,
suspended by an essentially massless string 80.0 cm long. Calcu-
late the period of this pendulum, treating it first as a simple pen-
dulum and then as a physical pendulum. What’s the error in the
simple-pendulum approximation? (Hint: Remember the parallel-
axis theorem.)
56. If Jane and Tarzan are initially 8.0 m apart in Fig. 13.12, and FIGURE 13.33 Problem 63
Jane’s mass is 60 kg, what’s the maximum tension in the vine,
and at what point does it occur? 64. A mass m is free to slide on a frictionless track whose height y as
57. A small mass measuring device (SMMD) used for research on a function of horizontal position x is y 5 ax2, where a is a con-
BIO the biological effects of spaceflight consists of a small spring- stant with units of inverse length. The mass is given an initial dis-
mounted cage. Rats or other small subjects are introduced into placement from the bottom of the track and then released. Find
the cage, which is set into oscillation. Calibration of a SMMD an expression for the period of the resulting motion.
gives a linear function for the square of the oscillation period ver- 65. A 250-g mass is mounted on a spring of constant k 5 3.3 N/m.
sus the subject’s mass m in kg: T2 5 4.0 s2 1 15.0 s2/kg2m. Find The damping constant for this system is b 5 8.4310 23 kg/s.
(a) the spring constant and (b) the mass of the cage alone. How many oscillations will the system undergo before the ampli-
58. A thin, uniform hoop of mass M and radius R is suspended from a tude decays to 1/e of its original value?
horizontal rod and set oscillating with small amplitude, as shown 66. A harmonic oscillator is underdamped if the damping constant b
in Fig. 13.31. Show that the period of the oscillations is 2p 22R/g. is less than 12mv0, where v0 is the natural frequency of un-
(Hint: You may find the parallel-axis theorem useful.) damped motion. Show that for an underdamped oscillator, Equa-
tion 13.19 has a maximum at a driving frequency less than v0.
67. A massless spring with k 5 74 N/m hangs from the ceiling. A
490-g mass is hooked onto the unstretched spring and allowed to
drop. Find (a) the amplitude and (b) the period of the resulting
motion.
68. A meter stick is suspended from a frictionless rod through a
small hole at the 25-cm mark. Find the period of small-amplitude
oscillations about the stick’s equilibrium position.
69. A particle of mass m has potential energy given by U 5 ax2,
where a is a constant and x is the particle’s position. Find an ex-
FIGURE 13.31 Problem 58
pression for the frequency of simple harmonic oscillations this
59. A mass m is mounted between two springs with constants k1 and particle undergoes.
k2, as shown in Figure 13.32. Show that the angular frequency of 70. Two balls each of unknown mass m are mounted on opposite
oscillation is v 5 21k1 1 k22/m. ends of a 1.5-m-long rod of mass 850 g. The system is suspended
from a wire attached to the center of the rod and set into torsional
k1 k2
oscillations. If the wire has torsional constant 0.63 N # m/rad and
m
the period of the oscillations is 5.6 s, what’s the unknown mass m?
71. Two mass-spring systems with the same mass are undergoing os-
cillatory motion with the same amplitudes. System 1 has twice
FIGURE 13.32 Problem 59 the frequency of system 2. How do (a) their energies and (b) their
maximum accelerations compare?
60. The equation for an ellipse is 1x 2/a 22 1 1y 2/b22 5 1. Show that 72. Two mass-spring systems have the same mass and the same total
two-dimensional simple harmonic motion whose components energy. The amplitude of system 1 is twice that of system 2. How
have different amplitudes and are p/2 out of phase gives rise to do (a) their frequencies and (b) their maximum accelerations
elliptical motion. How are constants a and b related to the am- compare?
plitudes? 73. A 500-g mass is suspended from a thread 45 cm long that can
61. Show that the potential energy of a simple pendulum is proportional sustain a tension of 6.0 N before breaking. Find the maximum
to the square of the angular displacement in the small-amplitude allowable amplitude for pendulum motion of this system.
limit. 74. A 500-g block on a frictionless, horizontal surface is attached to
62. The total energy of a mass-spring system is the sum of its kinetic a rather limp spring with k 5 8.7 N/m. A second block rests on
and potential energy: E 5 12 mv2 1 12 kx2. Assuming E remains the first, and the whole system executes simple harmonic motion
constant, differentiate both sides of this expression with respect with period 1.8 s. When the amplitude of the motion is increased
to time and show that Equation 13.3 results. (Hint: Remember to 35 cm, the upper block just begins to slip. What’s the coeffi-
that v 5 dx/dt.) cient of static friction between the blocks?
222 Chapter 13 Oscillatory Motion

75. Repeat Problem 64 for a small solid ball of mass M and radius R Using a spreadsheet or other software, plot U versus x2, and find
that rolls without slipping on the parabolic track. the best-fit line. Ignore any constant term or, if your software per-
76. You’re working on the script of a movie whose plot involves a mits, constrain the line to go through 10, 02 since you know
hole drilled straight through Earth’s center and out the other side. U 5 0 when x 5 0. Then, assuming an effective beam mass of
You’re asked to determine what will happen if a person falls into 3750 kg, find the resonant frequency.
the hole. You find that the gravitational acceleration inside Earth 81. Show that x1t2 5 a cos vt 2 b sin vt represents simple harmonic
points toward Earth’s center, with magnitude given approxi- motion, as in Equation 13.8, with A 5 2a2 1 b2 and
mately by g1r2 5 g01r/RE2, where g0 is the surface value, r is the f 5 tan211b/a2.
distance from Earth’s center, and RE is Earth’s radius. What do 82. You’re working for the summer with an ornithologist who knows
you report for the person’s motion, including equations and val- you’ve studied physics. She asks you for a noninvasive way to
ues for any relevant parameters? measure birds’ masses. You propose using a bird feeder in the
77. A 1.2-kg block rests on a frictionless surface and is attached to a shape of a 50-cm-diameter disk of mass 340 g, suspended by a
horizontal spring of constant k 5 23 N/m (Fig. 13.34). The wire with torsional constant 5.00 N # m/rad (Fig. 13.36). Two
block oscillates with amplitude 10 cm and phase constant birds land on opposite sides and the feeder goes into torsional os-
f 5 2p/2. A block of mass 0.80 kg moves from the right at 1.7 cillation at 2.6 Hz. Assuming the birds have the same mass, what
m/s and strikes the first block when the latter is at the rightmost is it?
point in its oscillation. The two blocks stick together. Determine
the frequency, amplitude, and phase constant (relative to the
original t 5 0) of the resulting motion.

1.2 kg 0.80 kg
1.7 m/s

FIGURE 13.34 Problem 77

78. A disk of radius R is suspended from a pivot somewhere between 340 g

its center and edge (Fig. 13.35). For what pivot point will the pe- 50 cm
riod of this physical pendulum be a minimum?
FIGURE 13.36 Problem 82
Suspension point

83. While waiting for your plane to take off, you suspend your keys
? from a thread and set the resulting pendulum oscillating. It com-
pletes exactly 90 cycles in 1 minute. You repeat the experiment
as the plane accelerates down the runway, and now measure ex-
actly 91 cycles in 1 minute. Find the plane’s acceleration.
84. You’re working for a playground equipment company, which
FIGURE 13.35 Problem 78 wants to know the rotational inertia of its swing with a child on
board; the combined mass is 20 kg. You observe the child
79. Show by direct substitution that x 5 A cos 1vdt 1 f2 satisfies
twirling around in the swing, twisting the ropes as shown in
Equation 13.18 with A given by Equation 13.19. Fig. 13.37. As a result, child and swing rise slightly, with the rise
80. You’re a structural engineer working on a design for a steel beam, h in cm equal to the square of the number of full turns. When the
C and you need to know its resonant frequency. You test the beam child stops twisting, the swing begins torsional oscillations. You
by clamping one end and deflecting the other so it bends, and measure the period at 6.91 s. What do you report for the
you determine the associated potential energy. The table rotational inertia of the child-swing system?
below gives the results:

Beam deflection x (cm) Potential energy U (J)

24.54 164
23.49 141
22.62 71.9
21.22 9.15
h
20.448 0.162
0 0
0.730 4.13 FIGURE 13.37 Problem 84
1.29 16.3
2.13 34.0
3.39 115
4.70 225
 Answers to Chapter Questions 223

Passage Problems 87. If an astronaut’s mass declines linearly with time while she’s in
Physicians and physiologists are interested in the long-term effects orbit, the oscillation period of the BMMD will
of apparent weightlessness on the human body. Among these effects a. decrease at an ever-decreasing rate.
are redistribution of body fluids to the upper body, loss of muscle b. decrease linearly with time.
tone, and overall mass loss. One method of measuring mass in the c. decrease at an ever-increasing rate.
apparent weightlessness of an orbiting spacecraft is to strap the as- d. increase linearly with time.
tronaut into a chair-like device mounted on springs (Fig. 13.38). 88. The spring constant for the BMMD described here is
This body mass measuring device (BMMD) is set oscillating in sim- a. 80 N/m.
ple harmonic motion, and measurement of the oscillation period, b. 80p N/m.
along with the known spring constant and mass of the chair itself, c. 2 N/m.
then yields the astronaut’s mass. When a 60-kg astronaut is strapped d. 80p2 N/m.
into the 20-kg chair, the time for three oscillation periods is meas- e. none of the above.
ured to be 6.0 s.
Answers to Chapter Questions
Answer to Chapter Opening Question
The dancers undergo pendulum motion, whose period is determined
entirely by their rope lengths and the acceleration of gravity.

Answers to GOT IT? Questions

13.1. Frequencies and periods are the same; amplitudes and phase
constants are different because of the different initial displace-
ments and times of release, respectively.
FIGURE 13.38 Astronaut Tamara Jernigan uses a body mass measuring device 13.2. (a) No change; (b) doubles; (c) doubles.
in the Spacelab Life Sciences Module (Passage Problems 85–88) 13.3. (a) 1:2; (b) 3:2.
13.4. The more energetic oscillator has (a) twice the mass and
85. If a 90-kg astronaut is “weighed” with this BMMD, the time for (b) twice the spring constant. (c) Their maximum speeds are
three periods will be equal.
a. 50% longer.
b. shorter by less than 50%.
c. longer by less than 50%.
d. longer by more than 50%.
86. If the same device were used on Earth, the results for a given as-
tronaut (assuming mass hasn’t yet been lost in space) would be
a. the same.
b. greater than in an orbiting spacecraft.
c. less than in an orbiting spacecraft.
d. meaningless, because the device won’t work on Earth.
 14 Wave Motion
New Concepts, New Skills
By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Explain the nature of waves as
traveling disturbances that transport
energy but not matter (14.1).
■ Describe waves mathematically in
terms of amplitude, period,
frequency, and wavelength (14.2).
■ Understand the wave equation
and use it to determine wave
speeds (14.2).
■ Evaluate wave energies and
intensities (14.3).
■ Describe specific wave types,
including waves on strings and
sound waves (14.3, 14.4).
■ Explain interference and reflection
and how these lead to standing
waves (14.5–14.7).
■ Describe the Doppler effect
quantitatively and shock waves
qualitatively (14.8).
Ocean waves travel thousands of kilometers across the
open sea before breaking on shore. How much water
moves with the waves?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ Waves are intimately associated
with simple harmonic motion, so
H umans and other animals communicate using sound waves. Light and related waves en-
able us to visualize our surroundings and provide virtually all our information about the
universe beyond Earth. Our cell phones keep us connected via radio waves. Physicians probe
make sure you understand the our bodies with ultrasound waves. Radio waves connect our wireless laptops to the Internet
terminology and quantitative and cook the food in our microwave ovens. Earthquakes trigger waves in the solid Earth
descriptions of SHM in Chapter 13 and may generate dangerous tsunamis. Wave motion is an essential feature of our physical
(13.1, 13.2). environment.
All these examples involve a disturbance that moves or propagates through space. The dis-
turbance carries energy, but not matter. Air doesn’t move from your mouth to a listener’s ear, but
sound energy does. Water doesn’t move across the open ocean, but wave energy does. A wave
is a traveling disturbance that transports energy but not matter.

14.1 Waves and Their Properties

In this chapter we’ll deal with mechanical waves, which are disturbances of some mate-
rial medium, such as air, water, a violin string, or Earth’s interior. Visible and infrared
light waves, radio waves, ultraviolet and X rays, in contrast, are electromagnetic waves.
They share many properties with mechanical waves, but they don’t require a material
medium. We’ll treat electromagnetic waves in Chapters 29–32.

224
 14.1 Waves and Their Properties 225

Mechanical waves occur when a disturbance in one part of a medium is communicated to Disturb this block
adjacent parts. Figure 14.1 shows a multiple mass-spring system that serves as a model for by displacing it slightly,
and it begins to oscillate.
many types of mechanical waves. Disturb one mass, and it goes into simple harmonic mo-
tion. But because the masses are connected, that motion is communicated to the adjacent
mass. As a result, both the disturbance and its associated energy propagate along the mass- (a)
The oscillation and its energy are
spring system, disturbing successive masses as they go. communicated to the next block . . .

✓TIP Wave Motions (b)

. . . and so the wave
A wave moves energy from place to place, but not matter. However, that doesn’t mean propagates.
that the matter making up the wave medium doesn’t move. It does, undergoing local-
ized oscillatory motion as the wave passes. But once the wave is gone, the disturbed (c)
matter returns to its equilibrium state. Don’t confuse this localized motion of the
medium with the motion of the wave itself. Both occur, but only the latter carries FIGURE 14.1 Wave propagation in a
mass-spring system.
energy from one place to another.

Longitudinal and Transverse Waves

In Fig. 14.1, we disturbed the system by displacing one block so its subsequent oscilla-
tions were back and forth along the structure—in the same direction as the wave propaga-
tion. The result is a longitudinal wave. Sound is a longitudinal wave, as we’ll see in
Section 14.4. We could equally well displace a mass at right angles, as in Fig. 14.2. Then
we get a transverse wave, whose disturbance is at right angles to the wave propagation.
Some waves include both longitudinal and transverse motions, as shown for a water wave
in Fig. 14.3.

Here the
water moves Here it’s moving
longitudinally. transversely.
Wave motion
The disturbance is
up and down . . .

In regions in between, (a)

. . . but the wave moves it moves both longitudinally
horizontally. and transversely.

FIGURE 14.2 A transverse wave. FIGURE 14.3 A water wave has both longitudinal
and transverse components. (b)

Amplitude and Waveform

(c)
The maximum value of a wave’s disturbance is the wave amplitude. For a water wave,
amplitude is the maximum height above the undisturbed water level; for a sound wave, it’s FIGURE 14.4 (a) A pulse, (b) a continuous
the maximum excess air pressure; for the waves of Figs. 14.1 and 14.2, it’s the maximum wave, and (c) a wave train.
displacement of a mass.
Wave disturbances come in many shapes, called waveforms (Fig. 14.4). An isolated
disturbance is a pulse, which occurs when the medium is disturbed only briefly. A The wavelength can be
continuous wave results from an ongoing periodic disturbance. Intermediate between measured between any two
repeating points on the wave.
these extremes is a wave train, resulting from a periodic disturbance lasting a finite time.
h
h
Wavelength, Period, and Frequency
h
A continuous wave repeats in both space and time. The wavelength l is the distance over
which the wave pattern repeats (Fig. 14.5). The wave period T is the time for one com- FIGURE 14.5 The wavelength l is the
plete oscillation. The frequency f, or number of wave cycles per unit time, is the inverse distance over which the wave
of the period. pattern repeats.
226 Chapter 14 Wave Motion

This one-wavelength
section . . .
Wave Speed
v 5 h /T A wave travels at a specific speed through its medium. The speed of sound in air is about
h
340 m/s. Small ripples on water move at about 20 cm/s, while earthquake waves travel at
t50 several kilometers per second. The physical properties of the medium ultimately deter-
mine the wave speed, as we’ll see in Section 14.3.
Wave speed, wavelength, and period are related. In one wave period, a fixed observer
t5T
sees one complete wavelength go by (Fig. 14.6). Thus, the wave moves one wavelength in
. . . moves to one period, so its speed is
h here in one
period T. l
v5 5 lf 1wave speed2 (14.1)
T
FIGURE 14.6 One full cycle passes a given
point in one wave period T; the wave speed where the second equality follows because period and frequency are inverses.
is therefore v 5 l/T.

GOT IT? 14.1 A boat bobs up and down on a water wave, moving 2 m vertically in 1 s.
A wave crest moves 10 m horizontally in 2 s. Is the wave speed (a) 2 m/s or (b) 5 m/s? Explain.

14.2 Wave Math

At t 5 0, the At t, the peak
Figure 14.7 shows “snapshots” of a wave pulse at time t 5 0 and at some later time t. Initially
peak is at y is at x 5 vt. the wave disturbance y is some function of position: y 5 f1x2. Later the pulse has moved to
x 5 0. vt the right a distance vt, but its shape, described by the function f, is the same. We can repre-
v sent this displaced pulse by replacing x with x 2 vt as the argument of the function f. Then
x has to be larger—by the amount vt—to give the same value of f as it did before. For exam-
y 5 f(x) ple, this particular pulse peaks when the argument of f is zero. Initially, that occurred when
x was zero. Replacing x by x 2 vt ensures that the argument becomes zero when x 5 vt, put-
ting the peak at this new position. As time increases, so does vt and therefore the value of x
x
x 5 0 x 5 vt corresponding to the peak. Thus f1x 2 vt2 correctly represents the moving pulse.
Although we considered a single pulse, this argument applies to any function f1x2, in-
FIGURE 14.7 The wave pulse moves a
distance vt in time t, but its shape stays
cluding continuous waves: Replace the argument x with x 2 vt, and the function f1x 2 vt2
the same. describes a wave moving in the positive x-direction with speed v. You can convince yourself
that a function of the form f1x 1 vt2 describes a wave moving in the negative x-direction.
A particularly important case is a simple harmonic wave, for which a “snapshot” at
time t 5 0 shows a sinusoidal function. We’ll choose coordinates so that x 5 0 is at a max-
imum of the wave, making the function a cosine (Fig. 14.8a). Then y1x, 02 5 A cos kx,
where A is the amplitude and k is a constant, called the wave number. We can find k be-
cause we know that the wave repeats in one wavelength l. Since the period of the cosine
function is 2p, we therefore want kx to be 2p when x equals l. Then kl 5 2p, or
2p
h k5 1wave number2 (14.2)
Displacement, y

A
l
Position, x
0 To describe a wave moving with speed v, we replace x in the expression A cos kx with
x 2 vt, giving y1x, t2 5 A cos3k1x 2 vt24. If we now sit at the point x 5 0, we’ll see an
2A oscillation described by y10, t2 5 A cos12kvt2 5 A cos1kvt2, where the last step follows
(a) because cos12x2 5 cos x. But we found that k 5 2p/l, and Equation 14.1 shows that
v 5 l/T, so the argument of the cosine function becomes kvt 5 12p/l21l/T2t 5 2pt/T.
T
Displacement, y

A In Chapter 13, we introduced the angular frequency v 5 2p/T in describing simple

harmonic motion; here the same quantity arises in describing wave motion. And no won-
0
Time, t
der: At a fixed point in space, the wave medium undergoes simple harmonic motion with
angular frequency v 5 2p/T (Fig. 14.8b). Putting this all together, we can write a travel-
2A ing sinusoidal wave in the form
(b)
y1x, t2 5 A cos1kx 6 vt2 1sinusoidal wave2 (14.3)
FIGURE 14.8 A sinusoidal wave (a) as a function
of position at fixed time t 5 0 and (b) as a where we’ve written 6 so we can describe a wave going in the positive x-direction
function of time at fixed position x 5 0. (2 sign) or the negative x-direction (1 sign). The argument of the cosine is called the
 14.2 Wave Math 227

wave’s phase. Note that k and v are related to the more familiar wavelength l and pe-
riod T in the same way: k 5 2p/l and v 5 2p/T. Just as v is a measure of frequency—
oscillation cycles per unit time, with an extra factor of 2p—so is k a measure of spatial
frequency—oscillation cycles per unit distance, again with that factor of 2p to make the
math simpler. The relations between k, l and v, T allow us to rewrite the wave speed of
Equation 14.1 in terms of k and v:
l 2p/k v
v5 5 5 (14.4)
T 2p/v k

EXAMPLE 14.1 Describing a Wave: Surfing

A surfer paddles out beyond the breaking surf to where the waves
are sinusoidal in shape, with crests 14 m apart. The surfer bobs
a vertical distance 3.6 m from trough to crest, a process that
takes 1.5 s. Find the wave speed, and describe the wave using
Equation 14.3.
Crest to trough is 3.6 m.
INTERPRET This is a problem about a simple harmonic wave—that is,
a wave with sinusoidal shape.
It takes 1.5 s
DEVELOP We’ll take x 5 0 at the location of a wave crest when from trough
t 5 0, so Equation 14.3, y1x, t2 5 A cos1kx 6 vt2, applies. Let’s to crest.
take the positive x-direction toward shore, so we’ll use the minus sign
in Equation 14.3. In Fig. 14.9a we sketched a “snapshot” of the wave,
showing the spatial information we’re given. Figure 14.9b shows the
temporal information.

EVALUATE The 1.5-s trough-to-crest time in Fig. 14.9b is half the full
crest-to-crest period T, so T 5 3.0 s. The crest-to-crest distance in FIGURE 14.9 Our sketch of displacement versus (a) position and (b) time.
Fig. 14.9a is the wavelength l, so l 5 14 m. Then Equation 14.1
gives description is
l 14 m y1x, t2 5 1.8 cos10.449x 2 2.09t2
v5 5 5 4.7 m/s
T 3.0 s
with y and x in meters and t in seconds.
To describe the wave with Equation 14.3 we need the amplitude A,
wave number k, and angular frequency v. The amplitude is half the ASSESS As a check on our answer, let’s see whether our values of v
crest-to-trough displacement, or A 5 1.8 m, as shown in Fig. 14.9a. and k satisfy Equation 14.4: v 5 v/k 5 2.09 s21/0.449 m21 5 4.7 m/s.
The wave number k and angular frequency v then follow from l and Thus the pairs l, T and v, k are equivalent ways to describe the same
T: k 5 2p/l 5 0.449 m21 and v 5 2p/T 5 2.09 s21. Then the wave wave. ■

GOT IT? 14.2 The figure shows two waves v

r

propagating with the same speed. Which has the

greater (a) amplitude, (b) wavelength, (c) period,
(d) wave number, (e) frequency (f or v)?
r
v

The Wave Equation

We argued our way to Equation 14.3 for a sinusoidal wave on mathematical grounds
alone. Whether such waves are actually possible depends on the physical properties of
the medium. Many media do, in fact, support waves as described by Equation 14.3. We’ll
228 Chapter 14 Wave Motion

explore one case in detail in the next section. More generally, physicists analyze the be-
havior of a medium in response to disturbances. Often the analysis results in an equation
relating the space and time derivatives of the disturbed quantity:
'2y 1 '2y
5 1wave equation2 (14.5)
'x 2 v2 't2
This is the wave equation for waves propagating in one dimension. Here y is the wave
disturbance—the height of a water wave, the pressure in a sound wave, and so on. The
quantity v is the wave speed, which usually appears as a combination of quantities related
to properties of the medium, and thus allows physicists to deduce the wave speed. Because
the wave disturbance is a function of the two variables x (spatial position) and t (time), the
derivatives here are partial derivatives, designated with the symbol ' and indicating dif-
ferentiation with respect to one variable while the other is held constant. Thus the wave
equation is a partial differential equation. Solving such equations requires more ad-
vanced math courses, but you can show directly (Problem 71) that Equation 14.3 satisfies
the wave equation, with wave speed v 5 v/k. More generally, any function of the form
f1x 6 vt2 satisfies the wave equation, as you can show in Problem 72. You’ll encounter
the wave equation again in Chapter 29, when you study electromagnetic waves.

14.3 Waves on a String

Scientists and engineers generally explore wave possibilities in a medium by applying the
laws of physics and deriving a wave equation similar to Equation 14.5. Such analysis re-
veals the wave speed and other wave properties. Here we’ll take a simpler approach to one
special case: transverse waves on a stretched string. Our results are directly applicable to
musical instruments, climbing ropes, bridge cables, and other elongated structures.
A pulse moves vr Our string has mass per unit length m in kilograms per meter, and it’s stretched to a
to the right. tension force F. Consider a wave pulse propagating to the right, as shown in Fig. 14.10a.
We’ll use Newton’s law to analyze the string’s motion and determine the speed of the
pulse. It’s easiest to do this in a frame of reference moving with the pulse; in that
In the pulse’s (a) frame, the entire string moves leftward with the pulse speed v. At the pulse location,
reference frame,
the string moves however, the string’s motion deviates from horizontal as it rides up and down over the
left, up, and pulse (Fig. 14.10b).
over the pulse. Whatever the pulse shape, a small section at the top forms a circular arc of some
radius R, as shown in Fig. 14.10c. Then the string right at the top of the pulse undergoes
circular motion with speed v and radius R; if its mass is m, Newton’s law requires that a
The top of the
(b) force of magnitude mv2/R act toward the center of curvature to keep the string on its cir-
string undergoes The length of cular path. This force is provided by the difference in the direction of the string tension
circular motion. vr the segment
is 2uR. between the two ends of the section; as Fig. 14.10c shows, the tension at each end con-
tributes a downward component F sin u. Then the net force on the segment has magnitude
u u
r
F
r
F
r 2F sin u and points toward the center of curvature.
Fnet
Now we make an additional assumption: that the disturbance of the string is small, in
The string . . . while here the sense that the string remains almost horizontal even at the pulse. Then the angle u is
tension here it’s down and
is down and to the right . . . small, and we can apply the approximation sin u . u. Therefore, the net force on the string
R R section becomes approximately 2Fu. Furthermore, the small-disturbance approximation
to the left . . .
u u
. . . giving a net means that the tension doesn’t vary significantly from its undisturbed value, so F in this ex-
downward force. pression is essentially the same F we’re using to characterize the tension throughout the
C string. Finally, our curved string section forms a circular arc whose length, from Fig. 14.10c,
(c) is 2uR. Multiplying by the mass per unit length m gives its mass: m 5 2uRm. Now we can
apply Newton’s law, equating the net force 2Fu to the mass times acceleration:
FIGURE 14.10 A wave pulse moving on
a string. mv2 2uRmv2
2Fu 5 5 5 2umv2
R R
Solving for the wave speed v then gives
F
v5 (14.6)
Am
 14.3 Waves on a String 229

Does this make sense? The greater the tension F, the greater the string’s acceleration,
and the more rapidly the wave should propagate. The string’s inertia, on the other hand,
limits the acceleration, and therefore a greater mass per unit length should slow the wave.
Equation 14.6, with F in the numerator and m in the denominator, reflects both these trends.
We’ve made no assumptions here other than to assume that the disturbance is small.
Therefore, Equation 14.6 applies to small-amplitude pulses, continuous waves, and wave
trains of any shape.

EXAMPLE 14.2 Wave Speed and Tension Force: Rock Climbing

A 43-m-long rope of mass 5.0 kg joins two climbers. One climber EVALUATE We’re given the rope’s mass m and length L, so its mass
strikes the rope, and 1.4 s later the second climber feels the effect. per unit length is m 5 m/L. We’re given the time t for the wave to
What’s the rope tension? travel the rope length L, so the wave speed is v 5 L/t. Solving Equa-
tion 14.6 for F then gives
INTERPRET We’re asked for the rope tension. Although wave speed 15.0 kg2143 m2
m L 2 mL
isn’t mentioned explicitly, we just learned to relate wave speed and F 5 mv2 5 a b a b 5 2 5 5 110 N
rope tension. Striking the rope produces a wave, which the second L t t 11.4 s22
climber feels. We’re given the time it takes that wave to propagate
ASSESS Is this number reasonable? A typical adult weights around
along the rope.
700 N, so the rope is supporting only a small fraction of the lower
DEVELOP Equation 14.6, v 5 1F/m, gives the relations among rope
climber’s weight—a reasonable situation. ■
tension, mass per unit length, and wave speed. Our plan is to solve
for the rope tension, but first we need to find m and v from the given
information.

Wave Power
Waves carry energy. For a wave on a string, the vertical component of the tension force y
String is moving
does work that transfers energy along the string. Figure 14.11 shows that the vertical downward as
force on the string at the left side of the pulse is approximately 2Fu. As we showed in the pulse moves
Chapter 6, power—the rate of doing work—is the product of force and velocity, so the to the right . . .
u
x
power here is P 5 2Fuu, where u is the vertical velocity of the string—not the wave F
r

speed. For a simple harmonic wave, the string velocity is the rate of change of its posi- vr Fy 5 2F sinu . 2Fu
u
tion y1x, t2 5 A cos1kx 2 vt2: . . . so only the vertical
force Fy does work.
dy
u5 5 Av sin1kx 2 vt2 FIGURE 14.11 The vertical force component does
dt work on the string; for small u, sin u . u, so
Fy . Fu.
where we used the chain rule, differentiating cosine to 2sine and then multiplying by
the derivative, 2v, of the cosine’s argument kx 2 vt. As Fig. 14.11 shows, the tangent
of the angle u is the slope, dy/dx, of the string. For small angles, tan u . u, so
1
u . dy/dx 5 2kA sin1kx 2 vt2. Putting these results for u and u in our expression for
power gives P 5 2Fuu 5 FvkA2 sin21kx 2 vt2. The sine term shows that the power
sin2x

1
2
fluctuates in space and time. Usually we’re interested in the average power, P 5 12 FvkA2,
0
which follows because the average value of sin2 is 12 (Fig. 14.12). We can give this a more x
physical meaning if we use Equations 14.4 and 14.6 to write k 5 v/v and F 5 mv2, with
v the wave speed. Then we have FIGURE 14.12 The function sin2 x swings
symmetrically between 0 and 1, so its average
P 5 12 mv2A2v (14.7) value is 12 .

This equation gives the sensible result that wave power is directly proportional to the
speed v at which energy moves along the wave.

Wave Intensity
Total power is useful in describing waves confined to narrow structures like strings for
mechanical waves or optical fibers for electromagnetic waves. But for waves in three-
dimensional media, like sound in air, it makes more sense to talk about the intensity,
230 Chapter 14 Wave Motion

The plane wave doesn't or the rate at which the wave carries energy across a unit area perpendicular to the
spread, so its intensity wave propagation. Intensity is thus power per unit area, measured in watts per square
remains constant.
meter 1W/m22.
Wavefronts are surfaces on which the wave phase is constant—for example, wave
crests. A plane wave is one whose wavefronts are planes. Since the wave doesn’t spread
out, its intensity remains constant (Fig. 14.13a). But as waves propagate from a localized
source, they spread and their intensity drops. Spherical waves originate from point
sources and spherical wavefronts spread in all directions. Since the area of a sphere is
(a) 4pr2, the intensity of a spherical wave decreases as the inverse square of the distance from
its source:
The spherical wave spreads over
ever-larger areas, so its intensity P P
drops. I5 5 1spherical wave2 (14.8)
A 4pr2
Source
Note that energy isn’t lost here; rather, the same energy is spread over ever-larger areas as
the wave propagates (Fig. 14.13b). Table 14.1 lists some typical wave intensities.
(b)
Table 14.1 Wave Intensities
FIGURE 14.13 (a) Plane and (b) spherical waves.
Wave Intensity, W/m2
Sound, 4 m from loud rock band 1
Sound, jet aircraft at 50 m 10
Sound, whisper at 1 m 10210
Light, sunlight at Earth’s orbit 1368
Light, sunlight at Jupiter’s orbit 50
Light, 1 m from typical camera flash 4000
Light, at target of laser fusion experiment 1018
TV signal, 5 km from 50-kW transmitter 1.631024
Microwaves, inside microwave oven 6000
Earthquake wave, 5 km from Richter 7.0 quake 43104

EXAMPLE 14.3 Evaluating Wave Intensity: A Reading Light

Your book is 1.9 m from a 75-watt lightbulb, and the light is barely adequate for reading. How far
from a 40-W bulb would the book have to be to get the same intensity at the page?

INTERPRET This is a problem about wave intensity, and we identify the lightbulbs as sources of
spherical waves.

DEVELOP Equation 14.8, I 5 P/14pr 22, gives the intensity. We want both bulbs to produce the same
intensity, so we have I 5 P75 /14pr7522 5P40 /14pr4022.

EVALUATE We then solve for the unknown distance r40:

P40 40 W
r40 5 r75 5 11.9 m2 5 1.4 m
B P75 A 75 W

ASSESS Make sense? Although the 40-W bulb has only about half the power output, the decrease
in distance isn’t as great as you might expect because the intensity depends on the inverse square
of the distance. ■

GOT IT? 14.3 Two identical stars are different distances from Earth, and the inten-
sity of the light from the more distant star as received at Earth is only 1% that of the closer
star. Is the more distant star (a) twice as far away, (b) 100 times as far away, (c) 10 times
as far away, or (d) 110 times as far away?
 14.4 Sound Waves 231

vr
14.4 Sound Waves

Pressure
Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves that propagate through gases, liquids, P0
and solids. Most familiar is sound in air. Here the wave disturbance comprises a small
change in air pressure and density accompanied by a back-and-forth motion of the air
(Fig. 14.14). The speed of sound in air and other gases depends on the background pres- Molecules converge in this region, making
the pressure a maximum. Since the
sure P (force per unit area) and density r (mass per unit volume): molecules come from both directions, the net
displacement at the center of the region is
gP
v5 (14.9) zero. vr
A r
where g is a constant characteristic of the gas. For air and other diatomic gases, g is 75; for
monatomic gases like helium, it’s 53. Sound propagates faster in liquids and solids because
they’re less compressible.
Rarefied gas Here the air has its
(pressure minimum) maximum displacement,
Sound and the Human Ear occurs as air but the pressure is
The human ear responds to a wide range of sound intensities and frequencies, as shown in molecules move unchanged from its
away from this equilibrium value.
Fig. 14.15. Audible frequencies range from around 20 Hz to 20 kHz, although the upper region.
limit drops with age. Figure 14.15 shows that the minimum intensity for audible sound Right vr

Displacement
increases at high and low frequencies; that’s the reason for the “loudness” switch on your
stereo system, which boosts lows and highs to make the sound richer at low volumes. 0
Dolphins, bats, and other creatures can hear much higher frequencies than we humans;
bats locate their prey with sound waves at frequencies approaching 100 kHz. Medical Left
ultrasound frequencies extend to tens of MHz.
FIGURE 14.14 A sound wave consists of alternat-
ing regions of compression (higher density
Decibels and pressure) and rarefaction (lower density
and pressure) propagating through the air.
Figure 14.15 shows that the human ear responds to an extremely broad range of sound in-
tensities, covering some 12 orders of magnitude; that’s why Fig. 14.15 has a logarithmic
scale. We therefore quantify sound levels using a logarithmic unit called the decibel (dB). Threshold of pain
1 120
The sound intensity level b in decibels is defined by

Intensity level (dB)

Intensity (W/m2)
10–2 Rock band at 40 m 100
I 10–4 80
b 5 10 log a b (14.10)
I0 10–6 Normal conversation 60
10–8 40
where I is the intensity in W/m2 and I0 5 10212 W/m2 is a reference level chosen as the 10–10 Threshold 20
Whisper
approximate threshold of hearing at 1 kHz. Since the logarithm of 10 is 1, an increase of 10–12 of hearing 0
10 dB corresponds to a factor-of-10 increase in the intensity I. Your ears, however, don’t 20
50
100
200
500
1000
2000
5000
10000
respond linearly, and for intensity levels above about 40 dB, you perceive a 10-dB increase
as making the sound roughly twice as loud. Frequency (Hz)

FIGURE 14.15 The human ear responds to sound

whose intensity and frequency lie within the
shaded region.

EXAMPLE 14.4 Decibels: Turn Down the TV!

Your sister is watching TV, the sound blasting at 75 dB. You yell to EVALUATE Call the original 75-dB level b1; then Equation 14.10 reads
her to turn down the volume, and she lowers the intensity level to b1 5 10 log1P1 /P02 5 10 log P1 2 10 log P0, where P1 is the corre-
60 dB. By what factor has the power dropped? sponding power and P0 is the reference-level power. At the turned-down
power P2, the equation reads b2 5 10 log P2 2 10 log P0. Subtracting
INTERPRET This problem is about the relation between power and our two equations gives
sound intensity level as measured in decibels.
P2
b2 2 b1 5 10 log P2 2 10 log P1 5 10 log a b
DEVELOP Equation 14.10, b 5 10 log1I/I02, relates the decibel level P1
to the intensity, or power per unit area. At a fixed distance, the sound Therefore, log1P2 /P12 5 1b2 2 b12/10 5 160 2 752/10 5 21.5. The
intensity is proportional to the power from the TV speaker, so in this answer we want is the ratio P2 /P1, and because logarithms and exponen-
example we can replace I by P in Equation 14.10. tials are inverses, we have P2 /P1 5 1021.5 5 0.032.
(continued)
232 Chapter 14 Wave Motion

ASSESS Although we worked this problem using Equation 14.10, you dropped by a factor of 1021.5, or 1/1101102. Since 110 is about 3,
can often do decibels in your head. Here the intensity level has that’s about 1/30. Because you perceive each 10-dB change as a factor
dropped by 15 dB, corresponding to 1.5 orders of magnitude in actual of about 2 in loudness, the reduced volume will sound somewhere
intensity. So the intensity—and therefore the TV’s power—has between one-fourth and one-half as loud as before. ■

14.5 Interference
Figure 14.16 shows two wave trains approaching from opposite directions. Where they
meet, experiment shows that the net displacement is the sum of the individual displace-
ments. This is true for most waves, at least when the amplitude isn’t too large. Waves
whose displacements simply add are said to obey the superposition principle.
At the point shown in Fig. 14.16b, the wave crests coincide and so do the troughs. The
resulting wave is, momentarily, twice as big. This is constructive interference—two
waves superposing to produce a larger wave displacement. A little later, in Fig. 14.16c,
the two waves cancel; this is destructive interference. Wave interference occurs through-
out physics, from mechanical waves to light and even with the quantum-mechanical waves
that describe matter at the atomic scale. Here we take a quick look at wave interference;
we’ll consider the interference of light waves in more detail in Chapter 32.

Their crests coincide,

Two waves approach. resulting in a larger wave.

(a) (b)

They go their separate ways.

Now the waves cancel.

(c) (d)

FIGURE 14.16 Wave superposition showing (b) constructive interference and

(c) destructive interference.

The darker wave here . . .

Fourier Analysis
The superposition principle lets us build complex wave shapes by superposing simpler
. . . is the sum of ones. The French mathematician Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768–1830) showed that
the 3 lighter waves. any periodic wave can be written as a sum of simple harmonic waves, a process now
known as Fourier analysis. Figure 14.17 shows a square wave—important, for example,
as the “clock” signal that sets the speed of your computer—represented as a superposition
of individual sine waves. Fourier analysis has applications ranging from music to struc-
tural engineering to communications, because it helps us understand how a complex wave
behaves if we know how its harmonic components behave. The mix of Fourier compo-
nents in the waveform from a musical instrument determines the exact sound we hear and
accounts for the different sounds from different instruments even when they’re playing the
With more terms the sum same note (Fig. 14.18).
approaches the square wave.

FIGURE 14.17 A square wave built up as a sum of Dispersion

simple harmonic waves. In this case the sum has
the form y1t2 5 A sin1vt2 1 13 A sin13vt2 1 When wave speed is independent of wavelength, the simple harmonic components making
1
1 2 c. Only the first three terms
5 A sin 5vt 1
up a complex waveform travel at the same speed. As a result, the waveform maintains its
are shown. shape. But for some media, wave speed depends on wavelength. Then, individual harmonic
 14.5 Interference 233

This is the fundamental frequency

associated with the note E.
This mix of higher

Sound pressure

Relative amplitude
frequencies determines
the guitar’s unique
sound.

Time 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Frequency (multiple of fundamental)

(a) (b)

FIGURE 14.18 (a) An electric guitar plays the note E, producing a complex waveform.
(b) Fourier analysis shows the relative strengths of the individual sine waves whose sum
produces the waveform.

waves travel at different speeds, and a complex waveform changes shape as it moves. This (a)
phenomenon is called dispersion and is illustrated in Fig. 14.19. Waves on the surface of
deep water, for example, have speed given by
lg
v5 (14.11)
A 2p
where l is the wavelength and g the acceleration of gravity. Because v depends on l, the (b)
waves are dispersive. Dispersion is also important in communications systems; for exam- FIGURE 14.19 (a) A wave pulse in a nondispersive
ple, dispersion of the square wave pulses carrying digital data sets the maximum lengths medium holds its shape as it propagates. (b) In
for wires and optical fibers used in computer networks. a dispersive medium, the pulse shape changes.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 14.1 Storm Brewing!

It’s a lovely, sunny day at the coast, but large waves, their crests far produce are shallow-water waves that don’t obey Equation 14.11. You
apart, are crashing on the beach. How do these waves tell of a storm at can explore tsunamis further in the Passage Problems.
sea that may affect you later?
EVALUATE The phrase “crests far apart” is a clue: It says we’re deal- MAKING THE CONNECTION A storm develops 600 km offshore
ing with long-wavelength waves. Equation 14.11 shows that longer- and starts moving toward you at 40 km/h. Large waves with crests
wavelength waves on the ocean surface travel faster. Most ocean 250 m apart are your first hint of the storm. How long after you
waves are generated by frictional forces between wind and water, so observe these waves will the storm hit?
there must be strong winds somewhere out at sea. The longest wave-
lengths travel faster, so they reach shore well in advance of the storm. EVALUATE At 40 km/h, it’s going to take 15 hours for the storm to
reach shore. Equation 14.11 gives 71 km/h for the wave speed when
ASSESS High-surf warnings often go up in advance of a storm, for the l 5 250 m. So the waves took 8.4 hours to reach shore. The storm is
very reason elucidated in this example. Incidentally, wind isn’t the then 6.6 hours away.
only source of ocean waves; so are earthquakes. But the tsunamis they

Constructive interference here . . .

Beats
When two waves of slightly different frequencies superpose, they interfere constructively at
some points and destructively at others (Fig. 14.20a). Quantitatively, the combined wave is the
sum of the two individual waves: y1t2 5 A cos v1t 1 A cos v2t. We can express this in a more (a)

enlightening form using the identity cos a 1 cos b 5 2 cos C 121a 2 b2 D cos C 121a 1 b2 D given
in Appendix A. Then we have
y1t2 5 2A cos C 121v1 2 v22t D cos C 121v1 1 v22t D

The second cosine factor represents a sinusoidal oscillation at the average of the two . . . gives
individual frequencies. The first term oscillates at a lower frequency—half the differ- a large (b)
amplitude.
ence of the individual frequencies. If we think of the entire term 2A cos C 121v1 2 v22t D
as the “amplitude” of the higher-frequency oscillation, then this amplitude itself varies FIGURE 14.20 The origin of beats.
234 Chapter 14 Wave Motion

with time, as Fig. 14.20b shows. Note that there are two amplitude peaks for each cy-
cle of the slow oscillation, so the frequency with which the amplitude varies is simply
v1 2 v2.
For sound waves, interference of two nearly equal frequencies produces intensity vari-
ations called beats; the closer the two frequencies, the longer the period between beats.
Pilots, for example, synchronize airplane engines by reducing the beat frequency toward
zero; musicians use the same trick to tune instruments. Beating of electromagnetic waves
forms the basis for some very sensitive measurements.

Interference in Two Dimensions

Nodal lines: Large amplitude: Waves propagating in two and three dimensions exhibit a rich variety of interference
destructive constructive phenomena. Figure 14.21 shows one of the simplest and most important examples—
interference interference
the interference of waves from two point sources oscillating at the same frequency.
Points on a perpendicular line midway between the sources are equidistant from both
sources, and therefore waves arrive at this line in phase. Thus, they interfere construc-
tively, producing a large amplitude. Some distance away, the waves arrive exactly half
a period out of phase. They therefore interfere destructively, producing a nodal line
where the wave amplitude is very small. Since waves travel half a wavelength in half
a period, the nodal line occurs where the distances to the two sources differ by half
a wavelength. Additional nodal lines occur where those distances differ by 1 12 wave-
lengths, 2 12 wavelengths, and so forth. In practice, two-source interference is observable
only when the source separation is comparable to the wavelength. If it’s much larger,
then the regions of constructive and destructive interference are so close that they blur
FIGURE 14.21 Water waves from two sources together.
interfere to produce regions of low and high Two-source interference also results when plane waves pass through two closely
amplitude.
spaced apertures that act as sources of circular or spherical wavefronts. Such two-slit in-
terference experiments are important in optics and modern physics, and are of historical
interest because they were first used to demonstrate the wave nature of light.

EXAMPLE 14.5 Wave Interference in Two Dimensions: Calm Water

Ocean waves pass through two small openings, 20 m apart, in a break-
water. You’re in a boat 75 m from the breakwater and initially midway
between the openings, but the water is pretty rough. You row 33 m
parallel to the breakwater and, for the first time, find yourself in rela-
tively calm water. What’s the wavelength of the waves?

INTERPRET This is a problem about wave interference. The water is

rough at your initial location because constructive interference pro-
duces large-amplitude waves. You find calm water at the first nodal
line, where destructive interference reduces the wave amplitude.

DEVELOP We sketched the situation in Fig. 14.22. We’ve seen that the
first nodal line occurs when the path lengths from two sources differ
by half a wavelength. So our plan is to calculate the wavelength by FIGURE 14.22 Calm water at P implies that paths AP and BP differ by half a
applying this fact to the distances AP and BP. wavelength.

EVALUATE Applying the Pythagorean theorem gives

AP 5 2175 m22 1 143 m22 5 86.5 m
ASSESS We expect two-source interference to be obvious when the
BP 5 2175 m22 1 123 m22 5 78.4 m source spacing is comparable to the wavelength. Here the 20-m spac-
The wavelength is twice the difference between these lengths, so ing is indeed comparable to the 16-m wavelength, so our answer
l 5 21AP 2 BP2 5 2186.5 m 2 78.4 m2 5 16 m makes sense. ■
 14.6 Reflection and Refraction 235

GOT IT? 14.4 Light shines through two small holes into a dark room, and a screen is
mounted opposite the holes. The hole spacing is comparable to the wavelength of the light.
Looking at the screen, will you see (a) two bright spots opposite the two holes or (b) a pat-
tern of light and dark patches? Explain.

14.6 Reflection and Refraction

You shout in a mountain valley and hear echoes. You look in a mirror and see your reflec-
tion. A metal screen reflects microwaves to keep them in your oven. A physician’s ultra-
sound probes your body, reflecting off internal structures. A bat uses reflected sound to
home in on its prey. All these are examples of wave reflection.
You can see that wave reflection must occur when a wave hits a medium in which it
can’t propagate; otherwise, where would the wave energy go? Figures 14.23 and 14.24 de-
tail the reflection process for waves on a stretched string, in the two cases where the string
end is clamped at a rigid wall and free to move up and down. In the first case, the wave
amplitude must remain zero at the end, so the incident and reflected pulses interfere de-
structively and the reflected wave is therefore inverted. In the second case, the displace-
ment is a maximum at the free end, and the reflected wave is not inverted.

Here comes
the pulse.

Here comes the pulse.

End is clamped.
End is free to slide.

It’s beginning
to reflect.

Incident and
Now the
reflected pulses interference
cancel. is constructive . . .

The reflected
pulse emerges; . . . and the pulse
it’s inverted. emerges upright.
The incoming wave travels
along the lighter string.

And away it goes.

And away it goes.
Because the string on the right is
FIGURE 14.23 Reflection of a wave pulse FIGURE 14.24 Reflection of a wave pulse heavier, the reflected wave is inverted.
at the rigidly clamped end of string. at a free end.

Between the extremes of a rigid wall and a perfectly free end lies the case of one string
connected to another with different mass per unit length. In this case, some wave energy is FIGURE 14.25 Partial reflection occurs at the
transmitted to the second string and some is reflected back along the first (Fig. 14.25). junction between two strings.
236 Chapter 14 Wave Motion

The phenomenon of partial reflection and transmission at a junction of strings has its
analog in the behavior of all sorts of waves at interfaces between different media. For ex-
ample, shallow-water waves are partially reflected if the water depth changes abruptly.
Light incident on even the clearest glass undergoes partial reflection because of the differ-
ence in the light-transmitting capabilities of air and glass. Partial reflection of ultrasound
waves at the interfaces of body tissues with different densities makes ultrasound a valu-
able medical diagnostic.
When waves strike an interface between two media at an oblique angle and are capa-
ble of propagating in the second medium, the phenomenon of refraction occurs. In re-
fraction, the direction of wave propagation changes because of a difference in wave
speed between the two media (Fig. 14.26). We’ll discuss the mathematics of refraction
in Chapter 30.

FIGURE 14.26 Waves in shallow water refract at the

interface between two different water depths.

APPLICATION Probing the Earth

Waves propagating and reflecting inside the Earth help geologists deduce the Earthquake epicenter
planet’s interior structure. That’s because Earth’s interior supports two types of
waves. Longitudinal waves, also called P waves, propagate in both solids and
liquids. Transverse, or S waves, propagate only in solids. Earthquakes generate S waves recorded S waves recorded
S waves that propagate throughout the solid Earth. But as the figure suggests,
they can’t get through the liquid outer core, so they leave a “shadow” where
seismographs don’t record any S-wave activity. This effect is our clearest evi-
dence that Earth has a liquid core.
P waves, however, do propagate through the liquid core. But they undergo Solid
partial reflections farther in—evidence for an abrupt change in core density.
Careful analysis shows that wave speeds in the inner core are consistent with
its being solid—giving our planet the solid–liquid–solid structure suggested in 105° Liquid 105°
the figure.
Studies of Earth’s large-scale structure generally use earthquake waves,
although inner-core evidence also comes from underground nuclear explo-
sions. At a smaller scale, explosive charges or machines that “thump” the
ground produce waves whose reflections from rock layers down to a few kilo-
meters depth help reveal oil and gas deposits. S wave shadow zone

14.7 Standing Waves

Imagine a string clamped tightly at both ends. Waves propagate back and forth by reflecting
at the ends. But because the ends are clamped, the wave displacement at each end must al-
ways be zero. Only certain waves can satisfy this requirement; as Fig. 14.27 suggests, they’re
waves for which an integer number of half-wavelengths just fits the string’s length L.
The waves in Fig. 14.27 are standing waves, so called because they essentially stand still,
confined to the length of the string. At each point the string executes simple harmonic motion
perpendicular to its undisturbed state. We can describe standing waves mathematically as aris-
ing from the superposition of two waves propagating in opposite directions and reflecting at
the ends of the string. If we take the x-axis to coincide with the string, then we can write the
string displacements in two such waves as y11x, t2 5 A cos1kx 2 vt2 for the wave propa-
gating in the 1x-direction (recall Equation 14.3) and y21x, t2 5 2A cos1kx 1 vt2 for the
wave propagating in the 2x-direction. (The minus sign in y2 accounts for the phase change
that occurs on reflection.) Their superposition is then
y1x, t2 5 y1 1 y2 5 A3 cos1kx 2 vt2 2 cos1kx 1 vt24
Appendix A lists a trig identity for the difference of two cosines:
cos a 2 cos b 5 22 sin C 121a 1 b2 D sin C 121a 2 b2 D
 14.7 Standing Waves 237

Applying this identity with a 5 kx 2 vt and b 5 kx 1 vt gives L

h
–
y1x, t2 5 2A sin kx sin vt (14.12) 2

Equation 14.12 is the mathematical description of a standing wave, and it affirms our
qualitative description that each point on the string simply oscillates up and down. Pick
Antinodes
any point—that is, any fixed value of x—and Equation 14.12 does indeed describe sim- h
ple harmonic motion in the y-direction, through the factor sin vt. The amplitude of that
motion depends on the point x you’ve chosen, and is given by the factor that multiplies
sin vt—namely, 2A sin kx.
Because the string is clamped at both ends, the amplitude at the ends must be zero. Our 3h Nodes
2
amplitude factor 2A sin kx does give y 5 0 in Equation 14.12 at x 5 0, but what about at
x 5 L? Here we’ll get zero only if sin kL 5 0—and that requires kL to be a multiple of
p. So we must have kL 5 mp, where m is any integer. But the wave number k is related
to the wavelength l by k 5 2p/l. Our condition kL 5 mp can then be written
2h
ml
L5 , m 5 1, 2, 3, c (14.13)
2
This is just the condition we already guessed from Fig. 14.27—namely, that the string 5h
2
length L be an integer number of half-wavelengths.
Given a particular string length L, Equation 14.13 limits the allowed standing waves on
the string to a discrete set of wavelengths. Those allowed waves are called modes or
harmonics, and the integer m is the mode number. The m 5 1 mode is the fundamental
and is the longest-wavelength standing wave that can exist on the string. The higher modes FIGURE 14.27 Standing waves on a string
are overtones. clamped at both ends; shown are the funda-
mental and four overtones.
Figure 14.27 shows that there are points where the string doesn’t move at all. These are
called nodes. Points where the amplitude of the wave displacement is a maximum, in con-
trast, are antinodes.
When a string is clamped rigidly at one end but is free at the other, its clamped end is a L
h
node but its free end is an antinode. Figure 14.28 shows that the string length must then be 4
an odd multiple of a quarter-wavelength—a result that you can also get from Equation 14.12
by requiring sin kL 5 1 to give maximum amplitude at x 5 L.
Antinodes
3h
Standing-Wave Resonance 4

We’ve discussed standing waves in terms of constraints on the wavelength l rather than
on the frequency f. But because waves on a string have a fixed speed v, and because Nodes
fl 5 v, Equation 14.13’s discrete set of allowed wavelengths corresponds to a set of dis- 5h
4
crete frequencies. The lowest allowed frequency, the fundamental, corresponds to the
longest wavelength; the overtones have higher frequencies.
Because a stretched string can oscillate in any of its allowed frequencies, the resonant
behavior that we discussed in Chapter 13 can occur close to any of those frequencies. Nodes 7h
Buildings and other structures, in analogy with our simple string, support a variety of 4

standing-wave modes. For example, a skyscraper is like the string of Fig. 14.28, with its
base clamped to Earth but its top free to swing. Engineers must be sure to identify all pos-
sible modes of structures they design in order to avoid harmful resonances. The disastrous 9h
oscillations of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge shown in Fig. 13.26 are actually torsional 4

standing waves.

Other Standing Waves

FIGURE 14.28 When one end of the string is fixed
Standing waves are common phenomena. Water waves in confined spaces exhibit stand-
and the other free, the string can accommodate
ing waves, and entire lakes can develop very slow oscillations corresponding to low- only an odd number of quarter-wavelengths.
mode-number standing waves. Standing electromagnetic waves occur inside closed metal
cavities; in microwave ovens the nodes of the standing-wave pattern would result in “cold”
spots were not either the food or the source of microwaves kept in motion. Standing sound
waves in the Sun help astrophysicists probe the solar interior. And even atomic structure
can be understood in terms of standing waves associated with electrons.
238 Chapter 14 Wave Motion

Musical Instruments
Our analysis of standing waves on strings applies directly to stringed musical instruments
such as violins, guitars, and pianos. Standing-wave vibrations in the instrument strings are
communicated to the air as sound waves, usually through the intermediary of a sounding
box or electronic amplifiers. For instruments in the violin family, the body of the instru-
ment itself undergoes standing-wave vibrations, excited by the vibration of the string, that
establish each individual instrument’s peculiar sound quality (Fig. 14.29). Similarly, the
stretched membranes of drums exhibit a variety of standing-wave patterns representing
the allowed modes on these two-dimensional surfaces.
Wind instruments generate standing sound waves in air columns, as suggested in
Fig. 14.30. These must be open at one end to allow sound to escape; in many instru-
ments the column is effectively open at both ends. An open end has its pressure fixed
at atmospheric pressure; it is therefore a pressure node and thus, from Fig. 14.14, a dis-
FIGURE 14.29 Standing waves on a violin,
placement antinode. As a result, an instrument open at one end supports odd-integer
imaged using holographic interference of laser multiples of a quarter-wavelength (Fig. 14.30a), in analogy with Fig. 14.28. An instru-
light waves. ment open at both ends, on the other hand, supports integer multiples of a half-wavelength
(Fig. 14.30b).

(a) (b)

FIGURE 14.30 Standing waves in wind instruments: (a) open at one end and (b) open
at both ends.

EXAMPLE 14.6 Standing-Wave Modes: The Double Bassoon

The double bassoon is the lowest-pitched instrument in a normal or-
chestra. The instrument is “folded” to achieve an effective air column From . . . to here
here . . . is half a
5.5 m long, and it acts like a pipe open at both ends. What’s the fre-
wavelength.
quency of the double bassoon’s fundamental note? Assume the sound
speed is 343 m/s.
FIGURE 14.31 Sketch for Example 14.6.
INTERPRET This is a problem about standing-wave modes in a hollow
pipe open at both ends.
ASSESS This frequency is the note B0, which lies near the low-
DEVELOP Figure 14.30b applies to a pipe that’s open at both ends. So
frequency limit of the human ear. Like most wind instruments, the
our sketch of the fundamental mode in Fig. 14.31 looks like the upper
bassoon has a number of holes that, when uncovered, alter the posi-
of the two pictures in Fig. 14.30b. We can find the wavelength and
tions of the antinodes and therefore change the pitch. ■
then use Equation 14.1, v 5 lf, to get the frequency.

EVALUATE The wavelength is twice the instrument’s 5.5-m length, or

11 m. Then Equation 14.1 gives
v 343 m/s
f5 5 5 31 Hz
l 11 m
 14.8 The Doppler Effect and Shock Waves 239

GOT IT? 14.5 A string 1 m long is clamped tightly at one end and is free to slide up
and down at the other. Which of the following are possible wavelengths for standing
waves on this string: 45 m, 1 m, 43 m, 32 m, 2 m, 3 m, 4 m, 5 m, 6 m, 7 m, 8 m?

14.8 The Doppler Effect and Shock Waves

The speed v of a wave is its speed relative to the medium through which it propagates. A
point source at rest in the medium radiates waves uniformly in all directions (Fig. 14.32).
But when the source moves, wave crests bunch up in the direction toward which the source
is moving, resulting in a decreased wavelength (Fig. 14.33). In the opposite direction,
h
wave crests spread out and the wavelength increases.
The wave speed is determined by the properties of the medium, so it doesn’t change
with source motion. Thus the equation v 5 lf still holds. This means that an observer in
front of the moving source, where l is smaller, experiences a higher wave frequency as
more wave crests pass per unit time. Similarly, an observer behind the source experiences
a lower frequency. This change in wavelength and frequency from a moving source is the FIGURE 14.32 Circular waves from a source at
Doppler effect or Doppler shift, after the Austrian physicist Christian Johann Doppler rest with respect to the medium.
(1803–1853).

B perceives longer
wavelength,
lower frequency. A perceives shorter
wavelength,
higher frequency.

h'recede h 'approach
B A

Source

u 5 _12 v

FIGURE 14.33 Origin of the Doppler effect, shown for a source moving with half the
wave speed.

To analyze the Doppler effect, let l be the wavelength measured when the source is sta-
tionary, and l9 the wavelength when the source is moving at speed u through a medium
where the wave speed is v. At the source, the time between wave crests is the wave
period T, and a wave crest moves one wavelength l in this time. But during the same time T,
the moving source covers a distance uT, after which it emits the next wave crest. So the
distance between wave crests, as seen by an observer in front of the moving source, is
l9 5 l 2 uT. Writing T 5 l/v, we get
l u
l9 5 l 2 u 5 la1 2 b 1source approaching2 (14.14a)
v v
The situation is similar in the direction opposite the source motion, except that now the
wavelength increases by the amount lu/v, giving
u
l9 5 l a 1 1 b 1source receding2 (14.14b)
v
We can recast these expressions in terms of frequency using the relations l 5 v/f and
l9 5 v/f9, where f9 is the frequency of waves from the moving source as measured by an
observer at rest in the medium. Substituting these relations in our expressions for l9 and
240 Chapter 14 Wave Motion

then solving for f9 gives

f
f9 5 1Doppler shift, moving source2 (14.15)
1 6 u/v
for the Doppler-shifted frequency, where the 1 and 2 signs correspond to receding and
approaching sources, respectively.
You’ve probably experienced the Doppler effect for sound when standing near a
highway. A loud truck approaches with a high-pitched sound “aaaaaaaaaaa.” As it
passes, the pitch drops abruptly: “aaaaaaaaeioooooooooo,” and stays low as the truck
recedes. Practical uses of the Doppler effect are numerous. The Doppler shift in re-
flected ultrasound measures blood flow and fetal heartbeat. Police radar uses the
Doppler shift of high-frequency radio waves reflected from moving cars. The Doppler
shift of starlight reveals stellar motions, and Doppler-shifted light from distant galaxies
is evidence that our entire universe is expanding.

EXAMPLE 14.7 Doppler Effect: The Wrong Note

A car speeds down the highway with its stereo blasting. An observer with perfect pitch is stand-
ing by the roadside and, as the car approaches, notices that a musical note that should be G
1f 5 392 Hz2 sounds like A (440 Hz). How fast is the car moving?

INTERPRET This problem is about the Doppler effect in sound from a moving source.

DEVELOP Equation 14.15, f9 5 f/11 6 u/v2, relates the original and shifted frequencies to the
source speed u, so our plan is to solve this equation for u. We’ll use the minus sign because the
source is approaching. We’ll also need the sound speed v, which Example 14.6 gave as 343 m/s.

EVALUATE Solving Equation 14.15 for u gives

f 392 Hz
u 5 va1 2 b 5 1343 m/s2 a 1 2 b 5 37.4 m/s
f9 440 Hz

ASSESS Our answer—some 134 km/h or 84 mi/h—seems reasonable for a speeding car, though not
a particularly safe speed! And it’s a little more than 10% of the sound speed, consistent with the
roughly 10% change in the sound frequency. ■

Moving Observers
A Doppler shift in frequency, but not wavelength, also occurs when a moving observer ap-
proaches a stationary source—meaning a source at rest with respect to the wave medium.
An observer moving toward a stationary source passes wave crests more often than would
happen if the observer were at rest, and thus measures a shorter wave period and therefore
a higher frequency. The result, as you can show in Problem 80, is a shifted frequency
given by
u
f9 5 f a 1 6 b 1Doppler shift, moving observer2 (14.16)
v
with the positive sign for an observer approaching the source and the negative sign for an
observer receding. For observer velocities u small compared with the wave speed v, Equa-
tions 14.15 and 14.16 give essentially the same results.
Waves from a stationary source that reflect from a moving object undergo a Doppler
shift twice. First, because the frequency as received at the reflecting object is shifted, ac-
cording to Equation 14.16, due to the object’s motion relative to the source. Then a sta-
tionary observer sees the reflected waves as coming from a moving source, so there’s
another shift, this time given by Equation 14.15. Police radar and other Doppler-based
speed measurements make use of this double Doppler shift that occurs on reflection.
 14.8 The Doppler Effect and Shock Waves 241

The Doppler Effect for Light

Although light and other electromagnetic waves do not require a material medium, they,
too, are subject to the Doppler shift. Both Doppler formulas we derived here apply to elec-
tromagnetic waves, but only as approximations when the relative speed between source
and observer is much lower than the speed of light.
The Doppler shift for electromagnetic waves is the same whether it’s the source that
moves or the observer. This reflects a profound fact at the root of Einstein’s relativity: that
“stationary” and “moving” are meaningful only as relative terms. Electromagnetic waves,
unlike mechanical waves, do not require a medium—and therefore terms such as “station-
ary source” and “moving observer” are meaningless. All that matters is the relative mo-
tion between source and observer. We’ll explore this point further in Chapter 33.

Shock Waves
Equation 14.14a suggests that wavelength goes to zero if a source approaches at exactly
the wave speed. This happens because wave crests can’t get away from the source, so they
pile up just ahead of it to form a large-amplitude wave called a shock wave (Fig. 14.34).
When the source moves faster than the wave speed, waves pile up on a cone whose half-
angle is given by sin u 5 v/u, as shown. The ratio u/v is called the Mach number, and the
cone angle is the Mach angle.
Shock waves occur in a wide variety of physical situations. Sonic booms are shock
waves from supersonic aircraft. The bow wave of a boat is a shock wave on the water sur-
face. On a much larger scale, a huge shock wave forms in space as the solar wind—a high-
speed flow of particles from the Sun—encounters Earth’s magnetic field.

Wave crests from all source

locations pile up along this
line, making a conical
This is the distance vT that the
shock wave.
wave crest moved in one period.

vr This is the Mach angle. Its sine

is vT/uT, or v/u.

ur

Right now the source is here,

about to emit a wave crest.
Here’s where the source
This is the distance uT that the
was one wave period ago,
source moved in one period.
when it emitted the circular
Here’s where the source was wave crest shown.
two wave periods ago. The
crest it emitted then has had
more time to expand outward,
so it's larger.

FIGURE 14.34 Shock waves form when the source speed u exceeds the wave speed v.
CHAPTER 14 SUMMARY
Big Picture
Waves are the big idea here. A wave is a propagating disturbance that carries Wavelength Speed v
energy but not matter. Waves are characterized by their amplitude, wavelength, l
and speed. They can be longitudinal or transverse. Amplitude
l A

Longitudinal wave Transverse wave

Key Concepts and Equations

Wave period is the time for one complete A simple harmonic wave is sinusoidal in A h 5 2p/k
wave cycle. Period and frequency are shape. The wave disturbance is a function of
inverses, and wavelength l, period T or position and time and is most simply de- Position, x
frequency f, and wave speed v are all re-

Wave disturbance, y
scribed in terms of its wave number k and
lated: angular frequency v: Wave disturbance y(x) at fixed time t 5 0
l y1x, t2 5 A cos1kx 2 vt2
v5 5 lf T 5 2p/v
T They’re related to wavelength and period by A

2p 2p Time, t
k5 and v5
l T
Wave disturbance y(t) at fixed position x 5 0

Wave intensity is the power per unit area carried by the wave: I 5 P/A. For a spherical wave that spreads in all directions from a localized source,
intensity decreases as the inverse square of the distance from the source: I 5 P/ 14pr2 2.

Applications
Wave speed is a characteristic of the medium. Standing waves on strings
F Clamped at both ends, string length is an integer multiple of a half-
Transverse waves on strings: v 5
Am wavelength: L 5 ml/2
gP
Longitudinal sound waves in a gas: v 5 , about 343 m/s in air m 5 2; L 5 l shown
A r
under standard conditions
Nodes
lg
Surface waves in deep water: v 5 Clamped at one end, string length is an odd-integer multiple of a quarter-
A 2p wavelength:
Nodes

L 5 34 h shown

The Doppler effect is a frequency and/or wave- Shock waves occur when a wave source 1speed u2 moves
length shift due to the motion u of an observer or Moving source through a medium at greater than the wave speed 1v2.
source relative to the medium with wave speed v.
f
Moving source: f9 5 ,1 for receding, vr
11 6 u/v2
2 for approaching; l also changes B A
ur
Moving observer: f9 5 f11 6 u/v2, 1 for ap-
proaching, 2 for receding; no change in l
 Exercises and Problems 243

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion Section 14.2 Wave Math

22. An ocean wave has period 4.1 s and wavelength 10.8 m. Find its
1. What distinguishes a wave from an oscillation? (a) wave number and (b) angular frequency.
2. Red light has a longer wavelength than blue light. Compare their 23. Find the (a) amplitude, (b) wavelength, (c) period, and (d) speed
frequencies. of a wave whose displacement is given by y 5 1.3 cos10.69x 1
3. Consider a light wave and a sound wave with the same wave- 0.31t2, where x and y are in centimeters and t in seconds. (e) In
length. Which has the higher frequency? which direction is the wave propagating?
4. In what sense is “the wave” passing through the crowd at a foot- 24. Ultrasound used in a medical imager has frequency 4.8 MHz and
ball game really a wave? BIO wavelength 0.31 mm. Find (a) the angular frequency, (b) the
5. Must a wave be either transverse or longitudinal? Explain. wave number, and (c) the wave speed.
6. As a wave propagates on a stretched string, the string moves back 25. A simple harmonic wave of wavelength 16 cm and amplitude
and forth sideways. Is the string speed related to the wave speed? 2.5 cm is propagating along a string in the negative x-direction at
Explain. 35 cm/s. Find its (a) angular frequency and (b) wave number.
7. If you doubled the tension in a string, what would happen to the (c) Write a mathematical expression describing the displacement
speed of waves on the string? y of this wave (in centimeters) as a function of position and time.
8. A heavy cable is hanging vertically, its bottom end free. How Assume the displacement at x 5 0 is a maximum when t 5 0.
will the speed of transverse waves near the top and bottom of the 26. Analysis of waves in shallow water (depth much less than wave-
cable compare? Why? length) yields the following wave equation:
9. The intensity of light from a localized source decreases as the in-
verse square of the distance from the source. Does this mean that '2 y 1 '2 y
5
the light loses energy as it propagates? 'x 2
gh 't2
10. Medical ultrasound uses frequencies on the order of 10 7 Hz, far
where h is the water depth and g the gravitational acceleration.
BIO above the range of the human ear. In what sense are these waves
Give an expression for the wave speed.
“sound”?
11. If you double the pressure of a gas while keeping its density the Section 14.3 Waves on a String
same, what happens to the sound speed? 27. The main cables supporting New York’s George Washington
12. Water is about a thousand times more dense than air, yet the speed Bridge have a mass per unit length of 4100 kg/m and are under
of sound in water is greater than in air. How is this possible? 250-MN tension. At what speed would a transverse wave propa-
13. If you place a perfectly clear piece of glass in perfectly clear wa- gate on these cables?
ter, you can still see the glass. Why? 28. A transverse wave 1.2 cm in amplitude propagates on a string; its
14. When a wave source moves relative to the medium, a stationary frequency is 44 Hz. The string is under 21-N tension and has
observer measures changes in both wavelength and frequency. mass per unit length 15 g/m. Determine its speed.
But when the observer moves and the source is stationary, only 29. A transverse wave with 3.0-cm amplitude and 75-cm wavelength
the frequency changes. Why the difference? propagates at 6.7 m/s on a stretched spring with mass per unit
15. Why can a boat easily produce a shock wave on the water surface, length 170 g/m. Find the spring tension.
while only a very high-speed aircraft can produce a sonic boom? 30. A rope is stretched between supports 12 m apart; its tension is
35 N. If one end of the rope is tweaked, the resulting disturbance
Exercises and Problems reaches the other end 0.45 s later. Find the total mass of the rope.
31. A rope with 280 g of mass per meter is under 550-N tension.
Exercises Find the average power carried by a wave with frequency 3.3 Hz
Section 14.1 Waves and Their Properties and amplitude 6.1 cm propagating on the rope.
16. Ocean waves with 18-m wavelength travel at 5.3 m/s. What’s the Section 14.4 Sound Waves
time interval between wave crests passing a boat moored at a 32. Show that the quantity 1P/r from Equation 14.9 has the units of
fixed location? speed.
17. Ripples in a shallow puddle propagate at 34 cm/s. If the wave fre- 33. Find the sound speed in air under standard conditions with pres-
quency is 5.2 Hz, find (a) the period and (b) the wavelength. sure 101 kN/m2 and density 1.20 kg/m3 .
18. An 88.7-MHz FM radio wave propagates at the speed of light. 34. Timers in sprint races start their watches when they see smoke
What’s its wavelength? from the starting gun, not when they hear the sound. Why? How
19. Calculate the wavelengths of (a) a 1.0-MHz AM radio wave, much error would be introduced by timing a 100-m race from the
(b) a channel 9 TV signal (190 MHz), (c) a police radar (10 GHz), sound of the gun?
(d) infrared radiation from a hot stove 14 310 13 Hz2, (e) green 35. The factor g for nitrogen dioxide 1NO22 is 1.29. Find the sound
light 16.0 310 14 Hz2, and (f) 1.031018-Hz X rays. All are elec- speed in NO2 at 4.8 310 4 -N/m2 pressure and 0.35-kg/m3 density.
tromagnetic waves that propagate at 3.0 310 8 m/s. 36. A gas with density 1.0 kg/m3 and pressure 8.0 310 4 N/m2
20. A seismograph located 1200 km from an earthquake detects seis- has sound speed 365 m/s. Are the gas molecules monatomic or
mic waves 5.0 min after the quake occurs. The seismograph os- diatomic?
cillates in step with the waves, at 3.1 Hz. Find the wavelength. 37. Divers in an underwater habitat breathe a special mixture of oxygen
21. Medical ultrasound waves travel at about 1500 m/s in soft tissue. and neon to prevent the possibly fatal effects of nitrogen in ordi-
BIO Higher frequencies provide clearer images but don’t penetrate to nary air. With pressure 6.2 310 5 N/m2 and density 4.5 kg/m3 ,
deeper organs. Find the wavelengths of (a) 8.0-MHz ultrasound the effective g value for the mixture is 1.61. Find the frequency
used in fetal imaging and (b) 3.5-MHz ultrasound used to image in this mixture for a 50-cm-wavelength sound wave, and com-
an adult’s kidneys. pare with its frequency in air under normal conditions.
244 Chapter 14 Wave Motion

Section 14.5 Interference energy in this wave train, in terms of the string tension F, the
38. You’re in an airplane whose two engines are running at 560 rpm wave amplitude A, and the wavelength l.
and 570 rpm. How often do you hear a peak in the sound intensity? 52. A loudspeaker emits energy at the rate of 50 W, spread in all
39. What’s the wavelength of the ocean waves in Example 14.5 if the directions. Find the intensity of sound 18 m from the speaker.
calm water you encounter at 33 m is the second calm region on 53. Light intensity 3.3 m from a lightbulb is 0.73 W/m2 . Find the
your voyage from the center line? bulb’s power output, assuming it radiates equally in all directions.
54. Light emerges from a 5.0-mW laser in a beam 1.0 mm in diameter.
Section 14.7 Standing Waves The beam shines on a wall, producing a spot 3.6 cm in diameter.
40. A 2.0-m-long string is clamped at both ends. (a) Find the longest- What is the beam’s intensity (a) at the laser and (b) at the wall?
wavelength standing wave possible on this string. (b) If the wave 55. Two waves have the same angular frequency v, wave number k
speed is 56 m/s, what’s the lowest standing-wave frequency? and amplitude A, but they differ in phase: y1 5 A cos1kx 2 vt2
41. When a stretched string is clamped at both ends, its fundamental and y2 5 A cos1kx 2 vt 1 f2. Show that their superposition is
frequency is 140 Hz. (a) What’s the next higher frequency? If the also a simple harmonic wave, and determine its amplitude as a
same string, with the same tension, is now clamped at one end function of the phase difference f.
and free at the other, what are (b) the fundamental and (c) the 56. A wave on a wire under 28-N tension is described by
next higher frequency? y 5 1.5 sin10.10x 2 560t2, where x and y are in centimeters and
42. A string is clamped at both ends and tensioned until its funda- t is in seconds. Find (a) the amplitude, (b) the wavelength, (c) the
mental frequency is 85 Hz. If the string is then held rigidly at its period, (d) the wave speed, and (e) the power carried by the
midpoint, what’s the lowest frequency at which it will vibrate? wave.
43. A crude model of the human vocal tract treats it as a pipe closed 57. A spring of mass m and spring constant k has an unstretched
at one end. Find the effective length of the vocal tract in a per- length L0 . Find an expression for the speed of transverse waves
son whose fundamental tone is 620 Hz. Sound speed in air at on this spring when it’s been stretched to a length L.
body temperature is 354 m/s. 58. When a 340-g spring is stretched to a total length of 40 cm, it
Section 14.8 The Doppler Effect and Shock Waves supports transverse waves propagating at 4.5 m/s. When it’s
44. A car horn emits 380-Hz sound. If the car moves at 17 m/s with stretched to 60 cm, the waves propagate at 12 m/s. Find (a) the
its horn blasting, what frequency will a person standing in front spring’s unstretched length and (b) its spring constant.
of the car hear? 59. At a point 15 m from a source of spherical sound waves, you
45. The stationary siren on a firehouse is blaring at 85 Hz. What’s the measure the intensity 750 mW/m2 . How far do you need to walk,
frequency perceived by a firefighter racing toward the station at directly away from the source, until the intensity is 270 mW/m2 ?
120 km/h? 60. Figure 14.37 shows two observers 20 m apart on a line that con-
46. A fire truck’s siren at rest wails at 1400 Hz; standing by the road- nects them to a spherical light source. If the observer nearer the
side as the truck approaches, you hear it at 1600 Hz. How fast is source measures a light intensity 50% greater than the other ob-
the truck going? server, how far is the nearer observer from the source?
47. Red light emitted by hydrogen atoms at rest in the laboratory
has wavelength 656 nm. Light emitted in the same process on
a distant galaxy is received at Earth with wavelength 708 nm.
Describe the galaxy’s motion relative to Earth. 20 m x5?

FIGURE 14.37 Problem 60

Problems
61. An ideal spring is stretched to a total length L1 . When that length
48. Figure 14.35 shows a simple harmonic wave at time t 5 0 and
is doubled, the speed of transverse waves on the spring triples.
later at t 5 2.6 s. Write a mathematical description of this wave.
Find an expression for the unstretched length of the spring.
1.5 t50s 62. Show that the time it takes a wave to propagate up the cable in
1
0.5 Problem 50 is t 5 2 1L/g, where L is the cable length.
y (cm)

0 x (cm) 63. You see an airplane 5.2 km straight overhead. Sound from the
20.5 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
–1 plane, however, seems to be coming from a point back along
21.5
t 5 2.6 s the plane’s path at 35° to the vertical. What’s the plane’s speed,
assuming an average sound speed of 330 ms?
FIGURE 14.35 Problem 48 64. What are the intensities in W/m2 of sound with intensity levels of
49. Transverse waves propagate at 18 m/s on a string under 14-N ten- (a) 65 dB and (b) 25 dB?
sion. What will be the wave speed if the tension is increased to 40 N? 65. Show that a doubling of sound intensity corresponds to approxi-
50. A uniform cable hangs vertically under its own weight. Show mately a 3-dB increase in the decibel level.
that the speed of waves on the cable is given by v 5 1yg, where 66. Sound intensity from a localized source decreases as the inverse
y is the distance from the bottom of the cable. square of the distance, according to Equation 14.8. If the distance
51. Figure 14.36 shows a wave train consisting of two sine wave cy- from the source doubles, what happens to (a) the intensity and
cles propagating along a string. Obtain an expression for the total (b) the decibel level?
67. At 2.0 m from a localized sound source you measure the inten-
h sity level as 75 dB. How far away must you be for the perceived
A loudness to drop in half (i.e., to an intensity level of 65 dB)?
68. The A-string (440 Hz) on a piano is 38.9 cm long and is clamped
tightly at both ends. If the string is under 667-N tension, what’s
FIGURE 14.36 Problem 51 its mass?
 Answers to Chapter Questions 245

69. Show that the standing-wave condition of Equation 14.13 is they want to increase the wave speed to 30 m/s. Your sister asks,
equivalent to the requirement that the time it takes a wave to “What mass should I use?” What do you reply?
make a round trip from one end of the medium to the other and
back be an integer multiple of the wave period. Passage Problems
70. You’re designing an organ for a new concert hall; the lowest note Tsunamis are ocean waves generally produced when earthquakes sud-
is to be 22 Hz. The building’s architects have asked you to mini- denly displace the ocean floor, and with it a huge volume of water.
mize the lengths of the organ pipes. How long will the longest Unlike ordinary waves on the ocean surface, a tsunami involves the
pipe be if it’s (a) closed at one end and (b) open at both ends? entire water column, from surface to bottom. To a tsunami, the ocean
71. Show by differentiation and direct substitution that a wave de- is shallow—and that makes tsunamis shallow-water waves, whose
scribed by Equation 14.3 satisfies the wave equation (Equation speed is v 5 1gd, where d is the water depth and g the gravitational
14.5), with wave speed v 5 v/k. acceleration. Tsunamis can travel thousands of kilometers across an
72. Show by differentiation and direct substitution that any function ocean to reach the shore with their initial energy nearly intact; when
of the form y 5 f1x 6 vt2 satisfies the wave equation (Equa- they do, they can cause massive damage and loss of life (Fig. 14.38).
tion 14.5).
73. You’re standing roadside as a truck approaches, and you measure the
dominant frequency in the truck noise to be 1100 Hz. As the truck
passes, the frequency drops to 950 Hz. What’s the truck’s speed?
74. You’re between two loudspeakers emitting 180-Hz tones. How
fast would you have to move to perceive a beat frequency of
1.5 Hz between the two?
75. You’re a marine biologist concerned with the effect of sonic
BIO booms on plankton, and you need to estimate the altitude of a su-
personic aircraft flying directly over you at 2.2 times the speed FIGURE 14.38 People flee as the devastating tsunami of December 2004
of sound. You hear its sonic boom 19 s later. Assuming a con- strikes Thailand (Passage Problems 84–87).
stant 340 m/s sound speed, find the plane’s altitude.
84. As a tsunami approaches shore, it
76. A 1.5-m-long pipe has one end open. Among its possible standing-
a. speeds up.
wave frequencies is 225 Hz; the next higher frequency is 375 Hz.
b. slows down.
Find (a) the fundamental frequency and (b) the sound speed.
c. maintains its speed.
77. A wave source recedes from you at 8.2 m/s, and the wavelength
you measure is 20% greater than what you would measure if the 85. For a tsunami to behave as a shallow-water wave, its wavelength
source were at rest. What’s the wave speed? a. must be comparable to or longer than the ocean depth.
78. Obstetricians use ultrasound to monitor fetal heartbeat. If 5.0- b. must be shorter than the ocean depth.
BIO MHz ultrasound reflects off the moving heart wall with a 100-Hz c. can have any value.
frequency shift, what’s the speed of the heart wall? (Hint: You 86. A tsunami is traveling at 450 km/h when the ocean depth
have two shifts to consider.) abruptly doubles. Its new speed is roughly
79. You’re in traffic court, trying to argue your way out of a speeding a. 225 km/h.
ticket. You were stopped going 120 km/h in a 90-km/h zone. A b. 320 km/h.
technical expert testifies that the 70-GHz police radar signal un- c. 640 km/h.
derwent a 15.6-kHz frequency shift when it reflected off your d. 900 km/h.
car. You claim that corresponds to an impossible 240 km/h, so 87. On the open ocean, a tsunami has relatively small amplitude—
the police radar must be defective. How should the judge rule? typically 1 m or less. As the tsunami approaches shore, its ampli-
80. You move at speed u toward a wave source that’s stationary with tude increases and its wavelength decreases. As a result,
respect to the medium in which waves of wavelength l propagate a. its total energy increases.
with speed v. Your speed relative to the wave crests is therefore b. the rate at which it carries energy shoreward increases.
v 1 u. Show that for you, the time between wave crests is c. the wave frequency increases.
T9 5 l/ 1v 1 u2, and from this show that you perceive a fre- d. none of these quantities changes.
quency given by Equation 14.16, with the 1 sign.
81. You’re a meteorologist specifying a new Doppler radar system
that determines the velocity of distant raindrops by reflecting Answers to Chapter Questions
radar signals (which travel at the speed of light) off them and
measuring the Doppler shift. You need a system that will meas- Answer to Chapter Opening Question
ure speeds as low as 2.5 km/h. A vendor offers a 5.0-GHz radar None. The waves transport energy, but not matter.
that can detect a frequency shift of only 50 Hz. Is that sufficient?
82. Use a computer to form the sum implied in the caption of Fig- Answers to GOT IT? Questions
C ure 14.17, taking v 5 1 s 21 and using (a) the three terms shown 14.1. (b) 5 m/s, because that’s the speed of the wave crest. 2 m/s is
and (b) 10 terms (note that only odd harmonics appear in the the speed of the localized disturbance, not the wave speed.
sum). Plot your result over one cycle (t from 0 to 2p) and com- 14.2. (a) Upper wave; (b) lower; (c) lower; (d) upper; (e) upper (both
pare with the square wave shown in the figure. f and v).
83. Your little sister and her friend build treehouses and stretch a 14.3. (c).
rope between them for sending messages. They hang a 1.4-kg 14.4. (b), because of wave interference analogous to that shown in
mass on one end of the rope that passes over a pulley. The other Fig. 14.21.
end is tied to the second treehouse. When your sister plucks the 14.5. 45 m, 43 m, 4 m—one-fourth of each value fits into 1 m an odd
rope, a wave propagates at 18 m/s. The girls deem this too slow; number of times.
 15 Fluid Motion

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Explain the relation between
pressure and force (15.1).
■ Calculate pressure as a function of
depth in liquids (15.2).
■ Explain why some objects float and
others sink, and determine quantita-
tively the position of floating objects
and the apparent weight of
submerged objects (15.3).
■ Express conservation of mass and en-
ergy for fluids through the continuity
equation and Bernoulli’s equation,
and use the two to solve problems
involving fluid dynamics (15.4, 15.5).
Why is only the “tip of the iceberg”
above water?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ Force (Chapter 4) and energy A tornado whirls across a darkened sky. A plane flies, supported by air pressure on its wings.
Gas from a giant star forms a cosmic whirlpool before plunging into a black hole. Fluid
in your car’s brake system amplifies the force of your foot on the brake pedal. Your own body is
(Chapter 6) are the key concepts
behind fluid motion. sustained by air moving into and out of your lungs, and by the flow of blood throughout your
■ Kinetic energy and gravitational tissues. All these examples involve fluid motion.
potential energy are both important Fluid is matter that flows under the influence of external forces. Fluids include both liquids
in describing fluid motion (6.3, 7.2). and gases. The intermolecular forces are weaker in fluids than in solids, and as a result the mole-
cules move around readily. In a liquid, those forces are strong enough to keep the molecules in
close contact, while in a gas they’re almost negligible and the molecules are usually widely
spaced. Mobility of the individual molecules means that a fluid spreads out to take the shape of
its container.

15.1 Density and Pressure

If we could observe a fluid on the molecular scale, we would find large numbers of mole-
cules in continuous motion, colliding frequently with each other and with the walls of their
containers. This molecular behavior is governed by the laws of mechanics, and in princi-
ple we could study fluids by applying those laws to all the individual molecules. But even
a drop of water contains about 1021 molecules; to calculate the motions of all those mole-
cules would take the fastest computers many times the age of the universe!

246
 15.2 Hydrostatic Equilibrium 247

Because the number of molecules is so large, we approximate a fluid by considering it The fluid exerts pressure
to be continuous rather than composed of discrete particles. In this approximation, valid internally as well as on the
container. The internal
for fluid samples large compared with the distance between molecules, we describe the pressure is the same in all
fluid by specifying macroscopic properties such as density and pressure. directions.

Density
Density (symbol r, Greek rho) measures the mass per unit volume; its SI units are kg/m3.
Water’s density is normally about 1000 kg/m3; air’s is about a factor of 1000 smaller. Be- r
A
cause their molecules are essentially in contact, liquids are incompressible, meaning that F
their densities remain nearly constant. Gases, in contrast, are compressible: With rela-
tively large intermolecular distances, their densities change readily.
r
F is the force on the area A,
Pressure so the pressure is p 5 F/A.

Pressure measures the normal force per unit area exerted by a fluid (Fig. 15.1): FIGURE 15.1 Pressure, the force per unit area,
is exerted equally in all directions.
F
p5 1pressure2 (15.1)
A
The SI pressure unit is N/m2, given the name pascal (Pa) after the French mathematician,
scientist, and philosopher Blaise Pascal (1623–1662). Another commonly used pressure
unit is the atmosphere (atm), defined as Earth’s normal atmospheric pressure at sea level
and equal to 101.3 kPa (14.7 pounds per square inch, or psi).
Pressure is a scalar quantity; at a given point in a fluid, pressure is exerted equally in
all directions (Fig. 15.1), so it makes no sense to associate a direction with it. This prop-
erty explains an aspect of pressure that you may find puzzling. Although the atmosphere
bears down on your body with a pressure of 14.7 pounds on every square inch, you cer-
tainly don’t feel that burden. That’s because the force arising from this pressure is every-
where perpendicular to your body, and your body fluids respond by compressing until
they’re at the same pressure. If you’ve had your ears “pop” in a fast elevator or airplane, or
when diving underwater, you know the pain that can develop when the pressure on your
body is temporarily imbalanced.

15.2 Hydrostatic Equilibrium

For a fluid to remain at rest, the net force everywhere in the fluid must be zero; this con-
dition is hydrostatic equilibrium. In the absence of any external forces, hydrostatic
equilibrium requires that the pressure be constant throughout the fluid; otherwise, pres-
sure differences would result in a net force, and the fluid would move in response. As
Fig. 15.2 suggests, it’s pressure difference, rather than pressure itself, that gives rise to Fnet
r

forces within fluids.

Increasing pressure
Hydrostatic Equilibrium with Gravity (a)

Hydrostatic equilibrium in the presence of gravity requires a pressure force to counteract

the gravitational force. Since forces arise only from pressure differences, the fluid pres-
sure must therefore vary with depth.
Figure 15.3 (next page) shows the forces on a fluid element of area A, thickness dh,
and mass dm. A gravitational force acts downward on this fluid element; for it to be in
equilibrium there must therefore be an upward pressure force—and that requires a
greater pressure on the lower side. Suppose the pressures at the top and bottom are p
and p 1 dp, respectively. Since pressure is force per unit area, the net pressure force is
dFpress 5 1p 1 dp2A 2 pA 5 A dp. The gravitational force is dFg 5 2g dm, where r r
Fnet 5 0
the minus sign designates the downward direction. But the mass dm is the density times
the volume, so dFg 5 2g dm 5 2grA dh. Hydrostatic equilibrium requires that these
Constant pressure
forces sum to zero: A dp 2 grA dh 5 0, or
(b)
dp
5 rg 1hydrostatic equilibrium2 (15.2) FIGURE 15.2 If pressure varies with position,
dh then there’s a net force on a volume of fluid.
248 Chapter 15 Fluid Motion

Fluid element This equation shows that dp/dh—the variation in pressure with depth h—is positive,
confirming that pressure increases with depth. For a liquid, which is essentially incom-
pressible, r is constant and Equation 15.2 shows that pressure increases linearly with depth:
pA p 5 p0 1 rgh (15.3)
A
dh h where p0 is the pressure at the liquid surface.
Equation 15.2 applies to any fluid in a uniform gravitational field; Equation 15.3 fol-
dFg lows from Equation 15.2 for the special case of a liquid. It’s also possible to integrate
Equation 15.2 to find the pressure in a gas that’s subject to the gravitational force. Because
(p 1 dp)A
the gas density isn’t constant, this is a little more involved mathematically. Problem 68
explores the variation of pressure with height in Earth’s atmosphere.
Pressure force on the bottom
must be greater in order to
balance gravity.

FIGURE 15.3 Forces on a fluid element

EXAMPLE 15.1 Calculating Pressure: Ocean Depths
in hydrostatic equilibrium. (a) At what water depth is the pressure twice atmospheric pressure? (b) What is the pressure at the
bottom of the 11-km-deep Marianas Trench, the deepest point in the ocean? Take atmospheric pres-
sure as 100 kPa and the density of water as 1000 kg/m3.

INTERPRET This problem is about hydrostatic equilibrium, with water the fluid.

DEVELOP We determine that Equation 15.3, p 5 p0 1 rgh, applies, with p0 equal to the atmos-
pheric pressure at the water surface. Then at twice atmospheric pressure, p 5 2p0, and we can solve
for h to answer part (a). Because pressure increases linearly with depth, we can extrapolate our re-
sult for part (a) to find the answer to part (b).

EVALUATE Solving our equation for the depth h and substituting the given numbers in, we find for
part (a):
p 2 p0 2.03105 Pa 2 1.03105 Pa
h5 5 5 10 m
rg 11000 kg/m3219.8 m/s22
For part (b) we note that the pressure continues to increase by 100 kPa for every 10 m of depth. In the
Marianas Trench, 113103 m deep, the pressure increase is then
1113103 m21100 kPa/10 m2 5 110 MPa

ASSESS This is over a thousand times atmospheric pressure, or more than 8 tons per square inch!
Creatures living at these depths are in pressure equilibrium with their surroundings. To bring
them to the surface for study, scientists must maintain their natural pressure or they’ll explode.
A similar plight awaits scuba divers who hold their breath while ascending; air in the lungs ex-
pands, bursting the alveoli. ■
A vacuum
has zero pressure, so
po 5 0 at the mercury’s
surface in the tube.
Measuring Pressure
Vacuum
Figure 15.4 shows a barometer, in which air pressure acts on the open pool of mercury,
pushing the liquid into the evacuated tube. Since p0 5 0 in the vacuum at the top of the
Atmospheric pressure tube, Equation 15.3 becomes simply p 5 rgh, showing that the height h of the mercury
presses on surface . . . is directly proportional to atmospheric pressure p. Standard atmospheric pressure of
760 mm patmosphere
101.3 kPa supports a mercury column 760 mm or 29.92 in. high. Pressure varies slightly
with meteorological conditions, and weather forecasters regularly report atmospheric pres-
Mercury
sure in millimeters or inches of mercury. Mercury’s high density makes for a reasonable-
sized barometer. Example 15.1 shows that a water-filled barometer would need to be 10 m
. . . and pushes mercury long!
up the tube until the A manometer is a U-shaped tube filled with liquid and used to measure pressure
mercury’s weight balances differences. A pressure difference between the two ends results in a height difference h
the pressure force.
between the liquid surfaces (Fig. 15.5, next page). Equation 15.3 shows that h is di-
FIGURE 15.4 A mercury barometer. rectly proportional to the pressure difference.
 15.2 Hydrostatic Equilibrium 249

Barometers and manometers are the classic pressure-measuring instruments, and un- Points at the
same depth in p
derstanding them will help you grasp the meaning of pressure. But pressure-measuring the fluid have
atmosphere

devices today are usually electronic, using the pressure force to alter electrical properties the same
and produce an electrical signal proportional to pressure. pressure p.
The term gauge pressure describes the excess pressure above atmospheric. Infla-
tion instructions for tires and sports equipment specify gauge pressure. A tire inflated
to 200 kPa (about 30 psi) has an absolute pressure of about 300 kPa because of the
Fluid
additional 100-kPa atmospheric pressure. under
h
pressure
Pascal’s Law
Equation 15.3 shows that an increase in surface pressure p0 results in the same pres-
sure increase throughout the fluid. More generally, a pressure increase anywhere is
felt throughout the fluid—a fact known as Pascal’s law. Pascal applied this principle Mercury, water,
in his invention of the hydraulic press. Today hydraulic systems, based on Pascal’s or other liquid
law, control machinery ranging from automobile brakes to aircraft wings, bulldozers, h is proportional to the pressure difference
cranes, and robots. between fluid and atmosphere.

FIGURE 15.5 A manometer used to measure

the pressure difference between a closed
container and the atmosphere.
EXAMPLE 15.2 Applying Pascal’s Law: A Hydraulic Lift
In the hydraulic lift of Fig. 15.6, a large piston supports a car; the total mass of car and piston is
3200 kg. What force must be applied to the smaller piston to support the car?

F1
120 cm
15 cm

FIGURE 15.6 A hydraulic lift.

INTERPRET We interpret this as a problem involving Pascal’s law. Whatever pressure results from the
force on the smaller piston is transmitted through the fluid to the larger piston and thus supports the car.

DEVELOP We’re given a drawing. Having determined that Pascal’s law applies, and neglecting pres-
sure variations with depth, we conclude that the pressure is the same throughout the system. Our
plan, then, is to write expressions involving the pressures at both pistons and use the fact that they’re
equal to solve for the unknown force. We’ll use the fact that the pressure on a piston is the applied
force divided by the piston’s area.

EVALUATE The small piston exerts a pressure p 5 F1/A 1 5 F1/pR 12, where F1 is the unknown force.
The pressure at the large piston is the same and produces a force F2 5 pA 2. This force supports the
weight mg of piston and car; therefore, we have
F1 R2 2
mg 5 pA 2 5 ppR22 5 pR22 5 F1 a b
pR1 2
R1
Solving for F1 gives our answer:
R1 2 15 cm 2
F1 5 mg a b 5 13200 kg219.8 m/s22 a b 5 490 N
R2 120 cm
We used the diameters from Fig. 15.3, rather than the radii, because their ratio is the same.

ASSESS How can a 490-N force—about 100 lb—support the car? Through the constant fluid pres-
sure, this smaller force is effectively multiplied by the ratio of the piston areas. If we lifted the car
farther, the work done in moving the small piston—the product of the force and the distance
moved—would be equal to the work done on the large piston. Since the force on the large piston is
greater, the distance moved is smaller, and energy is conserved. ■
250 Chapter 15 Fluid Motion

15.3 Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy

Why do some objects float while others sink? Figure 15.7a shows the upward pressure force
on an arbitrary fluid volume balancing the downward gravitational force. Now imagine re-
placing the fluid volume with a solid object of identical shape (Fig. 15.7b). The remaining
fluid hasn’t changed, so it continues to exert an upward force on the object—a force whose
magnitude equals the weight of the original fluid volume. This force is the buoyancy force,
and in giving its magnitude we’ve stated Archimedes’ principle: The buoyancy force on an
object is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

r r
Fb Fb

Replace the
This fluid is fluid with a
in equilibrium, solid object,
so the pressure r
and the
r Fg pressure force
force Fb
balances doesn’t change.
r r But the weight
Fg its weight Fg.
may.
(a) (b)
!
FIGURE 15.7 The buoyancy force Fb arises because pressure increases with depth.

If the submerged object weighs more than the displaced fluid, then the gravitational
force exceeds the buoyancy force and the object sinks. If the object weighs less than the
displaced fluid, buoyancy is greater and the object rises. Therefore, an object floats or
sinks depending on whether its average density is greater or less than that of the fluid. In
between is the case of neutral buoyancy, when an object’s average density is the same as
that of the fluid.

EXAMPLE 15.3 Finding the Buoyancy Force: Working Underwater

You’re setting up a raft in a swimming area, and you need to move a force equal to the weight of water that occupies the same volume as
60-kg concrete block on the lake bottom. What’s the apparent weight the concrete block. So our plan is to find that force and compare it
of the block as you lift it underwater? The density of concrete is with the gravitational force on the block.
2200 kg/m3.
EVALUATE The concrete block’s mass is mc, so its weight is the gravi-
INTERPRET We interpret this as a problem about buoyancy; the con- tational force Fg 5 mc g. Its volume is Vc 5 mc /rc, which also equals
crete will seem to weigh less underwater because of the upward buoy- the volume of the displaced water: Vw 5 Vc 5 mc /rc. Archimedes’
ancy force. We identify the apparent weight as the force you’ll need to principle says that the weight of this displaced water is the magnitude
apply to lift the block off the lake bottom. of the buoyancy force, so Fb 5 mw g 5 Vwrw g 5 mc g1rw /rc2. Then
the upward buoyancy force and the downward gravitational force sum
DEVELOP Figure 15.8 is our sketch, showing gravity and the buoy- to give a downward force of magnitude:
ancy force on the block; you’ll need to apply a force equal but oppo-
rw rw
site to their sum. Archimedes’ principle applies, giving a buoyancy Fg 2 Fb 5 mc g 2 mc g a b 5 mc g a 1 2 b
rc rc
1
5 160 kg219.8 m/s22 a 1 2 b 5 320 N
2.2
You have to apply an upward force of equal magnitude to lift the block
off the bottom.

ASSESS This is about 70 lb—a lot more manageable than the block’s
weight mg of nearly 600 N or about 130 lb in air. Knowing the appar-
ent weight of a submerged object would let us turn this problem
around to determine its density. Archimedes purportedly used his
principle in this way to find the density of the king’s crown, and thus
FIGURE 15.8 What’s the apparent weight of the concrete block?
show that it was not pure gold. ■
 15.3 Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy 251

Floating Objects
Archimedes’ principle still holds for a floating object. But now the buoyancy force must
balance the object’s weight—which will happen if the fluid displaced by the submerged
part of the object weighs the same as the object. This condition determines how high in
the water the object floats, as the next example illustrates.

EXAMPLE 15.4 Floating Objects: The Tip of the Iceberg

The average density of a typical arctic iceberg is 0.86 that of seawater.
What fraction of an iceberg’s volume is submerged?

INTERPRET We interpret this problem also as being about buoyancy,

but now we have a floating object with buoyancy balancing gravity.
Only the submerged portion contributes to the buoyancy force, so the
condition of force balance will enable us to find how much of the ice-
berg is submerged.
FIGURE 15.9 How much of the iceberg is submerged?
DEVELOP Figure 15.9 is our sketch, showing gravitational and buoy-
ancy forces of equal magnitude. Archimedes’ principle applies here, force, which balances gravity when the iceberg is in equilibrium.
and states that the buoyancy force is equal to the weight of water dis- Equating the two gives rwaterVsub g 5 riceVice g, which we solve to get
placed by the submerged portion of the iceberg. So our plan is to find
Vsub rice
the gravitational and buoyancy forces, and then equate their magni- 5 5 0.86
tudes to get the submerged volume. Since we’re looking for volume, Vice rwater
we’ll write any masses as products of density and volume.
ASSESS Our result means that 86% of the iceberg’s volume is un-
EVALUATE The iceberg’s weight is wice 5 mice g 5 riceVice g, where Vice der water, leaving only 14% showing. Tip of the iceberg, indeed!
is the volume of the entire iceberg. Only the submerged portion dis- Note that the volume ratio is just the density ratio rice /rwater, show-
places water, so the volume of displaced water is Vsub, and the weight ing that the closer an object’s density is to that of water, the lower it
of the displaced water is therefore wwater 5 mwater g 5 rwaterVsub g. By floats. ■
Archimedes’ principle, wwater is equal in magnitude to the buoyancy

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 15.1 The Shrinking Arctic

Arctic sea ice is melting rapidly as a result of global warming. Does
this contribute to rising sea levels? MAKING THE CONNECTION The land-based Greenland ice cap
occupies some 3 million km3, while some 15,000 km3 of ice are afloat
EVALUATE Your first answer might be “yes,” but think again! in the Arctic Ocean. Compare the approximate rise in the world’s
Archimedes’ principle tells us that the floating ice displaces a volume oceans that would result from complete melting of these two ice
of water whose weight is equal to that of the entire ice—although only volumes.
the submerged portion does the displacing. When the ice melts, it be-
comes water that, because it no longer sticks above the surface, dis- EVALUATE As this conceptual example shows, melting sea ice won’t
places a volume equal to its entire weight. But since the weight hasn’t contribute to sea-level rise, but land-based ice will add water to the
changed, the amount of water displaced is the same. That means the oceans. Its volume will be about 86% that of the ice (see Example 15.4),
water level is unchanged. or about 2.6 million km3. With oceans covering about 71% of Earth’s
ASSESS Melting ice doesn’t contribute to sea-level rise—as long as
surface, the meltwater will spread in a layer of thickness d, where
it’s sea ice that melts. Land ice is a different story: Melting glaciers 10.71214pRE22d 5 2.631015 m3. Solving gives d 5 7 m—enough to
and “calving” of glaciers to form icebergs together cause about half of inundate most of today’s coastal cities.
the observed sea-level rise. Thermal expansion, which we’ll explore
in Chapter 17, causes the rest.

Center of Buoyancy
The buoyancy force acts not at the center of mass of a floating object, but at the center of
mass of the water that would be there if the object weren’t. This point is called the center
of buoyancy, and for an object to float in stable equilibrium, the center of buoyancy must
lie above the center of mass. Otherwise, a net torque results that tends to tip the object.
The stability of watercraft depends critically on this condition (Fig. 15.10, next page).
252 Chapter 15 Fluid Motion

15.4 Fluid Dynamics

With CB above We now turn our attention to moving fluids, described by the flow velocity at each point
r CM, torque in the fluid and at each instant of time. We illustrate flow velocity by drawing continu-
Fb tends to right
the boat.
ous lines called streamlines that are everywhere tangent to the local flow direction
(Fig. 15.11). Their spacing is a measure of flow speed, with closely spaced streamlines
CB indicating higher speed. Small particles introduced into moving fluids follow stream-
CM
r lines and therefore give a visual indication of the flow velocity pattern.
Fg
In steady flow, the pattern of fluid motion remains the same at each point, even though
(a) individual fluid elements are in continuous motion. A river in steady flow always looks
the same, even though you’re not seeing the same water each time you look. At a given
point, the water velocity is always the same. Unsteady flow, in contrast, involves fluid
motion that changes with time. Blood flow in your arteries is unsteady; with each contrac-
tion of the heart ventricles, the pressure rises and the flow velocity increases. We’ll restrict
r With CB below our quantitative description of fluid motion to steady flow.
Fb CM, torque Like all other motion in classical physics, fluid motion is governed by Newton’s laws.
tips the boat.
CM
It’s possible to write Newton’s second law in a form that involves explicitly the fluid ve-
CB locity as a function of position and time. But the resulting equation is difficult to solve in
r
Fg any but the simplest cases. Instead of applying Newton’s law directly, we’ll approach fluid
dynamics using energy conservation.
(b)

FIGURE 15.10 A boat’s stability requires the GOT IT? 15.1 The photo shows smoke
center of buoyancy (CB) to be above the particles tracing streamlines in a test of a car’s
center of mass (CM). aerodynamic properties. Is the flow speed
greater (a) over the top or (b) at the back?

Flow speed is higher

where streamlines
are closer.
Conservation of Mass: The Continuity Equation
In mechanics we had no trouble keeping track of the individual objects. But a fluid is con-
tinuous and deformable, so it’s not easy to follow an individual fluid element as it moves.
Yet fluid is conserved; as it moves, new fluid is neither created nor destroyed.
Consider a steady fluid flow represented by streamlines, as shown in Fig. 15.12a. We
FIGURE 15.11 Streamlines represent flow
shaded a flow tube—a small tubelike region bounded on its sides by streamlines and on
velocity in a river.
its ends by areas at right angles to the flow. The flow tube has a sufficiently small cross
section that fluid velocity and other properties don’t vary significantly over any cross sec-
tion; however, fluid properties may vary along the flow tube. Although our flow tube has
no physical boundaries, it nevertheless acts like a pipe because fluid flows along, not
across, the streamlines. In steady flow, the rate at which fluid enters the tube at its left end
must equal the rate at which it exits at the right.
Figure 15.12b shows a small fluid element just about to enter the flow tube, a process
that will take some time Dt. Suppose the fluid is moving at speed v1; since it takes time Dt
Two nearby streamlines to cross the tube end, its length is v1 Dt. With cross-sectional area A 1, length v1 Dt, and
define a flow tube. density r1, the mass of the entering fluid is m 5 r1A 1v1 Dt.
(a) Another fluid element is shown just about to leave the tube. Suppose it has the same
vr1 mass m as the entering fluid element. Then it must exit the tube in the same time Dt in or-
vr2 der to keep the total mass in the tube constant. Its mass can be written as m 5 r2A 2v2 Dt.
l1 A1
l2 Equating our two expressions for m shows that r1v1A 1 5 r2v2A 2. Since the endpoints
v16t A2 of the tube are arbitrary, we conclude that the quantity rvA must have the same value any-
v2 6 t
These fluid elements have the
where along the flow tube:
same mass, so they take the same
time Dt to enter and exit the tube. rvA 5 constant along a flow tube a continuity equation, b (15.4)
(b) any fluid

FIGURE 15.12 In steady flow, fluid enters Equation 15.4 is the continuity equation, which expresses the conservation of mass in
and leaves a flow tube at the same rate. steady fluid flow. The units of rvA here are 1kg/m321m/s21m22, or simply kg/s. This
 15.4 Fluid Dynamics 253

quantity is therefore the mass flow rate or mass of fluid per unit time passing through the
flow tube. Equation 15.4 says that the mass flow rate is constant in steady flow.
For a liquid, the density r is constant, and the continuity equation becomes simply

continuity equation,
vA 5 constant along a flow tube a b (15.5)
liquid

Now the constant quantity is just vA, with units of 1m/s21m22, or m3/s. This is the volume
flow rate. Equation 15.5 makes sense: Where a liquid’s cross-sectional area is large, it flows
slowly to transport a given volume of fluid per unit time. But in a constricted area, it must
flow faster to carry the same volume. With a gas, obeying Equation 15.4 but not necessarily
15.5, the situation is slightly more ambiguous because density variations also play a role.
For flow speeds below the speed of sound in a gas, it turns out that smaller area implies a
higher flow speed just as for a liquid. But when the gas flow speed exceeds the sound speed,
density changes become so great that flow speed actually decreases with smaller area.

EXAMPLE 15.5 Using the Continuity Equation: Ausable Chasm

The Ausable River in upstate New York is about 40 m wide. Under and depth d. Then Equation 15.5 becomes v1w1d1 5 v2w2 d2, where the
typical early summer conditions, it’s 2.2 m deep and flows at 4.5 m/s. subscripts indicate values upstream and in the gorge. Our plan is to
Just before it reaches Lake Champlain, the river enters Ausable solve for the depth d2 in the gorge.
Chasm, a deep gorge only 3.7 m wide. If the flow rate in the gorge is
6.0 m/s, how deep is the river at this point? Assume a rectangular EVALUATE Solving gives
cross section with uniform flow speed. v1w1d1 14.5 m/s2140 m212.2 m2
d2 5 5 5 18 m
INTERPRET The concept behind this problem is mass conservation,
v2w2 16.0 m/s213.7 m2
embodied in the continuity equation for a liquid, Equation 15.5. Since
ASSESS This is about 60 feet, quite a depth for a small river! But
the flow is uniform over the river’s cross section, we can treat the
conservation of mass requires it. In the gorge, the river is much
entire river as a single flow tube.
narrower but its flow speed is only a little higher, so it’s got to be a
DEVELOP Equation 15.5 says that the product vA is constant. For the lot deeper. ■
river’s rectangular cross section, the area A is the product of width w

Conservation of Energy: Bernoulli’s Equation

We now turn to conservation of fluid energy. Figure 15.13 shows the same fluid element as This is the vr2
same fluid
it enters and again as it leaves a flow tube. If it enters with speed v1 and leaves with speed v2, element. y2
A2 p2 A2
the change in its kinetic energy is
D x2
DK 5 12 m1v22 2 v122
p1A1 vr1
The work-energy theorem (Equation 6.14) equates this change to the net work done on the A1 y1
fluid element. As the element enters the tube, it’s subject to a pressure force p1A 1 from the D x1
fluid to its left. This external force acts over the length Dx1 of the fluid element as it FIGURE 15.13 A flow tube showing the same
enters, so it does work W1 5 p1A 1 Dx1. Similarly, as it leaves the tube, the fluid element fluid element entering and leaving. The work
experiences a force p2A 2 from the fluid to its right. Because this force is opposite the done by pressure and gravitational forces
flow direction, it does negative work W2 5 2p2A 2 Dx2. External forces from adjacent equals the change in kinetic energy of the
flow tubes act at right angles to the flow, so they do no work. Finally, the fluid element fluid element.
rises a distance y2 2 y1 as it traverses the tube; therefore, gravity does negative work
Wg 5 2mg1y2 2 y12. Summing these three contributions and applying the work-energy
theorem, we have W1 1 W2 1 Wg 5 DK, or p1A 1 Dx1 2 p2A 2 Dx2 2 mg1y2 2 y12 5
1 2
2 m v2 2 v1 .
1 2
2 The quantities A 1 Dx1 and A 2 Dx2 are the volumes of the fluid element as it
enters and leaves the flow, respectively. If we restrict ourselves to incompressible fluids,
then those volumes are equal. Dividing through by this common volume V 5 A Dx and
noting that m/V 5 r, we get p1 1 12 rv12 1 rgy1 5 p2 1 12 rv22 1 rgy2, or

p 1 12 rv2 1 rgy 5 constant along a flow tube 1Bernoulli’s equation2 (15.6)

This is Bernoulli’s equation, after the Swiss mathematician Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782).
254 Chapter 15 Fluid Motion

What do the terms in Bernoulli’s equation mean? The quantity 12 rv2 looks like kinetic
energy 12 mv2, except it has mass per unit volume r instead of mass m. It’s therefore the
kinetic energy per unit volume, or kinetic-energy density. Similarly, rgy is the gravita-
tional potential energy per unit volume. Pressure p, too, has the units of energy density
and represents internal energy of the fluid. Bernoulli’s equation therefore says that the
total energy per unit volume of fluid is conserved as the fluid moves.
Bernoulli’s equation in the form 15.6 applies to incompressible fluids. It neglects fluid
friction, also called viscosity, that may dissipate fluid kinetic energy. It also neglects en-
ergy transfers associated with machinery such as turbines or pumps that may extract or
add to the fluid’s energy. Engineers often include those effects in Bernoulli’s equation.

15.5 Applications of Fluid Dynamics

The laws of mass and energy conservation that we just derived for fluids allow us to ana-
lyze a wide variety of natural and technological phenomena. We’ll usually need both the
continuity equation and Bernoulli’s equation, considering the values of the appropriate
constant quantities at two points in a fluid flow. As you study the examples and applica-
tions that follow, remember that they’re ultimately based in the same Newtonian princi-
ples we’ve been using to describe mechanical systems.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 15.1 Fluid Dynamics

The continuity equation and Bernoulli’s equation are the keys to solving problems in fluid
dynamics. Here’s a strategy that will help you focus these two equations on a problem.
INTERPRET The form of Bernoulli’s equation we derived applies only to incompressible fluids.
So be sure you’re dealing either with a liquid or with a gas flowing at speeds well below its
sound speed.
DEVELOP
● Identify a flow tube. This may be a physical pipe or other structure, or a mathematical tube
bounded by streamlines.
● Draw a sketch of the situation, showing the flow tube.
● Determine the point where you’re interested in solving for some aspect of the flow, and
another point where you know the quantities that go into the continuity equation and
Bernoulli’s equation. Note those quantities that you know at each point. Mark the two points
on your sketch.
● Write the continuity equation and Bernoulli’s equation, with the known quantities forming
the terms on one side and the other side containing your unknown(s).
EVALUATE Evaluate by solving your equations for the unknown quantity or quantities. Often this
will involve solving the continuity equation first and then using the result in Bernoulli’s equation.
ASSESS Ask whether your result makes sense. Does flow speed increase at a constriction? Does
pressure go up when flow speed drops, or vice versa? Are there any limitations that apply, or
insights to be gained?

EXAMPLE 15.6 Bernoulli’s Equation: Draining a Tank

A large, open tank is filled to height h with liquid of density r. Find The surface area at
the speed of liquid emerging from a small hole at the base of the tank. the top is much larger
than at the hole, so up
here fluid is hardly
INTERPRET We’re dealing with a flow of water, an incompressible liq-
moving.
uid. So we can apply our problem-solving strategy for fluid dynamics.

DEVELOP We take the tank to be a rather oddly shaped flow tube,

and Fig. 15.14 is our sketch. We’re interested in the water’s veloc-
ity at the hole, so the hole is one of the points we’ll use in the fluid FIGURE 15.14 How fast does the liquid emerge from the tank?
equations. Since the hole is open to the atmosphere, the pressure at
 15.5 Applications of Fluid Dynamics 255

the hole is atmospheric pressure pa. The top surface is also open to ASSESS This is the same result we would get by dropping an object
the atmosphere, so here the pressure is also pa. Now, because the from a height h—and for the same reason: conservation of energy.
hole is very small in relation to the tank, the water level drops only Draining a gram of water from the hole is energetically equivalent to
slowly. Therefore, we can make the approximation v 5 0 at the removing a gram of water from the top and dropping it. Just as the
top—and thus we know both p and v at the top. Although we didn’t speed of a falling object is independent of its mass, so the speed of
write a formal equation here, that approximation follows from the the liquid is independent of its density. As the liquid drains, of course,
continuity equation because the ratio of hole to top surface area is the height decreases and so does the flow rate. That’s a calculus chal-
so small. We also need the potential-energy terms in Bernoulli’s lenge you can try in Problem 67.
equation. If we take y 5 0 at the hole, then those terms are zero at
the hole and rgh at the top. Then Bernoulli’s equation, ✓TIP Reasonable Approximations
p 1 12 rv2 1 rgy 5 constant, becomes
Making reasonable approximations is often important in solving
pa 1 rgh 5 pa 1 12 rvhole
2
realistic problems. Look for opportunities to approximate a physi-
where the terms on the left are at the top surface and those on the right cal quantity, especially when other terms appear more significant.
are at the hole. We’ve taken care of the continuity equation through But always be sure that your approximations are reasonable. In this
our assumption of negligible flow speed at the top. example, we reasoned that the fluid’s speed at the top of the tank
was negligible because it’s proportional to the ratio of the hole to
EVALUATE Atmospheric pressure cancels, and we solve for the un- the top surface area, a very small value.
known flow velocity at the hole:
vhole 5 12gh ■

Venturi Flows and the Bernoulli Effect

A constriction in a pipe carrying incompressible fluid requires that the flow speed increase
in order to maintain constant mass flow. Such a constriction is a venturi. Because of the
increased speed, Bernoulli’s equation requires the pressure to be lower in the venturi. The
next example shows how this effect provides a measure of fluid flow.

EXAMPLE 15.7 Measuring Flow Speed: A Venturi Flowmeter

An incompressible fluid of density r flows through a horizontal pipe pipe, so any point outside the venturi will do. The other point should
of cross-sectional area A 1. The pipe has a venturi constriction of area be in the venturi. The continuity equation then reads v1A 1 5 v2A 2,
A 2, and a gauge measures the pressure difference Dp between the un- where the subscript 1 refers to the unconstricted pipe and 2 to the ven-
constricted pipe and the venturi. Find an expression for the flow speed turi. The pipe is horizontal, so the potential-energy term rgh in
in the unconstricted pipe. Bernoulli’s equation is the same on both sides, and it drops out.
Bernoulli’s equation then reads
INTERPRET This is a problem about incompressible fluid flow, so our
p1 1 12 rv12 5 p2 1 12 rv22
strategy applies.
EVALUATE We can eliminate the velocity v2 by solving the continuity
DEVELOP For a flow tube, we choose a section of pipe that includes
equation: v2 5 1A 1 /A 22v1 5 bv1, where we defined b as the ratio of the
the venturi. Figure 15.15 is a sketch showing some streamlines through
larger to smaller area. Using this result in Bernoulli’s equation gives
this tube. We’re interested in the flow velocity in the unconstricted
p1 1 12 rv12 5 p2 1 12 rb2v12. In terms of the pressure difference
Gauge measures Dp.
Dp 5 p1 2 p2, this becomes Dp 5 12 rb2v12 2 12 rv12 5 12 rv121b2 2 12.
We then solve for v1 to get our answer:
2 Dp
v1 5
B r1b2 2 12

ASSESS Make sense? The pressure difference results from the change
in speed; no flow, no pressure difference. So it’s reasonable that v in-
creases with Dp. But a given pressure difference Dp is easier to get
with a larger area ratio b, so flow speed depends inversely on b.
Finally, the greater inertia of a denser fluid means a given pressure dif-
ference produces less acceleration, implying a lower initial speed;
FIGURE 15.15 Our sketch of a venturi flowmeter. that’s why r appears in the denominator. ■
256 Chapter 15 Fluid Motion

High v, low p The occurrence of lower pressure with higher flow speeds, and vice versa—the Bernoulli
effect—has numerous manifestations. The dirt around a prairie dog’s hole is mounded up in
a way that forces wind to accelerate over the hole, resulting in lower pressure above the hole.
Biologists speculate that prairie dogs have evolved this design to provide natural ventilation.
The Bernoulli effect can be strikingly counterintuitive. Figure 15.16 shows a ping-pong ball
suspended by downward airflow in an inverted funnel. Rapid divergence of the flow results
in lower speed and therefore higher pressure below the ball.

GOT IT? 15.2 A large tank is filled with liquid to the level h1 shown in the figure. It
drains through a small pipe whose diameter varies; emerging from each section of pipe
are vertical tubes open to the atmosphere. Although the picture shows the same liquid
level in each pipe, they really won’t be the same. Rank order the levels h1 through h4.

h1 h2 h3 h4

Low v, high p

FIGURE 15.16 A ping-pong ball supported by

downward-flowing air. High-velocity flow is
inside the narrow part of the funnel.

Flight and Lift

By Newton’s third law, Airplanes, helicopters, and birds fly using forces resulting from their dynamic interaction
air pushes up on blades
when . . .
with the air. Hydrofoil boats, water skis, and sailboards have analogous interactions with
water. Projectiles such as baseballs, though not supported by the air, have their trajectories
substantially modified by aerodynamic forces.
One of the simplest examples of aerodynamic lift is the helicopter. Its whirling blades
Airflow are tilted so they force air downward as they move, just like a giant fan (Fig. 15.17). By
. . . blades push down Newton’s third law, the air exerts an upward force on the blades, ultimately supporting
on air. the helicopter. An airplane wing works in the same way, except that it moves forward in
a straight line instead of describing a circle. Wings are shaped to maximize the down-
FIGURE 15.17 Newton’s third law explains the
helicopter’s flight. ward deflection of the air even with the wing horizontal, but in principle even a flat board
would function as a wing if it were tilted to the oncoming air. Figure 15.18 shows the air-
flow around a wing. Note how the flow, initially horizontal, leaves the wing moving
downward—a clear indication that the wing has exerted a downward force on the air. The
The wing deflects the air third law requires a corresponding upward force, and that’s what supports the plane.
downward . . . Baseball’s “curve ball” provides another example of aerodynamic lift. Figure 15.19a is a
r
F top view of the airflow around a baseball that’s not spinning; the flow is symmetric and the
air isn’t deflected. But if the ball spins as shown in Fig. 15.19b, air is dragged around the
ball and deflected. A corresponding third-law force then acts on the ball, curving its path.
Bernoulli’s equation is frequently invoked to explain lift forces. It’s true, as Figs. 15.18
and 15.19b suggest, that flow speeds are higher, and therefore—according to Bernoulli’s
equation—pressures are lower on top of a wing or spinning ball. Forces associated with
. . . so the air exerts an that pressure difference provide the lift, so Bernoulli can help explain what’s going on.
upward force on the wing.
But those pressure differences are manifestations of a simpler underlying phenomenon—
FIGURE 15.18 Flow past a wing. namely, the paired forces of Newton’s third law.
Air deflected; third-law
force on ball
Symmetric flow;
r
air undeflected F

(a) (b)

FIGURE 15.19 Top views of airflow around a baseball: (a) no spin; (b) spinning, thus a curve ball.
 15.6 Viscosity and Turbulence 257

APPLICATION Wind Energy

Wind turbines extract kinetic energy from moving air. In a wind with speed v,
Bernoulli’s equation shows that the air has kinetic-energy density 12 rv2. A chunk
of air that passes through a wind turbine in time Dt has length v Dt and volume
vA Dt, where A is the area swept out by the blades. The kinetic energy in this vol-
ume is the energy density times the volume: DK 5 112 rv221vA Dt2 5 12 rv3A Dt.
Dividing by A Dt gives the energy per time per unit area—that is, the power per
unit area available from the wind:
wind power per unit area 5 12 rv3
Unfortunately, we can’t extract all this energy because then the air would
come to a complete stop behind the turbine, halting the flow. A careful analysis
shows that the maximum rate for wind-energy extraction is 278 rv3, about 59%
of the wind’s energy. Given air’s density of 1.2 kg/m3, this means a 10-m/s
wind amounts to some 350 W/m2. The factor v3 shows that the available power
increases rapidly at higher speeds. The best practical wind turbines can achieve
about 80% of the theoretical maximum. Wind is the fastest-growing compo-
nent of the world’s energy supply, and in some European countries it provides
as much as 20% of the electrical energy.

15.6 Viscosity and Turbulence

Moving fluid interacts with the surfaces it contacts, resulting in a kind of fluid friction
called viscosity. Viscosity also results from the transfer of momentum among adjacent
layers within a fluid. Viscosity is especially important right near fluid boundaries because
viscous forces bring the fluid to a complete stop at the boundary (Fig. 15.20). This bound-
ary effect produces drag forces on objects moving through fluids—but it’s the same drag
at the surfaces of airplane and ship propellers that exerts a force on the fluid. Without vis-
cosity, propellers would spin uselessly and planes and ships would go nowhere.
Viscosity depends on fluid properties and dimensions. Honey is more viscous than wa-
ter, but at the tiny scales of a human capillary or a bacterium wiggling its flagella for
propulsion, water too can be extremely viscous. Viscosity is also important in stabilizing
flows that would otherwise become turbulent, or chaotically unsteady. Turbulence results
from the growth of waves that gain energy at the expense of the flow, turning a smooth
flow into a chaotic mess (Fig. 15.21). Turbulence is still not fully understood and presents
ongoing challenges to scientists and engineers.

(a)
Right at wall, fluid is at rest.

(b)

FIGURE 15.20 Velocity profiles in FIGURE 15.21 Smooth flow becomes

(a) inviscid and (b) viscous flow. turbulent.
CHAPTER 15 SUMMARY
Big Picture
Fluid is matter that readily deforms and flows under the influence of forces. Increasing
Pressure, density, and flow velocity characterize fluids. Liquids and slowly p
moving gases are incompressible, meaning their density is essentially con-
stant. A fluid that isn’t moving is in hydrostatic equilibrium. In the presence
of gravity, equilibrium requires that fluid pressure increase with depth. A solid A liquid takes A gas fills
maintains its shape. the shape of its container. a closed container.

Key Concepts and Equations

Pressure is the force per unit area: Streamlines represent a moving fluid.
p 5 F/A. The pressure in a fluid exerts
Closely spaced:
itself equally in all directions. high v
Widely spaced:
low v
Flow tube

The continuity equation describes the conservation of mass along a flow tube:

p rvA 5 constant 1any fluid2

vA 5 constant 1incompressible fluid2

Bernoulli’s equation describes the conservation of energy: Viscosity, or fluid friction, is especially impor-
tant when fluids interact with solid objects.
p1 1
2 rv
2
1 rgy 5 constant 1incompressible fluid, neglecting viscosity2

Applications
!
Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyancy force Fb due to pres- Bernoulli’s principle helps explain lift forces, although ultimately
sure on an object is equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. For an these are based in Newton’s third law.
object less dense than a fluid, the buoyancy force exceeds gravity and
Net upward
the object floats; otherwise, it sinks or is in neutral buoyancy. pressure force
on wing r
F High v, low p
r
Fb
Floating:
r
Here r < rfluid Submerged volume Wing
Fb and Fb > Fg, so displaces water
the object rises. whose weight equals
object’s weight.
r
Fg Low v, high p
r Wing deflects air
Fg downward; Newton’s
third law gives upward
force on wing.
 Exercises and Problems 259

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 16. Atomic nuclei have densities around 1017 kg/m3, while water’s
density is 103 kg/m3. Roughly what fraction of water’s volume is
1. Why do your ears “pop” when you drive up a mountain? not empty space?
2. Commercial aircraft cabins are usually pressurized to the pres- 17. Compressed air with mass 8.8 kg is stored in a 0.050-m3 cylinder.
sure of the atmosphere at about 2 km above sea level. Why don’t (a) What’s the density of the compressed air? (b) What volume
you feel the lower pressure on your entire body? would the same gas occupy at a typical atmospheric density of
3. Water pressure at the bottom of the ocean arises from the weight 1.2 kg/m2?
of the overlying water. Does this mean that the water exerts pres- 18. The pressure unit torr is defined as the pressure that will support
sure only in the downward direction? Explain. a column of mercury 1 mm high. Meteorologists often give baro-
4. The three containers in Fig. 15.22 are filled to the same level and metric pressure in inches of mercury, defined analogously.
are open to the atmosphere. How do the pressures at the bottoms Express each of these in SI units. (Hint: Mercury’s density is
of the three containers compare? 1.363104 kg/m3.)
19. Measurement of small pressure differences—for example, be-
tween the interior of a chimney and the ambient atmosphere—is
often given in inches of water, where 1 in. of water is the pres-
sure that will support a 1-in.-high water column. Express this in
SI units.
20. What’s the weight of a column of air with cross-sectional area
FIGURE 15.22 For Thought and Discussion 4 1 m2 extending from Earth’s surface to the top of the atmosphere?
21. A 4300-kg circus elephant balances on one foot. If the foot is a cir-
5. Why is it easier to float in the ocean than in fresh water? cle 30 cm in diameter, what pressure does it exert on the ground?
6. Figure 15.23 shows a cork suspended from the bottom of a sealed 22. You unbend a paper clip made from 1.5-mm-diameter wire and
container of water. The container is on a turntable rotating about push the end against the wall. What force must you apply to give
a vertical axis, as shown. Explain the position of the cork. a pressure of 120 atm?
Section 15.2 Hydrostatic Equilibrium
v
23. What’s the density of a fluid whose pressure increases at the rate
of 100 kPa for every 6.0 m of depth?
24. A research submarine can withstand an external pressure of 50 MPa
when its internal pressure is 100 kPa. How deep can it dive?
25. Scuba equipment provides a diver with air at the same pressure
as the surrounding water. But at pressures higher than about
1 MPa, the nitrogen in air becomes dangerously narcotic. At
what depth does nitrogen narcosis become a hazard?
26. A vertical tube open at the top contains 5.0 cm of oil with den-
FIGURE 15.23 For Thought and Discussion 6 sity 0.82 g/cm3, floating on 5.0 cm of water. Find the gauge pres-
7. Meteorologists in the United States usually report barometer sure at the bottom of the tube.
readings in inches. What are they talking about? 27. A child attempts to drink water through a 100-cm-long straw but
8. A mountain stream, frothy with entrained air bubbles, presents a finds that the water rises only 75 cm. By how much has the child
serious hazard to hikers who fall into it, for they may sink in the reduced the pressure in her mouth below atmospheric pressure?
stream where they would float in calm water. Why? 28. Barometric pressure in the eye of a hurricane is 0.91 atm (27.2 in.
9. Why are dams thicker at the bottom than at the top? of mercury). How does the level of the ocean surface under the
10. It’s not possible to breathe through a snorkel from a depth greater eye compare with the level under a distant fair-weather region
than a meter or so. Why not? where the pressure is 1.0 atm?
11. A helium-filled balloon stops rising long before it reaches the Section 15.3 Archimedes’ Principle and Buoyancy
“top” of the atmosphere, but a cork released from the bottom of a 29. On land, the most massive concrete block you can carry is 25 kg.
lake rises all the way to the surface. Why the difference? Given concrete’s 2200-kg/m3 density, how massive a block could
12. A barge filled with steel beams overturns in a lake, spilling its you carry underwater?
cargo. Does the water level in the lake rise, fall, or remain the same? 30. A 5.4-g jewel has apparent weight 32 mN when submerged in
13. Why do airplanes take off into the wind? water. Could the jewel be a diamond (density 3.51 g/cm3)?
14. Is the flow speed behind a wind turbine greater or less than in 31. Styrofoam’s density is 160 kg/m3. What percent error is intro-
front? Is the pressure behind the turbine higher or lower than in duced by weighing a Styrofoam block in air (density 1.2 kg/m3),
front? Is this a violation of Bernoulli’s principle? Explain. which exerts an upward buoyancy force, rather than in vacuum?
32. A steel drum has volume 0.23 m3 and mass 16 kg. Will it float
Exercises and Problems in water when filled with (a) water or (b) gasoline (density
860 kg/m3)?
Exercises Sections 15.4 and 15.5 Fluid Dynamics and Applications
Section 15.1 Density and Pressure 33. Water flows through a 2.5-cm-diameter pipe at 1.8 m/s. If the
15. The density of molasses is 1600 kg/m3. Find the mass of the pipe narrows to 2.0-cm diameter, what’s the flow speed in the
molasses in a 0.75-L jar. constriction?
260 Chapter 15 Fluid Motion

34. Show that pressure has the units of energy density. would be its apparent weight if it were made of (a) pure gold
35. A typical mass flow rate for the Mississippi River is 1.83107 kg/s. and (b) 75% gold and 25% silver, by volume? The densities
Find (a) the volume flow rate and (b) the flow speed in a region of gold, silver, and water are 19.3 g/cm3, 10.5 g/cm3, and
where the river is 2.0 km wide and averages 6.1 m deep. 1.00 g/cm3, respectively.
36. A fire hose 10 cm in diameter delivers water at 15 kg/s. The hose 47. You’re testifying in a drunk-driving case for which a blood alco-
terminates in a 2.5-cm-diameter nozzle. What are the flow speeds hol measurement is unavailable. The accused weighs 140 lb,
(a) in the hose and (b) at the nozzle? and would be legally impaired after consuming 36 oz of beer.
37. A typical human aorta, the main artery from the heart, is 1.8 cm The accused was observed at a beach party where a keg with
BIO in diameter and carries blood at 35 cm/s. Find the flow speed interior diameter 40 cm was floating in the lake to keep it cool.
around a clot that reduces the flow area by 80%. After the accused’s drinking stint, the keg floated 1.2 cm higher
than before. Beer’s density is essentially that of water. Does your
Problems testimony help or hurt the accused’s case?
38. When a couple with total mass 120 kg lies on a waterbed, pres- 48. A glass beaker measures 10 cm high by 4.0 cm in diameter.
sure in the bed increases by 4700 Pa. What surface area of the Empty, it floats in water with one-third of its height submerged.
two bodies is in contact with the bed? How many 15-g rocks can be placed in the beaker before it sinks?
39. A fully loaded Volvo station wagon has mass 1950 kg. If each of 49. A typical supertanker has mass 2.03106 kg and carries twice that
its four tires is inflated to a gauge pressure of 230 kPa, what’s the much oil. If 9.0 m of the ship is submerged when it’s empty,
total tire area in contact with the road? what’s the minimum water depth needed for it to navigate when
40. You’re stuck in the exit row on a long flight, and you suddenly full? Assume the sides of the ship are vertical.
worry that your seatmate, who’s next to the window, might pull 50. A balloon contains gas of density rg and is to lift a mass M, in-
the emergency window inward while you’re in flight. The win- cluding the balloon but not the gas. Show that the minimum mass
dow measures 50 cm by 90 cm. Cabin pressure is 0.75 atm, and of gas required is mg 5 Mrg/1ra 2 rg2, where ra is the atmos-
atmospheric pressure at the plane’s altitude is 0.25 atm. Should pheric density.
you worry? 51. (a) How much helium (density 0.18 kg/m3 ) is needed to lift a
41. A vertical tube 1.0 cm in diameter and open at the top contains balloon carrying two people, if the total mass of people, basket,
5.0 g of oil (density 0.82 g/cm3) floating on 5.0 g of water. Find the and balloon (but not gas) is 280 kg? (b) Repeat for a hot-air bal-
gauge pressure (a) at the oil-water interface and (b) at the bottom. loon whose air density is 10% less than that of the surrounding
42. Dam breaks present a serious risk of widespread property dam- atmosphere.
age and loss of life. You’re asked to assess a 1500-m-wide dam 52. A 55-kg swimmer climbs onto a Styrofoam block of density
holding back a lake 95 m deep. The dam was built to withstand a 160 kg/m3. If the water level comes right to the top of the Styro-
force of 100 GN, which is supposed to be at least 50% over the foam, what’s the block’s volume?
force it actually experiences. Should the dam be reinforced? 53. If the blood pressure in the unobstructed artery of Exercise 37 is
(Hint: You’ll need your calculus skills.) BIO 16 kPa gauge (about 120 mm of mercury, the unit commonly re-
43. A U-shaped tube open at both ends contains water and a quan- ported by doctors), what will it be at the clot? (Note: Blood’s
tity of oil occupying a 2.0-cm length of the tube, as shown in density is 1.06 g/cm3.)
Figure 15.24. If the oil’s density is 82% of water’s, what’s the 54. You’re a consultant for maple syrup producers. They tap maple
height difference h? trees and collect sap with plastic tubing that connects to a com-
mon pipe delivering sap to an evaporator. There it’s boiled to pro-
duce thick, tasty syrup. The system can be modeled as a pipe
with one end, of cross-sectional area A, exposed to atmospheric
h5?
Oil 2.0 cm pressure. The pipe drops through a vertical distance h1 while its
area decreases to A/2, as shown in Fig. 15.25. A small vertical
glass tube extends from the lower portion, as shown, and is open
Water
to atmospheric pressure. You’re asked to provide a formula for
the volume flow rate of the sap as a function of the height h2 of
sap in the tube.
FIGURE 15.24 Problem 43

A
44. You’re a robotics engineer designing a hydraulic system to move
a robotic arm. The hydraulic cylinder that drives the arm has
diameter 5.0 cm and can exert a maximum force of 5.6 kN. h1
h2
Hydraulic tubing comes rated in multiples of 1/2 MPa, and for
safety, you’re to specify tubing capable of withstanding 50% 1–
2A
greater pressure than it will ever experience in use. What pres-
sure rating do you specify? FIGURE 15.25 Problem 54
45. A garage lift has a 45-cm-diameter piston supporting the load.
Compressed air with maximum pressure 500 kPa is applied to a 55. The water in a garden hose is at 140 kPa gauge pressure and is mov-
small piston at the other end of the hydraulic system. What’s the ing at negligible speed. The hose terminates in a sprinkler consist-
maximum mass the lift can support? ing of many small holes. Find the maximum height reached by the
46. Archimedes purportedly used his principle to verify that the water emerging from the holes.
king’s crown was pure gold by weighing the crown submerged 56. The venturi flowmeter shown in Fig. 15.26 is used to measure the
in water. Suppose the crown’s actual weight was 25.0 N. What flow rate of water in a solar collector system. The flowmeter is
 Exercises and Problems 261

inserted in a pipe with diameter 1.9 cm; at the venturi the diameter 64. Figure 15.28 shows a simplified diagram of a Pitot tube, used for
is 0.64 cm. The manometer tube contains oil with density 0.82 measuring aircraft speeds. The tube is mounted on the aircraft
times that of water. If the difference in oil levels on the two sides with opening A at right angles to the flow and opening B pointing
of the manometer tube is 1.4 cm, what’s the volume flow rate? into the flow. The gauge prevents airflow through the tube. Use
Bernoulli’s equation to show that the plane’s speed relative to the
Oil air is v 5 12 Dp/r, where Dp is the pressure difference between
the tubes and r is the density of air. (Hint: The flow must be
stopped at B, but continues past A with its normal speed.)

Water Pressure
difference
indicator
Flow
Fuselage

A
FIGURE 15.26 Problem 56 Airflow

B
57. A 1.0-cm-diameter venturi flowmeter is inserted in a 2.0-cm-
diameter pipe carrying water (density 1000 kg/m3). Find (a) the
flow speed in the pipe and (b) the volume flow rate if the pres- FIGURE 15.28 Problem 64
sure difference between venturi and unconstricted pipe is 17 kPa.
58. A spherical rubber balloon with mass 0.85 g and diameter 30 cm 65. At a hearing on a proposed wind farm, a wind-energy advocate
is filled with helium (density 0.18 kg/m3). How many 1.0-g paper says an installation of 800 turbines, with blade diameter 95 m,
clips can you hang from the balloon before it loses buoyancy? could displace a 1-GW nuclear power plant. You’re asked if
59. Blood with density 1.06 g/cm3 and 10-kPa gauge pressure flows that’s really possible. How do you answer, given an average wind
BIO through an artery at 30 cm/s. It encounters a plaque deposit speed of 12 m/s and a turbine power output that averages 30% of
where the pressure drops by 5%. What fraction of the artery’s the theoretical maximum?
area is obstructed? 66. A pencil is weighted so it floats vertically with length L sub-
60. A venturi flowmeter in an oil pipeline has radius half that of the merged. It’s pushed vertically downward without being totally
pipe. Oil flows in the unconstricted pipe at 1.9 m/s. If the pres- submerged, then released. Show that it undergoes simple har-
sure difference between unconstricted flow and venturi is 16 kPa, monic motion with period T 5 2p 1L/g.
what’s the oil’s density? 67. A can of height h and cross-sectional area A 0 is initially full of
61. A drinking straw 20 cm long and 3.0 mm in diameter stands ver- water. A small hole of area A 1 V A 0 is cut in the bottom of the
tically in a cup of juice 8.0 cm in diameter. A section of straw can. Find an expression for the time it takes all the water to drain
6.5 cm long extends above the juice. A child sucks on the straw, from the can. (Hint: Call the water depth y, use the continuity
and the juice level begins dropping at 2.0 mm/s. (a) By how equation, and integrate.)
much does the pressure in the child’s mouth differ from atmos- 68. Density and pressure in Earth’s atmosphere are proportional:
pheric pressure? (b) What’s the greatest height above the water r 5 p/h0 g, where h0 5 8.2 km is a constant and g is the gravita-
surface from which the child could drink, assuming this same tional acceleration. (a) Integrate Equation 15.2 for this case to
mouth pressure? show that atmospheric pressure as a function of height h above
62. Water emerges from a faucet of diameter d0 in steady, near-vertical the surface is given by p 5 p0 e 2h/h0, where p0 is the surface pres-
flow with speed v0. Show that the diameter of the falling water col- sure. (b) At what height will the pressure have dropped to half its
umn is given by d 5 d03v02/1v02 1 2gh241/4, where h is the dis- surface value?
tance below the faucet (Fig. 15.27). 69. (a) Use the result of Problem 68 to express Earth’s atmospheric
density as a function of height. (b) Use your result from (a) to
find the height below which half of Earth’s atmospheric mass lies
(this will require integration).
70. A circular pan of liquid with density r is centered on a horizontal
turntable rotating with angular speed v, as shown in Fig. 15.29.
Atmospheric pressure is pa. Find expressions for (a) the pressure
at the bottom of the pan and (b) the height of the liquid surface as
functions of the distance r from the axis, given that the height at
the center is h0.

h0

FIGURE 15.27 Problem 62

v
63. Assuming normal atmospheric pressure, how massive an object
can a 5.0-cm-diameter suction cup support on a vertical wall, if
the coefficient of friction between cup and wall is 0.72? FIGURE 15.29 Problem 70
262 Chapter 15 Fluid Motion

71. A solid sphere of radius R and mass M has density r that varies Passage Problems
with distance r from the center: r 5 r0 er/R21. Find an expression Arterial stenosis is a constriction of an artery, often due to plaque
for the central density r0. buildup on the artery’s inner walls. Serious medical conditions can re-
72. The difference in air pressure between the inside and outside sult, depending on the affected artery. Stenosis of the carotid arteries
of a ball is a constant Dp. Show by direct integration that the that supply blood to the brain is a leading cause of stroke, while steno-
net pressure force on one hemisphere is pR2 Dp, with R the sis of the renal arteries can lead to kidney failure. Pulmonary artery
ball’s radius. stenosis results from birth defects, and can result in insufficient oxy-
73. Find the torque that the water exerts about the bottom edge of the gen supply. Because the heart has to work harder to get blood through
dam in Problem 42. a constricted artery, stenosis can contribute to high blood pressure.
74. One vertical wall of an above-ground swimming pool is a regular In answering the questions below, assume steady flow (which is
trapezoid, with one base 10 m long on level ground and the other true in arteries only on short timescales).
20 m long at a height of 3 m above it. If the pool is filled to the
78. How does the volume flow rate of blood at a stenosis compare
top with water, what’s the net fluid force on the wall? (Hint: Con-
with the rate in the surrounding artery?
sider both the force exerted by the water on one side of the wall
a. lower
and the force exerted by the atmosphere on the other.)
b. the same
75. You’re a private investigator assisting a large food manufacturer
c. higher
in tracking down counterfeit salad dressing. The genuine dress-
ing is by volume one part vinegar (density 1.0 g/cm3) to three 79. How does the blood flow speed at a stenosis compare with the
parts olive oil (density 0.92 g/cm3). The counterfeit dressing is speed in the surrounding artery?
diluted with water (density 1.0 g/cm3). You measure the density a. lower
of a dressing sample and find it to be 0.97 g/cm3. Has the dress- b. the same
ing been altered? c. higher
76. A plumber comes to your ancient apartment building where 80. Which of the following medical problems is more likely to occur?
you have a part-time job as caretaker. He’s checking the hot- a. An artery might collapse because of lower blood pressure at
water heating system, and notes that the pressure in the base- the stenosis.
ment is 18 psi. He asks, “How high is the building?” “Three b. An artery might burst because of higher blood pressure at the
stories, each about 11 feet,” you reply. “OK, about 33 feet,” he stenosis.
says, pausing to do some calculations in his head. “The pres- c. Neither; pressure at the stenosis is the same as in the
sure is fine,” he declares. On what basis did he come to that surrounding artery.
conclusion? 81. If the artery has circular cross section even at the stenosis, but the
77. Your class in naval architecture is working on the design for a diameter at the stenosis is half that in the surrounding artery, the
ship with a V-shaped cross section, as shown in Fig. 15.30. The blood flow speed in the stenosis will be
ship has total length L and keel-to-deck height h0. When empty, a. one-fourth that in the surrounding artery.
the distance from water line to keel is h1. You’re asked for the b. one-half that in the surrounding artery.
maximum load the ship can carry below deck if water is not to c. the same as in the surrounding artery.
come over the deck. Answer in terms of h0, h1, L, u, and the wa- d. 12 times that in the surrounding artery.
ter density r. e. four times that in the surrounding artery.

Answers to Chapter Questions

Answer to Chapter Opening Question
Because the density of ice is only slightly less than that of water.
h0 u
h1
Answers to GOT IT? Questions
15.1. (a), over the top, where the streamlines are closer together.
15.2. h1 . h4 . h2 . h3, reflecting higher pressure with lower flow
FIGURE 15.30 Problem 77 speed.
PART TWO SUMMARY

Oscillations, Waves, and Fluids

Part Two has extended Newtonian mechanics to systems that undergo concepts of force, mass, and energy and their roles in characterizing
oscillatory motion and wave motion or that involve the motion of motion.
fluids. Behind these more complex motions are the fundamental

Oscillatory motion describes the back-and-forth motion of a system A wave is a propagating disturbance Wavelength v
disturbed from a stable equilibrium. that carries energy but not matter. A h
Wave in x
When the force or torque tending to restore equilibrium is directly pro- Simple harmonic waves are sinusoidal: space
portional to the displacement, the result is simple harmonic motion. y1x, t2 5 A cos1kx 2 vt2
y
Angular frequency: v 5 2pf Period
F 5 2kx k
m A T
2p
Wave number: k 5
l Wave in t
x 5 A cos vt time
T 5 2p 1
A v Wave period: T 5 y
t
f

v l
v5 k Wave speed: v 5 5 5 fl
m k T

When waves overlap, the result is interference, Standing waves occur when the medium has limited extent. Only certain wavelengths and
which is constructive when the waves reinforce frequencies are allowed, depending on the medium’s length:
and destructive when they tend to cancel.
Nodal lines: Large amplitude: Two of the
destructive constructive allowed standing
interference interference waves on a string
fixed at both ends

This wavelength
isn’t allowed.

Fluids in hydrostatic equilibrium exhibit a Moving fluids obey conservation of mass and, in the absence of fluid friction (viscosity), they
depth-dependent pressure
! that results in an up- also conserve energy.
ward buoyancy force Fb.
In fluid dynamics, the continuity equation and Bernoulli’s equation express these conserva-
Archimedes’ principle states
r
Fb tion laws. Both equations hold along a flow tube:
that the buoyancy force is
equal to the weight of the dis- Continuity: rvA 5 constant Closely spaced:
placed fluid. high v
Bernoulli: Widely spaced:
r low v
Fg p 1 1/2rv 1 rgy 5 constant
2
Flow tube

Part 2 Challenge Problem d

A cylindrical log of total mass M and uniform diameter d has an uneven mass distribution that causes it to float in a vertical
position, as shown in the figure. (a) Find an expression for the length L of the submerged portion of the log when it’s float- L
ing in equilibrium, in terms of M, d, and the water density r. (b) If the log is displaced vertically from its equilibrium posi-
tion and released, it will undergo simple harmonic motion. Find an expression for the period of this motion, neglecting
viscosity and other frictional effects.
 PART THREE OVERVIEW

Thermodynamics

umanity consumes energy at the prodigious rate of some 1013 watts. Nearly all This huge steam turbine converts the

H that energy comes from the combustion of fossil fuels—a process governed by
the laws of thermodynamics. Engines that extract mechanical energy from the heat
energy of high-pressure steam to mechani-
cal energy and then electricity. Systems like
this one produce nearly all the world’s
of burning fuels propel our cars, trucks, and airplanes, and produce most of our electrical energy, and their operation and
electricity. Despite the efforts of the cleverest engineers, the laws of thermodynamics efficiency are governed by the laws of
thermodynamics.
set fundamental limitations on our ability to convert heat to mechanical energy. Many
of the energy and environmental challenges humanity faces today are grounded in
thermodynamics.
Many natural systems are also thermodynamic. Without the Sun’s energy, radiated
across a hundred million miles of empty space, Earth would be a lifeless, frozen rock.
Heat flowing throughout Earth, its oceans, and its atmosphere governs processes
ranging from continental drift to ocean currents to weather and climate. Concern
over human-induced climate change is rooted in thermodynamic properties of the
atmosphere as they affect thermal energy flows. On a grander scale, thermodynamic
principles govern much of the energy that flows throughout the universe.
Thermodynamics—the study of heat and its connection to the all-important
concept of energy—is the subject of the next four chapters.

264
 16 Temperature and Heat

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Explain the meanings of temperature
and heat and the difference between
them (16.1).
■ Work with different temperature
scales (16.1).
■ Calculate the equilibrium tempera-
ture of a mixture (16.2).
■ Evaluate heat loss from buildings
and other systems (16.3).
■ Calculate radiant-heat transfer (16.3).
■ Determine a system’s temperature
when it’s in thermal-energy balance
(16.4).
How does this infrared photo reveal heat
loss from the house? And how can you
tell that the car was recently driven?

Y our own body gives you a good sense of “hot” and “cold.” Questions about heat and tempera-
ture are ultimately about energy, and these concepts are crucial to understanding the
energy flows that drive natural systems like Earth’s climate and technologies such as engines,
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ The concept of energy is the ultimate
basis for understanding heat and
power plants, and refrigerators. temperature (6.3, 7.1, 7.3).
Properties like mass and kinetic energy apply equally to microscopic atoms and molecules ■ You should be comfortable express-
and to cars and planets. But other properties, including temperature and pressure, apply only to ing energies in different units (6.3).
macroscopic systems. It makes no sense to talk about the temperature or pressure of a single air
molecule. Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with these macroscopic prop-
erties. Ultimately, the thermodynamic behavior of matter follows from the motions of its
constituent particles in response to the laws of mechanics. Statistical mechanics relates the
macroscopic description of matter to the underlying microscopic processes. Historically, thermo-
dynamics developed before the atomic theory of matter was fully established. The subsequent
explanation of thermodynamics through statistical mechanics—the mechanics of atoms and
molecules—was a triumph for physics.

265
266 Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat

16.1 Heat, Temperature, and Thermodynamic

Equilibrium
If A and C are placed in Take a bottle of soda from the refrigerator, and eventually it reaches room temperature. At
thermal contact, their that point soda and room are in thermodynamic equilibrium, a state in which their
Systems A and C macroscopic properties
are each in don’t change—showing macroscopic properties are no longer changing. To check for thermodynamic equilibrium
thermodynamic that they’re already in we can consider any macroscopic property—length, volume, pressure, electrical resist-
equilibrium with B. equilibrium. ance, whatever. If any macroscopic property changes when two systems are placed to-
gether, then they weren’t originally in thermodynamic equilibrium. When changes cease,
the systems have reached equilibrium.
A B C A C The phrase “placed together” here has a definite meaning, stated more precisely as
“placed in thermal contact.” Two systems are in thermal contact if heating one of them
results in macroscopic changes in the other. If that doesn’t readily happen—for example,
with a Styrofoam cup of coffee and its surroundings—then the systems are thermally
(a) (b)
insulated.
FIGURE 16.1 The zeroth law of thermodynamics. We’re now ready to define temperature: Two systems have the same temperature if
they are in thermodynamic equilibrium. Consider two systems A and C in thermal con-
tact with a third system B but not with each other (Fig. 16.1a). Even though they’re not in
direct contact, A and C have the same temperature; that is, if you place A and C in thermal
contact (Fig. 16.1b), no further changes occur. This fact—that two systems in equilibrium
with a third system are therefore in equilibrium with each other—is so fundamental that
it’s called the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
A thermometer is a system with a conveniently observed macroscopic property that
The mercury level in the left-hand side changes with temperature. It could be the length of a mercury column, gas pressure,
of the tube is maintained constant at
electrical resistance, or the bending of a bimetal strip in a dial thermometer. Let the
this level . . .
thermometer come to equilibrium with some system, and its temperature-dependent
. . . by moving the right-
System whose hand side up or down. physical property provides a measure of temperature. The zeroth law assures consis-
temperature is tency, in that two systems for which the thermometer gives the same reading must have
Vacuum
to be measured the same temperature.

Gas Gas Thermometers and the Kelvin Scale

h Figure 16.2 shows a constant-volume gas thermometer, whose temperature indication is
the pressure of gas held at constant volume. We define zero temperature as that tempera-
ture at which the gas pressure would become zero. A second known point is the so-called
triple point of water—the unique temperature at which solid, liquid, and gaseous water
can coexist in equilibrium (more on this in the next chapter). The SI temperature unit, the
Mercury
kelvin (symbol K; not “degrees kelvin” or °K), is defined by setting the triple point at
Flexible tube
273.16 K. Other temperatures then follow from a linear relationship as shown in Fig. 16.3.
Since a gas can’t have negative pressure, the zero of the kelvin scale is an absolute
The height difference h between the two lower limit on temperature and is called absolute zero. We’ll explore the meaning of ab-
mercury levels is a measure of the gas solute zero further in Chapter 19.
pressure and therefore of the temperature.
Gas thermometers are useful because they work over a wide temperature range. More
FIGURE 16.2 A constant-volume gas important, as we’ll see in the next chapter, all gases behave in essentially the same way in
thermometer. the limit of low pressure, so gas thermometry provides a reproducible temperature standard.

p3
Temperature (K)

273.16

p/p 3
3.16
27
T5

FIGURE 16.3 The Kelvin temperature scale defined

0 using a gas thermometer; p3 is the gas pressure
0 p3
Pressure, p at the triple point of water.
 16.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat 267

Temperature Scales
Other temperature scales include Celsius 1°C2, Fahrenheit 1°F2, and Rankine 1°R2
1K ¬ 1°F ¬
(Fig. 16.4). One Celsius degree represents the same temperature difference as one ­ ­
®
1°C ® 1°R
kelvin, but the zero of the Celsius scale occurs at 273.15 K, so
TC 5 T 2 273.15 (16.1)
where T is the temperature in kelvins. On the Celsius scale the melting point of ice at stan-
dard atmospheric pressure is exactly 0°C, while the boiling point is 100°C. The triple 1 K (or 1°C)
__________ 9
= _
point of water occurs at 0.01°C, which accounts for the 273.15 difference between the 1°F (or 1°R) 5
kelvin and Celsius scales. Equation 16.1 shows that absolute zero occurs at 2273.15°C.
The Fahrenheit and Rankine scales, from the British unit system, are used primarily in 630 357
Mercury
1134 674
the United States. Fahrenheit has water melting at 32°F and boiling at 212°F, so the rela- boils
tion between Fahrenheit and Celsius temperatures is
TF 5 95 TC 1 32 (16.2)
Steam
A Rankine degree is the same size as a Fahrenheit degree, but the zero of the Rankine 373 100 672 212
point
scale is at absolute zero (Fig. 16.4). Engineers in the United States often use Rankine.
Ice point
273 0 492 32
Heat and Temperature
A match will burn your finger, but it doesn’t provide much heat. This example shows our Nitrogen
intuitive sense of temperature and heat: Heat measures an amount of “something,” 77 2196 boils 139 2321
whereas temperature is the intensity of that “something.” 0 2273 Absolute zero 0 2460
Scientists once considered heat to be a material fluid, called caloric, that flowed from

ne

it
siu
vi

he
ki
el

el

en
an
hot bodies to colder ones. But in the late 1700s, the American-born scientist Benjamin

hr
R

Fa
Thompson observed essentially limitless amounts of heat being produced in the boring of
cannon, and he concluded that heat could not be a conserved fluid. Instead, Thompson FIGURE 16.4 Relationships among four
suggested, heat was associated with mechanical work done by the boring tool. In the next temperature scales.
half-century, a series of experiments confirmed the association between heat and energy.
These culminated in the work of the British physicist James Joule (1818–1889), who
quantified the relation between heat and energy. In so doing, Joule brought thermal phe-
nomena under the powerful conservation-of-energy principle. In recognition of this major
synthesis in physics, the SI energy unit bears Joule’s name.
We rarely make statements about the amount of “heat” in an object; we’re more con-
cerned that the temperature be appropriate. Rather, we think of heat as something that gets
transferred from one object to another, causing a temperature change. The scientific defi-
nition reflects this sense of heat as energy in transit: Heat is energy being transferred
from one object to another because of a temperature difference alone. Strictly speak-
ing, heat refers only to energy in transit. Following heat transfer, we say that the internal
energy of the object has increased, not that it contains more heat. This distinction reflects
the fact that processes other than heating—such as transfer of mechanical or electrical
energy—can also change an object’s temperature.

16.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat

Experimentally, we find that the heat Q transferred to an object and the resulting tempera-
ture change DT are proportional: Q 5 C DT, where C is the heat capacity of the object.
Since heat is a measure of energy transfer, the units of heat capacity are J/K. The heat ca-
pacity C applies to a specific object and depends on its mass and on the substance from
which it’s made. We characterize different substances in terms of their specific heat c, or
heat capacity per unit mass. The heat capacity of an object is then the product of its mass
and specific heat, so we can write
Q 5 mc DT (16.3)
The SI units of specific heat are J/kg # K. Table 16.1 lists specific heats of common materials.
268 Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat

Table 16.1 Specific Heats of Some Common Materials*

Specific Heat, c

Substance #
SI Units: J/kg K # # #
cal/g °C, kcal/kg °C, or Btu/lb °F

Aluminum 900 0.215

Concrete (varies with mix) 880 0.21
Copper 386 0.0923
Iron 447 0.107
Glass 753 0.18
Mercury 140 0.033
Steel 502 0.12
Stone (granite) 840 0.20
Water:
Liquid 4184 1.00
Ice, 210°C 2050 0.49
Wood 1400 0.33

*Temperature range 0°C to 100°C except as noted.

Scientists first studied thermodynamic phenomena before they knew the relation
between heat and energy, and they used other units for heat. The calorie (cal) was defined
as the heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C; conse-
quently, the specific heat of water is 1 cal/g # °C. Several different definitions of the calorie
exist today, based on different methods for establishing the heat-energy equivalence.
In this book we use the so-called thermochemical calorie, defined as exactly 4.184 J. The
“calorie” used in describing the energy content of foods is actually a kilocalorie. In the
British system, still widely used in engineering in the United States, the unit of heat is
the British thermal unit (Btu). One Btu is the amount of heat needed to raise the temper-
ature of 1 lb of water from 63°F to 64°F, and is equal to 1054 J.

EXAMPLE 16.1 Specific Heat: Waiting to Shower

Your whole family has showered before you, dropping the temperature where we found the specific heat of water in Table 16.1. The heating
in the water heater to 18°C. If the heater holds 150 kg of water, how element supplies energy at the rate of 5.0 kW or 5.03103 J/s. At that
much energy will it take to bring it up to 50°C? If the energy is sup- rate the time needed to supply 20 MJ is
plied by a 5.0-kW electric heating element, how long will that take? 2.03107 J
Dt 5 5 4000 s
INTERPRET Here we’re interested in the energy it takes to raise the
5.03103 J/s
water temperature, so we interpret this problem as involving specific or a little over an hour.
heat. For the second part, we’re given the heater’s power output and
asked for the time, so we need to recall (Chapter 6) that power is ASSESS That’s a long time to wait, but it’s not an unreasonable answer!
energy per time.

DEVELOP Equation 16.3, Q 5 mc DT, relates energy and temperature

✓TIP Is That C or K?
change via specific heat, so our plan is to calculate the required energy It doesn’t matter when we’re talking about temperature differences.
from this equation. We’ll then use the relation between power and That’s why we could mix units, multiplying the specific heat in
energy to find the time. J/kg # K by the difference of Celsius temperatures.

EVALUATE Equation 16.3 gives the energy:

■
Q 5 mc DT 5 1150 kg214184 J/kg # K2150°C 2 18°C2 5 20 MJ

Heat capacity and specific heat vary slightly with temperature, and they also depend on
whether an object’s pressure or its volume changes as it’s heated. For solids and liquids,
which don’t expand much, that distinction isn’t very important. But it makes a big difference
 16.3 Heat Transfer 269

whether a gas is confined or allowed to expand when heated. Consequently, gases have two
different specific heats, depending on whether volume or pressure is constant. We’ll deal
with that issue in Chapter 18, where we explore the thermodynamic behavior of gases.

The Equilibrium Temperature

When objects at different temperatures are in thermal contact, heat flows from the hotter
object to the cooler one until they reach thermodynamic equilibrium. If the objects are
thermally insulated from their surroundings, then all the energy leaving the hotter object
ends up in the cooler one. Mathematically, this statement reads
m1c1 DT1 1 m2c2 DT2 5 0 (16.4)
For the hotter object, DT is negative, so the two terms in Equation 16.4 have opposite
signs. One term represents the outflow of heat from the hotter object, the other inflow into
the cooler one.

GOT IT? 16.1 A hot rock with mass 250 g is dropped into an equal mass of cool
water. Which temperature changes more, that of the rock or the water? Explain.

EXAMPLE 16.2 Finding the Equilibrium Temperature: Cooling Down

An aluminum frying pan of mass 1.5 kg is at 180°C when it’s plunged EVALUATE We now solve for the equilibrium temperature T:
into a sink containing 8.0 kg of water at 20°C. Assuming that none of mpcpTp 1 mwcwTw
the water boils and that no heat is lost to the surroundings, find the T5
equilibrium temperature of the water and pan. mpcp 1 mwcw
Using the given values of mp, Tp, mw, and Tw, and taking cp and cw
INTERPRET Here we have two objects, initially at different tempera- from Table 16.1, we get T 5 26°C.
tures, that come to thermal equilibrium. So this is a problem about the
equilibrium temperature, with the system of interest comprising the ASSESS The water has much greater mass and higher specific heat, so
pan and the water. it makes sense that its 6°C temperature change is a lot less than the
154°C drop in the pan’s temperature. ■
DEVELOP Equation 16.4, m1c1 DT1 1 m2c2 DT2 5 0, applies. How-
ever, we’re asked for the common equilibrium temperature T, so we
write the temperature differences DT in terms of T and the initial tem-
peratures Tp and Tw of pan and water. Equation 16.4 then becomes
mpcp1T 2 Tp2 1 mwcw1T 2 Tw2 5 0.

16.3 Heat Transfer

How is heat transferred? Engineers need to know so they can design heating and cooling
systems. Scientists need to know so they can anticipate temperature changes, as in global
warming. Here we’ll consider three common heat-transfer mechanisms: conduction, con-
vection, and radiation. In some situations, a single mechanism dominates; in other cases,
we may need to take all three into account.

Conduction
Conduction is heat transfer through direct physical contact. It occurs as molecules in a
hotter region collide with and transfer energy to those in an adjacent cooler region.
Thermal conductivity (symbol k; SI unit W/m # K) characterizes this process. Common
materials exhibit a broad range of thermal conductivities, from about 400 W/m # K for
copper—a good conductor—to 0.029 W/m # K for Styrofoam, a good thermal insulator.
Table 16.2 lists some thermal conductivities; they’re given in both SI and British units
because the latter are widely used in heat-loss calculations for buildings. The k values
270 Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat

Table 16.2 Thermal Conductivities*

Thermal Conductivity, k

Material #
SI Units: W/m K # # #
British Units: Btu in./h ft 2 °F

Air 0.026 0.18

Aluminum 237 1644
Concrete 1 7
(varies with mix)
Copper 401 2780
Fiberglass 0.042 0.29
Glass 0.7–0.9 5–6
Goose down 0.043 0.30
Helium 0.14 0.97
Iron 80.4 558
Steel 46 319
Styrofoam 0.029 0.20
Water 0.61 4.2
Wood (pine) 0.11 0.78

*Temperature range 0°C to 100°C.

in Table 16.2 reflect physical properties of the materials. Metals, for example, are good
thermal conductors because they contain free electrons that move quickly. Insulators like
fiberglass and Styrofoam owe their insulating properties to a physical structure that traps
small volumes of air or other gas.
Temperature Figure 16.5 shows a slab of thickness Dx and area A. One side is at temperature T and
Area A
Temperature T T 1 DT the other at T 1 DT. The temperature difference DT drives a conductive heat flow
through the slab; not surprisingly, we find that the heat flow is proportional to the temper-
H
ature difference, the slab area, and the thermal conductivity k. The thicker the slab, on the
other hand, the more resistance to heat flow, so the flow depends inversely on thickness.
Therefore,
6x
DT
H 5 2kA 1conductive heat flow2 (16.5)
x Dx
FIGURE 16.5 Heat flows from the hotter to the where H 5 dQ/dt is the rate of heat flow in watts, and where the minus sign shows that
cooler face of the slab. the flow is opposite the direction of increasing temperature—that is, from hotter to cooler.

EXAMPLE 16.3 Conduction: Warming a Lake

A lake with a flat bottom and steep sides has surface area 1.5 km2 and is
8.0 m deep. On a summer day, the surface water is at 30°C and the bot-
tom water at 4.0°C. What’s the rate of heat conduction through the lake?

INTERPRET This is a problem about heat conduction.

DEVELOP Our sketch, Fig. 16.6, shows that we can treat the lake like
the slab shown in Fig. 16.5, provided we neglect heat flow out the sides.
Then Equation 16.5, H 5 2kA1DT/Dx2, will give the heat-flow rate. FIGURE 16.6 Our sketch for Example 16.3.

EVALUATE Substituting numerical values, including water’s thermal

conductivity from Table 16.2, we get ASSESS This is a significant energy flow, but with direct sunlight
averaging about 1 kW on every square meter, the lake’s 1.5-km2 sur-
DT
H 5 2kA face area absorbs plenty of solar energy, and that’s what maintains the
Dx temperature difference that drives the conductive heat flow. Figure 16.5
30°C 2 4.0°C
5 210.61 W/m # K211.53106 m22 5 23.0 MW shows x increasing in the direction of increasing temperature, so the
8.0 m negative sign in our answer indicates that the flow is downward. ■
 16.3 Heat Transfer 271

Equation 16.5 is strictly correct only when the temperature varies uniformly from one If H weren’t the same through both
surface to the other. That’s the case when two surfaces at different temperatures have the slabs, energy would accumulate
at the interface.
same area. With other geometries—as in the insulation surrounding a cylindrical pipe—
we need to write DT/Dx as the derivative dT/dx and integrate to find the heat flow. Prob-
lems 70 and 75 explore this situation.
Often heat flows through several different materials. A building wall, for example, may
contain wood, plaster, and fiberglass insulation. Figure 16.7 shows such a composite struc- T3
H
ture, with temperature T1 on one side and T3 on the other. The heat-flow rate H must be the Area A
Temperature T1
same through both slabs so energy doesn’t accumulate at the interface between the two. T2
Then Equation 16.5 gives
R2
T2 2 T1 T3 2 T2 R1
H 5 2k1 A 5 2k2 A Dx2
Dx1 Dx2 Dx1
where k1 and k2 are the thermal conductivities of the two materials, and T2 is the tempera-
ture at the interface. We can express the heat-flow rate in terms of the surface temperatures FIGURE 16.7 A composite slab.
T1 and T3 alone if we define the thermal resistance R of each slab:
Dx
R5 (16.6)
kA
The SI units of R are K/W. Unlike the thermal conductivity k, which is a property of a
material, R is a property of a particular piece of material, reflecting both its conductivity
and its geometry. In terms of thermal resistance, our heat-flow equation becomes
T2 2 T1 T3 2 T2
H52 52
R1 R2
so R1H 5 T1 2 T2 and R2H 5 T2 2 T3. Adding these two equations gives
1R1 1 R22H 5 T1 2 T2 1 T2 2 T3 5 T1 2 T3
or
T1 2 T3
H5 (16.7)
R1 1 R2
Equation 16.7 shows that the composite slab acts like a single slab whose thermal resist-
ance is the sum of the resistances of the two slabs that compose it. We could easily extend
this treatment to show that the thermal resistances of three or more slabs add when the
slabs are arranged so the same heat flows through all of them.

GOT IT? 16.2 The figure shows three slabs with the same
thickness but different thermal conductivities: k, 3k, and 2k;
the left side is hotter, as shown. Rank in order the three tem- Cool
Hot 2k
perature differences DT. k
3k
DT3
DT2
DT1

DT
Insulating properties of building materials are described by the R-factor, which is the H
thermal resistance for a slab of unit area:
Dx 1 ft2
R 5 RA 5 (16.8)
k
The SI units of R are m2 # K/W, and that’s how you’ll find it listed if you buy insulation in
Europe or other SI-based regions. In the United States, R is in ft2 # °F # h/Btu, although the
units are almost never stated. This means that R-19 fiberglass insulation loses 191 Btu per
hour for each square foot of insulation for each degree Fahrenheit temperature difference FIGURE 16.8 Each square foot of this R-19
across the insulation (Fig. 16.8). The inverse of the R-factor is the U value, often used in 1
fiberglass insulation loses 19 Btu per hour
characterizing heat loss through windows. for every °F of temperature difference DT.
272 Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat

EXAMPLE 16.4 Calculating Heat Loss: The Cost of Oil

Figure 16.9 shows a house whose walls consist of plaster 1R 5 0.172, and roof separately, calculate the total heat-loss rate, and then find the
R-11 fiberglass insulation, plywood 1R 5 0.652, and cedar shingles amount and cost of oil to compensate for a month’s heat loss.
1R 5 0.552. The roof has the same construction except it uses R-30
fiberglass insulation. The average outdoor temperature in winter is EVALUATE The R-factors for the wall materials sum to give
20°F, and the house is maintained at 70°F. The house’s oil furnace Rwall 5 12.4; similarly, Rroof 5 31.4. The perimeter of the house
produces 100,000 Btu for every gallon of oil, and oil costs $2.20 per measures 2328 ft 1 2336 ft 5 128 ft, so the 10-ft vertical walls
gallon. How much does it cost to heat the house for a month? have area 1280 ft2. There are also the triangular gables. Since there
are two of them, each with area 12 bh, they give another bh or
INTERPRET Although the problem asks for the monthly cost of oil, 128 ft2114 ft tan 30°2 5 226 ft2, so A wall 5 1506 ft2. These R-12.4
this isn’t economics! We interpret this as a problem about heat loss walls lose 1/12.4 Btu/h/ft2/°F. With 1506 ft2 and a temperature dif-
and identify the walls and roof as systems for which we need to know ference of 50°F, the total heat-loss rate through the walls is
the heat flow. This is a rare case of a problem stated in English units. Hwall 5 A 12.4
1
Btu/h/ft2/°F B 11506 ft22150°F2 5 6073 Btu/h
DEVELOP We’re given the drawing in Fig. 16.9. We have the The area of the pitched roof is larger than that of a flat roof by the
R-factors; in English units, their inverses give the heat-loss rate on a factor 1/cos 30°, so the heat-loss rate through the roof is
square-foot basis. So our plan is to find the square footage of the walls 136 ft2128 ft2
Hroof 5 A 31.4
1
Btu/h/ft2/°F B 150°F2 5 1853 Btu/h
cos 30°
The total heat-loss rate is then 7926 Btu/h. In a month, this results
A 5 (36 ft) ( 14 ft
cos30 ) in a heat loss of Q 5 17926 Btu/h2130 days/month2124 h/day2 5
5.7 MBtu.
h 5 14 ft 3 tan30 Now for the oil: With 105 Btu (0.1 MBtu) per gallon, we’ll burn
57 gallons per month to produce that 5.7 MBtu. At $2.20/gal, that will
cost $126.
30°
ASSESS If you’ve paid for heat in a northern climate, you know that
10 ft this figure is, if anything, low. That’s because we neglected heat losses
36 ft 28 ft through windows, doors, and the floor, as well as cold-air infiltration.
On the other hand, we also left out any solar energy gained through
the windows on sunny days. Problem 67 provides a more realistic look
FIGURE 16.9 House for Example 16.4. at this house. ■

Sinking
Cool fluid
Convection
Convection is heat transfer by fluid motion. It occurs as heated fluid becomes less dense
and therefore rises. Figure 16.10a shows two plates at different temperatures, with fluid
(a) Hot Rising between them. Fluid heated by the lower plate rises and transfers heat to the upper plate.
fluid The cooled fluid sinks, and the process repeats. The pattern of rising and sinking fluid
often acquires a striking regularity, as shown in Fig. 16.10b.
Convection is important in many technological and natural environments. When you
heat water on a stove, convection carries heat through the water. Houses usually rely on
convection from heat sources near floor level to circulate warm air throughout a room. In-
sulating materials trap air and thereby inhibit convection that would otherwise cause ex-
cessive heat loss. Convection associated with solar heating of Earth’s surface drives the
vast air movements that establish our overall climate. Violent convection, as in thunder-
storms, is associated with localized temperature differences. On a much longer time scale,
convection in Earth’s mantle drives continental drift. Convection plays a crucial role in
(b) many astrophysical processes, including the generation of magnetic fields in stars and
planets.
FIGURE 16.10 (a) Convection between two As with conduction, the convective heat-loss rate often is approximately proportional
plates at different temperatures. (b) Top view
of convection cells in a laboratory experiment.
to the temperature difference. But the calculation of convective heat loss is complicated
Fluid rises at the centers and sinks at the edges because of the associated fluid motion. The study of convection processes is an important
of the hexagonal cells. research area in many fields of contemporary science and engineering.
 16.3 Heat Transfer 273

Radiation
Turn a stove burner to “high” and it glows brightly; turn it to “low” and you can still sense
its heat although it doesn’t glow visibly. Either way, the burner loses energy by emitting
electromagnetic waves, or radiation. The radiated power P increases rapidly with temper-
ature, as described by the Stefan-Boltzmann law:
Stefan-Boltzmann law;
P 5 esAT4 a b (16.9)
radiated power
where A is the area of the emitting surface, T the temperature in kelvins, and s the Stefan-
Boltzmann constant, approximately 5.6731028 W/m2 # K4. The quantity e is the
emissivity, a number from 0 to 1 that measures the material’s effectiveness in emitting
radiation. For radiation of a given wavelength, a material is equally good at emitting and
absorbing radiation. A perfect emitter has e 5 1 and is also a perfect absorber. Such an
object would appear black at room temperature and is therefore called a blackbody. A
shiny object, in contrast, reflects most of the radiation that hits it and is therefore also a
poor emitter. Wood stoves are often painted black to increase their emissivity; Thermos
bottles, on the other hand, have a shiny coating to reduce radiation.
Because of the strong T4 temperature dependence, radiation is generally the dominant
heat-loss mechanism at high temperatures but is less important at low temperatures. Radi-
ation also dominates for objects in vacuum, since there’s no material to carry conductive
or convective heat flows; that makes Equation 16.9 crucial in understanding the climates
of Earth and other planets.
Objects also absorb radiant energy from their surroundings, at a rate given by Equation 16.9
using the ambient temperature Ta, so the net radiated power becomes P 5 esA1T4 2 T4a2.
For an object that’s much hotter than its surroundings, the second term is negligible. But for an
object that’s only a little warmer, like a human body, it’s significant.
It’s not just the amount of radiation that changes with temperature; as our stove burner
example suggests, it’s also the wavelength. Objects at room temperature, for example,
emit mostly invisible infrared radiation, while very hot objects like the Sun emit more vis-
ible light. We’ll take a quantitative look at this relation in Chapter 34.

GOT IT? 16.3 Name the dominant form of heat transfer from (a) a red-hot stove
burner with nothing on it, (b) a burner in direct contact with a pan of water, and (c) the
bottom to the top of the water in the pan once it’s begun to boil.

EXAMPLE 16.5 Calculating Radiation: The Sun’s Temperature

The Sun radiates energy at the rate P 5 3.931026 W, and its radius is
7.03108 m. Treating the Sun as a blackbody 1e 5 12, find its surface
temperature.

INTERPRET This is a problem about the radiation from a hot object.

DEVELOP The Stefan-Boltzmann law, Equation 16.9, gives the radi-

ated power in terms of the temperature, emissivity, and surface area:
P 5 esAT4. Our plan is to solve this equation for T. For the Sun, ra-
diation comes from the entire spherical surface of area 4pR2, as our
sketch shows (Fig. 16.11).

EVALUATE Using the Sun’s spherical surface area and solving for FIGURE 16.11 The Sun radiates from its spherical surface area 4pR2.
T give
P 1/4
ASSESS Make sense? Yes: Our answer has the unit of temperature
T5 a b
4pR2s and agrees with observational measurements. Despite its bright
glow, the Sun is essentially a blackbody, because it absorbs all radi-
3.931026 W 1/4
ation incident on it. But the Sun is so much hotter than its surround-
5c d 5 5.83103 K
4p17.03108 m2215.731028 W/m2 # K42 ings that we can neglect absorbed radiation in this calculation. ■
274 Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 16.1 Energy-Saving Windows

Why do double-pane windows reduce heat loss greatly compared with
single-pane windows? Why is a window’s R-factor higher if the spac- MAKING THE CONNECTION Compare the R-factor for a single-
ing between panes is small? And why do the best windows have pane window made from 3.0-mm-thick glass with that of a double-
“low-E” coatings? pane window made from the same glass with a 5.0-mm air gap
between panes.
EVALUATE Table 16.2 gives glass’s thermal conductivity as around
0.8 W/m # K, while good insulators like air and Styrofoam have EVALUATE Compute the R-factors for the glass and air space, and
k , 0.3 W/m # K. That’s why a layer of air between window panes you’ll get about 0.004 m2 # K/W for the single pane and, adding two
greatly increases the window’s R-factor. But if the pane spacing is too layers of glass and the air space, 0.2 m2 # K/W for the double-pane win-
great, convection currents develop between the sheets of glass, trans- dow. That’s a factor of 50 improvement! In English units our answers
ferring heat from the warmer to the cooler surface; that’s why nar- translate into R-factors of 0.02 and 1.1—although again they’re lower
rower pane spacing is better. Finally, warm glass loses energy by than for actual windows because they neglect “dead air” layers and the
radiation, and a thin coating of material with low emissivity (“low-E”) other improvements discussed above.
reduces radiant heat loss.
ASSESS High-quality windows include all three features described
here, so they suppress all three kinds of heat loss we’ve discussed. The
best windows also use an inert gas—usually argon—between panes to
reduce heat loss further.

16.4 Thermal-Energy Balance

Energy from the You keep your house at a comfortable temperature in winter by balancing heat loss with
furnace . . . . . . balances energy from your heating system (Fig. 16.12). This state of thermal-energy balance
loss through
walls and roof . . .
occurs throughout science and engineering. Understanding thermal-energy balance en-
. . . thus ables engineers to specify a building’s heat sources and helps scientists predict Earth’s
maintaining future climate.
a comfortable Engineered systems actively control the thermal-energy balance to achieve a desired
temperature . . .
temperature. But even without active control, systems with a fixed rate of energy input
naturally tend toward energy balance. That’s because all heat-loss mechanisms give in-
. . . compared creased loss with increasing temperature. If the rate of energy input to a system is greater
with outside.
than the loss rate, then the system gains energy and its temperature increases—and so,
therefore, does the loss rate. Eventually the two come to balance at some fixed tempera-
ture. If the loss exceeds the gain, the system cools until again it’s in balance. Problems in-
FIGURE 16.12 A house in thermal-energy volving thermal-energy balance are similar regardless of the energy-loss mechanism or
balance. whether the application is to a technological or a natural system.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 16.1 Thermal-Energy Balance

INTERPRET Interpret the problem to be sure it deals with heat gains and losses. Identify the
system of interest, the source(s) of energy input to the system, and the significant heat-loss
mechanism(s).
DEVELOP Determine which equation(s) govern the heat loss; these will necessarily involve the
system’s temperature. Your plan is then to equate the rate of energy loss with the rate of energy
input.
EVALUATE Write an equation that expresses equality of energy loss and input. Then evaluate by
solving for the quantity the problem asks for—often the system’s temperature.
ASSESS If your answer is a temperature, does it seem reasonable? Is the temperature of a
heated system higher than that of its surroundings?
 16.4 Thermal-Energy Balance 275

EXAMPLE 16.6 Thermal-Energy Balance: Hot Water

A poorly insulated electric water heater loses heat by conduction at
the rate of 120 W for each Celsius degree difference between the
water and its surroundings. It’s heated by a 2.5-kW electric heating el-
ement and is located in a basement kept at 15°C. What’s the water
temperature if the heating element operates continuously?

INTERPRET The concept here is energy balance, and we identify the

system of interest as the water. Its energy input comes from the heat-
ing element at the rate of 2.5 kW. The heat loss is by conduction.

DEVELOP Figure 16.13 is a sketch suggesting energy balance in the FIGURE 16.13 Balance between the heat supplied by the electric element and
heater. We’re given the conductive heat loss of 120 W/°C, meaning that the conductive loss determines the water temperature.
the total heat-loss rate is H 5 1120 W/°C21DT2. We then equate the
heat-loss rate to the energy-input rate: 1120 W/°C21DT2 5 2.5 kW.
ASSESS Is this answer reasonable? Not if you want a hot shower; our
EVALUATE Solving for DT gives answer is 1°C below body temperature! But we’re told the insulation
2.5 kW is bad, so it’s time for a new water heater! ■
DT 5 5 21°C
120 W/°C
With the basement at 15°C, the water temperature is then 36°C.

EXAMPLE 16.7 Thermal-Energy Balance: A Solar Greenhouse

A solar greenhouse has 300 ft2 of opaque R-30 walls and 250 ft2 of for the heat loss through the glass, giving a total heat loss
R-1.8 double-pane glass that admits solar energy at the average rate H 5 1149 Btu/h/°F2DT. Meanwhile, the energy input through the en-
of 40 Btu/h/ft2. Find the greenhouse temperature on a day when the tire 250 ft2 of glass is 140 Btu/h/ft221250 ft22 5 1.03104 Btu/h. Our
outdoor temperature is 15°F. plan is to equate energy input and loss and then solve for DT.

INTERPRET Again the concept is energy balance, now with the green- EVALUATE Equating loss and gain gives
house as the system of interest. We’re given R-factors, suggesting that 1149 Btu/h/°F2DT 5 1.03104 Btu/h.
the energy loss is by conduction through walls and glazing. The en-
We then solve for DT:
ergy input is sunlight.
1.03104 Btu/h
DT 5 5 67°F
DEVELOP As we saw in Example 16.4, the R-factor determines a 149 Btu/h/°F
heat-loss rate that is related directly to area and temperature difference
So when it’s 15°F outside, the greenhouse is at a tropical 82°F.
and inversely to the R-factor. So we have
Aw DT 300 ASSESS This seems a reasonable greenhouse temperature. Our calcu-
Hw 5 5a b DT 5 110 Btu/h/°F2 DT lation assumes that solar input remains constant; in a real greenhouse
Rw 30
the temperature would fluctuate as the Sun’s angle changes and clouds
for the heat loss through the walls and pass over. We could minimize these fluctuations by giving the green-
Ag DT 250 house a large heat capacity, perhaps by incorporating a massive con-
Hg 5 5a b DT 5 1139 Btu/h/°F2 DT crete slab or concrete walls. ■
Rg 1.8
276 Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat

APPLICATION The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

400 0.50

Incident sunlight 375

Temperature deviation (°C)

0.25

CO2 concentration (ppm)

350

325 0.00

300
Outgoing infrared
20.25
Earth’s energy balance. 275

Earth absorbs energy from the Sun at a rate S 5 960 W/m2 averaged over the 250 20.50
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
planet’s cross-sectional area pRE2. It therefore warms and, in thermal-energy
balance, radiates energy at the same rate. Earth is much cooler than the Sun, so Year
this outgoing radiation is invisible infrared; furthermore, it’s radiated from the
Atmospheric CO2 concentration (green) and global temperature (black)
planet’s entire surface area, 4pRE2. Assuming emissivity e 5 1 in the infrared,
from 1000–2010 A.D. Temperature is given as a deviation from the average
energy balance using Equation 16.9 gives pR E2S 5 s4pRE2T4. Solving yields
for 1961–1990. Data through 1875 are reconstructed based on tree rings
T 5 255 K 5 218°C or 0°F. Is this reasonable? It’s certainly in the right ball-
and other proxies; data from 1876 on are from thermometer records. The
park—not so hot as to boil the oceans or so cold as to freeze the atmosphere.
industrial era began around 1750.
But 0°F seems a bit cold for a global average temperature. And it is: Earth’s
average temperature is around 15°C or 59°F. Why the discrepancy?
The answer lies with Earth’s atmosphere. The dominant atmospheric gases, seen for millions of years. Combustion of fossil fuels is the dominant source
nitrogen and oxygen, are largely transparent to both incoming sunlight and out- of this CO2, although processes like deforestation also contribute, as do other
going infrared. But others—the so-called greenhouse gases, especially water greenhouse gases such as methane. Basic physics then dictates that Earth’s
vapor and carbon dioxide—let sunlight pass through but impede outgoing in- surface temperature should rise. How much and how fast depend on complex
frared. As a result, Earth’s surface temperature has to be higher to get the same interactions among atmosphere, surface, oceans, and life, and on future
total radiation to space. This is the natural greenhouse effect, and it explains greenhouse emissions. Nevertheless, a consensus among climate scientists
the 33°C temperature difference between our naïve calculation and Earth’s ac- suggests that Earth warmed by some 0.6°C during the 20th century, mostly
tual surface temperature. Neighbor planets confirm this reasoning. Mars, with attributable to human activities (see graph). Further warming in the range of
very little atmosphere, exhibits almost no greenhouse warming. Venus, whose 1.5°C–6°C is projected by 2100. Although this may seem modest, the rate of
atmosphere is 100 times denser than Earth’s and largely CO2, has a “runaway” increase is far greater than most natural climate change. And the increase is
greenhouse effect that keeps its surface hotter than an oven. expected to be greater over land and at high latitudes. Even a few degrees’
As the graph shows, we humans have increased atmospheric carbon diox- increase in the global average will result in significant climate change and a
ide some 40% since the start of the industrial era, to levels the planet has not rise in sea level.
CHAPTER 16 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big ideas here are temperature and heat. Temperature is a property common to Heat is energy in transit as a result of a temperature
systems in thermodynamic equilibrium. Temperature is quantified in SI units using difference.
the kelvin scale, defined in terms of gas-based thermometers.

Systems A and B They’ve reached A B

have been in thermal thermodynamic
contact with no A B equilibrium and
further macroscopic so have the same TA TB
changes. temperature.
For TA > TB, heat flows
from A to B.

Key Concepts and Equations

Heat capacity and specific heat quantify the energy Mass m
Q required to raise an object’s temperature by DT: Add energy Temperature
Specific Q increase DT
Q 5 mc DT heat c
Q 5 mc DT
Temperature T

Three important heat-transfer mechanisms are:

Conduction Convection Radiation

Sinking
Cool fluid
Area A
T 1 DT
A, T
T
H Hot Rising
fluid

Dx
Stefan-Boltzmann law;
DT P 5 esAT4 a b
H 5 2kA 1conductive heat flow2 radiated power
Dx

Applications
Temperature scales include Kelvin (K), Equilibrium temperature: Combining two Energy balance: A system experiencing both
Celsius 1°C2, Fahrenheit 1°F2, and Rankine systems at different temperatures results in a energy input and energy loss comes to energy
1°R2. common equilibrium temperature given by balance at the temperature for which the energy-
m1c1 DT1 1 m2c2 DT2 5 0. loss rate equals the rate of energy input.
Mercury
630 357 boils 1134 674
m2, c2, T2
Energy
out
373 100 Steam 672 212
point

273 0
Ice point
492 32 T
m1, c1, T1
Nitrogen T
77 –196 boils 139 –321
0 –273 Absolute zero 0 –460 Energy in
n

ne

it

Insulated Same T
siu
vi

he
ki
el

el

en
an
K

hr
R

Fa

The Kelvin and Celsius scales are related

by TC 5 T 2 273.15. The relation between
Fahrenheit and Celsius scales is
TF 5 95 TC 1 32.
278 Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 24. Walking at 3 km/h requires an energy expenditure rate of about
BIO 200 W. How far would you have to walk to “burn off” a 420-kcal
1. If system A is not in thermodynamic equilibrium with system B, hamburger?
and B is not in equilibrium with C, can you draw any conclusions 25. You bring a 350-g wrench into the house from your car. The
about the temperatures of the three systems? house is 15°C warmer than the car, and it takes 2.52 kJ to warm
2. Does a thermometer measure its own temperature or the temper- the wrench by this amount. Find (a) the heat capacity of the
ature of its surroundings? Explain. wrench and (b) the specific heat of the metal it’s made from.
3. Compare the relative sizes of the kelvin, the degree Celsius, the 26. (a) How much heat does it take to bring a 3.4-kg iron skillet from
degree Fahrenheit, and the degree Rankine. 20°C to 130°C? (b) If the heat is supplied by a stove burner at the
4. If you put a thermometer in direct sunlight, what do you meas- rate of 2.0 kW, how long will it take to heat the pan?
ure: the air temperature, the temperature of the Sun, or some Section 16.3 Heat Transfer
other temperature? 27. Building heat loss in the United States is usually expressed in
5. Why does the temperature in a stone building usually vary less Btu/h. What’s that in SI units?
than in a wooden building? 28. Find the heat-loss rate through a slab of (a) wood and (b) Styro-
6. Why do large bodies of water exert a temperature-moderating foam, each 2.0 cm thick, if one surface is at 20°C and the other
effect on their surroundings? at 0°C.
7. A Thermos bottle consists of an evacuated, double-wall glass 29. The top of a steel wood stove measures 90 cm by 40 cm and is
liner, coated with a thin layer of aluminum. How does it keep 0.45 cm thick. The fire maintains the inside surface of the stove-
liquids hot? top at 310°C, while the outside surface is at 295°C. Find the heat
8. Stainless-steel cookware often has a layer of aluminum or cop- conduction rate through the stovetop.
per embedded in the bottom. Why? 30. You’re a builder who’s advising a homeowner to have her foun-
9. What method of energy transfer dominates in baking? In broiling? dation walls insulated with 2 inches of Styrofoam. To make your
10. After a calm, cold night, the temperature a few feet above point, you tell her how thick the concrete walls (normally
ground often drops just as the Sun comes up. Explain in terms 8 inches) would have to be to have the same insulating value as
of convection. 2 inches of Styrofoam. What’s this thickness?
11. Glass and fiberglass are made from the same material, yet have 31. An 8.0 m by 12 m house is built on a concrete slab 23 cm thick.
dramatically different thermal conductivities. Why? Find the heat-loss rate through the floor if the interior is at 20°C
12. To keep your hands warm while skiing, you should wear mittens while the ground is at 10°C.
instead of gloves. Why? 32. Find the R-factor for a wall that loses 0.040 Btu each hour
13. Since Earth is exposed to solar radiation, why doesn’t Earth have through each square foot for each °F temperature difference.
the same temperature as the Sun? 33. Compute the R-factors for 1-inch thicknesses of air, concrete,
fiberglass, glass, Styrofoam, and wood.
Exercises and Problems 34. A horseshoe has surface area 50 cm2, and a blacksmith heats it to
a red-hot 810°C. At what rate does it radiate energy?
Exercises Section 16.4 Thermal-Energy Balance
Section 16.1 Heat, Temperature, and Thermodynamic 35. An oven loses energy at the rate of 14 W per °C temperature dif-
Equilibrium ference between its interior and the 20°C temperature of the
14. A Canadian meteorologist predicts an overnight low of 215°C. kitchen. What average power must be supplied to maintain the
How would a U.S. meteorologist express that prediction? oven at 180°C?
36. You’re having your home’s heating system replaced, and the heat-
15. Normal room temperature is 68°F. What’s this in Celsius?
16. The outdoor temperature rises by 10°C. What’s that rise ing contractor has specified a new system that supplies energy at
in Fahrenheit? the maximum rate of 40 kW. You know that your house loses en-
17. At what temperature do the Fahrenheit and Celsius scales ergy at the rate of 1.3 kW per °C temperature difference between
coincide? interior and exterior, and the minimum winter temperature in your
18. The normal boiling point of nitrogen is 77.3 K. Express this area is 215°C. You’d like to maintain 20°C 168°F2 indoors.
in Celsius and Fahrenheit. Should you go with the system your contractor recommends?
37. The filament of a 100-W lightbulb is at 3.0 kK. What’s the fila-
19. A sick child’s temperature reads 39.1 on a Celsius thermometer.
What’s the temperature in Fahrenheit? ment’s surface area?
38. A typical human body has surface area 1.4 m2 and skin tempera-
Section 16.2 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat BIO ture 33°C. If the body’s emissivity is about 1, what’s the net radi-
20. Find the heat capacity of a 55-tonne concrete slab. ation from the body when the ambient temperature is 18°C?
21. Find the energy needed to raise the temperature of a 2.0-kg
chunk of aluminum by 18°C. Problems
22. What’s the specific heat of a material if it takes 7.5 kJ to increase 39. A constant-volume gas thermometer is filled with air whose pres-
the temperature of a 1-kg sample by 3.0°C? sure is 101 kPa at the normal melting point of ice. What would
23. The average human diet contains about 2000 kcal per day. If all its pressure be at (a) the normal boiling point of water (373 K),
BIO this food energy is released rather than stored as fat, what’s the (b) the normal boiling point of oxygen (90.2 K), and (c) the nor-
approximate average power output of the human body? mal boiling point of mercury (630 K)?
 Exercises and Problems 279

40. A constant-volume gas thermometer is at 55-kPa pressure at the 52. The temperature of the eardrum provides a reliable measure
triple point of water. By how much does its pressure change for BIO of deep body temperature and is measured quickly with ear ther-
each kelvin temperature change? mometers that sense infrared radiation. A thermometer that
41. In Fig. 16.2’s gas thermometer, the height h is 60.0 mm at the “views” 1 mm2 of the eardrum requires 100 mJ of energy for a re-
triple point of water. When the thermometer is immersed in boil- liable reading at normal 37°C body temperature. How long does
ing sulfur dioxide, the height drops to 57.8 mm. What is the boil- the measurement take?
ing point of SO2 in kelvins and in degrees Celsius? 53. A 1500-kg car moving at 40 km/h is brought to a sudden stop. If
42. If your mass is 60 kg, what’s the minimum number of Calories all the car’s energy is dissipated in heating its four 5.0-kg steel
BIO (kcal) you would “burn off” climbing a 1700-m-high mountain? brake disks, by how much do the disk temperatures increase?
(Note: The actual metabolic energy used would be much greater.) 54. Your young niece complains that her cocoa, at 90°C, is too hot.
43. Typical fats contain about 9 kcal per gram. If the energy in body You pour 2 oz of milk at 3°C into the 6 oz of cocoa. Assuming
BIO fat could be utilized with 100% efficiency, how much mass milk and cocoa have the same specific heat as water, what’s the
would a runner lose in a 26.2-mile marathon while consuming cocoa’s new temperature?
125 kcal/mile? 55. A piece of copper at 300°C is dropped into 1.0 kg of water at
44. A circular lake 1.0 km in diameter is 10 m deep (Fig. 16.14). 20°C. If the equilibrium temperature is 25°C, what’s the mass of
Solar energy is incident on the lake at an average rate of the copper?
200 W/m2. If the lake absorbs all this energy and does not ex- 56. While camping, you boil water to make spaghetti. Your pot con-
change heat with its surroundings, how long will it take to warm tains 2.5 kg of water initially at 10°C. You stoke up the campfire,
from 10°C to 20°C? and as a result the water gains energy at an increasing rate:
P 5 a 1 bt, where a 5 1.1 kW, b 5 2.3 W/s, and t is the time
in s. To the nearest minute, how long will it take to bring the
water to a boil?
1.0 km 57. A biology lab’s walk-in cooler measures 3.0 m by 2.0 m by
10 m 2.3 m and is insulated with 8.0-cm-thick Styrofoam. If the sur-
rounding building is at 20°C, at what average rate must the
cooler’s refrigeration unit remove heat in order to maintain 4.0°C
FIGURE 16.14 Problem 44 in the cooler?
58. One end of an iron rod 40 cm long and 3.0 cm in diameter is in
45. How much heat is required to raise an 800-g copper pan from ice water, the other in boiling water (Fig. 16.15). The rod is well
15°C to 90°C if (a) the pan is empty or contains (b) 1.0 kg of insulated so no heat is lost out the sides. Find the heat-flow rate
water and (c) 4.0 kg of mercury? along the rod.
46. Initially, 100 g of water and 100 g of another substance listed in
Table 16.1 are at 20°C. Heat is then transferred to each substance Iron rod
at the same rate for 1.0 min. At the end of that time, the water is
at 32°C and the other substance at 76°C. (a) What’s the other
substance? (b) What’s the heating rate?
47. You draw 330 mL of 10°C water from the tap and pop it into a
900-W microwave oven to heat for tea. How long should you
microwave the water so it just reaches the boiling point? Ice water Boiling water
48. Two neighbors return from Florida to find their houses at a frigid
FIGURE 16.15 Problem 58
35°F. Each house has a furnace that can supply 100,000 Btu/h.
One house is made of stone and weighs 75 tons. The other is
wood and weighs 15 tons. How long does it take each house to 59. You arrive for a party on a night when it’s 8°C outside. Your
reach 65°F? Neglect heat loss, and assume the entire house mass hosts meet you at the door and say the party may need to be can-
reaches a uniform temperature. celled, because the heating system has failed and they don’t want
49. You’re arguing with your roommate about whether it’s quicker to to discomfort their guests. You say, “Not so fast!” A total of 36
heat water on a stove burner or in a microwave. The burner sup- people are expected, the average power output of a human body
plies energy at the rate of 1.0 kW, the microwave at 625 W. You is 100 W, and the house loses 320 W/°C. Will the house remain
can heat water in the microwave in a paper cup of negligible heat comfortable?
capacity, but the stove requires a pan with heat capacity 1.4 kJ/K. 60. An electric stove burner has surface area 325 cm2 and emissivity
How much water do you need before it becomes quicker to heat e 5 1. The burner consumes 1500 W and is at 900 K. If room
on the stovetop? Neglect energy loss to the surroundings. temperature is 300 K, what fraction of the burner’s heat loss is
50. When a nuclear power plant’s reactor is shut down, radioactive from radiation?
decay continues to produce heat at about 10% of the reactor’s 61. An electric current passes through a metal strip 0.50 cm by
normal power level of 3.0 GW. In a major accident, a pipe breaks 5.0 cm by 0.10 mm, heating it at a rate of 50 W. The strip has
and all the reactor cooling water is lost. The reactor is immedi- emissivity e 5 1 and its surroundings are at 300 K. What will be
ately shut down, the break is sealed, and 420 m3 of 20°C water is the strip’s temperature if it’s enclosed in (a) a vacuum bottle
injected into the reactor. If the water were not actively cooled, transparent to all radiation and (b) an insulating box with thermal
how long would it take to reach its normal boiling point? resistance R 5 8.0 K/W that blocks all radiation?
51. A 1.2-kg iron tea kettle sits on a 2.0-kW stove burner. If it takes 62. You’re considering purchasing a new sleeping bag whose manu-
5.4 min to bring the kettle and the water in it from 20°C to the facturer claims will keep you warm to 210°F. The bag has down
boiling point, how much water is in the kettle? insulation with 4.0-cm loft (thickness). Your body produces heat
280 Chapter 16 Temperature and Heat

at the rate of 100 W and has area 1.5 m2. Considering only 72. Your family is winterizing its lakefront camp, and you want at
conductive heat loss, will you be able to maintain normal body least R-19 insulation in the walls. You’ve got some European-
temperature in the bag at 210°F? made insulation with R-factor 3.5 m2 # K/W. Will it do?
63. A blacksmith heats a 1.1-kg iron horseshoe to 550°C, then 73. Your niece from Problem 54 keeps her pet rabbit in a backyard
plunges it into a bucket containing 15 kg of water at 20°C. hutch with thermal resistance 0.25 K/W. On a day when the out-
What’s the equilibrium temperature? side temperature is 215°C, she’s worried that the rabbit’s water
64. What is the power output of a microwave oven that can heat will freeze, so you put a 50-W heat lamp in the hutch. Will the
430 g of water from 20°C to the boiling point in 2.5 min? Neglect bunny be able to drink its water? Neglect the heat due to the
the container’s heat capacity. animal’s metabolism.
65. A cylindrical log 15 cm in diameter and 65 cm long is glowing 74. At low temperatures a solid’s specific heat is approximately pro-
red hot in a fireplace. The log’s emissivity is essentially 1. If it’s portional to the cube of the absolute temperature; for copper
emitting radiation at the rate of 34 kW, what’s its temperature? c 5 311T/343 K23 J/g # K. Integrate Equation 16.3 in differential
66. A star whose surface temperature is 50 kK radiates 4.031027 W. form 1dQ 5 mc dT2 to find the heat required to bring a 40-g
If the star behaves like a blackbody, what’s its radius? sample of copper from 10 K to 25 K.
67. Rework Example 16.4, now assuming the house has ten single- 75. Use the method outlined in Problem 70 to show that the steady
glazed windows, each measuring 2.5 ft by 5.0 ft. Four of the win- heat-flow rate in the direction of the axis of a truncated cone with
dows are on the south and admit solar energy at the average rate conductivity k, faces of radii R1 and R2, and length L is
of 30 Btu/h # ft2. All the windows lose heat; their R-factor is 0.90. H 5 pkR1R21T1 2 T22/L. Here, T1 and T2 are the temperatures
(a) Find the total heating cost for the month. (b) How much is the on the two faces, and insulation prevents any heat flow out the
solar gain worth? sides (Fig. 16.17).
68. A black wood stove with surface area 4.6 m2 is made from cast
iron 4.0 mm thick. Its interior wall is at 650°C, while the exterior Insulation
is at 647°C. (a) What’s the rate of heat conduction through
the stove wall? (b) What’s the rate of heat loss by radiation R1
from the stove? (c) Use the results of (a) and (b) to find how R2
much heat the stove loses by a combination of conduction and
convection in the surrounding air.
69. What’s the average temperature on Pluto at its distance from the
L
Sun? Treat Pluto as a blackbody.
70. In a cylindrical pipe where area isn’t constant, Equation 16.5 FIGURE 16.17 Problem 75
takes the form H 5 2kA1dT/dR2. Use this equation to show
that the heat-loss rate from a cylindrical pipe of radius R1 and 76. A house is at 20°C on a winter night when the outside tempera-
length L is ture is a steady 215°C. The house’s heat capacity is 6.5 MJ/K
2pkL1T1 2 T22 and its thermal resistance is 6.67 mK/W. If the furnace suddenly
H5 fails, how long will it take the house temperature to reach the
ln 1R2/R12 freezing point? (Hint: Combine the differential forms of Equa-
where the pipe is surrounded by insulation of outer radius R2 tions 16.3 and 16.5 to show that the rate of temperature change
and thermal conductivity k and where T1 and T2 are the temper- is proportional to the temperature difference between the house
atures at the pipe surface and the outer surface of the insula- and its surroundings. This relation is known as Newton’s law of
tion, respectively. (Hint: Consider the heat flow through a thin cooling.)
section of pipe, with thickness dr, as shown in Fig. 16.16. 77. A more realistic approach to the solar greenhouse of Example
Then integrate.) C 16.7 considers the time dependence of the solar input. A function
that approximates the solar input is 140 Btu/h/ft22 sin21pt/242,
where t is the time in hours, with t 5 0 at midnight. Then the
Insulation greenhouse is no longer in energy balance, but is described in-
stead by the differential form of Equation 16.3 with Q the time-
varying energy input. Use computer software or a calculator
with differential-equation-solving capability to find the time-
dependent temperature of the greenhouse, and determine the
R1 r
maximum and minimum temperatures. Assume the same numbers
as in Example 16.7, along with a heat capacity C 5 1500 Btu/°F
dr R2
T for the greenhouse. You can assume any reasonable value for
T 1 dT the initial temperature, and after a few days your greenhouse
temperature should settle into a steady oscillation independent
FIGURE 16.16 Problem 70 of the initial value.

Passage Problems
71. A friend who’s skeptical about climate change argues that the Fiberglass is a popular, economical, and fairly effective building in-
roughly 0.75°C increase in Earth’s temperature during the indus- sulation. It consists of fine glass fibers—often including recycled
trial era could be caused by an increase in the Sun’s power out- glass—formed loosely into rectangular slabs or rolled into blankets
put. The Sun’s average power has, in fact, increased by about (Fig. 16.18). One side is often faced with heavy paper or aluminum
0.04% during this time. Could your friend be right? foil. Fiberglass insulation comes in thicknesses compatible with
 Answers to Chapter Questions 281

common building materials—for example, 3.5 inch and 6 inch for 81. Since fiberglass insulation is readily compressible, you could
wood-framed walls. Standard 6-inch fiberglass has an R-factor of 19. squash two slabs initially 6 inches wide into a 6-inch wall space.
This would
a. double the overall R-factor.
b. increase the overall R-factor but not double it.
c. decrease the overall R-factor.
d. not change the overall R-factor.

Answers to Chapter Questions

FIGURE 16.18 End view of a slab of fiberglass insulation (Passage
Problems 78–81). Answer to Chapter Opening Question
The photo is taken in infrared light, and the amount of infrared radia-
78. Fiberglass insulation owes its insulating quality primarily to tion increases rapidly with increasing temperature. The car’s wheels
a. the low thermal conductivity of glass. are glowing with infrared, a result of frictional heating when the
b. its ability to block cold air infiltration. brakes were recently applied.
c. the low thermal conductivity of air trapped between the glass
fibers. Answers to GOT IT? Questions
79. One purpose of foil facing on fiberglass insulation is to reduce 16.1. The rock’s temperature changes more because its specific heat
heat loss by is lower.
a. conduction. 16.2. DT2 , DT3 , DT1 ; since H and Dx are the same for each slab,
b. convection. the product k DT must be constant, so a higher conductivity
c. radiation. means a lower DT.
16.3. (a) Radiation; (b) conduction; (c) convection.
80. Fiberglass insulation for attics is available in 12-inch thickness.
Its R-factor is
a. 38.
b. 76.
c. 29.
 The Thermal Behavior
17 of Matter

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Explain the relation between the
statistical mechanics of molecules
and the corresponding thermody-
namic properties for simple gases.
This includes especially the relation
between molecular energy and
temperature (17.1).
■ Describe the three principal phases
of matter, and calculate the energies
required to change phase (17.2).
■ Interpret phase diagrams to
determine conditions under which
the various phases exist (17.2).
■ Calculate thermal-expansion effects
in solids, liquids, and gases (17.3).
■ Describe the unusual thermal-
expansion properties of water (17.3).
What unusual property of water is evident in
this photo?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter links thermodynamics
with the statistical mechanics of
M atter responds to heating in several ways. It may get hotter or it may melt. It may change
size, shape, or pressure. This chapter explores the thermal behavior of matter. We start with
a simple gaseous state, whose behavior follows from Newtonian mechanics at the molecular
atoms and molecules. Key concepts level. We then move to liquids and solids, whose behavior is still grounded in the molecular prop-
in this linkage are conservation of erties of matter, but whose description is more empirical.
energy and conservation of
momentum (7.3, 9.2).
17.1 Gases
Gases are simple because their molecules are far apart and only rarely interact. That makes
gas behavior and its physical explanation particularly straightforward. Developing that
explanation will clarify the relation between macroscopic properties—such as temperature
and pressure—and the underlying microscopic properties of gas molecules.

The Ideal-Gas Law

The macroscopic state of a gas in thermodynamic equilibrium is determined by its tem-
perature, pressure, and volume. Moreover, it turns out that all gases exhibit, to a very good
approximation, the same relation among these three quantities.

282
 17.1 Gases 283

A simple system for studying gas behavior consists of a gas-filled cylinder sealed by a
movable piston (Fig. 17.1). This is not just a pedagogical abstraction: Practical devices in-
cluding engines, pumps, and air compressors contain piston-cylinder systems, while
lungs, balloons, gas bubbles, and many other natural systems are analogous to our piston-
cylinder system. Gas
If we maintain the system of Fig. 17.1 at constant temperature and move the piston to
vary the gas volume, we find that the pressure varies inversely with the volume. If we in-
crease the temperature while holding the volume fixed, the pressure rises in direct propor- FIGURE 17.1 A piston-cylinder system.
tion to the temperature. If we double the amount of gas while holding temperature and
volume constant, the pressure doubles. Putting all these results together, we can write
pV 5 NkT 1ideal-gas law2 (17.1)
with p, V, and T the pressure, volume, and temperature, respectively, and N the number of
molecules in the gas. The constant k 5 1.38310223 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant, named
for the Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906), who was instrumental in
developing the microscopic description of thermal phenomena. Equation 17.1 is the ideal-
gas law. Most real gases obey this law to a very good approximation.
Because the number of molecules N in a typical gas sample is astronomically large, we
often express the ideal-gas law in terms of the number of moles (mol) of gas molecules.
One mole is an SI unit equal to Avogadro’s number, NA 5 6.02231023, of atoms or mole-
cules. Formally, Avogadro’s number is defined as the number of carbon-12 atoms in
12 grams of carbon-12.
If we have n moles of a gas, then N 5 nNA is the number of molecules, so the ideal-
gas law becomes
pV 5 nNAkT 5 nRT (17.2)
where R 5 NAk 5 8.314 J/K # mol is called the universal gas constant.

EXAMPLE 17.1 The Ideal-Gas Law: STP

What volume is occupied by 1.00 mol of an ideal gas at standard tem- EVALUATE Solving for V gives
perature and pressure (STP), where T 5 0°C and p 5 101.3 kPa? 11.00 mol218.314 J/K # mol21273 K2
nRT
V5 5
INTERPRET We’re dealing with an ideal gas, and we’re given the p 1.013105 Pa
amount of gas, the temperature, and the pressure. 5 22.4310 m3 5 22.4 L
23

where we expressed T 5 0°C as 273 K.

DEVELOP Because we’re given the number of moles n, we’ll use the
ideal-gas law in the form of Equation 17.2, pV 5 nRT, to find the ASSESS This result may be familiar from earlier chemistry or
volume. physics courses: 1 mole of any ideal gas—no matter what its chemical
composition—occupies 22.4 L at standard temperature and pressure. ■

The ideal-gas law is remarkably simple. Neither its form nor the constants k and R
depend on the substance making up the gas or on the mass of the gas molecules. Yet most
real gases follow the ideal-gas law very closely over a wide range of pressures. This nearly
ideal behavior is what gives gas thermometers their high precision over a wide tempera-
ture range.

Kinetic Theory of the Ideal Gas

Why do gases obey such a simple relation among temperature, pressure, and volume?
Here we answer that question with an analysis based ultimately on Newtonian mechanics.
We start with some simplifying assumptions:
1. The gas consists of many identical molecules, each with mass m but negligible size
and no internal structure. This assumption is approximately true for real gases when
the distance between molecules is large compared with their size. This allows us to
284 Chapter 17 The Thermal Behavior of Matter

neglect intermolecular collisions, an assumption that simplifies our analysis but

isn’t crucial to the ideal gas.
2. The molecules don’t exert action-at-a-distance forces on each other. Thus there’s no
Surface
area A
intermolecular potential energy, and therefore the molecules have only kinetic
energy. This assumption is fundamental to an ideal gas.
3. The molecules move in random directions with a distribution of speeds that’s
L independent of direction.
x 4. Collisions with the container walls are elastic, conserving the molecules’ energy
and momentum. Here’s where we tie our gas model to Newtonian mechanics.
FIGURE 17.2 Gas molecules confined to a
rectangular box. Consider N molecules confined to a rectangular box with length L (Fig. 17.2). Each
molecule that collides with a wall exerts a force. There are so many molecules that indi-
vidual collisions aren’t evident; instead the wall experiences an essentially constant aver-
age force. The gas pressure p is a measure of this force on a unit area. We’re going to find
an expression for p and show that it takes the form of the ideal-gas law.
Before Figure 17.3 shows one molecule colliding with the right-hand wall. Since the collision
vx When the
molecule is elastic, the y-component of the molecule’s velocity is unchanged, while the x-component
vy
collides with reverses sign. Thus the molecule undergoes a momentum change of magnitude 2mvxi,
vr the wall, it where i labels this particular molecule. After the molecule collides with the right-hand
exerts a force
on the wall . . . wall, nothing will change its x velocity until it hits the left-hand wall and its x velocity
Only the x- again reverses. So it will be back at the right-hand wall in the time Dti 5 2L/vxi that it
component
changes.
r
F
r
F takes to go back and forth along the container.
Now each time our molecule collides with the right-hand wall, it delivers momentum
vx 2mvxi to the wall. Newton’s second law says that force is the rate of change of momentum.
vy So we can calculate the average force Fi due to one molecule by dividing the momentum
. . . and the
vr wall exerts delivered, 2mvxi, by the time, 2L/vxi, between collisions:
After a force on
the molecule. 2mvxi mvxi2
Fi 5 5
Wall 2L/vxi L
FIGURE 17.3 A molecule undergoes an elastic To get the total force on the wall, we sum over all N molecules with their different x veloci-
collision, reversing its x-component and ties. Dividing by the wall area A then gives the pressure:
transferring momentum 2mvx to the wall.
a Fi a mvxi /L m a vxi2
2
F
p5 5 5 5
A A A AL
The last step follows because the box length L and molecular mass m are the same for all
molecules, so they factor out of the sum. We can simplify by noting that the denominator
AL is just the volume V. Let’s also multiply by 1 in the form N/N, with N the number of
molecules. Then we have
m a vxi2 mN a vxi
2
p5 5
AL V N
In the final expression here, the term g vxi2 /N is the average of the squares of all the x veloc-
ity components of all the molecules; we designate this quantity vx2. So the pressure becomes
mN 2
p5 v
V x
We still haven’t used assumption 3—that the molecules move in random directions
with speeds independent of direction. If we grab a molecule at random, that means we’re
just as likely to find it moving in the x-direction, the y-direction, the z-direction, or any
direction in between—and its speed, on average, won’t depend on its direction of motion.
So the average quantities vx2, vy2, and vz2 must be equal. Since the three directions x, y, and z
are perpendicular, the average of the molecular speeds squared is v2 5 vx2 1 vy2 1 vz2.
We’ve just argued that all three terms on the right are equal, so we can write v2 5 3vx2, or
vx2 5 13 v2. Then our expression for pressure becomes
mN 2
p5 v
3V
 17.1 Gases 285

Multiplying through by V and by 1 in the form 2/2, we have

pV 5 23 N A 12 mv2 B
This looks a lot like the ideal-gas law (Equation 17.1), except that instead of kT we have
3 A 2 mv B . Take a good look at the quantity in parentheses: You’ll see that it’s just the aver-
2 1 2

age kinetic energy of a gas molecule.

Think about what we’ve done here. We applied the fundamental laws of mechanics to
an ideal gas and came up with an equation that looks like the experimentally verified
ideal-gas law, except that it’s expressed in terms of a microscopic quantity—molecular
kinetic energy—rather than the macroscopic quantity temperature. Since our equation
describes the behavior of an ideal gas, it must be the ideal-gas law. Comparing with the
ideal-gas law in the form 17.1, we must therefore have
1
2
mv2 5 32 kT 1temperature and molecular energy2 (17.3)

Our derivation shows why, in terms of Newtonian mechanics, a gas obeying our four
assumptions should obey the ideal-gas law. In Equation 17.3 we get an added bonus—a
microscopic understanding of the meaning of temperature: Temperature measures the
average kinetic energy associated with random translational motion of the molecules.

EXAMPLE 17.2 Molecular Energy and Speed: An Air Molecule

Find the average kinetic energy of a molecule in air at room tempera- We can solve for the corresponding speed if we know the molecular
ture (20°C or 293 K), and determine the speed of a nitrogen molecule mass m. A nitrogen molecule consists of two atoms each with mass
1N22 with this energy. 14 u (see Appendix D), so its mass is
m 5 2114 u211.66310227 kg/u2 5 4.65310226 kg
INTERPRET This problem asks about the linkage between thermody-
namic quantities and molecular energy. We just found that linkage: Since K 5 12 mv2, the speed corresponding to this kinetic energy is
The temperature of a gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of 216.07310221 J2
2K
its molecules. v5 5 5 511 m/s
Am D 4.65310226 kg
DEVELOP Equation 17.3,
1
2
mv2 5 32 kT, quantifies the relation be-
tween temperature and molecular kinetic energy. Once we find the ASSESS Make sense? Not surprisingly, the answer is the same order
molecular kinetic energy, we’ll need the molecular mass to determine of magnitude as the speed of sound 1,340 m/s2 in air at room tem-
the speed. We can get that using the atomic weight of nitrogen and the perature. At the microscopic level, the speed of the individual mole-
fact that an N2 molecule contains two atoms. cules limits the rate at which information can be transmitted by
disturbances—sound waves—propagating through the gas. ■
EVALUATE We first evaluate the average molecular kinetic energy:
K 5 12 mv2 5 32 kT 5 3211.38310223 J/K21293 K2 5 6.07310221 J

We call the speed calculated in Example 17.2 the thermal speed. In terms of tempera-
ture, Equation 17.3 shows
3kT
vth 5 (17.4)
A m

GOT IT? 17.1 If you double the kelvin temperature of a gas, what happens to the
thermal speed of the gas molecules?

The Distribution of Molecular Speeds

The thermal speed vth is a typical molecular speed, but it doesn’t tell us much about the
distribution of speeds. Are molecular speeds limited to a narrow band about vth? Or are
lots of molecules moving much faster or much slower?
286 Chapter 17 The Thermal Behavior of Matter

Molecules at a higher temperature In the 1860s, the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell showed that elastic collisions
have a broader distribution of speeds. among molecules result in a speed distribution that peaks near the thermal speed but may
extend considerably higher. Figure 17.4 plots this Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution for
two different temperatures. Note that increasing temperature results in a higher thermal
80 K
Number of molecules

speed, as expected, but that it also broadens the distribution so there are more molecules at
lower and higher speeds. The high-speed “tail” of the distribution is especially important to
300 K
chemists because high-energy molecules participate most readily in chemical reactions. The
rapid extension of the high-energy tail with increasing temperature shows why reaction rates
High-energy
“tail” are strongly temperature sensitive, and explains why foods keep much longer with even
modest refrigeration. High-energy molecules are also the first to evaporate from a liquid,
leaving slower, cooler molecules behind and thus explaining evaporative cooling. Without
this effect, Earth’s atmosphere would be much drier and it would rain far less frequently.
200 400 600 800 1000
vth vth
Molecular speed, v (m/s)
Real Gases
FIGURE 17.4 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution The ideal-gas law is a good approximation to the behavior of most real gases, but it’s not
of molecular speeds for nitrogen 1N22 at
temperatures of 80 K and 300 K.
perfect because our assumptions aren’t entirely realistic. Two factors are especially
important. First, real molecules take up space. This reduces the available volume, altering
the ideal-gas law. Second, electrical effects that we’ll explore in Chapter 20 result in a
weak attractive force between nearby molecules. As they move apart, molecules do work
against this van der Waals force, and their kinetic energy drops. This, too, results in a
deviation from ideal-gas behavior. You can explore these effects further in the Passage
Problems at the end of this chapter.

17.2 Phase Changes

Step out of a steamy shower, and you’ll find the mirror fogged with water condensed on
the cool glass. Climb a mountain in winter, and you’ll be treated to the lovely spectacle of
every branch and pine needle covered with a delicate coating of frost that’s formed right
from the air. Burn a rewritable CD or DVD, and you’ve stored information with a laser
that melts tiny spots on the spinning disc. These examples involve phase changes between
gas and liquid, gas and solid, and solid and liquid.

Heat and Phase Changes

Drop ice cubes into a drink and stir. What’s the temperature of the drink? It’s 0°C, and it
stays at 0°C as long as any ice remains. The melting of a pure solid occurs at a fixed tem-
perature. During the process, energy goes into breaking the molecular bonds that hold the
material in its solid form. This increases the molecules’ potential energy but not their
kinetic energy. Since temperature is a measure of molecular kinetic energy, that means the
temperature doesn’t change either.
The energy per unit mass required to change phase is called a heat of transformation
L; for the solid-liquid change it’s the heat of fusion Lf, and for liquid-gas it’s the heat of
vaporization Lv. Less familiar is the heat of sublimation for the transition from solid
directly to gas. These quantities have units of J/kg, so the energy required to change the
phase of a mass m is

Q 5 Lm 1heat of transformation2 (17.5)

To reverse the change requires removing the same energy. Table 17.1 lists heats of trans-
formation for some common materials. These quantities are typically quite large; water’s
heat of fusion, for example, is 334 kJ/kg or 80 cal/g—meaning it takes as much energy to
melt 1 gram of ice as to heat the resulting water to 80°C.
 17.2 Phase Changes 287

Table 17.1 Heats of Transformation (at Atmospheric Pressure)

Substance Melting Point (K) L f (kJ/kg) Boiling Point (K) Lv (kJ/kg)

Alcohol, ethyl 159 109 351 879

Copper 1357 205 2840 4726
Lead 601 24.7 2013 858
Mercury 234 11.3 630 296
Oxygen 54.8 13.8 90.2 213
Sulfur 388 53.6 718 306
Water 273 334 373 2257
Uranium dioxide 3120 259 3815 1533

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 17.1 Water Phases

You put a block of ice initially at 220°C in a pan on a hot stove with a melting, and while that’s happening its temperature doesn’t change, so
constant power output, and heat it until it has melted, boiled, and evap- the graph stays horizontal for a while. When the ice is all melted, the
orated. Make a sketch of temperature versus time for this experiment. water starts to warm. Table 16.1 shows that liquid water’s specific heat
is about twice that of ice; given the same power input, that means the
EVALUATE As the ice starts heating, its temperature goes up, so our
water heats more slowly than the ice. So our graph has a lower slope as
graph (Fig. 17.5) begins with an upward slope. At 0°C the ice starts
the water goes from 0°C to the boiling point at 100°C. Then it starts
During phase turning to vapor, and stays at 100°C until it’s all evaporated. Table 17.1
changes the shows that water’s heat of vaporization is much greater than its heat of
temperature is fusion, so it takes much more time to boil the water away than it did to
constant.
melt the ice. Our graph reflects that time difference.
ASSESS Makes sense: It takes a lot longer to boil a pan dry than to
bring it to a boil.

Gap suggests a
long boiling time. MAKING THE CONNECTION If you start with 0.95 kg of ice
at 220°C and supply heat at the rate of 1.6 kW, how much time will it
take until you’re left with only water vapor?

EVALUATE Use Equation 16.3 for heating, with specific heats from
Table 16.1. Use Equation 17.4 for phase changes, with heats of
FIGURE 17.5 Temperature versus time for what’s initially a block of ice transformation from Table 17.1. The result is 2.9 MJ of heat required
at 220°C, supplied with energy at a constant rate. The process takes for the whole process; at 1.6 kW or 1.6 kJ/s, that takes 1.8 ks, or half
place at atmospheric pressure. an hour.

GOT IT? 17.2 You bring a pot of water to boil and then forget about it. Ten minutes
later you come back to the kitchen to find the water still boiling. Is its temperature (a) less
than, (b) greater than, or (c) equal to 100°C?

EXAMPLE 17.3 The Heat of Fusion: Meltdown!

A nuclear power plant’s reactor vessel cracks, and all the cooling melting. We’re given the rate of energy generation by radioactive de-
water drains out. Although nuclear fission stops, radioactive decay cay, and from that we’ll be able to get the time.
continues to heat the reactor’s 2.53105 kg of uranium-dioxide fuel at
EVALUATE Using UO2’s Lf value from Table 17.1 in Equation 17.5,
the rate of 120 MW. Once the melting point is reached, how much en-
we have
ergy will it take to melt the fuel? How long will this take?
Q 5 Lf m 5 1259 kJ/kg212.53105 kg2 5 65 GJ
INTERPRET Since this problem is about melting, it must involve the With a heating rate of 120 MW or 0.12 GJ/s, the time to melt the
heat of fusion. We identify the material as uranium dioxide 1UO22. fuel is 165 GJ2/10.12 GJ/s2 5 542 s.
DEVELOP Our plan is to find UO2’s heat of fusion in Table 17.1 and ASSESS The time to meltdown is just under 10 minutes! Failsafe emer-
then use Equation 17.5, Q 5 Lm, to calculate the energy required for gency cooling systems are essential to prevent nuclear meltdowns. ■
288 Chapter 17 The Thermal Behavior of Matter

Often we’re interested in the total energy needed to bring a material to its transition
point and then to make the phase transition. Then we need to combine specific-heat con-
siderations of Chapter 16 with the heats of transformation introduced here.

EXAMPLE 17.4 Heating and Phase Change: Enough Ice?

When 200 g of ice at 210°C are added to 1.0 kg of water at 15°C, is Cooling the water to 0°C would extract energy Q2 given by Equa-
there enough ice to cool the water to 0°C? If so, how much ice is left tion 16.3:
in the mixture? Q2 5 mwater cwater DTwater 5 11.0 kg214.184 kJ/kg # K2115 K2 5 62.8 kJ
INTERPRET This problem involves both a temperature rise and a This is far more than the 4.1 kJ needed to bring the ice to 0°C, but
phase change. We identify water as the substance involved. not quite the 70.9 kJ needed to leave it all melted. So there’s enough
ice to cool the water to 0°C, with some left over. How much?
DEVELOP Equation 16.3, Q 5 mc DT, determines the energy for the Our calculation of Q1 shows that 4.1 kJ go into raising the ice tem-
temperature rise, and Equation 17.5, Q 5 Lm, determines the phase- perature. Of the 62.8 kJ extracted from the water, the remaining
change energy. But we don’t know whether all the ice melts. So our 58.7 kJ go to melting ice. From Equation 17.5, the amount of ice
plan is to find the energy that it would take to heat the ice to 0°C and melted is then
then melt all of it; if more than that much is available in cooling the Q 58.7 kJ
water to 0°C, we’ll know that we end up with all water at T . 0°C. mmelted 5 5 5 0.176 kg 5 176 g
Lf 334 kJ/kg
But if there isn’t sufficient energy, then we’ll have a mixture with both
ice and water at 0°C, and we can use the energy extracted in cooling So we’re left with 24 g of ice in 1176 g of water, all at 0°C.
the water to find out how much ice melts.
ASSESS Make sense? Our 62.8 kJ was nearly enough to bring all the
EVALUATE We begin by evaluating the energy Q1 to heat the ice and
ice to the liquid phase, so it makes sense that only a small fraction of
then melt it all, adding the energies from Equations 16.3 and 17.5 the ice remains. ■
and then getting the specific heat and heat of fusion from Tables 16.1
and 17.1, respectively:
Q1 5 mice cice DTice 1 mice Lf
5 10.20 kg212.05 kJ/kg # K2110 K2 1 10.20 kg21334 kJ/kg2
5 4.1 kJ 1 66.8 kJ 5 70.9 kJ

Phase Diagrams
G Why can’t mountaineers enjoy piping hot coffee? Because water’s boiling point drops
with the decreasing pressure at high altitudes. In general, the temperatures at which phase
E F changes occur depend on pressure. A phase diagram shows the different phases on a plot
Melting Critical point of pressure versus temperature. Figure 17.6 is a phase diagram for a typical substance.
Most phase diagrams are similar, although water’s is slightly unusual for reasons we’ll
Pressure

Solid Liquid
C D discuss in the next section.
The phase diagram divides pressure-temperature space into regions corresponding to
Boiling Gas solid, liquid, and gas phases. Lines separating these regions mark the phase transitions.
Sublimation
Triple point Everyday experience suggests that heating takes a substance from solid, to liquid, to gas—
A B
as with water in Fig. 17.5. But Fig. 17.6 shows that this sequence doesn’t always occur. At
Temperature H low pressure (line AB in Fig. 17.6) the substance goes directly from solid to gas. This is
sublimation. We don’t see this with water because normal atmospheric pressure is too
FIGURE 17.6 A phase diagram showing solid,
liquid, and gas phases on a plot of pressure high. For carbon dioxide, though, atmospheric pressure is low in the phase diagram, which
versus temperature. is why “dry ice” turns directly into gaseous CO2 without becoming liquid. At higher pres-
sures (line CD) we get the familiar solid-liquid-gas sequence. Higher still (line EF), we’re
above the critical point, where the abrupt distinction between liquid and gas disappears.
Instead, the substance starts out as a thick fluid whose properties change gradually from
liquidlike to gaslike as it’s heated.
We think of changing phase by applying heat, but Fig. 17.6 shows we can also change
phase by changing pressure. Lowering pressure along line GH, for example, takes the sub-
stance from liquid to gas without any heat input. You may have seen a demonstration of water
boiling vigorously at room temperature in a closed container pumped down to low pressure.
Don’t let Fig. 17.6 fool you into thinking that phase transitions occur instantaneously.
Those heats of transformation are large, and a substance moving, say, along line CD in re-
sponse to heating will linger at each phase transition until all of it has changed phase;
that’s what the level portions of Fig. 17.5 showed.
 17.3 Thermal Expansion 289

The dividing curves in Fig. 17.6 show where two phases can coexist simultaneously,
like ice floating in water at 0°C and atmospheric pressure. It’s because phase changes
occur along curves that terms like “melting point” and “boiling point” are meaningless
unless pressure is specified. But there’s one unique triple point where solid, liquid,
and gas all coexist in equilibrium. Here temperature and pressure have unique, unam-
biguous values—which is why the 273.16-K triple point of water is used to define the
kelvin scale.

17.3 Thermal Expansion

We’ve seen how heating causes changes in temperature and phase. But heating also results
in pressure or volume changes. For a gas at constant pressure, for example, the ideal-gas
law shows that volume increases in direct proportion to temperature. The volume and
pressure relations for liquids and solids aren’t so simple. Because their molecules are
closely spaced, liquids and solids aren’t very compressible, so thermal expansion is less
pronounced.
We characterize the change in the volume with temperature using the coefficient of
volume expansion b, defined as the fractional change in volume when a substance under-
goes a small temperature change DT:
DV/V
b5 (17.6)
DT
This equation assumes that b is independent of temperature; if it varies significantly, then
we would need to define b in terms of the derivative dV/dT (Problem 68). Our definition
of b also assumes constant pressure; we could entirely inhibit thermal expansion with
appropriate pressure increases.
Often we want to know how one linear dimension of a solid changes with temperature.
This is especially true with long structures, where the absolute change is greatest along
the long dimension (Fig. 17.7). We then speak of the coefficient of linear expansion a,
defined by
DL/L
a5 (17.7)
DT
The volume- and linear-expansion coefficients are related in a simple way: b 5 3a, as you
can show in Problem 71. However, the linear-expansion coefficient a is really meaningful
only with solids, because liquids and gases deform and don’t expand proportionately in all
directions. Table 17.2 lists the expansion coefficients for some common substances.

Table 17.2 Expansion Coefficients*

Solids a (K21) Liquids and Gases b (K21)

Aluminum 2431026 Air 3.731023

Brass 1931026 Alcohol, ethyl 7531025 FIGURE 17.7 Thermal expansion distorted these
Copper 1731026 Gasoline 9531025 tracks, causing a derailment. Expansion of long
Glass (Pyrex) 3.231026 Mercury 1831025 structures like this is best described using the
Ice 5131026 Water, 1°C 24.831025 coefficient of linear expansion.
Invar† 0.931026 Water, 20°C 2031025
Steel 1231026 Water, 50°C 5031025

*At approximately room temperature unless noted.

†Invar, consisting of 64% iron and 36% nickel, is an alloy designed to minimize thermal expansion.

GOT IT? 17.3 The figure shows a donut-shaped object. If it’s

heated, will the hole get (a) larger or (b) smaller?
290 Chapter 17 The Thermal Behavior of Matter

EXAMPLE 17.5 Thermal Expansion: Spilled Gasoline

A steel gas can holds 20 L at 10°C. It’s filled to the brim with gas at EVALUATE First we use Equation 17.6 to evaluate the volume change
10°C. If the temperature now increases to 25°C, by how much does DV of the can. Using b 5 3a, we have
the can’s volume increase? How much gas spills out? DVcan 5 bV DT 5 13211231026 K212120 L2115 K2 5 0.0108 L
INTERPRET This is a problem about thermal expansion. Since it in- Similarly, for the gasoline,
volves volume, we identify the relevant quantity as the coefficient of DVgas 5 bV DT 5 19531025 K212120 L2115 K2 5 0.285 L
volume expansion b. We therefore lose 0.275 L.
DEVELOP Equation 17.6, b 5 1DV/V2/DT, determines the volume ASSESS Make sense? The thermal-expansion coefficient for gasoline
change. Our plan is to calculate the expanded volume of the tank and is so much greater than for steel that the can’s expansion is negligible
then of the gasoline. The difference will be the amount that spills out. and the gas has nowhere to go. By the way, that spill wastes nearly
Table 17.2 lists b for gasoline but a for steel; therefore, we’ll use the 10 MJ of energy! ■
equation b 5 3a for the steel.

Thermal Expansion of Water

The entry for water at 1°C in Table 17.2 is remarkable, the negative expansion coefficient
showing that water at this temperature actually contracts on heating. This unusual behav-
ior occurs because ice has a relatively open crystal structure (Fig. 17.8) and therefore is
less dense than liquid water. That’s why ice floats. Immediately above the melting point,
the intermolecular forces that bond H 2O molecules in ice still exert an influence, giving
cold liquid water a lower density than at slightly higher temperatures. At 4°C water
reaches its maximum density, and above this temperature the effect of molecular kinetic
energy in keeping molecules apart wins out over intermolecular forces. From there on, wa-
ter exhibits the more normal behavior of expansion with increasing temperature.
This unusual property of water near its melting point is reflected in its phase diagram,
shown in Fig. 17.9. Note that the solid-liquid boundary extends leftward from the triple point,
in contrast to the more typical behavior in Fig. 17.6. That means that ice at a fixed tempera-
ture will melt if the pressure is increased—an unusual property known as pressure melting.

FIGURE 17.8 Water molecules in an ice crystal

form an open structure, giving solid water
Critical point
a lower density than the liquid.
Liquid
P
Solid Gas

Triple point
FIGURE 17.9 Phase diagram for water.
Compare the solid-liquid boundary
T with that of Fig. 17.6.

APPLICATION Aquatic Life and Lake Turnover

that a thin layer of ice forms on the surface, insulating the water below and
keeping it liquid; as a result, ice cover in temperate climates rarely exceeds
a meter or so. Because water’s density is greatest at 4°C, water at this tem-
perature sinks to the bottom. At lake depths greater than a few meters, sun-
light is inadequate to raise the temperature, which therefore remains year-round
at 4°C.
Water’s unusual density behavior also causes the twice-yearly turnover of
lakes in temperate climates. In the summer, a lake’s surface water is warm, but
deep water remains at 4°C. In the winter, water just beneath the ice is at 0°C,
while the bottom water is still at 4°C. Both situations are stable, with less
dense and therefore more buoyant water at the surface. But in the spring, ice
melts and the surface water warms. When that water reaches 4°C, there’s no
density variation and the lake water mixes freely. This is the spring overturn-
The anomalous behavior of water has important consequences for life. If ice ing. A similar overturning occurs in the fall, as the surface water cools through
didn’t float, then ponds, lakes, and even oceans would freeze solid from the 4°C. Turnover is important to aquatic life because it brings up nutrients that
bottom up, making aquatic life impossible. What actually happens, instead, is would otherwise be trapped in the deep water.
CHAPTER 17 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is that matter responds to heating in a variety of ways in Molecules in the
addition to changing temperature. Other responses include changes of phase hotter gas have
and of volume and/or pressure. The ideal gas provides a particularly simple higher kinetic
energy and hence
system for understanding volume and pressure changes. Analyzing ideal-gas speed.
behavior provides a link between the Newtonian mechanics of molecules and
macroscopic thermodynamics, showing that temperature is a measure of the
average molecular kinetic energy.

Cool gas Hot gas

Key Concepts and Equations

The ideal-gas law relates pressure, volume, temperature, and the Heats of transformation L describe the energy per unit mass needed to
number of molecules in a gas: effect phase changes. The total energy required to change the phase of a
pV 5 NkT 1ideal-gas law2 mass m is given by
where Boltzmann’s constant k 5 1.38310223 J/K. Q 5 Lm 1heat of transformation2

Pressure p
Phase diagrams plot solid, liquid, and gas phases against temperature and
pressure, and reveal the triple point, where all three phases can coexist,
Temperature T and the critical point, where the liquid-gas distinction disappears.
(molecular
energy)
Volume V
Critical point

Pressure
Solid
Liquid

Number of molecules N
Gas
In terms of the number of moles n, the ideal-gas law is
Triple point
pV 5 nNAkT 5 nRT
where the universal gas constant R 5 NAk 5 8.314 J/K # mol. Temperature

The temperature of an ideal gas is a measure of the gas molecules’

average kinetic energy:
2 mv
1 2 5 32 kT 1temperature and molecular energy2

Applications
Thermal expansion is characterized by the coefficient of volume
expansion and its linear counterpart. The volume-expansion coeffi-
cient relates the fractional volume change DV/V to the temperature DV
change DT:
DV/V T 1 DT
b5 1volume-expansion coefficient2 T, V
DT
while the coefficient of linear expansion relates the fractional
length DL/L change to DT:
DL/L
a5 1linear-expansion coefficient2
DT
292 Chapter 17 The Thermal Behavior of Matter

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion now increased to 4.0 atm, and the gas volume drops to half its
initial value. What’s the new temperature?
1. If the volume of an ideal gas is increased, must the pressure drop 22. A pressure of 10210 Pa is readily achievable with laboratory vac-
proportionately? Explain. uum apparatus. If the residual air in this “vacuum” is at 0°C, how
2. According to the ideal-gas law, what should be the volume of a many air molecules are in 1 L?
gas at absolute zero? Why is this result absurd? 23. What’s the thermal speed of hydrogen molecules at 800 K?
3. Why are you supposed to check tire pressure when your tires are 24. In which gas are the molecules moving faster: hydrogen at 75 K
cold? or sulfur dioxide at 350 K?
4. The average speed of the molecules in a gas increases with in- Section 17.2 Phase Changes
creasing temperature. What about the average velocity? 25. How much energy does it take to melt a 65-g ice cube?
5. Suppose you start running while holding a closed jar of air. Do 26. It takes 200 J to melt an 8.0-g sample of one of the substances in
you change the average speed of the air molecules? The average Table 17.1. What’s the substance?
velocity? The temperature? 27. If it takes 840 kJ to vaporize a sample of liquid oxygen, how
6. Two different gases are at the same temperature, and both have large is the sample?
low enough densities that they behave like ideal gases. Do their 28. Carbon dioxide sublimes (changes from solid to gas) at 195 K.
molecules have the same thermal speeds? Explain. The heat of sublimation is 573 kJ/kg. How much heat must be
7. Your roommate claims that ice and snow must be at 0°C. Is that extracted from 250 g of CO2 gas at 195 K in order to solidify it?
true? 29. Find the energy needed to convert 28 kg of liquid oxygen at its
8. What’s the temperature of water just under the ice layer of a boiling point into gas.
frozen lake? At the bottom of a deep lake?
Section 17.3 Thermal Expansion
9. Ice and water have been together in a glass for a long time. Is the
water hotter than the ice? 30. A copper wire is 20 m long on a winter day when the tempera-
10. Which takes more heat: melting a gram of ice already at 0°C, or ture is 212°C. By how much does its length increase on a 26°C
bringing the melted water to the boiling point? summer day?
11. Why does removing the plastic wrap from a package of frozen 31. You have exactly 1 L of ethyl alcohol at room temperature
hamburger help it thaw faster? 120°C2. You put it in a refrigerator at 2°C. What’s its new
12. Why do we use the triple point of water for thermometer calibra- volume?
tion? Why not just use the melting point or boiling point? 32. A Pyrex glass marble is 1.00000 cm in diameter at 20°C. What
13. How is it possible to have boiling water at a temperature other will be its diameter at 85°C?
than 100°C? 33. At 0°C, the hole in a steel washer is 9.52 mm in diameter.
14. How does a pressure cooker work? To what temperature must it be heated in order to fit over a
15. Suppose mercury and glass had the same coefficient of volume 9.55-mm-diameter bolt?
expansion. Could you build a mercury thermometer? 34. Suppose a single piece of welded steel railroad track stretched
16. A bimetallic strip consists of thin pieces of brass and steel 5000 km across the continental United States. If the track were
bonded together (Fig. 17.10). What happens when the strip is free to expand, by how much would its length change if the
heated? (Hint: Consult Table 17.2.) entire track went from a cold winter temperature of 225°C to a
hot summer day at 40°C?
Brass
Steel
Problems
FIGURE 17.10 For Thought and Discussion 16 35. The solar corona is a hot (2 MK) extended atmosphere surround-
ing the Sun’s cooler visible surface. The coronal gas pressure is
about 0.03 Pa. What’s the coronal density in particles per cubic
Exercises and Problems meter? Compare with Earth’s atmosphere.
36. A helium balloon occupies 8.0 L at 20°C and 1.0-atm pressure.
Exercises
The balloon rises to an altitude where the air pressure is 0.65 atm
Section 17.1 Gases and the temperature is 210°C. What is its volume when it
17. Mars’s atmospheric pressure is about 1% that of Earth, and its reaches equilibrium at the new altitude?
average temperature is around 215 K. Find the volume of 1 mol 37. A compressed air cylinder stands 100 cm tall and has internal di-
of the Martian atmosphere. ameter 20.0 cm. At room temperature, the pressure is 180 atm.
18. How many molecules are in an ideal-gas sample at 350 K that (a) How many moles of air are in the cylinder? (b) What volume
occupies 8.5 L when the pressure is 180 kPa? would this air occupy at 1.0 atm and room temperature?
19. What’s the pressure of an ideal gas if 3.5 mol occupy 2.0 L 38. You’re a lawyer with an unusual case. A whipped-cream can burst
at 2150°C? at a wedding, damaging the groom’s expensive tuxedo. The can
20. Your professor asks you to order a tank of argon gas for a lab ex- warned against temperatures in excess of 50°C, and the manufac-
periment. You obtain a “type C” gas cylinder with interior vol- turer has evidence that it reached 60°C. You don’t contest this, but
ume 6.88 L. The supplier claims it contains 45 mol of argon. You you point out that the can was only half full when it burst, mean-
measure its pressure to be 14 MPa at room temperature 120°C2. ing that the gas propellant had more than twice the volume it
Did you get what you paid for? would in a full can, and that some of the propellant had already
21. (a) If 2.0 mol of an ideal gas are initially at temperature 250 K been used. You argue that the real safety criterion is pressure, and
and pressure 1.5 atm, what’s the gas volume? (b) The pressure is that the can’s maximum pressure wasn’t exceeded. Who’s right?
 Exercises and Problems 293

39. A 3000-mL flask is initially open in a room containing air at 54. Evaporation of sweat is the human body’s cooling mechanism. At
1.00 atm and 20°C. The flask is then closed and immersed in boil- BIO body temperature, it takes 2.4 MJ/kg to evaporate water. Marathon
ing water. When the air in the flask has reached thermodynamic runners typically lose about 3 L of sweat each hour. How much en-
equilibrium, the flask is opened and air is allowed to escape. The ergy gets lost to sweating during a 3-hour marathon?
flask is then closed and cooled back to 20°C. Find (a) the maxi- 55. What power is needed to melt 20 kg of ice in 6.0 min?
mum pressure reached in the flask, (b) the number of moles that 56. You put 300 g of water at 20°C into a 500-W microwave oven
escape when air is released, and (c) the final pressure in the flask. and accidentally set the time for 20 min instead of 2.0 min. How
40. The recommended treatment for frostbite is rapid heating in a much is left at the end of 20 min?
BIO water bath. Suppose a frostbitten hand with mass 120 g is im- 57. If 4.53105 kg of emergency cooling water at 10°C are dumped
mersed in water that conducts energy into the hand at the rate of into a malfunctioning nuclear reactor whose core is producing
800 W. Treating the hand as essentially water, initially frozen energy at the rate of 200 MW, and if no circulation or cooling
solid, how long will it take for it to thaw and return to body tem- occurs, how long will it take for half the water to boil away?
perature 137°C2? 58. Describe the composition and temperature of the equilibrium
41. A stove burner supplies heat to a pan at the rate of 1500 W. How mixture after 1.0 kg of ice at 240°C is added to 1.0 kg of water
long will it take to boil away 1.1 kg of water, once the water at 5.0°C.
reaches its boiling point? 59. A glass marble 1.000 cm in diameter is to be dropped through a
42. If a 1-megaton nuclear bomb were exploded deep in the Green- hole in a steel plate. At room temperature the hole diameter is
land ice cap, how much ice would it melt? Assume the ice is ini- 0.997 cm. By how much must the plate’s temperature be raised
tially at about its freezing point, and consult Appendix C for the so the marble will fit through the hole?
appropriate energy conversion. 60. A 2000-mL graduated cylinder is filled with liquid at 350 K.
43. You’re winter camping and are melting snow for drinking water. When the liquid is cooled to 300 K, the cylinder is full to only the
The snow temperature is right around 0°C. You set a pot contain- 1925-mL mark. Use Table 17.2 to identify the liquid.
ing 5.0 kg of snow on your campfire, and you keep stoking up the 61. A steel ball bearing is encased in a Pyrex glass cube 1.0 cm
fire. As a result, the snow gains energy at an increasing rate: on a side. At 330 K, the ball bearing fits tightly inside the
P 5 a 1 bt, where a 5 1.1 kW, b 5 2.3 W/s, and t is the time cube. At what temperature will it have a clearance of 1.0 m m
in s. To the nearest minute, how long will it take to melt the snow? all around?
44. At winter’s end, Lake Superior’s surface is frozen to a depth of 62. Fuel systems of modern cars are designed so thermal expansion
1.3 m; the ice density is 917 kg/m3. (a) How much energy does it of gasoline doesn’t result in wasteful and polluting fuel spills. As
take to melt the ice? (b) If the ice disappears in 3 weeks, what’s an engineer, you’re asked to specify the size of an expansion tank
the average power supplied to melt it? that will handle this overflow. You know that gasoline comes
45. A refrigerator extracts energy from its contents at the rate of 95 W. from its underground tank at 10°C, and your tank must handle
How long will it take to freeze 750 g of water already at 0°C? the expansion of a full 75-L gas tank when the gas reaches a hot
46. Climatologists have recently recognized that black carbon (soot) summer day’s temperature of 35°C. How large an expansion tank
from burning fossil fuels and biomass contributes significantly to do you specify?
arctic warming. You’re asked to determine whether this effect 63. A rod of length L0 is clamped rigidly at both ends. Its tempera-
might cause ice to melt that would normally stay frozen year- ture increases by DT and in the ensuing expansion, it cracks to
round. Consider an ice layer 2.5 m thick that normally reflects form two straight pieces, as shown in Fig. 17.11. Find an expres-
90% of the incident solar energy and absorbs the rest. Suppose sion for the distance d shown in the figure, in terms of L0, DT,
black carbon darkens the ice so it now reflects only 50% of the and the linear expansion coefficient a.
incident solar energy. The arctic summertime solar input aver-
ages 300 W/m2. You can assume 0°C for the initial ice tempera-
ture, and an ice density of 917 kg/m3. What do you conclude? d
47. Repeat Example 17.4 with an initial ice mass of 50 g.
48. How much energy does it take to melt 10 kg of ice initially L0
at 210°C?
FIGURE 17.11 Problem 63
49. Water is brought to its boiling point and then allowed to boil
away completely. If the energy needed to raise the water to the
boiling point is one-tenth of that needed to boil it away, what was 64. You’re home from college on vacation, and there’s a power fail-
the initial temperature? ure. The power company says it will be 15 hours before it’s re-
50. During a nuclear accident, 420 m3 of emergency cooling water at paired. Your parents send you out to buy ice to keep the ‘fridge
20°C are injected into a reactor vessel where the reactor core is cold. You look up the thermal resistance of the refrigerator’s
producing heat at the rate of 200 MW. If the water is allowed to walls; it’s 0.12 K/W. If room temperature is 20°C, how much ice
boil at normal atmospheric pressure, how long will it take to boil should you buy?
the reactor dry? 65. A solar-heated house stores energy in 5.0 tons of Glauber salt
51. What’s the minimum amount of ice in Example 17.4 that will 1Na2SO4 # 10H 2O2, which melts at 90°F. The heat of fusion of
ensure a final temperature of 0°C? Glauber salt is 104 Btu/lb and the specific heats of the solid and
52. A bowl contains 16 kg of punch (essentially water) at a warm liquid are, respectively, 0.46 Btu/lb # °F and 0.68 Btu/lb # °F.
25°C. What’s the minimum amount of ice at 0°C needed to cool After a week of sunny weather, the storage medium is all liquid
the punch to 0°C? at 95°F. Then comes a cloudy period during which the house
53. A 50-g ice cube at 210°C is placed in an equal mass of water. loses heat at an average of 20,000 Btu/h. (a) How long is it be-
What must the initial water temperature be if the final mixture fore the temperature of the storage medium drops below 60°F?
still contains equal amounts of ice and water? (b) How much of this time is spent at 90°F?
294 Chapter 17 The Thermal Behavior of Matter

66. Show that the coefficient of volume expansion of an ideal gas at 73. In water’s phase diagram (Fig. 17.9), normal boiling occurs at a
constant pressure is the reciprocal of its kelvin temperature. point on the line between the triple point and the critical point. In
67. Water’s coefficient of volume expansion in the temperature a pressure cooker, boiling occurs
range from 0°C to about 20°C is given approximately by a. at a point in the diagram directly above where it normally
b 5 a 1 bT 1 cT2, where T is in Celsius and a 5 26.433 occurs.
1025 °C 21, b 5 1.7031025 °C 22, and c 5 22.0231027 °C 23. b. higher up on the line between the triple and critical points.
Show that water has its greatest density at approximately 4.0°C. c. at a point directly to the right of where it normally occurs.
68. When the expansion coefficient varies with temperature, Equa- d. beyond the critical point.
tion 17.6 is written b 5 11/V21dV/dT2. If a sample of water 74. A typical pressure cooker operates at twice normal atmospheric
occupies 1.00000 L at 0°C, find its volume at 12°C. (Hint: Use pressure, raising water’s boiling point to about 120°C. Compared
the information from Problem 67, and integrate the equation with steam at 1 atm and the normal 100°C boiling point, the den-
above.) sity of steam in a pressure cooker is
69. Ignoring air resistance, find the height from which to drop an ice a. double.
cube at 0°C so it melts completely on impact. Assume no heat b. somewhat more than double.
exchange with the environment. c. somewhat less than double.
70. The timekeeping of an old clock is regulated by a brass pendu- d. quadruple.
lum 20.0 cm long. If the clock is accurate at 20°C but is in a
75. Because some pathogens can survive 120°C temperatures, med-
room at 18°C, how soon will the clock be off by 1 minute? Will
ical autoclaves typically operate at 3 atm pressure, where water
it be fast or slow?
boils at 134°C. Based on this information and that given in the
71. Prove the equation b 5 3a (Section 17.3) by considering a cube
preceding problem, you can conclude that
of side s and therefore volume V 5 s3 that undergoes a small
a. Fig. 17.9’s depiction of the liquid-gas interface for water is
temperature change dT and corresponding length and volume
correct in being concave upward.
changes ds and dV.
b. Fig. 17.9’s liquid-gas interface should actually be concave
72. You’re on a team planning a mission to Venus to collect atmos-
downward.
pheric samples for analysis. The design specs call for a 1-L sam-
c. autoclaves operate above the critical point.
ple container, while the scientists want at least 1 mol of gas.
d. at its operating temperature, there can’t be any liquid water in
Venus’s atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth, and its
the autoclave.
average temperature is 730 K. Will the design work?
76. A pressure cooker has a regulating mechanism that releases
Passage Problems steam so as to maintain constant pressure. If that mechanism be-
A pressure cooker is a sealed pot that cooks food much faster than came clogged
most other methods because increased pressure allows water to reach a. the pressure would nevertheless level off once water in the
higher temperatures than the normal boiling point (Fig. 17.12). Pres- cooker began to boil.
sure cookers afford many advantages: faster cooking, lower energy b. the pressure would continue to rise although the temperature
consumption, and less vitamin loss. The pressure-cooker principle is would remain constant.
also used in autoclaves for sterilizing surgical instruments in hospitals c. both temperature and pressure would continue to rise.
and equipment in biology labs. d. the density of the steam would decrease.

Answers to Chapter Questions

Pressure regulator
Answer to Chapter Opening Question
Safety valve
Water’s solid phase is less dense than the liquid, which causes ice to
float. Our world would be a very different place if ice were denser
Lid
than water.

Answers to GOT IT? Questions

17.1. It increases by a factor of 12.
Pressure vessel 17.2. (c) Equal to 100°C.
17.3. (a) Larger, since all linear dimensions of the object expand
FIGURE 17.12 A pressure cooker (Passage Problems 73–76)
equally.
 Heat, Work, and the First
18 Law of Thermodynamics

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Explain how the first law of thermody-
namics extends the conservation-of-
energy principle to include thermal
energy (18.1).
■ Describe quantitatively the effects
of basic thermodynamic processes—
isothermal, adiabatic, isobaric, and
constant-volume—on an ideal
gas (18.2).
■ Determine the specific heat of an
ideal gas based on its molecular
structure (18.3).
A jet engine converts the energy of burning
fuel into mechanical energy. How does
energy conservation apply in this process?

I n Chapter 7 we introduced the powerful idea of energy conservation, limited to mechanical

energy and conservative forces. Now we’ve learned that thermal processes involve energy—
and that sets the stage for extending the conservation-of-energy principle. Here we’ll explore
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ This chapter joins the concept of
work, introduced in Chapter 6 (6.1, 6.2),
this broader principle and see how it describes energy interchanges in thermodynamic systems and the behavior of ideal gases as
ranging from engines to Earth’s atmosphere. described in Chapter 17 (17.1).
■ You should have a clear understand-
ing of the conservation-of-energy
principle introduced in Chapter 7 (7.3).
18.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Figure 18.1 shows two ways to raise the temperature in a beaker of water: by heating with
a flame and by stirring vigorously with a spoon. Using the flame involves heat—energy in
transit because of the temperature difference between flame and water. But there’s no tem-
perature difference between spoon and water; here the energy transfer occurs because the
spoon does mechanical work on the water. We already know that doing work can increase
the kinetic or potential energy of a macroscopic object; here we see it, instead, changing
the internal energy associated ultimately with individual molecules. The point is that
both processes—heating and mechanical work—result in exactly the same final state—
namely, water with a higher temperature and therefore greater internal energy. It’s this
common result that made possible Joule’s quantitative identification of heat as a form of
energy (Fig. 18.2).

295
296 Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics

Heat from the

flame raises
water’s internal Potential energy of
energy and falling weights
therefore its becomes kinetic
temperature. energy of paddle.

(a)

The spoon’s mechanical

work similarly raises
internal energy and
hence temperature.

The paddle’s kinetic energy in turn

becomes internal energy of the water,
(b) indicated by rising temperature.

FIGURE 18.1 Two ways to raise FIGURE 18.2 Joule’s apparatus for
temperature. determining what he called “the
mechanical equivalent of heat.”

Keep track of all the energy entering and leaving a system—both heat and work—and
you’ll find that the change in the system’s internal energy depends only on the net energy
transferred. In one sense this is hardly surprising; it just extends the idea of energy conser-
vation to include heat. But in another way it’s remarkable; it doesn’t matter at all how the
energy gets into the system—heat, work, or some combination of the two. This statement
constitutes the first law of thermodynamics:

First law of thermodynamics The change in the internal energy of a system

depends only on the net heat transferred to the system and the net work done on the
system, independent of the particular processes involved.

Mathematically, the first law is

DU 5 Q 1 W 1first law of thermodynamics2 (18.1)

where DU is the change in a system’s internal energy, Q the heat transferred to the system,
and W the work done on the system.* The first law says that the change in a system’s in-
ternal energy doesn’t depend on how the energy gets transferred, but only on the net en-
ergy. Internal energy is therefore a thermodynamic state variable, meaning a quantity
whose value doesn’t depend on how a system got into its particular state. Temperature and
pressure are also thermodynamic state variables; heat and work are not.
We’re frequently concerned with rates of energy flow. Differentiating the first law with
respect to time gives a statement about rates:
dU dQ dW
5 1 (18.2)
dt dt dt
where dU/dt is the rate of change of a system’s internal energy, dQ/dt the rate of heat
transfer to the system, and dW/dt the rate at which work is done on the system.

*Some books define W as the work done by the system, in which case there’s a minus sign in the
first law. This is because the law was first introduced in connection with engines, which take in heat
and put out mechanical work.
 18.2 Thermodynamic Processes 297

EXAMPLE 18.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics: Thermal Pollution

The reactor in a nuclear power plant supplies energy at the rate of ASSESS Make sense? Since positive Q represents heat transferred to
3.0 GW, boiling water to produce steam that turns a turbine-generator. the system, the minus sign shows that heat is transferred from the
The spent steam is then condensed through thermal contact with wa- power plant to the river at the rate of 2 GW. The numbers here are typ-
ter taken from a river. If the power plant produces electrical energy at ical for large nuclear and coal-burning power plants, and show that
the rate of 1.0 GW, at what rate is heat transferred to the river? about two-thirds of the energy extracted from the fuel is wasted in
heating the environment. We’ll see in the next chapter just why this
INTERPRET This problem is about heat and mechanical energy, which waste occurs.
are related by the first law of thermodynamics. We identify the system
as the entire power plant, comprising the nuclear reactor, including its
fuel, and the turbine-generator. We identify U as the internal energy ✓TIP Identify the System
stored in the fuel, W as the mechanical work that ends up as electrical
The first law of thermodynamics deals with energy flows into and
energy, and Q as the heat transferred to the river.
out of a system. It’s up to you to define the system, and how you
DEVELOP Since we’re dealing here with rates, Equation 18.2, dU/dt 5
do so affects the meanings of the terms in the first law. In this Ex-
dQ/dt 1 dW/dt, applies. The reactor extracts internal energy from its ample we included the nuclear reactor, with the internal energy of
fuel, so the rate dU/dt is negative. The power plant delivers electrical its fuel, as part of the system. If we had considered only the
energy to the outside world, so it’s doing work; since W in the first law turbine-generator, then we would have had 3 GW of heat coming
is the work done on the system, dW/dt is therefore negative. Our plan in from the reactor and no change in internal energy. But the result
is then to solve for dQ/dt, the rate of energy transfer to the river. would be the same: 1 GW going out as electricity and 2 GW of
heat dumped into the river.
EVALUATE Solving, we have
dQ dU dW ■
5 2 5 23.0 GW 2 121.0 GW2 5 22.0 GW
dt dt dt

18.2 Thermodynamic Processes These temperatures stay the same

as the water temperature increases slowly.
Although the first law applies to any system, it’s easiest to understand when applied to an
ideal gas. The ideal-gas law relates the temperature, pressure, and volume of a given gas
sample: pV 5 nRT. The thermodynamic state is completely determined by any two of the
quantities p, V, or T. We’ll find it convenient to represent different states as points on a
T T
pV diagram—a graph whose vertical and horizontal axes represent pressure and volume,
respectively. Water Gas

Reversible and Irreversible Processes

Temperature
Imagine a gas sample immersed in a large reservoir of water and allowed to come to equi- control
librium (Fig. 18.3). If we then raise the reservoir temperature very slowly, both water and
gas temperatures will rise essentially in unison, and the gas will remain in equilibrium. FIGURE 18.3 A quasi-static, or reversible, process
Such a slow change is called a quasi-static process. Because a system undergoing a keeps water and gas always in equilibrium.
quasi-static process is always in thermodynamic equilibrium, its evolution from one state
to another is described by a continuous sequence of points—a curve—in its pV diagram The system is always in
(Fig. 18.4). thermodynamic equilibrium,
so a continuous path describes
We could reverse this heating process by slowly lowering the reservoir temperature; the the change.
gas would cool, reversing its path in the pV diagram. For that reason, a quasi-static process
p2, V2, T2
is also a reversible process. A process like suddenly plunging a cool gas sample into hot
water is, in contrast, irreversible. During an irreversible process the system isn’t in equi-
librium, and thermodynamic variables like temperature and pressure don’t have well-
p
defined values. It therefore makes no sense to think of a path in the pV diagram. A process
may be irreversible even though it returns a system to its original state. The distinction lies p1, V1, T1
not in the end states but in the process that takes the system between states.
There are many ways to change a system’s thermodynamic state. Here we consider im-
portant special cases involving an ideal gas. These illustrate the physical principles behind V
a myriad of technological devices and natural phenomena, from the operation of a gaso- FIGURE 18.4 The pV diagram of a system under-
line engine to the propagation of a sound wave to the oscillations of a star. going quasi-static change.
298 Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics

Movable Our system consists of an ideal gas confined to a cylinder sealed with a movable piston
piston (Fig. 18.5). The piston and cylinder walls are perfectly insulating—they block all heat
transfer—and the bottom is a perfect conductor of heat. We can change the thermody-
namic state of the gas mechanically by moving the piston, or thermally by transferring
heat through the bottom. We’ll consider only reversible processes, which we can describe
Thermal by paths in the pV diagram for the gas.
insulator

Work and Volume Changes

We begin by developing an expression for the work done on a gas that holds for all
Thermal processes. If our piston-cylinder system has cross-sectional area A and gas pressure p, then
conductor Fgas 5 pA is the force the gas exerts on the piston. If the piston moves a small distance Dx,
FIGURE 18.5 A gas-cylinder system
the gas does work DWgas 5 Fgas Dx 5 pA Dx 5 p DV, where DV 5 A Dx is the change in
with insulating walls and a gas volume (Fig. 18.6a). Our expression for the first law of thermodynamics involves the
conducting bottom. work done on the gas; by Newton’s third law, the piston exerts a force on the gas that’s
equal but opposite to Fgas, so the work done on the gas is DW 5 2Fgas Dx 5 2p DV. Pres-
sure may vary with volume, so we find the total work done as the gas goes from volume V1
to volume V2 by replacing DV with the infinitesimal quantity dV and integrating:
V2
W 5 3 dW 5 2 3 p dV 1work done on gas during volume change2 (18.3)
V1

Figure 18.6b shows that the work done on the gas is the negative of the area under the pV
curve. That work is positive if the gas is compressed 1V2 , V12 and negative if it expands
1V2 . V12.
We’ll now explore several basic thermodynamic processes, in each case holding one
thermodynamic variable constant.

Area A The piston The gas does work

rises a small as the volume
distance Dx. increases by DV . . . . . . and the work done on the
gas is the opposite, making
the work done on the gas as
DV 5 ADx Dx its volume increases from V1
p to V2 the negative of the
x area under the
entire curve.

V1 DV V2
V
(a) (b)

FIGURE 18.6 Work done on the gas as the piston rises is the negative of the area under the pV curve.

The piston moves slowly while the

system is in thermal contact with a GOT IT? 18.1 Two identical gas-cylinder systems are taken from the same initial
heat reservoir at fixed temperature T.
state to the same final state, but by different processes. Which are the same in both cases:
(a) the work done on or by the gas; (b) the heat added or removed; or (c) the change in
internal energy?

Heat
reservoir Isothermal Processes
T An isothermal process occurs at constant temperature. Figure 18.7 shows one way to effect
an isothermal process: Place a gas cylinder in thermal contact with a heat reservoir whose
T temperature is constant. Then move the piston to change the gas volume, slowly enough
that the gas remains in equilibrium with the heat reservoir. The system moves from its initial
FIGURE 18.7 An isothermal process. state to its final state along a curve of constant temperature—an isotherm—in the pV diagram
 18.2 Thermodynamic Processes 299

(Fig. 18.8). The work done on the gas is given by Equation 18.3 and is the negative of the area An isotherm is a hyperbola because
under the isotherm. pressure and volume are inversely
related for an ideal gas at constant T:
To find that work, we relate pressure and volume through the ideal-gas law:
p 5 nRT ( 1 ).
p 5 1nRT2/V. Then Equation 18.3 becomes V
V2
nRT
W 5 23 dV
V1
V
p
For an isothermal process, the temperature T is constant, giving
V2 V
dV 2
V2
W 5 2nRT 3 5 2nRT lnV 2 5 2nRT ln a b
V1 V V1 V1
The internal energy of an ideal gas consists only of the kinetic energy of its molecules, V1 V2
which, in turn, depends only on temperature. Thus, there’s no change in the internal en- V
ergy of an ideal gas during an isothermal process. The first law of thermodynamics then Work is negative of the area under the pV curve:
V2
gives DU 5 0 5 Q 1 W, so W52
0V1
pdV.

V2
Q 5 2W 5 nRT ln a b 1isothermal process2 (18.4) FIGURE 18.8 A pV diagram for an isothermal
V1 process.
Does this result Q 5 2W make sense? Recall that Q is the heat transferred to the gas
and W is the work done on it. So 2W is the work done by the gas, and our result shows
that for a gas to do work without its temperature changing, it must absorb an equal amount
of heat. Similarly, if work is done on the gas, it must transfer an equal amount of heat to
its surroundings if it’s to maintain a constant temperature.

EXAMPLE 18.2 An Isothermal Process: Bubbles!

A scuba diver is 25 m down, where the pressure is 3.5 atm or about volume expands by a factor of 3.5 as the pressure drops from 3.5 atm
350 kPa. The air she exhales forms bubbles 8.0 mm in radius. How to 1 atm at the surface—so V2 /V1 5 3.5. Then Equation 18.4 gives
much work does each bubble do as it rises to the surface, assuming the V2
bubbles remain at the uniform 300 K temperature of the water? 2W 5 nRT ln a b 5 43 pr3p ln 3.5
V1
INTERPRET The constant 300 K temperature tells us we’re dealing Using the 8-mm bubble radius and the 350-kPa pressure gives 0.94 J
with an isothermal process. for the work. Note that we needed to use pressure in SI units here; to
find the volume ratio, any units would do because V2 /V1 followed from
DEVELOP Equation 18.4 determines the work: 2W 5 nRT ln1V2/V12. the pressure ratio p1 /p2.
Here 2W is just what we’re after: the work done by the gas in the bubble.
To use this equation, we need the quantity nRT and the volume ratio ASSESS Make sense? The work 2W done by the gas is positive be-
V2 /V1. We know p and V (actually the radius, from which we can get V) cause an expanding bubble pushes water outward and ultimately up-
at the 25-m depth, so we can use the ideal-gas law pV 5 nRT to get ward. It therefore raises the ocean’s gravitational potential energy.
nRT and also the bubble volume just before it reaches the surface. When the bubble breaks, this excess potential energy becomes kinetic
Then we’ll have everything we need to apply Equation 18.4. energy, appearing as small waves on the water surface. The bubble, in
turn, gets its energy from heat that flows in to keep it at constant tem-
EVALUATE The ideal-gas law gives nRT 5 pV 5 3 pr 3p. The number
4
perature. Energy is conserved! ■
of moles n doesn’t change and R is a constant, so pV is itself constant
in the isothermal process. That means p1V1 5 p2V2, showing that the

Constant-Volume Processes and Specific Heat

A constant-volume process (also called isometric, isochoric, or isovolumic) occurs in a
rigid closed container whose volume can’t change. We could tightly clamp the piston in
Fig. 18.5 for a constant-volume process. Because the piston doesn’t move, the gas does no
work, and the first law becomes simply DU 5 Q. To express this result in terms of a temper-
ature change DT, we introduce the molar specific heat at constant volume CV, defined by
Q 5 nCV DT 1constant-volume process2 (18.5)
300 Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics

where n is the number of moles. This molar specific heat is like the specific heat defined
in Chapter 16, except it’s per mole rather than per unit mass. Using Equation 18.5 for Q in
the statement DU 5 Q gives
DU 5 nCV DT 1any process2 (18.6)
For an ideal gas, the internal energy is a function of temperature alone, so DU/DT has
the same value no matter what process the gas undergoes. Therefore, Equation 18.6, relat-
ing the temperature change DT and internal-energy change DU, applies not only to a con-
stant-volume process but to any ideal-gas process. Why, then, have we been so careful to
label CV the specific heat at constant volume? Although Equation 18.6, DU 5 nCV DT,
holds for any process, it’s only when there’s no work that the first law lets us write
Q 5 DU, and therefore only for a constant-volume process that Equation 18.5 holds.

Isobaric Processes and Specific Heat

Isotherms Isobaric means constant pressure. Processes occurring in systems exposed to the atmos-
Work done
on the gas
phere are essentially isobaric. In a reversible isobaric process, a system moves along an
T1 T2
is the negative isobar, or curve of constant pressure, in its pV diagram (Fig. 18.9). The work done on the
of the area under gas as the volume changes from V1 to V2 is the negative of the area under the isobar, or
Isobar the pV curve.
p W 5 2p1V2 2 V12 5 2p DV (18.7)
1 2
a result we could obtain formally by integrating Equation 18.3.
Solving the first law (Equation 18.1) for Q and using our expression for work give
W 5 2pDV Q 5 DU 2 W 5 DU 1 p DV. For an ideal gas, we’ve just found that the change in internal
V1 V2 energy is DU 5 nCV DT for any process. Therefore, Q 5 nCV DT 1 p DV for an ideal gas
V undergoing an isobaric process. We define the molar specific heat at constant pressure Cp as
the heat required to raise 1 mol of gas by 1 K at constant pressure, or Q 5 nCp DT. Equat-
FIGURE 18.9 A pV diagram for an isobaric process; ing our two expressions for Q gives
also shown are isotherms for the initial and final
temperatures. nCp DT 5 nCV DT 1 p DV 1isobaric process2 (18.8)
This is a useful form for calculating temperature changes in an isobaric process if we
know both specific heats Cp and CV. However, we really need only one of these specific
heats because a simple relation holds between the two. The ideal-gas law, pV 5 nRT, allows
us to write p DV 5 nR DT for an isobaric process. Using this expression in Equation 18.8
gives nCp DT 5 nCV DT 1 nR DT, so
Cp 5 CV 1 R 1molar specific heats2 (18.9)
Does this make sense? Specific heat measures the heat needed to cause a given tempera-
ture change. In a constant-volume process, no work is done and all the heat goes into rais-
ing the internal energy and thus the temperature of an ideal gas. In a constant-pressure
process, work is done and some of the added heat ends up as mechanical energy, leaving
less available for raising the temperature. Therefore, a constant-pressure process requires
more heat for a given temperature change. Thus the specific heat at constant pressure is
greater than at constant volume, as reflected in Equation 18.9.
Why didn’t we distinguish specific heats at constant volume and constant pressure ear-
lier? Because we were concerned mostly with solids and liquids, whose coefficients of ex-
pansion are far lower than those of gases. As a result, much less work is done by a solid or
liquid than by a gas. Since work is what gives rise to the difference between CV and Cp,
the distinction is less significant for solids and liquids. As a practical matter, measured
specific heats are usually at constant pressure.

Adiabatic Processes
In an adiabatic process, no heat flows between a system and its environment. The way
to achieve this is to surround the system with perfect thermal insulation. Even without
insulation, processes that occur quickly are often approximately adiabatic because
they’re over before significant heat transfer has had time to occur. In a gasoline engine,
for example, compression of the gasoline-air mixture and expansion of the combustion
 18.2 Thermodynamic Processes 301

products are nearly adiabatic because they occur so rapidly that little heat flows through Molecules rebound with the same
the cylinder walls. speed, and the gas's internal energy
doesn't change.
Since the heat Q is zero in an adiabatic process, the first law becomes simply

DU 5 W 1adiabatic process2 (18.10) vr2

This says that if we do work on a system and there’s no heat transfer, then the system must
gain an equal amount of internal energy. Conversely, if the system does work on its envi-
ronment, then it loses internal energy (Fig. 18.10).
As a gas expands adiabatically, its volume increases while its internal energy and tem- vr1
perature decrease. The ideal-gas law, pV 5 nRT, then requires that the pressure decrease
as well—and by more than it would in an isothermal process where T remains constant. In (a) Stationary piston
a pV diagram, the path of an adiabatic process—called an adiabat—is therefore steeper
Rebounding molecules have lower
than the isotherms (Fig. 18.11). speed as energy is transferred to
Tactics 18.1 details the math involved in finding the adiabatic path; the result is the outward-moving piston. With
the decrease in internal energy
pVg 5 constant 1adiabatic process2 (18.11a) comes a drop in temperature.

where g 5 Cp /CV is the ratio of the specific heats. Because Cp 5 CV 1 R, the ratio
g 5 Cp /CV is always greater than 1. As expected, an adiabatic process therefore results in
a greater pressure change than would a comparable isothermal process, as reflected in the vr2 vr
steeper adiabatic path in Fig. 18.11. Physically, the adiabatic path is steeper because the
gas loses internal energy as it does work, so its temperature drops. Problem 65 shows how
to rewrite Equation 18.11a in terms of temperature: vr1

TVg21 5 constant 1adiabatic process2 (18.11b)

(b) Moving piston

FIGURE 18.10 In an adiabatic expansion, a gas

TACTICS 18.1 Deriving the Adiabatic Equation does work on the piston and its internal energy
decreases. Part (b) shows microscopically how
Equation 18.6 gives the infinitesimal change in internal energy for any process: dU 5 nCV dT. The corre- this occurs.
sponding work is dW 5 p dV so, with Q 5 0 in an adiabatic process, the first law becomes
nCV dT 5 2p dV. We can eliminate dT by differentiating the ideal-gas law, now letting both p and V
An adiabat shows that
change: nR dT 5 d1pV2 5 p dV 1 V dp. Solving for dT, substituting in our first-law statement, and mul- the pressure drops more
tiplying through by R lead to CVV dp 1 1CV 1 R2p dV 5 0. But CV 1 R 5 Cp; substituting this and than in an isothermal
1
dividing through by CVpV give process.
dp Cp dV
1 50 p
p CV V
Isotherms
Defining g ; Cp /CV and integrating give
ln p 1 g ln V 5 ln1constant2 2 T1
T2
where we’ve chosen to call the constant of integration ln(constant). Since g ln V 5 ln Vg, it follows by
exponentiation that V
pV 5 constant
g
FIGURE 18.11 A pV curve for an adiabatic
expansion (dark curve).

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 18.1 Ideal-Gas Law Versus the Adiabatic Equation

The ideal-gas law says pV 5 nRT, but Equation 18.11a says pVg 5 processes obey the ideal-gas law, but the relation of p and V differs, so
constant for an ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic process. Which there’s no contradiction.
is right?
EVALUATE The ideal-gas law is fundamental, so we know it’s right. MAKING THE CONNECTION Suppose you halve the volume of
And we derived Equation 18.11a based on the behavior of an ideal an ideal gas with g 5 1.4. What happens to the pressure if the process
gas. So both must be right. But how can that be, when one equation is (a) isothermal and (b) adiabatic?
talks about pV and the other about pVg? The answer lies in the right-
EVALUATE For the isothermal process pV 5 constant, so halving the
hand side of the ideal-gas law: nRT. For an adiabatic process, T isn’t
constant and therefore pV isn’t constant—but pVg is. volume doubles the pressure. For the adiabatic process it’s pVg that’s
constant. Setting p1V1g 5 p2V2g with V2 5 V1/2 gives p2 5 2 gp1, or in
ASSESS Compare the adiabatic process with an isothermal process. In this case an increase by a factor of 2.64. The pressure increases more
that case, T is constant and we would write pV 5 constant. Both than in the isothermal case because the temperature goes up.
302 Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics

It’s another exercise in calculus to integrate Equation 18.3 for the work done on the gas
in an adiabatic process. You can do this in Problem 63; the result is
p2V2 2 p1V1
W5 (18.12)
g21

EXAMPLE 18.3 An Adiabatic Process: Diesel Power

Vmin
Fuel ignites in a diesel engine from the heat of compression as
Cylinder
the piston moves toward the top of the cylinder; there’s no spark plug Vmax
as in a gasoline engine. Compression is fast enough that the process is Piston
essentially adiabatic. If the ignition temperature is 500°C, what com-
pression ratio Vmax/ Vmin is needed (Fig. 18.12)? Air’s specific-heat ra-
tio is g 5 1.4, and before compression the air is at 20°C.
Connecting rod
INTERPRET We identify the thermodynamic process here as adiabatic
compression. FIGURE 18.12 One cylinder of a diesel
Crankshaft
engine, shown with the piston (a) at
DEVELOP The problem involves temperature and volume, so Equa- the bottom of its stroke and (b) at
the top. The compression ratio
tion 18.11b applies, giving TminVmin
g21
5 TmaxVmax
g21
.
(a) (b) is Vmax /Vmin.
EVALUATE Solving for the compression ratio Vmax /Vmin gives
ASSESS Practical diesel engines have higher ratios to ensure reliable
Vmax Tmin 1/1g212 773 K 1/0.4 ignition. Their high compression makes diesels heavier than their
5a b 5a b 5 11
Vmin Tmax 293 K gasoline counterparts, but also more fuel efficient. Problem 66
explores the diesel engine further. ■

APPLICATION Smog Alert!

The smog that blankets urban areas is an unfortunate manifestation of our pro-
lific fossil-fueled energy consumption. Adiabatic processes in the atmosphere
determine whether or not smog lingers over a city. Consider a volume of air
that’s heated, perhaps because it’s over hot pavement that absorbs solar energy.
The air becomes less dense, and its buoyancy makes it rise. As it ascends into
regions of lower pressure, it expands, doing work against the surrounding at-
mosphere. Air is a poor heat conductor, so the process is essentially adiabatic.
Therefore, the gas cools as it does work.
Now, temperature in the atmosphere normally decreases with altitude. So
here’s the crucial question: Does the rising air cool faster or slower than the
surrounding atmosphere? If it cools more slowly, then it continues to be
warmer, and it continues to rise. Any pollution is carried high into the atmos-
phere where it’s dispersed. But if the decrease in air temperature with altitude
isn’t great, or in an inversion where it’s actually warmer aloft, the rising air
will soon reach equilibrium with its surroundings and won’t rise any higher.
The effect is to trap air and its entrained pollutants near the surface, as shown
in this photo of Los Angeles. Smog alert!

GOT IT? 18.2 Name the basic thermodynamic process involved when each of the
following is done to a piston-cylinder system containing ideal gas, and tell also whether
temperature, pressure, volume, and internal energy increase or decrease: (a) The piston is
locked in place and a flame is applied to the bottom of the cylinder; (b) the cylinder is
completely insulated and the piston is pushed downward; (c) the piston is exposed to at-
mospheric pressure and is free to move, while the cylinder is cooled by placing it on a
block of ice.
 18.2 Thermodynamic Processes 303

Cyclic Processes
Many natural and technological systems undergo cyclic processes, in which the sys-
tem returns periodically to the same thermodynamic state. Engineering examples
include engines and refrigerators whose mechanical construction ensures cyclic behav-
ior. Many natural oscillations, like those of a sound wave or a pulsating star, are essen-
tially cyclic.
Cyclic processes often involve the four basic processes we’ve just explored, as summa-
rized in Table 18.1. We’ve seen that the work done in any reversible process is just the area
under the pV curve. A cyclic process returns to the same point in the pV diagram, so it in-
volves both expansion and compression (Fig. 18.13). During compression, work is done on
the gas; during expansion, the gas does work on its surroundings. The net work done on the
gas is the difference between the two, shown in Figure 18.13 as the area enclosed by
the cyclic path in the pV diagram.

Table 18.1 Ideal-Gas Processes

ISOTHERMAL CONSTANT-VOLUME ISOBARIC ADIABATIC

Isotherm
Isobar Adiabat
p p p p
pV diagram
T2 T2
W W T1 W T1

V1 V V2 V V1 V V2 V1 V V2

Defining characteristic T 5 constant V 5 constant p 5 constant Q50

First law Q 5 2W Q 5 DU Q 5 DU 2 W DU 5 W

Work done on gas W 5 2nRT ln ( )

V2
V1
W50 W 5 2p (V2 2 V1) W5
p2V2 2 p 1V1
g21
Other relationships pV 5 constant Q 5 nCV DT Q 5 nCp DT pV g 5 constant
Cp 5 CV 1 R TV g21 5 constant

Work is done by the gas as it goes

Work done on the gas as it goes from from state B to state A.
state A to state B is the entire shaded area. Net work done on the gas
during a whole cycle

A A A
Wnet
p B p B p B

W<0

V V V
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 18.13 (a) A pV diagram for a cyclic process. (b), (c) Work done on the gas over one
cycle is the area inside the closed path.
304 Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics

EXAMPLE 18.4 A Cyclic Process: Finding the Work

An ideal gas with g 5 1.4 occupies 4.0 L at 300 K and 100 kPa pres- where we used the given information pA 5 100 kPa, g 5 1.4, and a
sure. It’s compressed adiabatically to one-fourth of its original vol- compression to one-fourth the original volume 1VA /VB 5 42. We
ume, then cooled at constant volume back to 300 K, and finally now have enough information to find the work done over the adia-
allowed to expand isothermally to its original volume. How much batic path:
work is done on the gas? pBVB 2 pAVA
WAB 5 5 741 J
INTERPRET This problem involves a cyclic process, and we identify g21
three separate thermodynamic processes that make up the cycle: adia- where, with pressures in kPa 15103 Pa2 and volumes in
batic, constant-volume, and isothermal. L 151023 m32, the factors 1063 cancel and there’s no need to convert.
The work WAB is positive because work is done on the gas when it’s
DEVELOP Here it helps to draw a pV diagram, shown in Fig. 18.14. Our compressed.
plan is to use equations in Table 18.1 to determine the work for each of In the expression WCA 5 2nRT ln1VA /VC2 for the isothermal work,
the basic processes and then combine them to get the net work. For the we can evaluate the quantity nRT at any point on the isothermal curve
adiabatic process AB, Table 18.1 gives WAB 5 1pBVB 2 pAVA2/1g 2 12; because T is constant. The ideal-gas law says that nRT 5 pV, and we
for the constant-volume process BC, WBC 5 0; and for the isothermal know both p and V at point A. So nRT 5 pAVA 5 400 J, where again
process CA, the work is WCA 5 2nRT ln1VA /VC2. we could multiply pA 5 100 kPa by VA 5 4.0 L to get an answer in
SI units. The isothermal work is then
We’re given VB 5 14 VA, VA
and we calculated pB. WCA 5 2nRT ln a b 5 21400 J21ln 42 5 2555 J
VC
This is negative because the gas does work in expanding from C to A.
Combining our results for all three segments gives the net work:
We’re given
pA and VA. WABCA 5 WAB 1 WBC 1 WCA 5 741 J 1 0 J 2 555 J 5 186 J

ASSESS Make sense? The final answer is positive because we’ve done
net work on the gas; that’s always the case in going counterclockwise
around a cyclic path in a pV diagram. Since the system returns to its
original state, its internal energy undergoes no net change. That means
FIGURE 18.14 The cyclic process ABCA of Example 18.4 includes adiabatic (AB), all the work that’s done on it must be transferred to its surroundings
constant-volume (BC), and isothermal (CA) sections. as heat. Since no heat flows during the adiabatic process AB, and since
the gas absorbs heat during the isothermal expansion CA, the only
EVALUATE For the adiabatic process AB we’re given all quantities time it transfers heat to its surroundings is during the constant-volume
except pB. This we can get from the adiabatic equation pVg 5 con- cooling process BC. ■
stant, or pBVBg 5 pAVAg. Solving gives pB 5 pA1VA /VB2g 5 696.4 kPa,

18.3 Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas

We’ve found that the thermodynamic behavior of an ideal gas depends on the specific
heats CV and Cp. What are the values of those quantities?
Our ideal-gas model of Chapter 17 assumed the gas molecules were structureless point
particles with only translational kinetic energy. The internal energy U of the gas is the sum
of all those molecular kinetic energies. But the average kinetic energy is directly propor-
tional to the temperature: 12 mv2 5 32 kT. If we have n moles of gas, the internal energy is then
U 5 nNA A 12 mv2 B 5 32 nNAkT, where NA is Avogadro’s number. But NAk 5 R, the gas
constant, so U 5 32 nRT. Solving Equation 18.6 for the molar specific heat then gives
1 DU 3
CV 5 5 2R (18.13)
n DT
For this gas of structureless particles, the adiabatic exponent g is therefore
Cp CV 1 R 2R
5
5
g5 5 5 3 5 5 1.67
CV CV 2R
3
 18.3 Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas 305

Some gases, notably the inert gases helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), and others in
the last column of the periodic table, have adiabatic exponents and specific heats given by
these equations. But others do not. At room temperature, for example, hydrogen 1H 22,
oxygen 1O22, and nitrogen 1N22 obey adiabatic laws with g very nearly 75 151.42 and, cor-
respondingly, specific heat CV 5 52 R. On the other hand, sulfur dioxide 1SO22 and nitro-
gen dioxide 1NO22 have specific-heat ratios close to 1.3 and therefore CV of about 3.4R.
What’s going on here? A clue lies in the structure of individual gas molecules, reflected
in their chemical formulas. The inert-gas molecules are monatomic, consisting of single
atoms. To the extent that these atoms behave like structureless mass points, the only en-
ergy they can have is kinetic energy of translational motion. We can think of that kinetic
energy as being a sum of three terms, each associated with motion in one of the three mu-
tually perpendicular directions. We call each separate term in the energy of a system a
degree of freedom, meaning a way that system can take on energy. So a monatomic mol-
ecule has three degrees of freedom.
In contrast, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen molecules are diatomic, as shown in
Fig. 18.15. Although a gas of such molecules should still obey the ideal-gas law
PV 5 nRT, these molecules can have rotational as well as translational kinetic energy. z'
Then the kinetic energy of a diatomic molecule consists of five terms, three for the
three directions of translational motion and two for rotational motions about the two
mutually perpendicular axes shown in Fig. 18.15. So a diatomic molecule has five de-
x'
grees of freedom. We’ll now see how this difference between three degrees of freedom
for monatomic molecules and five for diatomic molecules accounts for the difference
between their specific heats. y'

The Equipartition Theorem FIGURE 18.15 A diatomic molecule can

have significant rotation about two
We showed in Chapter 17 that the average kinetic energy associated with a gas molecule’s perpendicular axes.
motion in one direction is 12 kT. We then argued that all three directions are equally proba-
ble, making the molecular kinetic energy, on average, 32 kT. The argument from one direc-
tion to three is based on the assumption that random collisions will share energy equally
among the possible motions. When a molecule can rotate as well as translate, energy should
be shared also among possible rotational motions. The 19th-century Scottish physicist
James Clerk Maxwell first proved this fact, which is known as the equipartition theorem:

Equipartition theorem When a system is in thermodynamic equilibrium, the av-

erage energy per molecule is 12 kT for each degree of freedom.

We’ve just seen that a diatomic molecule has five degrees of freedom: three transla-
tional and two rotational. The average energy of such a molecule is then 5 A 12 kT B 5 52 kT,
so the total internal energy in n moles of a diatomic gas is U 5 nNA A 52 kT B 5 25 nRT. Equa-
tion 18.6 then gives the molar specific heat at constant volume:
1 DU 5
CV 5 5 2R 1diatomic molecule2 z'
n DT
Our result Cp 5 CV 1 R still holds, since it was derived from the first law of thermody-
namics without regard to molecular structure, so Cp 5 72 R and g 5 Cp /CV 5 75 5 1.4.
These results describe the observed behavior of diatomic gases like hydrogen, oxygen, and x'
nitrogen at room temperature.
A polyatomic molecule like NO2 can rotate about any of three perpendicular axes
y'
(Fig. 18.16). It then has a total of six degrees of freedom, giving U 5 3nRT and corre-
sponding specific heats CV 5 3R and Cp 5 CV 1 R 5 4R. The adiabatic exponent is FIGURE 18.16 A triatomic molecule like NO2 has
then g 5 43 . 1.33, reasonably close to the experimental value g 5 1.29 for NO2. three rotational degrees of freedom.
306 Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics

EXAMPLE 18.5 Specific Heat: A Gas Mixture

A gas mixture consists of 2.0 mol of oxygen 1O22 and 1.0 mol of EVALUATE Being diatomic, O2 has five degrees of freedom, so the
argon (Ar). Find the volume specific heat of the mixture. equipartition theorem gives the average energy per molecule as 52kT.
Then the total energy in n 5 2 moles of oxygen is UO2 5
INTERPRET This problem is about specific heat and molecular nNA A 52 kT B 5 52 nRT 5 5.0RT, where we used NAk 5 R. Monatomic
structure. We identify the molecules involved as diatomic O2 and Ar has three degrees of freedom, so the internal energy in our 1 mole
monatomic Ar. of argon is, similarly, UAr 5 32 nRT 5 1.5RT. The total internal energy
is then U 5 6.5RT, so Equation 18.6 gives
DEVELOP Equation 18.6, DU 5 nCV DT, determines the volume spe-
cific heat, so we need to find how the internal energy U depends on 1 DU 6.5R
CV 5 5 5 2.2R
temperature. Our plan is to use the equipartition theorem to get the en- n DT 3.0 mol
ergy per molecule for each gas, then find the total energy as a function
ASSESS Make sense? Our answer lies between the values 1.5R and
of temperature, and from that the specific heat.
2.5R that we found for monatomic and diatomic gases, respectively.
It’s closer to 2.5R because there’s more oxygen in the mixture. ■

Quantum Effects
Volume specific heat, CV (J/K)

Translation Relating molecular structure and gas behavior is a remarkable triumph for Newtonian
7_
2R 1 rotation physics. But hidden in our analysis is an assumption that Newtonian physics can’t jus-
5_
1 vibration tify. Real atoms have size, so even monatomic molecules should rotate. Why not more
2R degrees of freedom? The answer lies in quantum physics, which requires a certain min-
Translation
3_ 1 rotation imum energy for a periodic motion such as rotation. At normal temperatures, the aver-
2R age thermal energy is too low to excite rotation of monatomic molecules, or of
Translation
1_ diatomic molecules about their long axis. So these molecules exhibit three and five de-
2R
grees of freedom, respectively. That results in the volume specific heats 32 R and 52 R that
10 100 1000 10,000 we’ve seen. For diatomic molecules at higher temperatures, still another motion comes
Temperature (K) into play—the simple harmonic oscillation of the two atoms due to the springlike bond
FIGURE 18.17 Volume specific heat of H2 gas as a between them. That adds two more degrees of freedom, corresponding to the kinetic
function of temperature. Below 20 K hydrogen and potential energies of this oscillation, and the specific heat increases correspond-
is liquid, and above 3200 K it dissociates into ingly. At very low temperatures, in contrast, there isn’t enough thermal energy to ex-
individual atoms.
cite any rotation in a diatomic gas, and it then exhibits the specific heat CV 5 32 R that
we normally associate with a monatomic gas. Figure 18.17 shows these effects for
diatomic hydrogen 1H 22.
Are you bothered by the strange restrictions quantum mechanics imposes on molecular
rotation and vibration? You should be! Nothing in your experience suggests that a rotating
object can’t have any amount of energy you care to give it. But quantum mechanics deals
with a realm much smaller than that of our daily experience. The quantization of energy is
only one of many unusual things that occur in the quantum realm. We’ll explore more
quantum phenomena in Part 6.
CHAPTER 18 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is conservation of energy, now expanded to include heat. The expanded statement of energy conservation is the first law of thermo-
dynamics, which relates the change in a system’s internal energy to the heat flowing into the system and the work done on the system. The first
law can be used with the ideal-gas law to give a quantitative description of basic thermodynamic processes applied to ideal gases; these are de-
scribed graphically using pV diagrams. The equipartition theorem states that in thermodynamic equilibrium, energy is shared equally among the
possible energy modes of a system.

Key Concepts and Equations

Quantitatively, the first law of thermodynamics states
DU 5 Q 1 W
Meaning of terms in the first law:
● DU is the change in a system’s internal energy. V2, p2
● Q is the heat transferred to the system.
● Positive Q means a net heat input to the system. V1, p1 DU is the
● Negative Q means heat leaves the system. change in
● W is the work done on the system. the gas’s 2W is the work
● Positive W means work is done on the system. Q is the heat internal done by the gas in
that flows in. energy. moving the piston.
● Negative W means the system does work on its surroundings.

In general, the work done by a system is related to the changes in pressure and volume:
V2
W 5 2 3 p dV
V1

Applications
Ideal-gas processes:
ISOTHERMAL CONSTANT-VOLUME ISOBARIC ADIABATIC

Isotherm
Isobar Adiabat
p p p p
T2 T2
W W T1 W T1
V1 V V2 V V1 V V2 V1 V V2

T 5 constant V 5 constant p 5 constant Q50

Q 5 2W Q 5 DU Q 5 DU 2 W DU 5 W

W 5 2nRT ln ( ) V2
V1
W50 W 5 2p(V2 2 V1) W5
p2V2 2 p 1V1
g21
pV 5 constant Q 5 nCV DT Q 5 nCp DT pV g 5 constant
Cp 5 CV 1 R TV g21 5 constant

The specific heats of an ideal gas follow from the degrees of freedom of each molecule:

Monatomic Diatomic
3 degrees of freedom 5 degrees of freedom
3 5
CV 5 2 R CV 5 2 R
308 Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

17. A 40-W heat source is applied to a gas sample for 25 s, during

For Thought and Discussion which time the gas expands and does 750 J of work on its
1. The temperature of the water in a jar is raised by violently shak- surroundings. By how much does the internal energy of the
ing the jar. Which of the terms Q and W in the first law of ther- gas change?
modynamics is involved in this case? 18. Find the rate of heat flow into a system whose internal energy is
2. What’s the difference between heat and internal energy? increasing at the rate of 45 W, given that the system is doing
3. Some water is tightly sealed in a perfectly insulated container. work at the rate of 165 W.
Is it possible to change the water temperature? Explain. 19. In a certain automobile engine, 17% of the total energy released
4. Are the initial and final equilibrium states of an irreversible in burning gasoline ends up as mechanical work. What’s the en-
process describable by points in a pV diagram? Explain. gine’s mechanical power output if its heat output is 68 kW?
5. Why can’t an irreversible process be described by a path in a
pV diagram? Section 18.2 Thermodynamic Processes
6. Does the first law of thermodynamics apply to irreversible 20. An ideal gas expands from the state 1p1, V12 to the state 1p2, V22,
processes? where p2 5 2p1 and V2 5 2V1. The expansion proceeds along the
7. A quasi-static process begins and ends at the same temperature. straight diagonal path AB in Fig. 18.19. Find an expression for
Is the process necessarily isothermal? the work done by the gas during this process.
8. Figure 18.18 shows two processes, A and B, that connect the
same initial and final states, 1 and 2. For which process is more
heat added to the system?
C B
2p1
p

A p1
A
1
p
2
B
V1 2V1
V

V FIGURE 18.19 Exercises 20, 21 and Problem 69

FIGURE 18.18 For Thought and Discussion 8

21. Repeat Exercise 20 for a process that follows the path ACB in
Fig. 18.19.
9. When you let air out of a tire, the air seems cool. Why? What 22. A balloon contains 0.30 mol of helium. It rises, while maintain-
kind of process is occurring? ing a constant 300-K temperature, to an altitude where its volume
10. Blow on the back of your hand with your mouth wide open. Your has expanded five times. Neglecting tension forces in the bal-
breath will feel hot. Now tighten your lips into a small opening loon, how much work is done by the helium during this isother-
and blow again. Now your breath feels cool. Why? mal expansion?
11. You boil water in an open pan. Of which of the four basic 23. The balloon of Exercise 22 starts at 100 kPa pressure and rises to
processes we considered is this an example? an altitude where p 5 75 kPa, maintaining a constant 300 K tem-
12. Three identical gas-cylinder systems are compressed from the perature. (a) By what factor does its volume increase? (b) How
same initial state to final states that have the same volume, one much work does the gas in the balloon do?
isothermally, one adiabatically, and one isobarically. Which sys- 24. How much work does it take to compress 2.5 mol of an ideal gas
tem has the most work done on it? The least? to half its original volume while maintaining a constant 300 K
13. Why is specific heat at constant pressure greater than at constant temperature?
volume? 25. By what factor must the volume of a gas with g 5 1.4 be changed
14. In what sense can a gas of diatomic molecules be considered an in an adiabatic process if the kelvin temperature is to double?
ideal gas, given that its molecules aren’t point particles?
Section 18.3 Specific Heats of an Ideal Gas
Exercises and Problems 26. A gas mixture contains 2.5 mol of O2 and 3.0 mol of Ar. What
are this mixture’s molar specific heats at constant volume and at
Exercises
constant pressure?
Section 18.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics 27. A mixture of monatomic and diatomic gases has specific-heat
15. In a perfectly insulated container, 1.0 kg of water is stirred vigor- ratio g 5 1.52. What fraction of its molecules are monatomic?
ously until its temperature rises by 7.0°C. How much work is 28. What should be the approximate specific-heat ratio of a gas con-
done on the water? sisting of 50% NO2 1g 5 1.292, 30% O2 1g 5 1.402, and 20%
16. In a closed but uninsulated container, 500 g of water are shaken vi- Ar 1g 5 1.672?
olently until the temperature rises by 3.0°C. The mechanical work 29. By how much does the temperature of (a) an ideal monatomic
required in the process is 9.0 kJ. (a) How much heat is transferred gas and (b) an ideal diatomic gas (with molecular rotation but no
during the shaking? (b) How much mechanical energy would have vibration) change in an adiabatic process in which 2.5 kJ of work
been required if the container had been perfectly insulated? are done on each mole of gas?
 Exercises and Problems 309

Problems compression, 22 J of work are done on the gas. The gas is then
30. An ideal gas expands to 10 times its original volume, maintain- heated at constant volume until it returns to state A. (a) Draw a
ing a constant 440 K temperature. If the gas does 3.3 kJ of work pV diagram for this process. (b) How much work is done on or
on its surroundings, (a) how much heat does it absorb, and by the gas during the complete cycle? (c) How much heat is
(b) how many moles of gas are there? transferred to or from the gas as it goes from B to C to A?
43. A 2.0-mol sample of ideal gas with molar specific heat CV 5 2 R
5
31. During cycling, the human body typically releases stored energy
BIO from food at the rate of 500 W, and produces about 120 W of me- is initially at 300 K and 100 kPa pressure. Determine the final
chanical power. At what rate does the body produce heat during temperature and the work done by the gas when 1.5 kJ of heat are
cycling? added to the gas (a) isothermally, (b) at constant volume, and
32. A 0.25-mol sample of ideal gas initially occupies 3.5 L. If it takes (c) isobarically.
61 J of work to compress the gas isothermally to 3.0 L, what’s 44. Prove that the slope of an adiabat at a given point in a pV diagram
the temperature? is g times the slope of the isotherm passing through the same
33. As the heart beats, blood pressure in an artery varies from a high point.
BIO of 125 mm of mercury to a low of 80 mm. These values are 45. An ideal gas with g 5 1.67 starts at point A in Fig. 18.21, where
gauge pressures—that is, excesses over atmospheric pressure. its volume and pressure are 1.00 m3 and 250 kPa, respectively. It
An air bubble trapped in an artery has diameter 1.52 mm when undergoes an adiabatic expansion that triples its volume, ending
blood pressure is at its minimum. (a) What will its diameter be at B. It’s then heated at constant volume to C, and compressed
at maximum pressure? (b) How much work does the blood (and isothermally back to A. Find (a) the pressure at B, (b) the pres-
ultimately the heart) do in compressing this bubble, assuming sure at C, and (c) the net work done on the gas.
the air remains at the same 37.0°C temperature as the blood? A
34. It takes 600 J to compress a gas isothermally to half its original 250

Pressure, p (kPa)
volume. How much work would it take to compress it by a factor
of 10 starting from its original volume?
35. A gas undergoes an adiabatic compression during which its vol- C
ume drops to half its original value. If the gas pressure increases B
by a factor of 2.55, what’s its specific-heat ratio g? 0
0 1 2 3
36. A gas with g 5 1.40 is at 100 kPa pressure and occupies 5.00 L. Volume, V (m3)
(a) How much work does it take to compress the gas adiabati-
cally to 2.50 L? (b) What’s its final pressure? FIGURE 18.21 Problem 45
37. A gas sample undergoes the cyclic process ABCA shown in 46. The gas of Example 18.4 starts at state A in Fig. 18.14 and is
Fig. 18.20, where AB lies on an isotherm. The pressure at A is compressed adiabatically until its volume is 2.0 L. It’s then
60 kPa. Find (a) the pressure at B and (b) the net work done on cooled at constant pressure until it reaches 300 K, then allowed
the gas. to expand isothermally back to state A. Find (a) the net work
done on the gas and (b) the minimum volume of the gas.
B
47. The gas of Example 18.4 starts at state A in Fig. 18.14 and is
heated at constant volume until its pressure has doubled. It’s then
Pressure, p

compressed adiabatically until its volume is one-fourth its origi-

nal value, then cooled at constant volume to 300 K, and finally
A allowed to expand isothermally to its original state. Find the net
C
work done on the gas.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 48. A 25-L sample of ideal gas with g 5 1.67 is at 250 K and
Volume, V (L) 50 kPa. The gas is compressed isothermally to one-third of its
original volume, then heated at constant volume until its state lies
FIGURE 18.20 Problems 37 and 38 on the adiabatic curve that passes through its original state, and
38. Repeat Problem 37 taking AB as an adiabat and using specific- then allowed to expand adiabatically to that original state. Find
heat ratio g 5 1.4. the net work involved. Is net work done on or by the gas?
39. A gasoline engine has compression ratio 8.5 (see Example 18.3 49. Show that the relation between pressure and temperature in an
for the meaning of this term), and the fuel-air mixture com- adiabatic process is p12g Tg 5 constant.
presses adiabatically with g 5 1.4. If the mixture enters the 50. A 25-L sample of ideal gas with g 5 1.67 is at 250 K and
engine at 30°C, what will its temperature be at maximum com- 50 kPa. The gas is compressed adiabatically until its pressure
pression? triples, then cooled at constant volume back to 250 K, and finally
40. By what factor must the volume of a gas with g 5 1.4 be allowed to expand isothermally to its original state. (a) How
changed in an adiabatic process if the pressure is to double? much work is done on the gas? (b) What is the gas’s minimum
41. Volvo’s B5340 engine, used in the V70 series cars, has compres- volume? (c) Sketch this cyclic process in a pV diagram.
sion ratio 10.2, and the fuel-air mixture undergoes adiabatic com- 51. You’re the product safety officer for a company that makes cy-
pression with g 5 1.4. If air at 320 K and atmospheric pressure cling accessories. You’re given a new design for a bicycle pump
fills an engine cylinder at its maximum volume, what will be that includes a cylinder 30 cm long when the pump handle is
(a) the temperature and (b) the pressure at the point of maximum all the way out. To keep the pump from getting too hot, you spec-
compression? ify that the temperature rise should not exceed 50°C when the
42. A gas expands isothermally from state A to state B, in the handle is pushed rapidly, with the outlet blocked, until the inter-
process absorbing 35 J of heat. It’s then compressed isobarically nal length of the cylinder is 17 cm. Assuming air initially
to state C, where its volume equals that of state A. During the at 20°C, does the pump meet your temperature-rise criterion?
310 Chapter 18 Heat, Work, and the First Law of Thermodynamics

52. Figure 18.22 shows data and a fit curve from an experimental 62. Experimental studies show that the pV curve for a frog’s lung can
BIO measurement of the pressure-volume curve for a human lung. Es- BIO be approximated by p 5 10v3 2 67v2 1 220v, with v in mL and
timate the work involved in fully inflating the lung. p in Pa. Find the work done when such a lung inflates from zero
to 4.5 mL volume.
1750 63. Show that the application of Equation 18.3 to an adiabatic
1500 process results in Equation 18.12.

Lung volume (mL)

1250 64. A horizontal piston-cylinder system containing n mol of ideal gas
1000
is surrounded by air at temperature T0 and pressure p0. If the piston
is displaced slightly from equilibrium, show that it executes simple
750
harmonic motion with angular frequency v 5 Ap0 / 2MnRT0,
500
where A and M are the piston area and mass, respectively. Assume
250 the gas temperature remains constant.
0 65. Use the ideal-gas law to eliminate pressure in Equation 18.11a,
0.5 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 and show that the result can be written as Equation 18.11b.
Pressure (kPa) 66. Figure 18.24 shows the thermodynamic cycle of a diesel engine.
As in Example 18.3, the compression ratio r is the ratio of maxi-
FIGURE 18.22 Problem 52
mum to minimum volume: r 5 V1/V2. In addition, the so-called
53. External forces compress 21 mol of ideal monatomic gas. Dur-
cutoff ratio is defined by rc 5 V3/V2. Find an expression for the
ing the process, the gas transfers 15 kJ of heat to its surround- engine’s efficiency, in terms of the ratios r and rc and the
ings, yet its temperature rises by 160 K. How much work was specific-heat ratio g.
done on the gas?
Combustion
54. A gas with g 5 7/5 is at 273 K when it’s compressed isother- 2 3
mally to one-third of its original volume and then further com-
Adiabatic
pressed adiabatically to one-fifth of its original volume. Find its expansion
final temperature.

p
4
55. An ideal gas with g 5 1.3 is initially at 273 K and 100 kPa. The Adiabatic Exhaust/
gas is compressed adiabatically to 240-kPa pressure. Find its compression intake
final temperature. 1
56. The curved path in Fig. 18.23 lies on the 350-K isotherm for an V2 V3 V1
ideal gas with g 5 1.4. (a) Calculate the net work done on the V

gas as it goes around the cyclic path ABCA. (b) How much heat FIGURE 18.24 Problem 66
flows into or out of the gas on the segment AB?

250 C B
67. In a reversible process, a volume of air V0 5 17 m3 at pressure
p0 5 1 atm is compressed such that the pressure and volume are
Pressure, p (kPa)

200
150
related by 1p/p0222 5 V/V0. How much work is done by the gas
100
in reaching a final pressure of 1.4 atm?
50 D A
68. A real gas is more accurately described using the van der Waals
0 equation: 3p 1 a1n/V2241V 2 nb2 5 nRT, where a and b are
0 1 2 3 4 5 constants. Find an expression, corresponding to Equation 18.4,
Volume, V (L)
for the work done by a van der Waals gas undergoing an isother-
FIGURE 18.23 Problems 56 and 57 mal expansion from V1 to V2.
69. Repeat Exercise 20 for an expansion along the path
57. Repeat part (a) of Problem 56 for the path ACDA in Fig. 18.23. p 5 p131 1 1V 2 V122/V124.
(b) How much heat flows into or out of the gas on the segment CD? 70. The adiabatic lapse rate is the rate at which air cools as it rises
58. A gas mixture contains monatomic argon and diatomic oxygen. and expands adiabatically in the atmosphere (see Application:
An adiabatic expansion that doubles its volume results in the Smog Alert, on page 302). Express dT in terms of dp for an adia-
pressure dropping to one-third of its original value. What fraction batic process, and use the hydrostatic equation (Equation 15.2)
of the molecules are argon? to express dp in terms of dy. Then, calculate the lapse rate dT/dy.
59. How much of a triatomic gas with CV 5 3R would you have to Take air’s average molecular weight to be 29 u and g 5 1.4, and
add to 10 mol of monatomic gas to get a mixture whose thermo- remember that the altitude y is the negative of the depth h in
dynamic behavior was like that of a diatomic gas? Equation 15.2.
60. An 8.5-kg rock at 0°C is dropped into a well-insulated vat contain- 71. The nuclear power plant at which you’re the public affairs man-
ing a mixture of ice and water at 0°C. When equilibrium is reached, ager has a backup gas-turbine system. The backup system pro-
there are 6.3 g less ice. From what height was the rock dropped? duces electrical energy at the rate of 360 MW, while extracting
61. A piston-cylinder arrangement containing 0.30 mol of nitrogen at energy from natural gas at the rate of 670 MW. The local town
high pressure is in thermal equilibrium with an ice-water bath council has raised concern over waste thermal energy dumped
containing 200 g of ice. The pressure of the ambient air is 1.0 atm. into the environment. Their standards state the thermal waste
The gas is allowed to expand isothermally until it’s in pressure power must not exceed 400 MW and that all power generation
balance with its surroundings. After the process is complete, the must be at least 50% efficient. Does the backup turbine meet this
bath contains 210 g of ice. What was the original gas pressure? standard?
 Answers to Chapter Questions 311

72. Your class on alternative habitats is designing an underwater 74. As the air descends, its internal energy
habitat. A small diving bell will be lowered to the habitat. A a. increases.
hatch at the bottom of the bell is open, so water can enter to b. decreases.
compress the air and thus keep the air pressure inside equal to the c. is unchanged.
pressure of the surrounding water. The bell is lowered slowly 75. As the air descends, its volume
enough that the inside air remains at the same temperature as a. increases by 50%.
the water. But the water temperature increases with depth in b. increases by less than 50%.
such a way that the air pressure and volume are related by c. decreases by 50%.
p 5 p0 2V0 / V, where V0 5 17 m3 and p0 5 1 atm are the sur- d. decreases by less than 50%.
face values. Suppose the diving bell’s air volume cannot be less e. is unchanged.
than 8.7 m3 and the pressure must not exceed 1.5 atm when sub-
76. When the air reaches the plain, its temperature is approximately
merged. Are these criteria met?
a. 240 K.
b. 260 K.
Passage Problems c. 290 K.
Warm winds called Chinooks (a Native-American term meaning
d. 390 K.
“snow eaters”) sometimes sweep across the plains just east of the
Rocky Mountains. These winds carry air from high in the mountains
down to the plains rapidly enough that the air has no time to exchange Answers to Chapter Questions
heat with its surroundings (Fig. 18.25). On a particular Chinook day,
temperature and pressure high in the Colorado Rockies are 60 kPa and Answer to Chapter Opening Question
260 K 1213°C2, respectively; the plain below is at 90 kPa. Energy is conserved, provided thermal energy is included. The engine
produces both mechanical energy and thermal energy of its exhaust
gases; together, they sum to the energy released in combustion.

Answers to GOT IT? Questions

18.1. (c). Only the internal energy is the same, since it’s a thermody-
namic state variable unique to a point in the pV diagram.
18.2. (a) Constant-volume; T and p increase, V doesn’t change, U
increases as heat flows into the gas. (b) Adiabatic; T and p
Mountains Plain increase, V decreases, U increases as work is done on the
gas. (c) Isobaric; T decreases, p doesn’t change, V decreases,
FIGURE 18.25 Chinooks (Passage Problems 73–76)
U decreases as heat flows out of the gas.

73. The process the air undergoes as it descends the mountains is

a. isothermal.
b. isovolumic.
c. isobaric.
d. adiabatic.
 The Second Law
19 of Thermodynamics

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Explain the second law of thermo-
dynamics and the limitations it
places on our ability to extract
useful work from thermal-energy
sources (19.2).
■ Calculate the efficiencies of heat
engines and refrigerators (19.2, 19.3).
■ Describe the concepts of energy
quality and entropy (19.4).
■ Compute entropy changes for basic
thermodynamic processes (19.4).
Most of the energy extracted from fuel in power plants is
discarded as waste heat. The large cooling tower shown
here dumps this waste heat into the environment. Why is
so much energy wasted?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter builds on the first law of
thermodynamics and the use of pV
T he first law of thermodynamics relates heat and other forms of energy. Much of our world
depends on this relationship. Cars extract energy from the heat of burning gasoline. Most of
our electricity originates in heat released by burning fuels or fissioning uranium. Our own bodies
diagrams (18.1, 18.2). run on energy that begins as heat in the Sun’s core. But the first law doesn’t tell the whole story.
■ You should be familiar with the Heat and mechanical energy aren’t the same, and the difference makes the conversion of heat to
basic thermodynamic processes, work a more subtle task than the first law would imply.
particularly isothermal and adiabatic
processes (18.2).

19.1 Reversibility and Irreversibility

Figure 19.1 shows a movie of a bouncing ball. Play it backward and it still makes sense.
Figure 19.2 shows a block sliding along a table, slowing because of friction—and warm-
ing in the process. Play this film backward and it makes no sense. You’ll never see a block
at rest suddenly start to move, cooling as it goes. Yet energy would be conserved if it did,
312
 19.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 313

so the first law of thermodynamics would be satisfied. Beat an egg, blending yolk and
white. Reverse the beater, and you’ll never see them separate again. Put cups of cold and
hot water in contact; the hot water cools and the cold water warms. The opposite never
occurs—although energy would still be conserved. Time
Why are these events irreversible? In each case we start with matter in an organized (a)
state. The molecules of the sliding block share a common motion. The yolk molecules are
all in one place. The hot water has more energetic molecules. Of all possible states, these
organized ones are rare. There are many more disorganized states—for example, all the
possible arrangements of molecules in a scrambled egg. As a system evolves, chances are
it will end up less organized, simply because there are far more such states available to it. (b)
It’s very unlikely to assume spontaneously a more organized state.
FIGURE 19.1 A movie of a bouncing ball makes
A key word here is “spontaneous.” We could restore organization—for example, by sense whether it’s shown forward or backward.
putting one cup of water in the refrigerator and the other in the microwave—but that
requires a rather deliberate and energy-consuming process.
Irreversibility is a probabilistic notion. Events that could occur without violating the
principles of Newtonian physics nevertheless don’t occur because they’re too improbable.
As a practical consequence, harnessing the internal energy associated with random molec-
ular motions is difficult because those motions won’t spontaneously become organized. Time
That makes much of the world’s energy unavailable for doing useful work. (a)

GOT IT? 19.1 Which of these processes is irreversible: (a) stirring sugar into coffee,
(b) building a house, (c) demolishing a house with a wrecking ball, (d) demolishing a
house by taking it apart piece by piece, (e) harnessing the energy of falling water to drive (b)
machinery, (f) harnessing the energy of falling water to heat a house? FIGURE 19.2 (a) A block warming (note
thermometer) as friction dissipates its kinetic
energy and it slows to a stop. (b) The reverse
sequence would never happen, even though it
19.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics doesn’t violate energy conservation.

Heat Engines
It’s impossible to convert all the internal energy of a system to useful work. But heat en-
gines extract some of that internal energy. Examples include gasoline and diesel engines,
fossil-fueled and nuclear power plants, and jet aircraft engines.
Figure 19.3a is an energy-flow diagram for a “perfect” heat engine—one that extracts All the heat Q extracted from the reservoir
heat from a heat reservoir and converts it all to work. Such an engine would do exactly of a perfect heat engine becomes work.
what we’ve just argued against: It would convert the random energy of thermal motion en-
Heat reservoir
tirely to the ordered motion associated with mechanical work. In fact a perfect heat engine
Q
is impossible, for the same reason that we can’t unscramble an egg or make a block accel-
erate spontaneously using its internal energy. This fact leads to one statement of the
W
second law of thermodynamics:
(a)

Second law of thermodynamics (Kelvin-Planck statement) It is impossible to Extract heat Qh from the high-temperature
reservoir of a real heat engine.
construct a heat engine operating in a cycle that extracts heat from a reservoir and
delivers an equal amount of work. Th
Qh Some becomes
work . . .
The phrase “in a cycle” means that a practical engine goes through a repeated sequence of W
steps, as in the back-and-forth motions of the pistons in a gasoline engine. . . . but some is
Qc rejected to the
A simple heat engine consists of a gas-cylinder system and a heat reservoir, the latter low-temperature
kept hot, perhaps, by burning a fuel. With the gas initially at high pressure, we place the reservoir.
cylinder in contact with the heat reservoir. The gas expands and does work W on the pis-
Tc
ton. In this isothermal process, the gas extracts heat Q 5 W from the reservoir. Eventually
the gas reaches pressure equilibrium and stops expanding. The piston must then be returned (b)
to its original position if it’s to do more work.
FIGURE 19.3 (a) Energy-flow diagram for a
If we just push the piston back, we’ll have to do as much work as we got during the ex- perfect heat engine. (b) A real engine delivers
pansion, and our engine won’t produce any net work. Instead we can cool the gas to re- as work only a fraction of the energy extracted
duce its volume, through contact with a cool reservoir. But then some energy leaves the from the high-temperature reservoir.
314 Chapter 19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

system as heat rather than work, as shown conceptually in Fig. 19.3b. Our engine extracts
heat from a source and delivers mechanical work, but over a full cycle the work delivered
is less than the heat extracted. The remaining energy is rejected to the lower-temperature
reservoir, usually the environment. That’s why much of the energy released from fuels in
car engines and power plants ends up as waste heat.
The second law of thermodynamics says we can’t build a perfect heat engine. But how
close can we come? We define the efficiency e of an engine as the ratio of the work W we
get from it to what we have to supply—namely, the heat Qh: e 5 W/Qh. Since the process
is cyclic, there’s no net change in internal energy over one cycle. The first law of thermo-
dynamics then shows that the work W done by the engine is the difference between the
heat Qh extracted from the high-temperature reservoir and the heat Qc rejected to the cool
reservoir:
W Qh 2 Qc Qc
e5 5 512 (19.1)
Qh Qh Qh

In this chapter we’ll often use W for the work done by an engine; in the first law it’s the
work done on a system. That’s why W here is equal to the net heat Qh 2 Qc.
The gas absorbs energy Figure 19.4 shows a heat engine whose efficiency we can calculate. The engine con-
from Th . . . sists of a cylinder containing an ideal gas, sealed by a movable piston. The piston is con-
. . . does work on
piston and wheel . . . nected to a rod that turns a wheel. The engine gets its energy from a heat reservoir at a
Th high temperature Th, and it rejects heat to a cooler reservoir at temperature Tc. Figure 19.5
shows how the engine works in a cycle of four steps, starting with the piston in its leftmost
position (state A in Fig. 19.5), where the gas volume is a minimum:
Tc
. . . and rejects heat to Tc. 1. Isothermal expansion: The high-temperature reservoir is placed in thermal contact
with the cylinder. The gas absorbs heat Qh from the hot reservoir and expands
FIGURE 19.4 A simple heat engine.
isothermally along path AB. Since temperature remains constant, so does internal
energy. The first law then shows that the engine does work W 5 Q on the piston
and wheel.
2. Adiabatic expansion: At B we remove the hot reservoir, so the gas can no longer
exchange heat. Thus the expansion becomes adiabatic and follows path BC. We
design the engine so the gas has cooled to Tc when the piston reaches its rightmost
position (state C), the point of maximum gas volume.
3. Isothermal compression: At C we bring the cool reservoir into thermal contact with
the cylinder. The wheel’s inertia keeps it turning, so the piston does work on the
gas, compressing it isothermally from state C to D. This work ends up as heat
rejected to the cool reservoir.
4. Adiabatic compression: At D we remove the cool reservoir and the compression
continues adiabatically until the gas temperature is once again at Th and the engine
is back at state A.

Th
A
Tc
1 Isothermal expansion

Th
Pressure, p

4 Adiabatic Tc
compression B 2 Adiabatic expansion

Th

D Tc
Th
3 Isothermal C
Tc
compression
VA VD VB VC
Volume, V

FIGURE 19.5 A pV diagram for the Carnot engine.

 19.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 315

This cyclic process of two isothermal and two adiabatic steps is the Carnot cycle and
the engine a Carnot engine, after the French engineer Sadi Carnot (1796–1832). The par-
ticular configuration of the engine isn’t important, nor is the choice of an ideal gas as the
engine’s working fluid. What distinguishes the Carnot cycle from others is the sequence
of thermodynamic processes and the fact that these processes are reversible. The Carnot
engine is an example of a reversible engine—one in which thermodynamic equilibrium
is maintained so that all steps could, in principle, be reversed.
What’s the efficiency of a Carnot engine? To find out, we need the heats Qh and Qc
absorbed and rejected during the isothermal parts of the cycle shown in Fig. 19.5. Equa-
tion 18.4 gives the heat Qh absorbed during the isothermal expansion AB:
VB
Qh 5 nRTh ln a b
VA
and the heat Qc rejected during the isothermal compression CD:
VD VC
Qc 5 2nRTc ln a b 5 nRTc ln a b
VC VD
We put the minus sign here because the first law takes Q to be the heat absorbed, while
Equation 19.1 for the engine efficiency requires that Qc be the heat rejected. To calculate
engine efficiency according to Equation 19.1, we need the ratio Qc /Qh:
Qc Tc ln1VC /VD2
5 (19.2)
Qh Th ln1VB /VA2
This expression can be simplified by applying Equation 18.11b to the adiabatic processes
BC and DA in the Carnot cycle: Th VBg21 5 Tc VCg21 and Th VAg21 5 Tc VDg21. Dividing the
first of these two equations by the second gives
VB g21 VC g21 VB VC
a b 5a b or 5
VA VD VA VD
so Equation 19.2 becomes simply Qc /Qh 5 Tc /Th. Using this result in Equation 19.1 then
gives the efficiency of the Carnot engine:
Tc
eCarnot 5 1 2 1Carnot engine efficiency2 (19.3)
Th
where the temperatures are measured on an absolute scale (Kelvin or Rankine). Equation 19.3
shows that the Carnot engine’s efficiency depends only on the highest and lowest temper-
atures of its working fluid. In practice, the low temperature is usually that of the environment;
then maximizing efficiency requires making the high temperature as high as possible. Real
engines trade off efficiency with the ability of materials to withstand high temperature and
pressure.

EXAMPLE 19.1 Calculating Efficiency: A Carnot Engine

A Carnot engine extracts 240 J from its high-temperature reservoir EVALUATE Since there’s no change in internal energy over one cycle,
during each cycle, and rejects 100 J to the environment at 15°C. How the first law requires that the work W done by the engine be equal to
much work does the engine do in one cycle? What’s its efficiency? the net heat absorbed—namely, 240 J 2 100 J. So W 5 140 J. The ef-
What’s the temperature of the hot reservoir? ficiency is the ratio of work delivered to heat extracted, so
e 5 W/Qh 5 140 J/240 J 5 58.3%. Knowing the efficiency, we solve
INTERPRET This problem is about a Carnot engine, which operates Equation 19.3 for Th:
via the Carnot cycle.
Tc 288 K
Th 5 5 5 691 K 5 418°C
DEVELOP Equation 19.3, eCarnot 5 1 2 (Tc /Th), relates the two tem- 12e 1 2 0.583
peratures and the efficiency. Here Qh 5 240 J, Qc 5 100 J, and
Tc 5 15°C or 288 K. The first law of thermodynamics relates work ASSESS Make sense? The engine rejects somewhat less than half the
and heat flows. So our plan is to use the first law to find the work, then 240 J as waste heat, so we should expect efficiency somewhat over 50%.
find the efficiency, and then use Equation 19.3 to find Th. And of course Th must be greater than Tc, as our calculation confirms. ■
316 Chapter 19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Engines, Refrigerators, and the Second Law

Why this emphasis on the Carnot engine? Because understanding this device will help answer
the broader question of how much work we can hope to extract from thermal energy. That, in
turn, will help us understand practical limitations on humankind’s attempts to harness ever
more energy and will lead to a deeper understanding of the second law of thermodynamics.
Why is Carnot’s engine special? Couldn’t we build a better engine with greater efficiency?
The answer is no. The special role of the Carnot cycle is embodied in Carnot’s theorem:

Carnot’s theorem All Carnot engines operating between temperatures Th and Tc

have the same efficiency, eCarnot 5 1 2 1Tc /Th2, and no other engine operating be-
tween the same two temperatures can have a greater efficiency.

Heat flows from cold to hot . . . To prove Carnot’s theorem, we introduce the refrigerator. A refrigerator is the opposite
of an engine: It extracts heat from a cool reservoir and rejects it to a hotter one, using work
Th
in the process (Fig. 19.6). A refrigerator forces heat to flow from cold to hot, but to do so it
requires work. A household refrigerator cools its contents and warms the house (you can feel
Qh the heat coming out the back), but it uses electricity. That heat doesn’t flow spontaneously
W from cold to hot leads to another statement of the second law of thermodynamics:

. . . but this Second law of thermodynamics (Clausius statement) It is impossible to

Qc requires work.
construct a refrigerator operating in a cycle whose sole effect is to transfer heat
Tc from a cooler object to a hotter one.

FIGURE 19.6 Energy-flow diagram for a real

refrigerator.
The Clausius statement rules out a perfect refrigerator (Fig. 19.7).
Suppose the Clausius statement were false. Then we could build the device of Fig. 19.8a,
Heat would flow from cold to consisting of a reversible Carnot engine and a perfect refrigerator. In each cycle the engine
hot with no work needed. would extract, say, 100 J from the hot reservoir, put out 60 J of useful work, and reject 40 J
Th
to the cool reservoir. The perfect refrigerator could transfer the 40 J back to the hot reservoir.
The net effect would be to extract 60 J from the hot reservoir and convert it entirely to work
(Fig. 19.8b)—and we would have a perfect heat engine, in violation of the Kelvin-Planck
Qh statement of the second law. A similar argument (Problem 38) shows that if a perfect heat
engine is possible, then so is a perfect refrigerator. So the Clausius and Kelvin-Planck state-
ments of the second law are equivalent, in that if one is false, then so is the other.
Because the Carnot engine is reversible, we could run it backward and reverse its path
Qc
in Fig. 19.5. The engine would extract heat from the cool reservoir, take in work, and re-
Tc ject heat to the hot reservoir. It would be a refrigerator. Although real refrigerators aren’t
designed exactly like engines, the two are, in principle, interchangeable.
FIGURE 19.7 A perfect refrigerator is impossible. We’re now ready to prove Carnot’s assertion that Equation 19.3 gives the maximum en-
gine efficiency. Consider again the Carnot engine in Fig. 19.8a. It extracts 100 J of heat
and delivers 60 J of work, so it’s 60% efficient. Suppose we had another engine operating
between the same two reservoirs, but with 70% efficiency. Since the Carnot engine is re-
versible, we can run it as a refrigerator. If we put the two together, we get the device of

Th Th
100 J 60 J
Real heat Perfect
engine heat engine
40 J
Perfect
60 J 60 J
refrigerator
40 J

40 J
Tc Tc

(a) (b)

FIGURE 19.8 (a) A real heat engine combined with a perfect refrigerator is equivalent
to (b) a perfect heat engine.
 19.3 Applications of the Second Law 317

Fig. 19.9a. Its net effect is to extract 10 J from the cool reservoir and deliver 10 J of Th
work—so it’s a perfect heat engine, in violation of the second law (Fig. 19.9b). It’s there-
100 J
fore impossible to make an engine that’s more efficient than a Carnot engine, and thus
Equation 19.3 gives the maximum possible efficiency for any heat engine operating be- 60%
70% 100 J
tween the same two fixed temperatures. For that reason the Carnot efficiency of Equation 19.3 70 J 60 J efficient
efficient
engine,
is also called the thermodynamic efficiency. engine 30 J
reversed
Irreversible engines, because they involve processes that dissipate organized motion, 10 J
are necessarily less efficient. So are reversible engines, if their heat exchange doesn’t take 40 J
place solely at the highest and lowest temperatures. The ordinary gasoline engine is a case Tc
in point; even if it could be made perfectly reversible, its efficiency would be less than that
(a)
of a comparable Carnot engine (see Problem 53).

19.3 Applications of the Second Law

Th
The world abounds with thermal energy, but the second law of thermodynamics limits our
ability to use that energy. Any device we construct that involves the interchange of heat
and work is a heat engine or refrigerator, subject to the second law.
10 J
Perfect
Limitations on Heat Engines heat
Most of our electricity is produced in large power plants that are heat engines powered by engine 10 J
the fossil fuels coal, oil, or natural gas, or by nuclear fission. Figure 19.10 diagrams such
a power plant. The working fluid is water, heated in a boiler and converted to steam at high Tc
pressure. The steam expands adiabatically to spin a fanlike turbine. The turbine turns a (b)
generator that converts mechanical work to electrical energy.
Steam leaving the turbine is still gaseous and is hotter than the water supplied to the FIGURE 19.9 (a) A 60% efficient reversible
boiler. Here’s where the second law applies! Had the water returned from the turbine in its engine run as a refrigerator, along with a
hypothetical engine with 70% efficiency.
original state, we would have extracted as work all the energy acquired in the boiler, in vi- (b) The combination is equivalent to a perfect
olation of the second law. Therefore, we must run the steam through a condenser, where heat engine.
it contacts pipes carrying cool water, typically from a river, lake, or ocean. The condensed
steam, now cool water, is fed back into the boiler to repeat the cycle.
The maximum steam temperature in a power plant is limited by the materials used in its con-
struction. For a conventional fossil-fuel plant, current technology permits high temperatures of
around 650 K. Potential damage to nuclear fuel rods limits the temperature in a nuclear plant
to around 570 K. The average temperature of the cooling water is about 40°C (310 K), so the
maximum possible efficiencies for these power plants, given by Equation 19.3, are
310 K 310 K
efossil 5 1 2 5 52% and enuclear 5 1 2 5 46%
650 K 570 K

Water boils . . . which spins

to steam . . . Temperature T1 the turbine . . .

Turbine
Generator

Electricity
out
Temperature T2
. . . steam
Steam condenses
to water . . .
Boiler
Condenser
Water

Temperature T3
. . . and
Heat source In Out Here goes
returns to FIGURE 19.10 Schematic diagram of an electric
the waste
the boiler. Cooling water power plant.
heat Qc.
318 Chapter 19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Temperature differences between steam and cooling water, mechanical friction, and en-
ergy needed for pumps and pollution-control devices all reduce efficiency further, to about
40% for fossil-fuel plants and 34% for nuclear plants. So roughly two-thirds of the fuel
energy we use to make electricity ends up as waste heat.
A typical large power plant produces 1 GW of electricity, so another 2 GW of waste
heat goes into the cooling water. The resulting temperature rise can cause serious ecologi-
cal problems. The huge cooling towers you see at power plants reduce such “thermal pol-
lution” by transferring much of the waste heat to the atmosphere (see this chapter’s
opening photo). Even so, a substantial fraction of all rainwater falling on the United States
eventually finds its way through the condensers of power plants (see Problem 31).

EXAMPLE 19.2 Improving Efficiency: A Combined-Cycle Power Plant

The gas turbine in a combined-cycle power plant (see the Application Gas-turbine combustion
below) operates at 1450°C. Its waste heat at 500°C is the input for a temperature
conventional steam cycle, with its average condenser temperature at 1723 K

Gas turbine
40°C. Find the thermodynamic efficiency of the combined cycle, and
compare with the efficiencies of the individual components if they
were operated independently. W1
Intermediate temperature
INTERPRET This problem is about the thermodynamic efficiency of a
combined-cycle power plant. As described in the Application, that 773 K
means a plant using a high-temperature gas turbine whose waste heat
becomes the energy input to a conventional steam turbine. Steam cycle
W2
DEVELOP Figure 19.11 is a conceptual diagram of the combined-cycle Cooling-water
plant, based on the Application. Equation 19.3, e 5 1 2 (Tc /Th ), gives temperature
FIGURE 19.11 Conceptual diagram of
the thermodynamic efficiencies of each cycle and of the combination. 313 K a combined-cycle power plant.
We identify the 1450°C 5 1723 K temperature as Th in Equation 19.3
for the gas turbine. The intermediate temperature 500°C 5 773 K
serves as Tc for the gas turbine but as Th for the steam cycle. Finally, the practical efficiency near 60%. The efficiencies of the individual com-
40°C or 313-K condenser temperature is Tc for the steam cycle. ponents also follow from Equation 19.3:
773 K 313 K
EVALUATE To treat the entire plant as a single heat engine in Equation egas turbine 5 1 2 5 55% and esteam 5 1 2 5 60%
19.3, we use the highest and lowest temperatures: 1723 K 773 K
Tc 313 K
ecombined 5 1 2 512 5 0.82 5 82% ASSESS Make sense? Because of its extreme temperatures, the com-
Th 1723 K bined cycle gives an efficiency that’s better than either of its parts!
Friction and other losses would reduce this figure substantially, but a You can learn more about combined-cycle power plants in the Appli-
combined-cycle plant operating at these temperatures could have a cation below, and by working Problem 32. ■

APPLICATION Combined-Cycle Power Plants

Improving power-plant efficiency helps reduce air pollution and greenhouse-

gas emissions, not to mention the cost of electricity. Modern combined-cycle
power plants achieve efficiencies approaching 60% by combining a conven-
tional steam system like that of Fig. 19.10 with a gas turbine similar to a jet
aircraft engine. Gas turbines operate at high temperatures—between 1000 K
and 2000 K—but they aren’t very efficient because their exhaust temperature
(Tc in Equation 19.3) is also high. In a combined-cycle plant, exhaust from a
gas turbine drives a conventional steam cycle. The overall effect is the same as
that of a single heat engine operating between the gas turbine’s high combus-
tion temperature and the low temperature of the environment (see Problem 32).
The second law still limits the efficiency, but the high Th and low Tc make for
greater efficiency than in a conventional plant. The photo shows a gas-fired
combined-cycle plant.
 19.3 Applications of the Second Law 319

Gasoline and diesel engines provide another pervasive example of heat engines. A
typical automobile engine has a theoretical maximum efficiency of around 50%, but irre-
versible thermodynamic processes make the actual efficiency much lower. Mechanical
friction dissipates additional energy, with the end result that less than 20% of the fuel en-
ergy reaches the driving wheels. Problems 53 and 54 explore the gasoline engine.
We wouldn’t be so concerned with efficiency if we didn’t have to pay for fuel or worry
about the environment. Engines with “free” fuel include solar-thermal power plants that
concentrate sunlight to boil a fluid that drives a turbine and ocean thermal-energy conver-
sion (OTEC) schemes that extract useful work from the modest temperature difference be-
tween tropical surface waters and the deep ocean. Neither provides significant energy
today, but that could change as the world moves away from fossil fuels.

Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

A refrigerator works like an engine in reverse; it takes in mechanical work and transfers heat In summer the heat pump cools the
from its cooler interior to its warmer surroundings. An air conditioner is a refrigerator whose house by extracting energy and
rejecting it to the outdoor environment.
“interior” is the building being cooled. A close cousin is the heat pump, which transfers
heat either way, cooling a building in the summer and warming it in the winter (Fig. 19.12).
In warmer climates, heat pumps exchange energy between a building and the outside air; in
cooler climates they use groundwater, typically at about 10°C year-round. Heat pumps re- W
quire electricity, but they transfer more heat energy than they consume in electricity. That Tin , Tout
makes heat pumps potentially energy-saving devices for winter heating. However, some of
that gain is offset by the inefficiency of the power plant producing the electricity. Heat
Qc Qh
An efficient refrigerator (or any other device, for that matter) should maximize what pump
we want from the device compared with what we have to put in. The coefficient of per- Summer
formance (COP) quantifies this ratio:
In winter the pump extracts energy
What we want from outside and transfers it to the
COP 5 inside.
What we put in
For a refrigerator or summertime heat pump, “what we want” is cooling, so the numerator is
Qc. For a wintertime heat pump, “what we want” is heating, so the numerator is Qh. For W
either, “what we put in” is mechanical work, W, or its equivalent in electricity. Thus we have Tin . Tout

Qc Qc Qh Qh
COPrefrigerator 5 5 COPheat pump 5 5 Heat
W Qh 2 Qc W Qh 2 Qc Qh pump
Qc

In both cases the second equality follows from the first law of thermodynamics. In deriv- Winter
ing the maximum efficiency of a heat engine, we found that Qc/Qh 5 Tc/Th. Therefore the FIGURE 19.12 A heat pump.
maximum possible COPs are
Tc Th
COPrefrigerator 5 (19.4a) COPheat pump 5 (19.4b)
Th 2 Tc Th 2 Tc

When the temperatures Th and Tc are close, Equations 19.4 give high COPs—meaning the
refrigerator or heat pump takes relatively little work to do its job. But as the difference in-
creases, the COP drops and we have to supply more work. Incidentally, our COP expres-
sion works for engines as well, if we take “what we want” to be mechanical work W and
“what we put in” to be the heat Qh.

EXAMPLE 19.3 The COP: A Home Freezer

A typical home freezer operates between a low of 0°F (218°C or 255 K) DEVELOP Equation 19.4a, COP 5 Tc /1Th 2 Tc2, will determine the
and a high of 86°F (30°C or 303 K). What’s its maximum possible COP. Then we’ll use Equation 17.5, Q 5 Lm, to find the heat Qc
COP? With this COP, how much electrical energy would it take to that the freezer must extract to freeze the water. From there we’ll be
freeze 500 g of water initially at 0°C? able to use COP 5 Qc /W to find the work—equivalently, the elec-
trical energy—required.
INTERPRET This problem is about a refrigerator—in this case a freezer.
We identify Th and Tc with the values 303 K and 255 K, respectively. (continued)
320 Chapter 19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

EVALUATE Equation 19.4a gives ASSESS Make sense? A COP of 5.3 means that each unit of work
Tc 255 K transfers 5.3 units of heat from inside the freezer—so the electrical-
COP 5 5 5 5.31 energy requirement is modest. A practical freezer operating between
Th 2 Tc 303 K 2 255 K
these temperatures would have a lower COP and require more electri-
From Equation 17.5 and Table 17.1, we find the heat that needs to be re- cal energy. ■
moved in freezing 500 g of ice: Qc 5 Lm 5 1334 kJ/kg210.50 kg2 5
167 kJ. The COP is the ratio of the heat removed to the work or electri-
cal energy required, so we have W 5 Qc /COP 5 167 kJ/5.31 5 31 kJ.

GOT IT? 19.2 A clever engineer decides to increase the efficiency of a Carnot en-
gine by cooling the low-temperature reservoir using a refrigerator with the maximum pos-
sible COP. Will the overall efficiency of this system (a) exceed, (b) be less than, or
(c) equal that of the original engine alone?

19.4 Entropy and Energy Quality

If offered a joule of energy, would you rather it be in the form of mechanical work, heat at
1000 K, or heat at 300 K? Your answer might depend on what you want to do. To lift or
accelerate a mass, you’d be smart to take your energy as work. But if you want to keep
warm, heat at 300 K would be perfectly acceptable.
But which should you choose if you want to keep all your options open, making the
energy available for the most possible uses? The second law of thermodynamics answers
clearly: You should take the work. Why? Because you could use it directly as mechanical
energy, or you could, through friction or other irreversible processes, use it to raise the
temperature of something.
If you chose 300 K heat for your joule of energy, then you could supply a full joule
only to objects cooler than 300 K. You couldn’t do mechanical work unless you ran a
heat engine. With its Th only a little above the ambient temperature, your engine would
be inefficient, and you could extract only a small fraction of a joule of mechanical en-
ergy. You would be better off with 1000-K heat since you could transfer it to anything
cooler than 1000 K, or you could run a heat engine to produce up to 0.70 joule of me-
chanical energy.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 19.1 Energy Quality and Cogeneration

You need a new water heater, and you’re trying to decide between gas Turning it into low-grade heat is a thermodynamic folly! A really smart
and electric. The gas heater is 85% efficient, meaning 85% of the fuel strategy is cogeneration, in which the waste heat from electric power
energy goes into heating water. The electric heater is essentially 100% generation is used to heat buildings. In Europe, whole communities are
efficient. Thermodynamically, which heater makes the most sense? heated that way, and institutions in the United States are increasingly
turning to cogeneration to reduce energy costs and carbon emissions.
EVALUATE Your electricity is energy of the highest quality. It probably
comes from a thermal power plant, which typically discards as waste
heat twice as much energy as it produces in electricity. The electric MAKING THE CONNECTION If the electricity comes from a more
heater may be 100% efficient in your home, but when you consider the efficient gas-fired power plant with e 5 48%, compare the gas con-
big picture, only about one-third of the fuel energy consumed at the sumption of your two heater choices.
power plant ends up heating your water. With 85% efficiency, the gas
EVALUATE The gas heater turns 1 unit of fuel energy into 0.85 unit of
heater is the wiser choice.
thermal energy in the water. The power plant turns 1 unit of fuel en-
ASSESS It makes sense to match energy sources to their end uses. ergy into 0.48 unit of electrical energy, which the electric heater con-
Electricity is high-quality energy, so it’s best for running motors, light verts to 0.48 unit of thermal energy. The electric heater is therefore
sources, electronics, and other devices requiring high-quality energy. responsible for 0.85/0.48 5 1.8 times as much gas consumption.
 19.4 Entropy and Energy Quality 321

Taking your energy in the form of work gives you the most options. Anything you can
Mechanical, Highest
do with a joule of energy, you can do with the work. Heat is less versatile, with 300 K heat electrical energy quality
the least useful of the three. We’re not talking here about the quantity of energy—we have
exactly 1 joule in each case—but about energy quality (Fig. 19.13). We can readily con- High
vert an entire amount of energy from higher to lower quality, but the second law precludes temperature
going in the opposite direction with 100% efficiency.

Entropy
Mix hot and cold water, and you get lukewarm water. There’s no energy loss, but you have
lost something—namely, the ability to do useful work. In the initial state, we could have Low
run a heat engine using the DT between the hot and cold water. In the final state, there’s temperature Lowest
no temperature difference, so we couldn’t run a heat engine. The quantity of energy hasn’t
changed, but its quality has decreased. Entropy, S, quantifies the loss of quality associ- FIGURE 19.13 Energy quality measures the
ated with energy transformations. In his Ninth Memoir, Clausius coined the term for its versatility of different energy forms.
similarity to the word “energy” and its Greek root “troph,” meaning transformation.
To motivate the definition of entropy, consider an ideal gas undergoing a Carnot cycle.
Recall that a Carnot cycle consists of two isothermal and two adiabatic processes (Fig. 19.5).
In deriving Equation 19.3 for the Carnot efficiency, we found that Qc/Qh 5 Tc/Th, where Qc
was the heat rejected from the system to the low-temperature reservoir at Tc, and Qh the heat
added from the reservoir at Th.
Let’s focus on the ideal gas itself and define all heats as the heat added to the gas, so Qc
changes sign. The relationship between heats and temperatures can now be expressed as
Qc Qh
1 50 (Carnot cycle)
Tc Th
We can generalize this result to any reversible cycle by approximating the cycle as a se- Qc Qh
quence of Carnot cycles, as shown in Fig. 19.14. For each segment, we have a Q/T 5 0. Tc 1 Th 5 0 for the highlighted cycle or
any other cycle, so SQ/T must be zero
As we increase the number of cycles, the volume change associated with each isothermal around the path.
segment shrinks and the edges get less jagged. We can approximate the closed cycle ever
closer by using more and more Carnot cycles. In the limit, the approximation becomes exact
and the sum becomes an integral: Adiabat

dQ
Pressure
C T 50 (any reversible cycle) (19.5) Isotherm

where the circle indicates integration over a closed path.

Equation 19.5 holds for any closed path in the pV diagram—that is, for any reversible
cycle. That means we can define the entropy change, DS, between an initial state 1 and a
Volume
final state 2 as
2
FIGURE 19.14 An arbitrary cycle approximated
dQ by isothermal (dashed curves) and adiabatic
DS12 5 3 1entropy change2 (19.6)
1 T
(solid curves) steps. Heat transfer occurs only
during the isothermal steps.
Note that entropy has the units J/K, the same units as Boltzmann’s constant kB.
Take a system along a path from state 1 to state 2 in its pV diagram; Equation 19.6 gives
. . . DS21 must
the corresponding entropy change DS12. Go back to state 1 by any other reversible path, 2 equal 2DS12 on
and the resulting entropy change DS21 must be 2DS12 so that there’s no entropy change any return path, so
around the closed path (Fig. 19.15). Thus the entropy change of Equation 19.6 is inde- there’s no entropy
change over a
pendent of path; it depends only on the initial and final states. The only restriction is that p closed path.
we integrate over a reversible path. Like pressure and temperature, entropy is therefore a Entropy
thermodynamic state variable—a quantity that characterizes a given state independently change
from 1 1
of how the system got into that state. to 2 is
We restricted ourselves to reversible paths in Equation 19.6 since irreversible processes DS12 . . .
take a system out of thermodynamic equilibrium and therefore aren’t described by paths
in the pV diagram. But because entropy depends only on the initial and final states, we can V
calculate the entropy change in an irreversible process by using Equation 19.6 for a FIGURE 19.15 Entropy change is
reversible process that goes between the same two states. path-independent.
322 Chapter 19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Note also that Equation 19.6 gives the entropy change of just the working fluid.
The fluid—perhaps in an engine—is thermally connected to its surroundings, and if
we’re interested in the total entropy change resulting from the engine’s operation,
we’ll need to add the entropy changes for its environment—in this case the hot and
cold reservoirs.

Adiabatic Free Expansion

Partition In Fig. 19.16a, a partition confines an ideal gas to one side of a box; the other side is
Gas Vacuum vacuum. Remove the partition, and the gas undergoes a free expansion, filling the box.
Consider the box to be insulated, so there’s no heat flow and the expansion is therefore
adiabatic. But this expansion is irreversible, so it’s significantly different from the adi-
abatic expansions we considered in Chapter 18. In our free expansion, the vacuum
doesn’t exert pressure to oppose the gas, so the gas does no work and therefore its in-
(a)
rtit e

Ex rk
pa mov

ternal energy doesn’t change. Figure 19.16c shows how we could have used the expand-
ion

wo
tra
Re

ing gas to turn a paddle wheel, extracting useful work. We can’t do that with the
ct

uniform-pressure gas of Fig. 19.16b, so the free expansion results in the system’s los-
ing its ability to do work.
Let’s determine the entropy change for this irreversible process. We do that by finding a
reversible process that takes the gas between the same two states. Since the gas’s internal en-
ergy doesn’t change, neither does its temperature. So the corresponding reversible process is
(b) (c) an isothermal expansion, for which Equation 18.4 gives the heat added: Q 5 nRT ln1V2/V12.
No pressure Gas turns paddle With the temperature constant, the entropy change of Equation 19.6 becomes
difference— wheel, doing work.
can’t do work. dQ 1 Q V2
DS 5 3 5 3 dQ 5 5 nR ln a b
FIGURE 19.16 Two ways for a gas to expand T T T V1
into a vacuum.
The final volume V2 is larger than V1, so entropy has increased. Although we computed
this result for the reversible process, it holds for any process that takes the system between
the same initial and final states—including our irreversible free expansion.

Entropy and the Availability of Work

Entropy increases during irreversible expansion—and energy quality decreases, in that
the system loses its ability to do work. Had we let the gas in Fig. 19.16 undergo a re-
versible isothermal expansion instead of free expansion, it would have done work equal
to the heat gained:
V2
W 5 Q 5 nRT ln a b
V1
After the irreversible free expansion, the gas can no longer do this work, even though its en-
ergy is unchanged. Comparing W with the entropy change DS we calculated above, we see
that the energy that becomes unavailable to do work is Eunavailable 5 T DS. This illustrates a
more general relation between entropy and energy quality:

During an irreversible process in which the entropy of a system increases by DS,

energy E 5 Tmin DS becomes unavailable to do work, where Tmin is the lowest tem-
perature available to the system.

This statement shows that entropy provides our measure of energy quality. Given two
systems with identical energy content, the one with the lower entropy contains the higher-
quality energy. An entropy increase corresponds to a degradation in energy quality, as
energy becomes unavailable to do work.
 19.4 Entropy and Energy Quality 323

EXAMPLE 19.4 Increasing Entropy: The Loss of Energy Quality

A 2.0-L cylinder contains 5.0 mol of compressed gas at 300 K. If the
cylinder is discharged into a 150-L vacuum chamber and its temper-
ature remains 300 K, how much energy has become unavailable to
do work?

INTERPRET This problem asks about the loss of energy quality during
an irreversible and therefore entropy-increasing process—namely, an
adiabatic free expansion.

DEVELOP Figure 19.17 is a sketch of the situation, similar to Fig. 19.16

except that here the gas volume changes more dramatically. In ana-
lyzing the free expansion of Fig. 19.16, we found DS 5 nR ln1V2 /V12.
Our statement relating entropy and energy quality says that the en-
ergy made unavailable to do work is Tmin DS. So our plan is to calcu-
late DS and multiply by Tmin to find that unavailable energy.

EVALUATE Because the temperature doesn’t change, Tmin is the 300 K

temperature we’re given, and we have
V2 FIGURE 19.17 Our sketch for Example 19.4. Note that the
Eunavailable 5 T DS 5 nRT ln a b
V1 final volume is 152 L.
152 L
5 15.0 mol218.314 J/K # mol21300 K2 ln a b 5 54 kJ ASSESS Make sense? Yes: This is the work we could have extracted
2.0 L from a reversible isothermal expansion. By letting the gas undergo an ir-
reversible process, we gave up the possibility of extracting this work. ■

A Statistical Interpretation of Entropy

We began this chapter arguing that systems naturally evolve from ordered to disordered
states. Entropy increase measures that loss of order, which is what makes energy unavail-
able to do work. Here we’ll explore the meaning of entropy further, based on the parti-
tioned box we used for adiabatic free expansion.
Suppose we have a gas with just two identical molecules. The left side of Fig. 19.18 Microstates Macrostates
shows that, with the partition removed, there are four possible microstates—specific (ways of distributing the two (number of atoms
atoms in the two halves of the box) in each half)
arrangements of the individual molecules in the box. But say we only care about the
number of molecules in each side of the box. Then two of these arrangements are indis-
tinguishable, because they both have one molecule in each half of the box. Those two 2 0
correspond to a single macrostate, specified by giving the number of molecules in each
half of the box, without regard to which molecules they are. This is shown on the right in 1 1
Fig. 19.18.
With four available microstates, the probability of being in any one microstate is 41 .
0 2
There’s only one microstate with both molecules on the left, so the chances of being in the
macrostate with two molecules on the left is also 41; the same is true for the macrostate with
two molecules on the right. But two of the possible microstates have one molecule on each FIGURE 19.18 A gas of two molecules has four
side, so the probability for this macrostate is 12. possible microstates and three macrostates.
Now consider a gas of four molecules. Figure 19.19 (next page) shows 16 possible mi-
crostates, corresponding to 5 macrostates. Again, the probability of finding the system in
a given macrostate depends on the associated number of microstates; Fig. 19.19 enumer-
ates these probabilities. Clearly, we’re most likely to find the system in the macrostate
with the molecules evenly divided; the states with all the molecules on one side are now
quite improbable.
Raise the number of molecules to 100, and the number of microstates becomes huge—
2 100, or more than 1030. That makes the macrostates with all or nearly all the molecules
on one side extremely improbable. The macrostate with half the molecules on each side
324 Chapter 19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

Microstates (16 total) Macrostates Probability of macrostate

1 5 0.06
4 0 16

4 5 0.25
3 1 16

6 5 0.38
2 2 16

4 5 0.25
1 3 16

0 4 1 5 0.06
16

FIGURE 19.19 Microstates, macrostates, and probabilities for a gas of four molecules.

remains the most likely, although states with nearly equal divisions of molecules are also
quite probable. Rather than enumerate these probabilities, we graph them (Fig. 19.20).
Typical gas samples have roughly 1023 molecules, and that makes macrostates with
Probability

anything other than a nearly equal distribution of molecules extremely unlikely—as sug-
gested by the spike-like probability distribution in Fig. 19.20. You could sit in your room
for many times the age of the universe, and you’d never see all the air molecules sponta-
neously end up on one side of the room!
0 50 100
Macrostate
(number of molecules on left side of box) Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
(a) The statistical improbability of more ordered states—in our example, those with signifi-
cantly more molecules on one side of the box—is at the root of the second law of ther-
modynamics. Although we defined entropy in terms of heat flow and temperature
(Equation 19.6), a more fundamental definition involves the probabilities of individual
For a 1023-molecule microstates. In that sense, entropy is indeed a measure of disorder.
Probability

gas, the peak is Systems naturally evolve toward disordered or higher-entropy states simply because
much sharper. there are far more of these states available. So a general statement of the second law is:

0 0.5 3 1023 1.0 3 1023 Second law of thermodynamics The entropy of a closed system can never decrease.
Macrostate
(number of molecules on left side of box)
At best, the entropy of a closed system remains constant—and that’s only in an ideal,
(b)
reversible process. If anything irreversible occurs—friction, or any deviation from ther-
FIGURE 19.20 (a) Probability distributions for modynamic equilibrium—then entropy increases. As it does, energy becomes unavailable
a gas of (a) 100 molecules and (b) 1023 to do work, and nothing within the closed system can restore that energy to its original
molecules.
quality. This new statement of the second law subsumes our previous statements about the
impossibility of perfect heat engines and refrigerators, for their operation would require
an entropy decrease.
We can decrease the entropy of a system that isn’t closed—but only by supplying high-
quality energy from outside. Running a refrigerator decreases the entropy of its contents,
but this requires electrical energy to make heat flow from cold to hot. That high-quality
electrical energy deteriorates into additional heat that’s rejected to the refrigerator’s envi-
ronment. If we consider the entire system, not just the refrigerator’s contents, the overall
entropy has increased.
Any system whose entropy seems to decrease—that gets more rather than less
organized—can’t be closed. If we enlarge a system’s boundaries to encompass the en-
tire universe, then we have the ultimate statement of the second law:

Second law of thermodynamics The entropy of the universe can never decrease.
 19.4 Entropy and Energy Quality 325

Examples include the growth of a living thing from the random mix of molecules in its
environment, the construction of a skyscraper from materials that were originally dispersed
about Earth, and the appearance of ordered symbols on a printed page from a bottle of ink.
All these are entropy-decreasing processes in which matter goes from near chaos to a
highly organized state—akin to separating yolk and white from a scrambled egg. But Earth
isn’t a closed system. It gets high-quality energy from the Sun, energy that’s ultimately
responsible for life. If we consider the Earth-Sun system, the entropy decrease associated
with life and civilization is more than balanced by the entropy increase associated with
the degradation of high-quality solar energy. We living things represent a remarkable
phenomenon—the organization of matter in a universe governed by a tendency toward dis-
order. But we can’t escape the second law of thermodynamics. Our highly organized selves
and society, and the entropy decreases they represent, come into being only at the expense
of greater entropy increases elsewhere.

GOT IT? 19.3 In each of the following processes, does the entropy of the named sys-
tem alone increase, decrease, or stay the same? (a) A balloon deflates; (b) cells differenti-
ate in a growing embryo, forming different physiological structures; (c) an animal dies,
and its remains gradually decay; (d) an earthquake demolishes a building; (e) a plant uti-
lizes sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water to manufacture sugar; (f) a power plant burns
coal and produces electrical energy; (g) a car’s friction-based brakes stop the car.
CHAPTER 19 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea behind this chapter is the second law of thermodynamics—ultimately, the statement that systems tend naturally toward disorder, or states
of higher entropy. The second law is manifest in the real world by forbidding the construction of perfect heat engines and perfect refrigerators—
therefore preventing us from extracting as useful work all the energy that’s contained in random thermal motions. Ultimately, the second law says
that the entropy of any closed system, including the entire universe, cannot decrease.

vr vr 5 0 vr

Block moving; Block stopped; Can’t spontaneously

molecular motion molecular motion restore order!
ordered. disordered.

Key Concepts and Equations

Entropy is a quantitative measure of energy quality and of disorder; the
higher the entropy, the lower the energy quality and the greater the disor- Hot
der. The highest-quality energy is mechanical or electrical energy, fol- water Th Could Lukewarm
lowed by the internal energy of systems at high temperature, and finally extract Instead, water –
low-temperature internal energy. Whenever entropy increases, energy be- some energy mix. can’t extract
Tf
comes unavailable to do work. as work any work
Cold
2
dQ gives the entropy change as a system goes from water
Tc
● DS 5 3
1 T state 1 to state 2.

● Eunavailable 5 Tmin DS is the energy that becomes unavailable as a result of entropy increase DS.

Applications
The second law sets the maximum possible efficiency A
of any heat engine as that of the Carnot engine, an en- 1 Isothermal expansion
gine that combines adiabatic and isothermal processes.
W Tc Th
e5 # emax 5 1 2
Pressure, p

Qh Th Qh 4 Adiabatic
compression B 2 Adiabatic expansion
u
s

This defines This is the W

an engine’s maximum possible Qc
efficiency. efficiency. D
3 Isothermal C
Tc compression
VA VD VB VC
Volume, V
Energy-flow diagram pV diagram for Carnot engine
for an engine

Similarly, the second law limits the coefficient of performance of refrigerators and heat pumps: Th
Tc Th
COPrefrigerator 5 COPheat pump 5
Th 2 Tc Th 2 Tc
Qh W

Qc
Tc
 Exercises and Problems 327

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 23. Melting a block of lead already at its melting point results in an
entropy increase of 900 J/K. What’s the mass of the lead? (Hint:
1. Could you cool the kitchen by leaving the refrigerator open? Consult Table 17.1.)
Explain. 24. How much energy becomes unavailable for work in an isother-
2. Could you heat the kitchen by leaving the oven open? Explain. mal process at 440 K, if the entropy increase is 25 J/K?
3. Should a car get better mileage in the summer or the winter? 25. For a gas of 6 molecules confined to a box, find the probability
Explain. that (a) all the molecules will be found on one side of the box and
4. Is there a limit to the maximum temperature that can be achieved (b) half the molecules will be found on each side.
by focusing sunlight with a lens? If so, what is it?
5. Name some irreversible processes that occur in a real engine. Problems
6. Your power company claims that electric heat is 100% efficient. 26. A Carnot engine extracts 890 J from a 550 K reservoir during
Discuss. each cycle and rejects 470 J to a cooler reservoir. It operates at 22
7. A hydroelectric power plant, using the energy of falling water, cycles per second. Find (a) the work done during each cycle,
can operate with efficiency arbitrarily close to 100%. Why? (b) its efficiency, (c) the temperature of the cool reservoir, and
8. A heat-pump manufacturer claims the device will heat your home (d) its mechanical power output.
using only energy already available in the ground. Is this true? 27. The maximum steam temperature in a nuclear power plant is 570 K.
9. Why do refrigerators and heat pumps have different definitions The plant rejects heat to a river whose temperature is 0°C in the
of COP? winter and 25°C in the summer. What are the maximum possible
10. The heat Q added during adiabatic free expansion is zero. Why can’t efficiencies for the plant during these seasons?
we then argue from Equation 19.6 that the entropy change is zero? 28. You’re engineering an energy-efficient house that will require an
11. Energy is conserved, so why can’t we recycle it as we do materials? average of 4.6 kW to heat on cold winter days. You’ve designed
12. Why doesn’t the evolution of human civilization violate the sec- a photovoltaic system for electric power, which will supply on
ond law of thermodynamics? average 2.0 kW. You propose to heat the house with an electri-
cally operated groundwater-based heat pump. What should you
Exercises and Problems specify as the minimum acceptable COP for the pump if the pho-
tovoltaic system supplies its energy?
Exercises 29. A power plant’s electrical output is 750 MW. Cooling water at
15°C flows through the plant at 2.83104 kg/s, and its tempera-
Sections 19.2 and 19.3 The Second Law of ture rises by 8.5°C. Assuming that the plant’s only energy loss is
Thermodynamics and Its Applications to the cooling water, which serves as its low-temperature reser-
13. What are the efficiencies of reversible heat engines operating be- voir, find (a) the rate of energy extraction from the fuel, (b) the
tween (a) the normal freezing and boiling points of water, (b) the plant’s efficiency, and (c) its highest temperature.
25°C temperature at the surface of a tropical ocean and deep wa- 30. A power plant extracts energy from steam at 250°C and delivers
ter at 4°C, and (c) a 1000°C flame and room temperature? 800 MW of electric power. It discharges waste heat to a river at
14. A cosmic heat engine might operate between the Sun’s 5600 K 30°C. The plant’s overall efficiency is 28%. (a) How does this ef-
surface and the 2.7 K temperature of intergalactic space. What ficiency compare with the maximum possible at these tempera-
would be its maximum efficiency? tures? (b) Find the rate of waste-heat discharge to the river.
15. A reversible Carnot engine operating between helium’s melting (c) How many houses, each requiring 18 kW of heating power,
point and its 4.25 K boiling point has an efficiency of 77.7%. could be heated with the waste heat from this plant?
What’s the melting point? 31. The electric power output of all the thermal electric power plants
16. A Carnot engine absorbs 900 J of heat each cycle and provides in the United States is about 231011 W, and these plants operate
350 J of work. (a) What’s its efficiency? (b) How much heat is re- at an average efficiency of around 33%. Find the rate at which all
jected each cycle? (c) If the engine rejects heat at 10°C, what’s these plants use cooling water, assuming an average 5°C rise in
its maximum temperature? cooling-water temperature. Compare with the 1.83107 kg/s av-
17. Find the COP of a reversible refrigerator operating between 0°C erage flow at the mouth of the Mississippi River.
and 30°C. 32. Consider a Carnot engine operating between temperatures Th and
18. How much work does a refrigerator with COP 5 4.2 require to Ti, where Ti is intermediate between Th and the ambient tempera-
freeze 670 g of water already at its freezing point? ture Tc (Fig. 19.21). It should be possible to operate a second en-
19. The human body can be 25% efficient at converting chemical en- gine between Ti and Tc. Show that the maximum overall
BIO ergy of fuel to mechanical work. Can the body be considered a
Th
heat engine, operating on the temperature difference between
body temperature and the environment?
W1
Section 19.4 Entropy and Energy Quality
20. Calculate the entropy change associated with melting 1.0 kg of Ti
ice at 0°C.
21. You metabolize a 650-kcal burger at your 37°C body tempera-
W2
BIO ture. What’s the associated entropy increase?
22. You heat 250 g of water from 10°C to 95°C. By how much does
the entropy of the water increase? Tc FIGURE 19.21 Problem 32
328 Chapter 19 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

efficiency of such a two-stage engine is the same as that of a sin- rejected, and (c) the work done. (d) Use these quantities to deter-
gle engine operating between Th and Tc (which is why combined- mine the efficiency. (e) Find the maximum and minimum tem-
cycle power plants achieve high efficiencies). peratures, and show explicitly that the efficiency as defined in
33. An industrial freezer operates between 0°C and 32°C, consum- Equation 19.1 is equal to the Carnot efficiency of Equation 19.3.
ing electrical energy at the rate of 12 kW. Assuming the freezer 8.000 atm
is perfectly reversible, (a) what’s its COP? (b) How much water 1.000 L
at 0°C can it freeze in 1 hour?
34. Use appropriate energy-flow diagrams to analyze the situation in 4.000 atm
p 2.000 L
Got It? 19.2; that is, show that using a refrigerator to cool the low-
4.100 atm
temperature reservoir can’t increase the overall efficiency of a 1.612 L 2.050 atm
Carnot engine when the work input to the refrigerator is included. 3.224 L
35. It costs $180 to heat a house with electricity in a typical winter
month. (Electric heat simply converts all the incoming electrical en- V

ergy to heat.) What would the monthly heating bill be after switch-
FIGURE 19.23 Problem 42
ing to an electrically powered heat-pump system with COP 5 3.1?
36. A refrigerator maintains an interior temperature of 4°C while its 43. A shallow pond contains 94 Mg of water. In winter, it’s entirely
exhaust temperature is 30°C. The refrigerator’s insulation is im- frozen. By how much does the entropy of the pond increase when
perfect, and heat leaks in at the rate of 340 W. Assuming the re- the ice, already at 0°C, melts and then heats to its summer tem-
frigerator is reversible, at what rate must it consume electrical perature of 15°C?
energy to maintain a constant 4°C interior? 44. Estimate the rate of entropy increase associated with your body’s
37. You operate a store that’s heated by an oil furnace supplying BIO normal metabolism.
30 kWh of heat from each gallon of oil. You’re considering 45. The temperature of n moles of ideal gas is changed from T1 to T2
switching to a heat-pump system. Oil costs $1.75/gallon, and at constant volume. Show that the corresponding entropy change
electricity costs 16.5¢/kWh. What’s the minimum heat-pump is DS 5 nCV ln1T2/T12.
COP that will reduce your heating costs? 46. The temperature of n moles of ideal gas is changed from T1 to T2
38. Use energy-flow diagrams to show that the existence of a perfect with pressure held constant. Show that the corresponding entropy
heat engine would permit the construction of a perfect refrigera- change is DS 5 nCp ln1T2/T12.
tor, thus violating the Clausius statement of the second law. 47. A 5.0-mol sample of an ideal diatomic gas is at 1.0 atm pressure
39. A heat pump extracts energy from groundwater at 10°C and and 300 K. Find the entropy change if the gas is heated to 500 K
transfers it to water at 70°C to heat a building. Find (a) its COP (a) at constant volume, (b) at constant pressure, and (c) adiabatically.
and (b) its electric power consumption if it supplies heat at the 48. A 250-g sample of water at 80°C is mixed with 250 g of water at
rate of 20 kW. (c) Compare the pump’s hourly operating cost 10°C. Find the entropy changes for (a) the hot water, (b) the cool
with that of an oil furnace if electricity costs 15.5¢/kWh and oil water, and (c) the system.
costs $2.60/gallon and releases about 30 kWh/gal when burned. 49. An ideal gas undergoes a process that takes it from pressure p1
40. A reversible engine contains 0.20 mol of ideal monatomic gas, and volume V1 to p2 and V2, such that p1Vg1 5 p2Vg2 , where g is
initially at 600 K and confined to 2.0 L. The gas undergoes the the specific heat ratio. Find the entropy change if the process
following cycle: consists of constant-pressure and constant-volume segments.
Why does your result make sense?
● Isothermal expansion to 4.0 L
50. In an adiabatic free expansion, 8.7 mol of ideal gas at 288 K ex-
● Isovolumic cooling to 300 K
pand 10-fold in volume. How much energy becomes unavailable
● Isothermal compression to 2.0 L
to do work?
● Isovolumic heating to 600 K
51. Find the entropy change when a 2.4-kg aluminum pan at 155°C
(a) Calculate the net heat added during the cycle and the net work is plunged into 3.5 kg of water at 15°C.
done. (b) Determine the engine’s efficiency, defined as the ratio 52. An engine with mechanical power output 8.5 kW extracts heat
of the work done to the heat absorbed during the cycle. from a source at 420 K and rejects it to a 1000-kg block of ice at
41. (a) Determine the efficiency for the cycle shown in Fig. 19.22, us- its melting point. (a) What’s its efficiency? (b) How long can it
ing the definition given in the preceding problem. (b) Compare maintain this efficiency if the ice isn’t replenished?
with the efficiency of a Carnot engine operating between the same 53. Gasoline engines operate approximately on the Otto cycle, con-
temperature extremes. Why are the two efficiencies different? sisting of two adiabatic and two constant-volume segments.
Figure 19.24 shows the Otto cycle for a particular engine. (a) If
6.0 atm 6.0 atm
2.0 L 6.0 L Combustion
3p2 3

Adiabatic
3.0 atm 3.0 atm p
expansion
2.0 L 6.0 L
p2 2 Exhaust/intake
V
Adiabatic 4
compression 1
FIGURE 19.22 Problem 41
1
5 V1 V V1
42. A 0.20-mol sample of an ideal gas goes through the Carnot cycle
of Fig. 19.23. Calculate (a) the heat Qh absorbed, (b) the heat Qc FIGURE 19.24 Problem 53
 Answers to Chapter Questions 329

the gas in the engine has specific heat ratio g, find the engine’s b 5 2.9331023 J/mol # K2, and c 5 2.1331025 J/mol # K3. Find
efficiency, assuming all processes are reversible. (b) Find the the entropy change when 2 moles of this gas are heated from
maximum temperature in terms of the minimum temperature 20°C to 200°C.
Tmin. (c) How does the efficiency compare with that of a Carnot 64. Consider a gas containing an even number N of molecules, dis-
engine operating between the same temperature extremes? tributed among the two halves of a closed box. Find expressions
54. The compression ratio r of an engine is the ratio of maximum to for (a) the total number of microstates and (b) the number of
minimum gas volume. For the engine of the preceding problem, microstates with half the molecules on each side of the box.
Fig. 19.24 shows that the compression ratio is 5. Find an expression (You can either work out a formula, or explore the term “com-
for the engine’s efficiency as a function of compression ratio, assum- binations” in a math reference source.) (c) Use these results to
ing that pressure continues to triple during the combustion phase. find the ratio of the probability that all the molecules will be
55. The 54-MW wood-fired McNeil Generating Station in Burling- found on one side of the box to the probability that there will be
ton, Vermont, produces steam at 950°F to drive its turbines, and equal numbers on both sides. (d) Evaluate for N 5 4 and
condensed steam returns to the boiler as 90°F water. (Note the N 5 100.
temperatures in °F, used in U.S. engineering situations.) Find
McNeil’s maximum thermodynamic efficiency, and compare Passage Problems
with its actual efficiency of 25%. Refrigerators remain among the greatest consumers of electrical en-
56. A 500-g copper block at 80°C is dropped into 1.0 kg of water at ergy in most homes, although mandated efficiency standards have de-
10°C. Find (a) the final temperature and (b) the entropy change creased their energy consumption by some 80% in the past four
of the system. decades. In the course of a day, one kitchen refrigerator removes 30 MJ
57. An object’s heat capacity is inversely proportional to its absolute of energy from its contents, in the process consuming 10 MJ of electri-
temperature: C 5 C01T0/T2, where C0 and T0 are constants. Find cal energy. The electricity comes from a 40% efficient coal-fired power
the entropy change when the object is heated from T0 to T1. plant.
58. A Carnot engine extracts heat from a block of mass m and specific 65. The electrical energy
heat c initially at temperature Th0 but without a heat source to a. is used to run the light bulb inside the refrigerator.
maintain that temperature. The engine rejects heat to a reservoir at b. wouldn’t be necessary if the refrigerator had enough
constant temperature Tc. The engine is operated so its mechanical insulation.
power output is proportional to the temperature difference Th 2 Tc: c. retains its high-quality status after the refrigerator has
Th 2 Tc used it.
P 5 P0 d. ends up as waste heat rejected to the kitchen environment.
Th0 2 Tc
66. The refrigerator’s COP is
where Th is the instantaneous temperature of the hot block and P0 1
a. 3.
is the initial power. (a) Find an expression for Th as a function of b. 2.
time, and (b) determine how long it takes for the engine’s power c. 3.
output to reach zero. d. 4.
59. In an alternative universe, you’ve got the impossible: an infinite
heat reservoir, containing infinite energy at temperature Th. But 67. The fuel energy consumed at the power plant to run this refriger-
you’ve only got a finite cool reservoir, with initial temperature ator for the day is
Tc0 and heat capacity C. Find an expression for the maximum a. 12 MJ.
work you can extract if you operate an engine between these two b. 25 MJ.
reservoirs. c. 40 MJ.
60. You’re the environmental protection officer for a 35% efficient d. 75 MJ.
nuclear power plant that produces 750 MW of electric power, sit- 68. The total energy rejected to the surrounding kitchen during the
uated on a river whose minimum flow rate is 110 m3/s. State en- course of the day is
vironmental regulations limit the rise in river temperature from a. 10 MJ.
your plant’s cooling system to 5°C. Can you achieve this stan- b. 30 MJ.
dard if you use river water for all your cooling, or will you need c. 40 MJ.
to install cooling towers that transfer some of your waste heat to d. 75 MJ.
the atmosphere?
61. Find an expression for the entropy gain when hot and cold water
are irreversibly mixed. A corresponding reversible process you Answers to Chapter Questions
can use to calculate this change is to bring each water sample
slowly to their common final temperature Tf and then mix them. Answer to Chapter Opening Question
Express your answer in terms of the initial temperatures Th and The second law of thermodynamics prevents us from converting ther-
Tc. Assume equal masses of hot and cold water, with constant mal energy to mechanical energy with 100% efficiency, and practical
specific heat c. What’s the sign of your answer? limits on temperature make it hard to achieve 50% efficiency in con-
62. Problem 74 of Chapter 16 provided an approximate expression ventional power plants.
for the specific heat of copper at low absolute temperatures:
c 5 311T/343 K23 J/kg # K. Use this to find the entropy change Answers to GOT IT? Questions
when 40 g of copper are cooled from 25 K to 10 K. Why is the 19.1. (a), (c), and (f).
change negative? 19.2. (c); see Problem 34 for a proof.
63. The molar specific heat at constant pressure for a certain gas 19.3. (a) increase; (b) decrease; (c) increase; (d) increase; (e) decrease;
is given by Cp 5 a 1 bT 1 cT2, where a 5 33.6 J/mol # K, (f) increase; (g) increase.
PART THREE SUMMARY

Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the study of heat, temperature, and related This contrasts with statistical mechanics, which provides a mi-
phenomena—and their relation to the all-important concept of energy. croscopic description in terms of the properties and behavior of
Thermodynamics provides a macroscopic description in terms of pa- molecules.
rameters like temperature and pressure.

Thermodynamic equilibrium occurs when two systems are brought Heat is energy that’s flowing because of a temperature difference.
into thermal contact and no further changes occur in any macroscopic Important heat-transfer mechanisms include conduction, convec-
properties. The zeroth law of thermodynamics says that two systems tion, and radiation. A system is in thermal-energy balance at a
each in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third are also in thermody- fixed temperature when its energy input balances heat transfer to its
namic equilibrium with each other. This law allows us to establish surroundings.
temperature scales and construct thermometers.
Earth’s energy balance
If A and C are placed in
thermal contact, their
Systems A and C macroscopic properties
are each in don’t change—showing Incident sunlight
thermodynamic that they’re already in
equilibrium with B. equilibrium.

A B C A C

Outgoing infrared
(a) (b)

Ideal gases exhibit a simple relation among temperature, Real substances undergo phase changes
pressure, and volume: among liquid, solid, and gaseous phases. Critical
Substantial heats of transformation Melting point
pV 5 NkT 5 nRT

Pressure
describe the energies involved in phase Solid Liquid
This is the ideal gas law, with k 5 1.38310223 J/K and changes.
R 5 8.314 J/K # mol.
Sublimation
Boiling
Triple point Gas
Temperature

The first law of thermodynamics relates the change DU in a sys- Entropy is a measure of disorder. The second law of thermodynam-
tem’s internal energy to the heat Q added to the system and the work ics states that the entropy of a closed system can never decrease. Ap-
W done by the system: plied to the heat engines that provide most of humankind’s electrical
DU 5 Q 2 W and transportation energy, the second law shows that it’s impossible to
extract as useful work all the random internal energy of hot objects.
For an ideal gas, reversible thermodynamic processes are described Maximum efficiency (Carnot):
by curves in the pressure–volume diagram. Common processes in-
W Qc Tc
clude isothermal (constant temperature), constant volume, constant e5 512 512
pressure, and adiabatic (no heat flow). Qh Qh Th

Part Three Challenge Problem

Th
The ideal Carnot engine shown in the figure at right operates between a heat reservoir and a block of ice with
Qh
mass M. An external energy source maintains the reservoir at a constant temperature Th. At time t 5 0, the ice is
at its melting point T0, but it’s insulated from everything except the engine, so it’s free to change state and tem-
W
perature. The engine is operated in such a way that it extracts heat from the reservoir at a constant rate Ph.
(a) Find an expression for the time t1 at which the ice is all melted, in terms of the quantities given and any other Qc
appropriate thermodynamic parameters. (b) Find an expression for the mechanical power output of the engine as
a function of time for times t . t1. (c) Your expression in part (b) holds up only to some maximum time t2. Why?
Find an expression for t2.
PART FOUR OVERVIEW

Electromagnetism

Electricity constitutes a significant

E lectromagnetism is one of the fundamental forces, and it governs the behavior

of matter from the atomic scale to the macroscopic world. Electromagnetic tech-
nology, from computer microchips to cell phones and on to large electric motors and
portion of humankind’s energy, as
evidenced by this composite satellite
image of Earth at night. Nearly all that
generators, is essential to modern society. Even our bodies rely heavily on electro- electrical energy is produced by
magnetism: Electric signals pace our heartbeat, electrochemical processes transmit generators, devices that exploit an
intimate relation between electricity
nerve impulses, and the electric structure of cell membranes mediates the flow of
and magnetism.
materials into and out of the cell.
Four fundamental laws describe electricity and magnetism. Two deal separately
with the two phenomena, while the others reveal profound connections that make
electricity and magnetism aspects of a single phenomenon—electromagnetism.
In this part you’ll come to understand those fundamental laws, learn how electro-
magnetism determines the structure and behavior of nearly all matter, and explore
the electromagnetic technologies that play so important a role in your life. Finally,
you’ll see how the laws of electromagnetism lead to electromagnetic waves and thus
help us understand the nature of light.

331
 Electric Charge, Force,
20 and Field

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Recognize the fundamentally electric
nature of matter, with electric charge
as an intrinsic property (20.1).
■ Describe the behavior of the electric
force using Coulomb’s law (20.2).
■ Calculate forces between electric
charges (20.2).
■ Explain the concept of electric field
(20.3), and calculate the fields of dis-
crete and continuous distributions of
charge (20.4).
■ Describe quantitatively how charges
respond to electric fields (20.5).
What’s the fundamental criterion for
initiating a lightning strike?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter uses the concept of
force and applies Newton’s second
W hat holds your body together? What keeps a skyscraper standing? What holds your car
on the road as you round a turn? What governs the electronic circuitry in your computer
or MP3 player, or provides the tension in your climbing rope? What enables a plant to make
law to electric forces (4.2). sugar from sunlight and simple chemicals? What underlies the awesome beauty of lightning?
■ The idea of torque is used in The answer, in all cases, is the electric force. With the exception of gravity, all the forces we’ve
discussing electric dipoles encountered in mechanics—including tension forces, normal forces, compression forces, and
(10.2, 11.2). friction—are based on electric interactions; so are the forces responsible for all of chemistry
■ You’ll also need to be familiar with and biology. The electric force, in turn, involves a fundamental property of matter—namely,
integration from your calculus class electric charge.
and with the integration strategy we
developed earlier (9.1).
20.1 Electric Charge
Electric charge is an intrinsic property of the electrons and protons that, along with un-
charged neutrons, make up ordinary matter. What is electric charge? At the most fundamen-
tal level we don’t know. We don’t know what mass “really” is either, but we’re familiar with it
because we’ve spent our lives pushing objects around. Similarly, our knowledge of electric
charge results from observing the behavior of charged objects.
Charge comes in two varieties, which Benjamin Franklin designated positive and
negative. Those names are useful because the total charge on an object—the object’s net
charge—is the algebraic sum of its constituent charges. Like charges repel, and opposites
attract, a fact that constitutes a qualitative description of the electric force.

332
 20.2 Coulomb’s Law 333

Quantities of Charge
All electrons carry the same charge, and all protons carry the same charge. The proton’s
charge has exactly the same magnitude as the electron’s, but with opposite sign. Given that
electrons and protons differ substantially in other properties—like mass—this electric re-
lation is remarkable. Exercise 13 shows how dramatically different our world would be if
there were even a slight difference between the magnitudes of the electron and proton
charges.
The magnitude of the electron or proton charge is the elementary charge e. Electric
charge is quantized; that is, it comes only in discrete amounts. In a famous experiment
in 1909, the American physicist R. A. Millikan measured the charge on small oil drops
and found it was always a multiple of a basic value we now know as the elementary
charge.
Elementary particle theories show that the fundamental charge is actually 31 e. Such
“fractional charges” reside on quarks, the building blocks of protons, neutrons, and many
other particles. Quarks always join to produce particles with integer multiples of the full
elementary charge, and it seems impossible to isolate individual quarks.
The SI unit of charge is the coulomb (C), named for the French physicist Charles Au-
gustin de Coulomb (1736–1806). Although the coulomb’s formal definition is in terms of
electric current, it’s convenient to describe 1 coulomb as being about 6.2531018 elemen-
tary charges, making the elementary charge approximately 1.60310219 C.

Charge Conservation
Electric charge is a conserved quantity, meaning that the net charge in a closed region re-
mains constant. Charged particles may be created or annihilated, but always in pairs of
equal and opposite charge. The net charge always remains the same.

20.2 Coulomb’s Law

Rub a balloon; it gets charged and sticks to your clothing. Charge another balloon, and the
two repel (Fig. 20.1). Socks cling to your clothes as they come from the dryer, and bits of
Styrofoam cling annoyingly to your hands. Walk across a carpet, and you’ll feel a shock
when you touch a doorknob. All these are common examples where you’re directly aware
of electric charge.
Electricity would be unimportant if the only significant electric interactions were these
r r
obvious ones. In fact, the electric force dominates all interactions of everyday matter, from F F
the motion of a car to the movement of a muscle. It’s just that matter on a large scale is al-
most perfectly neutral, meaning it carries zero net charge. Therefore, electric effects aren’t
obvious. But at the molecular level, the electric nature of matter is immediately evident FIGURE 20.1 Two balloons carrying similar
(Fig. 20.2). electric charges repel each other.

A salt grain is
electrically neutral . . . . . . but the electric
1 2 1 force is responsible
2 1 2
1 2 1 for its cubical shape.
2
1
2 1 2
1
2
(a) 1 2 1
Na Cl

(b)

FIGURE 20.2 (a) A single salt grain is electrically neutral, so the electric force isn’t obvious.
(b) Actually, the electric force determines the structure of salt.
334 Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field

Attraction and repulsion of electric charges imply a force. Joseph Priestley and Charles
Augustin de Coulomb investigated this force in the late 1700s. They found that the force
between two charges acts along the line joining them, with the magnitude proportional to
the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
them. Coulomb’s law summarizes these results:
! kq1q2
F12 5 2 r^ 1Coulomb’s law2 (20.1)
r
!
Here the product where F12 is the force charge q1 exerts on q2 and r is the distance between the charges. The
The unit vector rˆ
always points away from q1.
q1q2 is positive,
r
proportionality constant k has SI value 9.03109 N # m2/C 2. Force is a vector, and r^ is a unit
so F12 is in the vector that helps determine its direction. Figure 20.3 shows that r^ lies on a line passing
kq1q2 same direction
! in the direction from q1 toward! q2. Reverse the roles of
r
F12 5 rˆ as r.ˆ
through the two charges and points
r2
q1 q2 r
q1 and q2, and you’ll see that F21 has the same magnitude as F12 but the opposite direc-
rˆ F12 tion; thus Coulomb’s law obeys Newton’s third law. Figure 20.3 also shows that the force
is in the same direction as the unit vector when the charges have the same sign, but oppo-
r
site the unit vector when the charges have different signs. Thus Coulomb’s law accounts
(a)
for the fact that like charges repel and opposites attract.
q1 r q2
F12 rˆ

r Here the charges have PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 20.1 Coulomb’s Law

opposite signs,rso
(b) The key to using Coulomb’s law is to remember that force is a vector, and to realize that
q1q2 , 0 and F12 points
ˆ
opposite r.
Coulomb’s law in the form of Equation 20.1 gives both the magnitude and direction of the elec-
tric force. Dealing carefully with vector directions is especially important in situations with
FIGURE 20.3 Quantities!in Coulomb’s law for more than two charges.
calculating the force F12 that q1 exerts on q2.
INTERPRET First, make sure you’re dealing with the electric force alone. Identify the charge or
charges on which you want to calculate the force. Next, identify the charge or charges produc-
ing the force. These comprise the source charge.
DEVELOP Begin with a drawing that shows the charges, as in Fig. 20.4. If you’re given charge
coordinates, place the charges on the coordinate system; if not, choose a suitable coordinate sys-
tem. For each source charge, determine the unit vector(s) in Equation 20.1. If the charges lie
along or parallel to a coordinate axis, then the unit vector will be one of the unit vectors ı^, ^/, or k^ ,
perhaps with a minus sign. In Fig. 20.4, the force on q3 due to q1 is such a case. When the two
charges don’t lie on a coordinate axis, like q1 and q2 in Fig. 20.4, you can find the unit vector
!
by noting that the displacement vector r12 points in the desired direction, from the source charge
!
to the charge experiencing the force. Dividing r12 by its own magnitude then gives the unit
! !
vector in the direction of r12: r^ 5 r12 /r12.
EVALUATE For each source charge, determine the electric force using Equation 20.1,
!
F12 51kq1q2 /r22r^
with r^ the unit vector you’ve just found.
ASSESS As always, assess your answer to see that it makes sense. Is the direction of the force
you found consistent with the signs and placements of the charges giving rise to the force?
rr12 4 3
Here rˆ 5 r 5 5
ı̂ 1 5 ≥ˆ.
12
4
q2 r̂
3
≥ˆ m
5m
y (m)

3
2 1 5
4ˆı 2 m
r
5 3
r 12 2 1
1 34
5
q1 r 12 q3
u
0 1 2 3 4 5
x (m)
rˆ points away from
q1, so here rˆ 5 ˆı.

FIGURE 20.4 Finding unit vectors.

 20.2 Coulomb’s Law 335

GOT IT? 20.1 Charge q1 is located at x 5 1 m, y 5 0. What should you use for the
unit vector r^ in Coulomb’s law if you’re calculating the force q1 exerts on a charge q2
located at (a) the origin and (b) the point x 5 0, y 5 1 m? Explain why you can answer
without knowing the sign of either charge.

EXAMPLE 20.1 Finding the Force: Two Charges

A 1.0-mC charge is at x 5 1.0 cm, and a 21.5-mC charge is at
x 5 3.0 cm. What force does the positive charge exert on the negative
one? How would the force change if the distance between the charges
tripled?

INTERPRET Following our strategy, we identify the 21.5-mC charge The charges The unit vector
as the one on which we want to find the force and the 1-mC charge as have opposite is in the direction
signs, so q1q2 from q1 to q2,
the source charge. isr negative, and so here it’s i.ˆ
F is opposite
DEVELOP We’re given the coordinates x1 5 1.0 cm and x2 5 3.0 cm. the direction of r.ˆ
Our drawing, Fig. 20.5, shows both charges at their positions on the
x-axis. With the source charge q1 to the left, the unit vector in the FIGURE 20.5 Sketch for Example 20.1.
direction from q1 toward q2 is ı^.

EVALUATE Now we use Coulomb’s law to evaluate the force: ASSESS Make sense? Although the unit vector ı^ points in the
! kq1q2 1x -direction, the charges have opposite signs and that makes the
F12 5 2 r^ force direction opposite the unit vector, as shown in Fig. 20.5. In sim-
r
19.03109 N # m2/C 2211.031026 C2121.531026 C2 pler terms, we’ve got two opposite charges, so they attract. That means
5 ı^ the force exerted on a charge at x 5 3 cm by an opposite charge at
10.020 m22 x 5 1 cm had better be in the 2x -direction. ■
5 234ı^ N
This force is for a separation of 2 cm; if that distance tripled, the force
would drop by a factor of 1/32, to 23.8ı^ N.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 20.1 Gravity and the Electric Force

The electric force between elementary particles is far stronger than ASSESS Ironically, it’s the very strength of the electric force that makes
the gravitational force, yet gravity is much more obvious in everyday it less obvious in everyday life. Opposite charges bind strongly, making
life. Why? bulk matter electrically neutral and its electrical interactions subtle.
EVALUATE Gravity and the electric force obey similar inverse-square
laws, and the magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of MAKING THE CONNECTION Compare the magnitudes of the
the masses or charges. There’s a big difference, though: There’s only electric and gravitational forces between an electron and a proton.
one kind of mass, and gravity is always attractive, so large concentra-
tions of mass—like a planet—result in strong gravitational forces. But EVALUATE Equation 8.1 gives the gravitational force: Fg 5 Gme mp /r 2.
charge comes in two varieties, and opposites attract, so large accumu- Equation 20.1 gives the electric force: ƒFE ƒ 5 ke2/r2, where we wrote
lations of matter tend to be electrically neutral, and their electrical e2 because the electron and proton charges have the same magnitude.
interactions aren’t obvious. We aren’t given the distance, but that doesn’t matter because both
forces have the same inverse-square dependence. The ratio of the
force magnitudes is huge: FE /Fg 5 ke2/Gme mp 5 2.331039!

Point Charges and the Superposition Principle

Coulomb’s law is strictly true only for point charges—charged objects of negligible size.
Electrons and protons can usually be treated as point charges; so, approximately, can any
two charged objects if their separation is large compared with their size. But often we’re
interested in the electric effects of charge distributions—arrangements of charge spread
over space. Charge distributions are present in molecules, a memory cell in a computer
336 Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field

q2 chip, your heart, and a thundercloud. We need to combine the effects of two or more
charges to find the electric effects of such charge distributions.
r r r
Figure 20.6 shows two charges q1 and q2 that constitute a simple charge distribution.
! these! exert on a third charge q3. To find that net force, you
r
Fnet 5 F13 1 F23 We want to know the net force
F23
q1
r
might calculate the forces F13 and F23 from Equation 20.1, and then vectorially add them.
q3 F13 And you’d be right: The force that q1 exerts on q3 is unaffected by the presence of q2, and
FIGURE 20.6 The superposition principle lets us
vice versa, so you can apply Coulomb’s law separately to the pairs q1q3 and q2q3 and then
add vectorially the forces from two or more combine the results. That may seem obvious, but nature needn’t have been so simple.
charges. The fact that electric forces add vectorially is called the superposition principle. Our
confidence in this principle is ultimately based on experiments that show electric and in-
deed electromagnetic phenomena behave according to the principle. With superposition
we can solve relatively complicated problems by breaking them into simpler parts. If the
superposition principle didn’t hold, the mathematical description of electromagnetism
would be far more complicated.
Although the force that one point charge exerts on another decreases with the inverse
square of the distance between them, the same is not necessarily true of the force resulting
from a charge distribution. The next example provides a case in point.

EXAMPLE 20.2 Finding the Force: Raindrops

Charged raindrops are ultimately responsible for lightning, producing
substantial electric charge within specific regions of a thundercloud.
Suppose two drops with equal charge q are on the x-axis at x 5 6a.
Find the electric force on a third drop with charge Q at an arbitrary
point on the y-axis.

INTERPRET Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle apply, and

we identify Q as the charge for which we want the force. The two . . . and this is
This is the y- the magnitude . . .
charges q are the source charges. . . . so the y-components
component of
the displacement of both unit vectors are
DEVELOP Figure 20.7 is our drawing, showing the charges, the indi- vectors from y
rˆy 5 .
vidual force vectors, and their sum. The drawing shows that the distance q to Q . . . √a2 1 y2
r in Coulomb’s law is the hypotenuse 2a2 1 y2. It’s clear from sym-
metry that the net force is in the y-direction, so we need to find only the
y-components of the unit vectors. The y-components are clearly the same
for each, and the drawing shows that they’re given by r^y 5 y/ 2a2 1 y2.

EVALUATE From Coulomb’s law, the y-component of the force from FIGURE 20.7 The force on Q is the vector sum of the forces from
each q is Fy 5 1kqQ/r22r^y, and the net force on Q becomes the individual charges.
! kqQ y 2kqQy
F 5 2a 2 ba b ^/ 5 2 ^/
a 1 y2 2a2 1 y2 1a 1 y223/2 charge 2q a distance y from Q—showing that the system of two charges
The factor of 2 comes from the two charges q, which contribute acts like a single charge 2q at distances that are large compared with the
equally to the net force. charge separation. In between our two extremes the behavior of force
! with distance is more complicated; in fact, its magnitude initially
ASSESS Make sense? Evaluating F at y 5 0 gives zero force. Here, increases as Q moves away from the origin and then begins to decrease.
midway between the two charges, Q experiences equal but opposite In drawing Fig. 20.7, we tacitly assumed that q and Q have the
forces and the net force is zero. At large distances y W a, on the other same signs. But our analysis holds even if they don’t; then the product
hand,
! we can neglect a2 compared with y2, and the force becomes qQ is negative, and the forces actually point opposite the directions
F 5 k12q2Q/^/y2. This is just what we would expect from a single shown in Fig. 20.7. ■

20.3 The Electric Field

In Chapter 8 we defined the gravitational field at a point as the gravitational force per unit
!
mass that an object at that point would experience. In that context, we can think of g as
the force per unit mass that any object would experience due to Earth’s gravity. So we can
picture the gravitational field as a set of vectors giving the magnitude and direction of the
gravitational force per unit mass at each point, as shown in Fig. 20.8a.
 20.3 The Electric Field 337

Right at this point the electric field is

r
described by the vector E1. That means
a point charge q placed here would
r
experience an electric force qE1.

Right at this point the gravitational field

r
is described by the vector g. That means
a mass m placed here would experience r
r
E1
a gravitational force mg. r
E2

gr

Over here, farther from

the charge producing
the field, a point charge
q would experience a
r
weaker force qE2 in a
different direction.

The gravitational field is The electric field is a continuous entity, so

a continuous entity, so there are field vectors everywhere. We just
there are field vectors can't draw them all.
everywhere. We just
can't draw them all. (a) (b)

FIGURE 20.8 (a) Gravitational and (b) electric fields, here represented as sets of vectors.

We can do the same thing with the electric force, defining the electric field as the force
per unit charge:

The electric field at any point is the force per unit charge that a charge would experi-
ence at that point. Mathematically,
!
! F
E5 1electric field2 (20.2a)
q

The electric field exists at every point in space. When we represent the field by vectors,
we can’t draw one everywhere, but that doesn’t mean there isn’t a field at all points. Fur-
thermore, we draw vectors as extended arrows, but each vector represents the field at only
one point—namely, the tail end of the vector. Figure 20.8b illustrates this for the electric
field of a point charge.
The field concept leads to a shift in our thinking about forces. Instead of the action-at-a-
distance idea that Earth reaches across empty space to pull on the Moon, the field concept
says that Earth creates a gravitational field and the Moon responds to the field at its loca-
tion. Similarly, a charge creates an electric field throughout the space surrounding it.
A second charge then responds to the field at its immediate location. Although the field
reveals itself only through its effect on a charge, the field nevertheless exists at all points,
whether or not charges are present. Right now you probably find the field concept a bit ab-
stract, but as you advance in your study of electromagnetism you’ll come to appreciate
that fields are an essential feature of our universe, every bit as real as matter itself.
We can use Equation 20.2a as a prescription for measuring electric fields. Place a point
charge at some point, measure the electric force it experiences, and divide by the charge to
get the field. In practice, we need to be careful because the field generally arises from some
distribution of source charges. If the charge we’re using to probe the field—the test charge—
is large, the field it creates may disturb the source charges, altering their configuration and
thus the field they create. For that reason, it’s important to use a very small test charge.
338 Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field

!
If we know the electric field E at a point, we can rearrange Equation 20.2a to find the
force on any point charge q placed at that point:
! !
F 5 qE 1electric force and field2 (20.2b)

If the charge q is positive, then this force is in the same direction as the field, but if q is
negative, then the force is opposite to the field direction.
Equations 20.2 show that the units of electric field are newtons per coulomb. Fields of
hundreds to thousands of N/C are commonplace, while fields of 3 MN/C will tear elec-
trons from air molecules.

EXAMPLE 20.3 Force and Field: Inside a Lightning Storm

A charged raindrop carrying 10 mC experiences an electric force of Acting on a 25.0-mC charge, this field would result in a force
! !
0.30 N in the 1x-direction. What’s the electric field at its location? F 5 qE 5 125.0 mC2130ı^ kN/C2 5 20.15ı^ N/C
What would the force be on a 25.0-mC drop at the same point?
ASSESS Make sense? The force on the second charge is opposite the
INTERPRET In this problem we distinguish between an electric force direction of the field because now we’ve got a negative charge in the
and an electric field. The electric field exists with or without the charged same field.
raindrop present, and the electric force arises when the charged rain-
drop is in the electric field.
✓TIP The Field Is Independent of the Test Charge
DEVELOP Knowing the electric force
! and
! the charge on the rain-
drop, we can use Equation 20.2a, E 5 F/q, to get the electric field. Does the electric field in this example point in the 2x-direction
! !
Once we know the field, we can use Equation 20.2b, F 5 qE, to when the charge is negative? No. The field is independent of the par-
calculate the force that would act if a different charge were at the ticular charge experiencing that field. Here the electric field points
same point. in the 1x-direction no matter what
! charge you put in the field. For a
positive charge, the force qE points in the same direction as the
EVALUATE Equation 20.2a gives the electric field: field; for a negative charge, q , 0, the force is opposite the field.
!
! F 0.30ı^ N
E5 5 5 30ı^ kN/C
q 10 mC ■

The Field of a Point Charge

Once we know the field of a charge distribution, we can calculate its effect on other
charges. The simplest charge distribution is a single point charge. Coulomb’s ! law gives
the force on a test charge qtest located a distance r from a point charge q: F 5 1kqqtest /r22r^ ,
where r^ is a unit vector pointing away from q. The electric field arising from q is the force
per unit charge, or
!
! F kq
E5 5 2 r^ 1field of a point charge2 (20.3)
qtest r

Since it’s so closely related to Coulomb’s law for the electric force, we also refer to Equa-
tion 20.3 as Coulomb’s law. The equation contains no reference to the test charge qtest be-
cause the field of q exists! independently of any other charge. Since r^ always points away
FIGURE 20.9 Field vectors for a negative point from q, the direction of E is radially outward if q is positive and radially inward if q is neg-
charge. ative. Figure 20.9 shows some field vectors for a negative point charge, analogous to those
of the positive point charge in Fig. 20.8b.

20.4 Fields of Charge Distributions

Since the electric force obeys the superposition principle, so does the electric field. That
means the field of a charge distribution is the vector sum of the fields of the individual
point charges making up the distribution:
! ! ! ! ! kqi
E 5 E1 1 E2 1 E3 1 c 5 a Ei 5 a 2 r^i (20.4)
i i ri
 20.4 Fields of Charge Distributions 339

!
Here the Ei’s are the fields of the point charges qi located at distances ri from the point
where we’re evaluating the field—called, appropriately, the field point. The r^i’s are unit
vectors pointing from each point charge toward the field point. In principle, Equation 20.4
gives the electric field of any charge distribution. In practice, the process of summing the
individual field vectors is often complicated unless the charge distribution contains rela-
tively few charges arranged in a symmetric way.
Finding electric fields using Equation 20.4 involves the same strategy we introduced for
finding the electric force; the only difference is that there’s no charge to experience the force.
The first step then involves identifying the field point. We still need to find the appropriate
unit vectors and form the vector sum in Equation 20.4.

EXAMPLE 20.4 Finding the Field: Two Protons

Two protons are 3.6 nm apart. Find the electric field at a point be- the field point is 1ı^, while r^2 from the right-hand proton toward
tween them, 1.2 nm from one of the protons. Then find the force on P is 2ı^.
an electron at this point.
EVALUATE We now evaluate the field at P using Equation 20.4:
INTERPRET We follow our electric-force strategy, except that instead ! ! ! ke ke 1 1
of identifying the charge experiencing the force, we identify the field E 5 E1 1 E2 5 2 ^ı 1 2 12ı^2 5 ke a 2 2 2 b ı^
r1 r2 r1 r2
point as being 1.2 nm from one proton. The source charges are the two
protons; they produce the field we’re interested in. We wrote e for q here because the protons’ charge is the elementary
charge. !
DEVELOP Let’s have the protons define the x-axis, as drawn in Using e 5 1.6310219 C, r1 5 1.2 nm, and r2 5 2.4 nm gives E! 5
Fig. 20.10. Then the unit vector r^1 from the left-hand proton toward 750ı^ MN/C. An electron at P will therefore experience a force F 5
qE 5 2eE 5 20.12ı^ nN.
Unit vectors point from the source
charges toward the field point P. ASSESS Make sense? The field points in the positive x-direction,
reflecting the fact that P is closer to the left-hand proton with its
stronger field at P. The force on the electron, on the other hand, is in the
2x-direction; that’s because the electron is negative (we used q 5 2e
for its charge), so the force it experiences is opposite the field. That field
of almost 1 GN/C sounds huge—but that’s not unusual at the micro-
FIGURE 20.10 Finding the electric field at P. scopic scale, where we’re close to individual elementary particles. ■

The Electric Dipole 2

O
One of the most important charge distributions is the electric dipole, consisting of two –
point charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign. Many molecules are essentially H H
dipoles, so understanding the dipole helps explain molecular behavior (Fig. 20.11). Dur- + +
1
ing contraction the heart muscle becomes essentially a dipole, and physicians performing
electrocardiography are measuring, among other things, the strength and orientation of FIGURE 20.11 A water molecule behaves like an
that dipole. Technological devices, including radio and TV antennas, also make use of the electric dipole. Its net charge is zero, but regions
dipole configuration. of positive and negative charge are separated.

EXAMPLE 20.5 The Electric Dipole: Modeling a Molecule

A molecule may be modeled approximately as a positive charge q at We identify the field point as being anywhere on the y-axis and the
x 5 a and a negative charge 2q at x 5 2a. Evaluate the electric field source charges as being 6q.
on the y-axis, and find an approximate expression valid at large dis-
tances 1y W a2. DEVELOP Figure 20.12 (next page) is our drawing. The individual unit
vectors point from the two charges toward the field point, but the
INTERPRET Here’s another example where we’ll use our strategy in negative charge contributes a field opposite its unit vector; we’ve indi-
applying Equation 20.4 to calculate the field of a charge distribution. cated the individual fields in Fig. 20.12. Here symmetry makes the
(continued)
340 Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field

EVALUATE We then evaluate the field using Equation 20.4:

Here’s the ! k12q2 a kq a 2kqa
field point. E5 a b ı^ 1 2 a 2 b ı^ 5 2 2 ı^
r2 r r r 1a 1 y223/2
where in the last step we used r 5 2a2 1 y2. For y W a we can
neglect a2 compared with y 2, giving
1a is the x-
! 2kqa
component of E . 2 3 ı^ 1y W a2
the displacement y
rr2 from 2q to the
field point . . . ASSESS Make sense? The dipole has no net charge, so at large dis-
tances its field can’t have the inverse-square drop-off of a point-charge
field. Instead the dipole field falls faster, here as 1/y3.
. . . so the x-component of . . . and the x-component
the unit vector from 2q of the displacement from
is rˆx2 5 a/r . . . 1q is 2a, so rˆx1 5 2a/r. ✓TIP Approximations
FIGURE 20.12 Finding the field of an electric dipole. Making approximations requires care. Here we’re basically asking
for the field when y is so large that a is negligible compared with y.
y-components cancel, giving a net field in the 2x -direction. So we So we neglect a2 compared with y2 when the two are summed, but
need only the x-components of the unit vectors, which Fig. 20.12 we don’t neglect a when it appears in the numerator.
shows are r^x2 5a/r for the negative charge at 2a and r^x1 5 2a/r for
the positive charge at a. ■

Example 20.5 shows that the dipole field at large distances decreases as the inverse
cube of distance. Physically, that’s because the dipole has zero net charge. Its field arises
entirely from the slight separation of two opposite charges. Because of this separation the
dipole field isn’t exactly zero, but it’s weaker and more localized than the field of a point
charge. Many complicated charge distributions exhibit the essential characteristic of a
dipole—that is, they’re neutral but consist of separated regions of positive and negative
charge—and at large distances such distributions all have essentially the same field
configuration.
At large distances the dipole’s physical characteristics q and a enter the equation for the
electric field only through the product qa. We could double q and halve a, and the dipole’s
electric field would remain unchanged. At large distances, therefore, a dipole’s electric
properties are characterized completely by its electric dipole moment p, defined as the
product of the charge q and the separation d between the two charges making up the dipole:
p 5 qd 1dipole moment2 (20.5)
In Example 20.5 the charge separation was d 5 2a, so there the dipole moment was
p 5 2aq. In terms of the dipole moment, the field in Example 20.5 can then be written
! kp dipole field for y W a,
E 5 2 3 ı^ a b (20.6a)
y on perpendicular bisector

You can show in Problem 50 that the field on the dipole axis is given by
! 2kp dipole field
E 5 3 ^ı a b (20.6b)
x for x W a, on axis
+q 1
d Because the dipole isn’t spherically symmetric, its field depends not only on distance
pr
but also on orientation; for instance, Equations 20.6 show that the field along the dipole
–q 2 axis at a given distance is twice as strong as along the bisector. So it’s important to know
FIGURE 20.13 The dipole moment vector
the orientation of a dipole in space, and therefore we generalize our definition of the di-
has magnitude p 5 qd and points from the pole moment to make it a vector of magnitude p 5 qd in the direction from the negative
negative toward the positive charge. toward the positive charge (Fig. 20.13).
 20.4 Fields of Charge Distributions 341

GOT IT? 20.2 Far from a charge distribution, you measure an electric field strength
of 800 N/C. What will the field strength be if you double your distance from the charge
distribution, if the distribution consists of (a) a point charge or (b) a dipole?

Continuous Charge Distributions

Although any charge distribution ultimately consists of pointlike electrons and protons, it
would be impossible to sum all the field vectors from the 1023 or so particles in a typical
piece of matter. Instead, it’s convenient to make the approximation that charge is spread
continuously over the distribution. If the charge distribution extends throughout a volume,
we describe it in terms of the volume charge density r, with units of C/m3. For charge
distributions spread over surfaces or lines, the corresponding quantities are the surface
charge density s 1C/m22 and the line charge density l 1C/m2.
r
To calculate the field of a continuous charge distribution, we divide the charged region dq dE r
rˆ r P r
into very many small charge elements dq, each! small enough that it’s essentially
! a point r
dE E
2 ^ r
charge. Each dq then produces an electric field
! dE given by Equation 20.3: dE 5 1k dq/r 2r. dq rˆ rˆ r dE
dq
We then form the vector sum of all the dE’s (Fig. 20.14).
! In the limit of infinitely many
infinitesimally small dq’s and their corresponding dE’s, that sum becomes an integral and Charge distribution
we have FIGURE 20.14 The electric field at P is the vector
!
sum of the fields dE arising from the individual
! ! k dq field of a continuous
E 5 3 dE 5 3 2 r^ a b (20.7) charge elements dq, each calculated using the
r charge distribution appropriate distance r and unit vector r^.

The limits of this integral include the entire charge distribution.

Calculating the field of a continuous charge distribution involves the same strategy we’ve
already used: We identify the field point and the source charges—although now the source is
a continuous charge distribution. Summing the individual field contributions now presents
us with an integral, and that means writing the unit vectors r^ and distances r in terms of
coordinates over which we can integrate. Setting up the integral involves the same strategy
we outlined in Chapter 9 to find the center of mass of a continuous distribution of matter.

EXAMPLE 20.6 Evaluating the Field: A Charged Ring

A ring of radius a carries a charge Q distributed evenly over the ring. Find EVALUATE We’re now ready to set up the integral in Equation 20.7.
an expression for the electric field at any point on the axis of the ring. Here each charge element contributes the same amount dEx 5
1k dq/r22r^x 5 1k dq/r221x/r2 to the field. Figure 20.15 shows that
INTERPRET We identify the field point as lying anywhere on the ring’s r 5 2x2 1 a2 5 1x2 1 a221/2, so the integral becomes
axis, and the source charge as the entire ring.
kx dq kx
E 5 3 dEx 5 3 5 dq
DEVELOP Let’s take the x-axis to coincide with the ring axis, with the ring ring 1x 1 a 2
2 2 3/2
1x 1 a223/2 3ring
2

center of the ring at x 5 0 (Fig. 20.15). The figure shows that the
The last step follows because we have a fixed field point P, so its
y-components of the field contributions from pairs of charge elements
coordinate x is a constant for the integration. But the remaining inte-
on opposite sides of the ring cancel; therefore, the net field points in
gral is just the sum of all the charge elements on the ring—namely, the
the 1x-direction (for x . 0) and we need only the x-components of the
total charge Q. So our result becomes
unit vectors. Those are the same for all unit vectors—namely, r^x 5 x/r.
kQx
E5 (on-axis field, charged ring)
1x 1 a223/2
2

This is the magnitude; the direction is along the x-axis, away from the
ring if Q is positive and toward it if Q is negative.

ASSESS Make sense? At x 5 0 the field is zero. Of course: A charge

placed at the ring center is pulled (or pushed) equally in all directions—
no net force, so no electric field. But for x W a, we get E 5 kQ/x2—
just what we expect for a point charge Q. As always, a finite-size charge
distribution looks like a point charge at large distances. ■
FIGURE 20.15 The electric field of a charged ring points along the ring axis,
since field components perpendicular to the axis cancel in pairs.
342 Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field

EXAMPLE 20.7 Line Charge: A Power Line’s Field

A long, straight electric power line coincides with the x-axis and car- where we used r 5 2x2 1 y2. Since the x-components cancel, we
ries a uniform line charge density l (unit: C/m). Find the electric field can sum—that is, integrate—the y-components to get the net field:
on the y-axis using the approximation that the wire is infinitely long. 1`
kly dx dx
1`
E 5 Ey 5 3 5 kly 3
INTERPRET We identify the field point as being a distance y from the 2`1x 1 y 2
2
2` 1x 1 y 2
2 3/2 2 2 3/2

wire, and the source charge as the whole wire. x 1`

1 1 2kl
5 kly c d 5 kly c 2 2 a 2 2 b d 5
y 2x 1 y 2`
2 2 2 y y y
DEVELOP Figure 20.16 is our drawing, showing a coordinate system
with the field point P along the y-axis. We divide the wire into small Here we used the integral table in Appendix A and applied the limits
charge elements dq and note that field contributions from two such el- x 5 6`. Our result is the field’s magnitude; the direction is away
!
ements dq on opposite sides of the y-axis contribute fields dE whose from the line for positive l and toward the line for negative l.
x-components cancel. Then we need only the y-component of each
ASSESS Make sense? For an infinite line there’s nothing to favor
unit vector, and Figure 20.16 shows that’s r^y 5 y/r.
one direction along the line over another, so the only way the field
can point is radially, away from or toward the line (Fig. 20.17). And
because the line is infinite, it never resembles a point no matter
This is the y- howfar away we are. As a result the field falls more slowly than
component of the
displacement rr the field of a point charge—in this case, as 1/y. If we let r desig-
from dq to P . . . nate the radial distance from the line rather than the diagonal in
Fig. 20.16, then the field decreases as 1/r. An infinite line is impos-
sible, but our result holds approximately for finite lines of charge as
long as we’re much closer to the line than its length, and not near an
end. Far from a finite line, on the other hand, its field will resemble
. . . so the y- that of a point charge. ■
component of
the unit vector rˆ
is y/r.
!
FIGURE 20.16 The field of a charged line is the vector sum of the fields dE
from all the individual charge elements dq along the line.

EVALUATE We’re now ready to set up the integral in Equation 20.7.

As described in Chapter 9’s integral strategy, we need to relate dq to a
geometric variable so we can do the integral. Here our wire has charge
density l C/m, so if a charge element has length dx, then its charge is
dq 5 l dx. Putting all this together gives the y-component of the field
from an arbitrary dq anywhere on the wire:
k dq kl dx y kly FIGURE 20.17 Field vectors for an infinite line of positive charge point
dEy 5 r^y 5 5 2 dx radially outward, with magnitude decreasing inversely with distance.
r 2
r2 r 1x 1 y223/2

20.5 Matter in Electric Fields

Electric fields give rise to forces on charged particles. Because matter consists of such par-
ticles, much of the behavior of matter is fundamentally determined by electric fields.

Point Charges in Electric Fields

The motion !of a single
! charge in an electric
! field !is governed by the definition of the elec-
tric field, F 5 qE, and Newton’s law, F 5 ma . Combining these equations ! gives the
acceleration of a particle with charge q and mass m in an electric field E:
! q !
a5 E (20.8)
m
This equation shows that it’s the charge-to-mass ratio, q/m, that determines a particle’s re-
sponse to an electric field. Electrons, nearly 2000 times less massive than protons but car-
rying the same charge, are readily accelerated by electric fields. Many practical devices,
from X-ray machines to fluorescent lights, use electrons accelerated in electric fields.
 20.5 Matter in Electric Fields 343

When the electric field is uniform, problems involving the motion of charged particles + + + + + + + +
reduce to the constant-acceleration problems of Chapter 2. An ink-jet printer is one appli-
cation; a pair of oppositely charged plates creates a uniform field that “steers” charged ink
droplets to the right place on the page (Fig. 20.18). q – – – – – – – –
When the field isn’t uniform, it’s generally more difficult to calculate particle trajecto-
ries. An important exception is a particle moving perpendicular to a field that points radi- FIGURE 20.18 A pair of parallel charged plates
ally. Under appropriate conditions, the result is uniform circular motion (see Section 5.3), creates a uniform electric field that deflects a
as shown in the next example. charged particle. Can you tell the sign of the
charge q?

EXAMPLE 20.8 Particle Motion: An Electrostatic Analyzer

Two oppositely charged curved metal plates establish an electric field given by E 5 E01b/r2,
where E0 and b are constants with the units of electric field and length, respectively. The field
points toward the center of curvature, and r is the distance from the center. Find an expression for
the speed v with which a proton entering vertically from below in Fig. 20.19 will leave the device
moving horizontally.
Just right, and
Too fast, and protons emerge
protons hit the horizontally.
outer wall.

r Analyzer
E
Too slow, and
protons hit the
inner wall.
Proton beam

FIGURE 20.19 An electrostatic analyzer.

INTERPRET This problem is about charged-particle motion in an electric field that points radially.
We’re asked for the condition that will have a proton exiting the field region moving horizontally.
Figure 20.19 shows that this requires its trajectory to be a circular arc.
! !
DEVELOP Equation 20.8, a 5 1q/m2E, determines the acceleration of a charged particle in an elec-
tric field. Here we want uniform circular motion, so our plan is to write this equation with the given
field and the acceleration v2/r that we know applies in circular motion. Then we’ll solve for v.

EVALUATE Under these conditions, Equation 20.8 becomes

v2 eE e b
a5 5 5 E0
r m m r
We then solve to get v 5 1eE0b/m.

ASSESS Make sense? Strengthen the field by increasing E0 or b, and the electric force becomes
greater. For a given speed, that would result in more bending of the trajectory; to maintain the de-
sired trajectory, we must therefore increase the speed. Note that the radius r canceled from our equa-
tions, showing that it doesn’t matter where the protons enter the device. That’s because the 1/r
decrease in field strength matches the 1/r dependence of the acceleration. This device is called an
electrostatic analyzer because it can sort charged particles by speed and charge-to-mass ratio. Space-
craft use such analyzers to characterize charged particles in interplanetary space. ■

GOT IT? 20.3 An electron, a proton, a deuteron (a neutron combined with a proton),
a helium-3 nucleus (2 protons, 1 neutron), a helium-4 nucleus (2 protons, 2 neutrons), a
carbon-13 nucleus (6 protons, 7 neutrons), and an oxygen-16 nucleus (8 protons, 8 neu-
trons) all find themselves in the same electric field. Rank in order their accelerations from
lowest to highest under the assumption (only approximately correct) that the neutron and
proton have the same mass and that the mass of a composite particle is the sum of the
masses of its constituent neutrons and protons. Note any that have the same acceleration.
344 Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field

Dipoles in Electric Fields

Earlier in this chapter we calculated the field of an electric dipole, which consists of two
opposite charges of equal magnitude. Here we study a dipole’s response to electric fields.
Since the dipole provides a model for many molecules, our results help explain molecular
behavior.
Torque rotates Figure 20.20 shows a dipole with charges 6q separated a distance d, located in a uni-
dipole clockwise. !
form electric field. The dipole moment vector p has magnitude qd and points from the
negative to the positive charge (recall Fig. 20.13). Since the field is uniform, it’s the same
r
E at both ends of the dipole. Since the dipole charges are ! equal in magnitude but opposite in
u
sign, they experience equal but opposite forces 6qE —and therefore there’s no net force
d 1 r on the dipole.
F+
However, Fig. 20.20 shows that the dipole does experience a torque that tends to align
2 pr it with the field. In Chapter 11 we
r
F– ! ! ! described torque as the cross product of the position
vector with the force: t 5 r 3 F, where the magnitude of the torque vector is rF sin u and
FIGURE 20.20 A dipole in a uniform electric field its direction is given by the right-hand rule. Figure 20.20 thus shows that the torque about
experiences a torque, but no net force. the center of the dipole due to the force on the positive charge has magnitude
t1 5 rF sin u 5 A 12 d B 1qE2 sin u. The torque associated with the negative charge has the
same magnitude, and both torques are in the same direction since both tend to rotate the
dipole clockwise. Thus the net torque has magnitude t 5 qdE sin u; applying the right-
hand rule shows that this torque is into the page. But qd is the magnitude of the dipole mo-
!
ment p , and Fig. 20.20
! shows that u is the angle between the dipole moment vector and
the electric field E; therefore, we can write the torque vectorially as
! ! !
t5p3E 1torque on a dipole2 (20.9)
Because of this torque, it takes work to rotate a dipole in an electric field. If we start
with the dipole oriented at right angles to the field 1u 5 p/22, then Equation 10.18 gives
the work required to rotate it until it makes an angle u with the field:
u u
W 5 3t du 5 3 pE sin u du 5 pE32cos u4up/2 5 2pE cos u
p/2 p/2

This work ends up as stored potential energy U. Since the product of two vector magni-
tudes with the cosine of the angle between them defines the dot product, we can write the
potential energy as
! !
U 5 2p # E (20.10)

1 r
where U 5 0 corresponds to the dipole at right angles to the field.
F2 When the electric field isn’t uniform, the charges at opposite ends of the dipole experi-
r
E2 ence forces that differ in magnitude and/or aren’t exactly opposite in direction. Then the
r
F1 r
Fnet dipole experiences a net force as well as a torque (Fig. 20.21). An important instance of
2 this effect is the force on a dipole in the field of another dipole (Fig. 20.22). Because the
r
E1 dipole field falls off rapidly with distance and because the dipole responding to the field
has closely spaced charges of equal magnitude but opposite sign, the dipole-dipole force
FIGURE 20.21 When the electric field differs in is quite weak and falls extremely rapidly with distance. This weak force, which Fig. 20.22
magnitude or direction at the two ends of the
shows to be attractive, is partly responsible for the van der Waals interaction between gas
dipole, the dipole experiences a nonzero net
force as well as a torque. molecules that we mentioned in Chapter 17.

Force on negative end Conductors, Insulators, and Dielectrics

of B is stronger; hence
net force is toward A.
Bulk matter contains vast numbers of point charges—namely, electrons and protons. In
r r
E+
some matter—notably metals, ionic solutions, and ionized gases—individual charges are
E–
r r free to move throughout the material. In these conductors, the application of an electric
F– F+
2 1 2 1 field results in the ordered motion of electric charge that we call electric current. We’ll
A B consider conductors and current in later chapters.
FIGURE 20.22 Dipole B aligns with the field of Materials in which charge is not free to move are insulators, since they don’t support
dipole A and then experiences a net force electric current. Insulators, however, still contain charges—it’s just that their charges are
toward A. bound into neutral molecules. Some molecules, like water, have intrinsic dipole moments
 20.5 Matter in Electric Fields 345

APPLICATION Microwave Cooking and Liquid Crystals

The torque on dipoles in electric fields forms the basis of two widespread con- most have a built-in light source. The photo shows an iPhone—a popular de-
temporary technologies: the microwave oven and the liquid-crystal display vice that sports a liquid-crystal display; also shown is a microphoto of the liq-
(LCD). uid crystals.
A microwave oven works by generating an electric field whose direction
changes several billion times per second. Water molecules, whose dipole mo-
ment is much greater than most others, attempt to align with the field. But the
field is changing, so the molecules swing rapidly back and forth. As they jostle
against each other, the energy they gain from the field is dissipated as heat that
cooks the food.

Liquid crystals consist of Applying an

dipole-like molecules that electric field
all align in the same changes that
direction. orientation.
r
E

Normal Liquid Aligned by

liquid crystal external field

Computer displays, TVs, digital cameras, cell phones, watches, and many
other devices display visual images using liquid crystals. These unique materi-
als combine the fluidity of a liquid with the order of a solid. The liquid crystal
consists of long molecules whose chemical structure results in a dipole-like
charge separation. In response to each others’ electric fields, the molecules
tend to align. As the figure shows, an external electric field can rotate the
liquid-crystal dipoles, altering the material’s optical properties. With optical
components we’ll study in Chapter 29, different sections of a liquid-crystal dis-
play can then be made to appear visible or invisible. Liquid-crystal displays
consume very little power, but they generate no light of their own and therefore

and therefore rotate in response to an applied electric field. Even if they don’t have dipole
moments, molecules may respond to an electric field by stretching and acquiring induced
dipole moments (Fig. 20.23). In either case, the application of an electric field results in
the alignment of molecular dipoles with the field (Fig. 20.24). The fields of the dipoles,
pointing from their positive to their negative charges, then reduce the applied electric field
within the material. We’ll explore the consequences of this effect further in Chapter 23.
Materials in which molecules either have intrinsic dipole moments or acquire induced mo-
ments are called dielectrics.
If the electric field applied to a dielectric becomes too great, individual charges are
ripped free, and the material then acts like a conductor. Such dielectric breakdown can
cause severe damage in electric equipment. On a larger scale, lightning results from
dielectric breakdown in air.

Internal field
from dipoles

1 1 1 1 1 1

pr r r
2 2 2 2 2 2 r
E Eapplied Enet
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
Net field in dielectric

FIGURE 20.23 A molecule stretches in response to an FIGURE 20.24 Alignment of molecular dipoles
electric field, acquiring a dipole moment. in a dielectric reduces the electric field within
the dielectric.
CHAPTER 20 SUMMARY
Big Picture
This chapter introduces several big ideas. First is electric charge, a fundamental property of matter that comes in positive and negative forms. Like
charges repel and opposites attract; this is the electric force. It’s convenient to define the electric field as the force per unit charge that a charge
would experience if placed in the vicinity of other charges. Both force and field obey the superposition principle, meaning that the effects of
several charges add vectorially.

Key Concepts and Equations

Coulomb’s law describes the electric force between The
! electric
! field is the force per unit charge, Electric field
P
point charges: E 5 F/q, and therefore the! force !a given charge at P r
E
r kq1q2 q experiences in a field is F 5 qE.
F12 5 rˆ
r2
q1 q2 rˆ
r
q
F12 r
Put a charge q at rP, andr F
the force on q is F 5 qE.
r

The field of a point charge follows from Coulomb’s Fields of charge distributions are found by summing fields of individual point charges,
law: or by integrating in the case of continuously distributed charge:
! kq r
E3
E 5 2 r^ r
E2
r P
q1 rˆ1 r1 r
E1
r
q2 r2 dq r dE
r3 rˆ P r
rˆ2 dE
q3 r
dq rˆ rˆ r r
dE
rˆ3 dq
Field is stronger closer
to the charge.
r r r r kq r r k dq
E(P) 5 E1 1 E2 1 E3 5 Sr i i
2
rˆi E(P) 5 dE 5
3 3 r2
r̂

Field weakens with

increasing distance from
the charge.

Applications
A dipole consists of equal but opposite charges 6q a distance d apart. The field of an infi-
For distances large compared with d, the dipole field drops as 1/r3, and nite line drops as 1/r:
the dipole is completely characterized by its dipole moment p 5 qd. E 5 2kl/r, with l the
charge per unit length.
d This is a good approxi-
2 1 mation to the field near
2q pr 1q an elongated structure
like a wire.

Point charges respond to A dipole in an electric field

! experiences a torque that tends to align it Dielectrics are insulating materials
! !
electric fields with accel- with the field: t 5 p 3 E. whose molecules act like electric
eration proportional to the Torque rotates dipoles.
charge-to-mass ratio q/m. dipole clockwise.
1 1 1 1 1 1
r
E 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 r
F+ 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 r
r p
F–
If the field is nonuniform, there’s also a net force on the dipole.
 Exercises and Problems 347

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion Section 20.2 Coulomb’s Law

16. The electron and proton in a hydrogen atom are 52.9 pm apart.
1. Conceptual Example 20.1 shows that the gravitational force Find the magnitude of the electric force between them.
between an electron and a proton is about 10240 times weaker 17. An electron at Earth’s surface experiences a gravitational force
than the electric force between them. Since matter consists meg. How far away can a proton be and still produce the same
largely of electrons and protons, why is the gravitational force force on the electron? (Your answer should show why gravity is
important? unimportant on the molecular scale!)
2. A free neutron is unstable and soon decays to other particles, one 18. You break a piece of Styrofoam packing material, and it releases
of them a proton. Must there be others? If so, what electric prop- lots of little spheres whose electric charge makes them stick
erties must they have? annoyingly to you. If two of the spheres carry equal charges and
3. Where in Fig. 20.5 could you put a third charge so it would expe- repel with a force of 21 mN when they’re 15 mm apart, what’s
rience no net force? Would it be in stable or unstable equilibrium? the magnitude of the charge on each?
4. Why should the test charge used to measure an electric field be 19. A charge q is at the point x 5 1 m, y 5 0 m. Write expressions
small? for the unit vectors you would use in Coulomb’s law if you
5. Equation 20.3 gives the electric
! field of a point charge. Does the were finding the force that q exerts on other charges located at
direction of (a) r^ or (b) E depend on whether the charge is posi- (a) x 5 1 m, y 5 1 m; (b) the origin; and (c) x 5 2 m, y 5 3 m.
tive or negative? You’re not given the sign of q. Why doesn’t this matter?
6. Is the electric force on a charged particle always in the direction 20. A proton is at the origin and an electron is at the point
of the field? Explain. x 5 0.41 nm, y 5 0.36 nm. Find the electric force on the proton.
7. Why does a dipole, which has no net charge, produce an electric
field? Section 20.3 The Electric Field
8. The ring in Example 20.6 carries total charge Q, and the point P
21. An electron experiences an electric force of 0.61 nN. What’s the
is the same distance r 5 2x2 1 a2 from all parts of the ring. So
field strength at its location?
why isn’t the electric field of the ring just kQ/r2?
22. Find the magnitude of the electric force on a 2.0-mC charge in a
9. A spherical balloon is initially uncharged. If you spread posi-
100-N/C electric field.
tive charge uniformly over the balloon’s surface, would it ex-
23. A 68-nC charge experiences a 150-mN force in a certain electric
pand or contract? What would happen if you spread negative
field. Find (a) the field strength and (b) the force that a 35-mC
charge instead?
charge would experience in the same field.
10. Under what circumstances is the path of a charged particle a
24. The electric field inside a cell membrane is 8.0 MN/C. What’s
parabola? A circle?
BIO the force on a singly charged ion in this field?
11. Why should there be a force between two dipoles, which each
25. A 21.0-mC charge experiences a 10ı^-N electric force in a certain
have zero net charge?
electric field. What force would a proton experience in the same
12. Dipoles A and B are both located in the field of a point charge Q,
field?
as shown in Fig. 20.25. Does either experience a net torque? A
26. The electron in a hydrogen atom is 52.9 pm from the proton.
net force? If each dipole is released from rest, describe qualita-
What’s the proton’s electric field strength at this distance?
tively its subsequent motion.

Section 20.4 Fields of Charge Distributions

2q 1q
2 1
27. In Fig. 20.26, point P is midway between the two charges. Find
A the electric field in the plane of the page (a) 5.0 cm to the left of
2q 1q
P, (b) 5.0 cm directly above P, and (c) at P.
2 1
1 2.0 mC P 2 2.0 mC
+Q B

FIGURE 20.25 For Thought and Discussion 12 5.0 cm

FIGURE 20.26 Exercise 27

Exercises and Problems 28. The water molecule’s dipole moment is 6.2310230 C # m. What
Exercises would be the separation distance if the molecule consisted of
charges 6e? (The effective charge is actually less because H and
Section 20.1 Electric Charge O atoms share the electrons.)
13. Suppose the electron and proton charges differed by one part in 29. The electric field 22 cm from a long wire carrying a uniform line
one billion. Estimate the net charge on your body, assuming it charge density is 1.9 kN/C. What’s the field strength 38 cm from
contains equal numbers of electrons and protons. the wire?
14. A typical lightning flash delivers about 25 C of negative charge 30. Find the line charge density on a long wire if the electric field
from cloud to ground. How many electrons are involved? 45 cm from the wire has magnitude 260 kN/C and points toward
15. Protons and neutrons are made from combinations of the two the wire.
most common quarks, the u quark (charge 123 e) and the d quark 31. Find the magnitude of the electric field due to a charged ring of
(charge 213 e). How could three of these quarks combine to make radius a and total charge Q on the ring axis at distance a from the
(a) a proton and (b) a neutron? ring’s center.
348 Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field

Section 20.5 Matter in Electric Fields 48. (a) Find an expression for the electric field on the y-axis due to
32. In his famous 1909 experiment that demonstrated quantiza- the two charges q in Fig. 20.7. (b) At what point is the field on
tion of electric charge, R. A. Millikan suspended small oil the y-axis a maximum?
drops in an electric field. With field strength 20 MN/C, what 49. A dipole lies on the y-axis and consists of an electron at
mass drop can be suspended when the drop carries 10 ele- y 5 0.60 nm and a proton at y 5 20.60 nm. Find the electric field
mentary charges? (a) midway between the two charges; (b) at the point x 5 2.0 nm,
33. How strong an electric field is needed to accelerate electrons in y 5 0 nm; and (c) at the point x 5 220 nm, y 5 0 nm.
an X-ray tube from rest to one-tenth the speed of light in a dis- 50. Show that the field on the x-axis for the dipole of Example 20.5
tance of 5.0 cm? is given by Equation 20.6b, for x W a.
34. A proton moving to the right at 3.83105 m/s enters a region 51. You’re 1.5 m from a charge distribution whose size is much less
where a 56-kN/C electric field points to the left. (a) How far will than 1 m. You measure an electric field strength of 282 N/C.
the proton get before it momentarily stops? (b) Describe its sub- You move to a distance of 2.0 m, and the field strength becomes
sequent motion. 119 N/C. What’s the net charge of the distribution? (Hint:
35. An electrostatic analyzer like that of Example 20.8 has b 5 Don’t try to calculate the charge. Determine instead how the
7.5 cm. What value of E0 will enable the device to select protons field decreases with distance, and from that infer the charge.)
moving at 84 m/s? 52. Three identical charges q form an equilateral triangle of side a,
with two charges on the x-axis and one on the positive y-axis.
(a) Find an expression for the electric field at points on the y-axis
Problems
above the uppermost charge. (b) Show that your result reduces to
36. A 2-g ping-pong ball rubbed against a wool jacket acquires a net
the field of a point charge 3q for y W a.
positive charge of 1 mC. Estimate the fraction of the ball’s elec-
53. Two identical small metal spheres initially carry charges q1 and
trons that have been removed.
q2. When they’re 1.0 m apart, they experience a 2.5-N attractive
37. Two charges, one twice as large as the other, are located 15 cm
force. Then they’re brought together so charge moves from one
apart and experience a repulsive force of 95 N. What’s the mag-
to the other until they have the same net charge. They’re again
nitude of the larger charge?
placed 1.0 m apart, and now they repel with a 2.5-N force. What
38. A proton is on the x-axis at x 5 1.6 nm. An electron is on the
were the original charges q1 and q2?
y-axis at y 5 0.85 nm. Find the net force the two exert on a
54. Two 34-mC charges are attached to opposite ends of a spring
helium nucleus (charge 12e) at the origin.
with spring constant k 5 150 N/m and equilibrium length 50 cm.
39. A 9.5-mC charge is at x 5 15 cm, y 5 5.0 cm and a 23.2-mC
By how much does the spring stretch?
charge is at x 5 4.4 cm, y 5 11 cm. Find the force on the nega-
55. A thin rod lies on the x-axis between x 5 0 and x 5 L and carries
tive charge.
total charge Q distributed uniformly over its length. Show that the
40. A charge 3q is at the origin, and a charge 22q is on the positive
electric field strength for x . L is given by E 5 kQ/3x1x 2 L24.
x-axis at x 5 a. Where would you place a third charge so it
56. An electron is moving in a circular path around a long, uni-
would experience no net electric force?
formly charged wire carrying 2.5 nC/m. What’s the electron’s
41. You have two charges 14q and one charge 2q. How would you
speed?
place them along a line so there’s no net force on any of the
57. You have a job examining patent applications. You’re presented
three?
with the device in Fig. 20.28, which its inventor claims will sepa-
42. In Fig. 20.27, take q1 5 68 mC, q2 5 234 mC, and q3 5 15 mC.
rate isotopes of a particular element. Atoms are first stripped
Find the electric force on q3.
completely of their electrons, then accelerated from rest through an
electric field chosen to give the desired isotope exactly the right
y (m)
speed to pass through the electrostatic analyzer (see Example 20.8).
2 q3 Will the device work?
1 q
1
q2 r
x (m) E2
1 2 3

FIGURE 20.27 Problems 42 and 43 Analyzer

43. In Fig. 20.27, take q1 5 25 mC and q2 5 20 mC. If the force on

q1 points in the 2x-direction, find (a) q3 and (b) the magnitude – – – – – – – –
of the force on q1. Accelerating
r
44. Three identical charges 1q and a fourth charge 2q form a E1 field
+ + + + + + + +
square of side a. (a) Find the magnitude of the electric force on a
charge Q placed at the square’s center. (b) Describe the direction
of this force. FIGURE 20.28 Problem 57
45. A 65-mC point charge is at the origin. Find the electric field at
the points (a) x 5 50 cm, y 5 0 cm; (b) x 5 50 cm, y 5 50 cm; 58. A 5.0-mm strand of DNA carries charge 1e per nm of length.
and (c) x 5 25 cm, y 5 275 cm. BIO Treating it as a charged line, what’s the electric field strength
46. A 1.0-mC charge and a 2.0-mC charge are 10 cm apart. Find a 25 nm from the DNA, not near either end?
point where the electric field is zero. 59. Find the line charge density on a long wire if a 6.8-mg particle
47. A proton is at the origin and an ion is at x 5 5.0 nm. If the elec- carrying 2.1 nC describes a circular orbit about the wire with
tric field is zero at x 5 25 nm, what’s the ion’s charge? speed 280 m/s.
 Exercises and Problems 349

60. A dipole with dipole moment 1.5 nC # m is oriented at 30° to a Find the electric field strength (b) 15 cm from the wire axis, not
4.0-MN/C electric field. Find (a) the magnitude of the torque on near either end, and (c) 350 m from the wire. Make suitable ap-
the dipole and (b) the work required to rotate the dipole until it’s proximations in both cases.
antiparallel to the field. 70. Figure 20.32 shows a thin rod of length L carrying charge Q dis-
61. A molecule has its dipole moment aligned with a 1.2-kN/C elec- tributed uniformly over its length. (a) What’s the line charge den-
tric field. If it takes 3.1310227 J to reverse the molecule’s orien- sity on the rod? (b) What must be the electric field direction on the
tation, what’s its dipole moment? rod’s perpendicular bisector (taken to be the y-axis)? (c) Modify
62. Two identical dipoles, each of charge q and separation a, are a the calculation of Example 20.7 to find an expression for the elec-
distance x apart, as shown in Fig. 20.29. (a) By considering tric field at a point P a distance y along the perpendicular bisector.
forces between pairs of charges in the different dipoles, calculate
the force between the dipoles and show that, in the limit a V x, y
it has magnitude 6kp2/x4, where p 5 qa is the dipole moment. P
(b) Is the force attractive or repulsive?
x
a a
2 1 2 1 L
x

FIGURE 20.29 Problem 62

FIGURE 20.32 Problem 70
63. A dipole with charges 6q and separation 2a is located a distance
x from a point charge 1Q, oriented as shown in Fig. 20.30. Find 71. Figure 20.33 shows a thin, uniformly charged disk of radius R.
expressions for the magnitude of (a) the net torque and (b) the net Imagine the disk divided into rings of varying radii r, as sug-
force on the dipole, both in the limit x W a. (c) What’s the direc- gested in the figure. (a) Show that the area of such a ring is very
tion of the net force? nearly 2pr dr. (b) If the disk carries surface charge density s,
1q use the result of part (a) to write an expression for the charge dq
1 on an infinitesimal ring. (c) Use the result of (b) along with the
1Q
2a result of Example 20.6 to write the infinitesimal electric field dE
x of this ring at a point on the disk axis, taken to be the positive
2 x-axis. (d) Integrate over all such rings to show that the net elec-
2q
tric field on the disk axis has magnitude
FIGURE 20.30 Problem 63
1
E 5 2pks a 1 2 b
64. An electron is at the origin, and an ion with charge 15e is at 2x 1 R2
2

x 5 10 nm. Find a point where the electric field is zero.

65. You’re taking physical chemistry, and your professor is dis-
cussing molecular dipole moments. Water, he says, has a dipole
R
moment of “1.85 debyes,” while carbon monoxide’s dipole mo-
ment is only “0.12 debye.” Your physics professor wants these dr

moments expressed in SI. She tells you that the atomic separation
r x
in these two covalent compounds is about the same, and asks
what that indicates about the way shared charge is distributed.
What do you tell her?
66. The electric field on the axis of a uniformly charged ring has
magnitude 380 kN/C at a point 5.0 cm from the ring center. The FIGURE 20.33 Problem 71
magnitude 15 cm from the center is 160 kN/C; in both cases the
field points away from the ring. Find (a) the ring’s radius and 72. Use the result of Problem 71 to show that the field of an infinite,
(b) its charge. uniformly charged flat sheet is 2pks, where s is the surface charge
67. An electric quadrupole consists of two oppositely directed dipoles density. (This result is independent of distance from the sheet.)
in close proximity. (a) Calculate the field of the quadrupole shown 73. Use the binomial theorem to show that, for x W R, the result of
in Fig. 20.31 for points to the right of x 5 a and (b) show that for Problem 71 reduces to the field of a point charge whose total
x W a the quadrupole field falls off as 1/x4. charge is the charge density times the disk area.
74. A semicircular loop of radius a carries positive charge Q distrib-
22q
1q 1q uted uniformly. Find the electric field at the loop’s center (point P
x
in Fig. 20.34). (Hint: Divide the loop into charge elements dq as
x 5 2a x50 x5a
shown, write dq in terms of the angle du, then integrate over u.)
FIGURE 20.31 Problem 67
a
68. Show that the electric field at a point 45° from a dipole’s axis is P
u
1/15/8 times the field on the axis, assuming both points are the
same distance from the dipole and that distance is large com- dq
du
pared with the dipole spacing.
69. A straight wire 10 m long carries 25 mC distributed uniformly
over its length. (a) What’s the line charge density on the wire? FIGURE 20.34 Problem 74
 350 Chapter 20 Electric Charge, Force, and Field

75. In Example 20.2, find the position where Q will experience the 80. At a distance r, far from the heart, the heart’s electric field
greatest force. a. falls off as 1/r.
76. A thin rod carries charge Q distributed uniformly over its length b. falls off as 1/r2.
L and is situated on the x-axis between x 5 6L/2. (a) Find the c. falls off as 1/r3.
electric field at an arbitrary point 1x, y2. (You’ll have to do sepa- d. falls off as 1/r4.
rate integrals for the x- and y-components.) (b) Show that your 81. At a given distance, far from the heart compared with its size, the
result reduces to that of Problem 70 when x 5 0 and to that of electric field
Problem 55 when y 5 0 and x . L/2. a. is weaker along an extension of the line shown in Fig. 20.36c
77. A thin rod extends along the x-axis from x 5 0 to x 5 L and than on a perpendicular line.
carries line charge density l 5 l01x/L22, where l0 is a constant. b. is stronger along a an extension of the line shown in
Find the electric field at x 5 2L. Fig. 20.36c than on a perpendicular line.
78. A rod of length 2L lies on the x-axis, centered at the origin, and c. has the same value at positions perpendicular and parallel to
carries line charge density l 5 l01x/L2, where l0 is a constant. the line in Fig. 20.36c.
(a) Find an expression for the electric field strength at points on
82. The difference between Figs. 20.36a and 20.36b that results in an
the x-axis for x . L. (b) Show that for x W L your result has the
external electric field in one case but not the other is that
1/x 3 dependence of a dipole field, and determine the dipole mo-
a. there’s no net charge in Fig. 20.36a but there is a net charge
ment of the rod.
in Fig. 20.36b.
79. You’re working on the design of an ink-jet printer. Ink drops of
b. the total charge is greater in Fig. 20.36a.
mass m, speed v, and charge q will enter a region of uniform elec-
c. the charge is distributed in Fig. 20.36b so there’s more nega-
tric field E between two charged plates (Fig. 20.35). The drops
tive charge to the left and more positive charge to the right.
enter midway between the plates, and the electric field deflects
them toward the correct place on the page. Find an expression for 83. At the instant shown in Fig. 20.36c, there’s an electric field
the maximum electric field for which drops can still get through within the heart that points approximately
!
without hitting either plate. a. in the direction of the dipole moment vector p .
!
b. opposite the dipole moment vector p .
!
L c. perpendicular to the dipole moment vector p .
1 1 1 1 1 1 1

vr r Answers to Chapter Questions

E d

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Answer to Chapter Opening Question

The electric field in the atmosphere must be strong enough to rip elec-
FIGURE 20.35 Problem 79
trons from air molecules, making the air an electrical conductor. This
typically happens when E exceeds about 3 MV/m.
Passage Problems
BIO The human heart consists largely of elongated muscle cells, some Answers to GOT IT? Questions
100 mm long and 15 mm in diameter. In its resting state, a cell con- 20.1. (a) 2ı^; (b) 2 12 ^ 12
^
2 ı 1 2 / ; the unit vector always points away
tains two concentric layers of charge, which confine the electric field from the source charge regardless of the sign.
to the cell membrane (Fig. 20.36a). When the heart contracts, a wave 20.2. (a) drops by 1/2 2, to 200 N/C; (b) drops by 1/2 3, to 100 N/C.
of depolarization sweeps through, depleting charge and giving each 20.3. carbon-13, (oxygen-16, helium-4, deuteron—all the same),
cell a dipole moment (Fig. 20.36b). As a result, the entire organ acts helium-3, proton, electron
like an electric dipole, producing an external field, which is indi-
rectly detected by electrocardiography. Although the direction of the
heart’s dipole moment varies, Fig. 20.36c is typical. In answering the
questions that follow, consider the heart in isolation—don’t concern
yourself with the effect of surrounding tissues on its electric field.

1111111111
122222222
12
2 2
2 1
(a) 12 21 pr
12 2
222222222
1111111111
2222
1
111111 221111
22222 1
(b) pr 21
2
2 1
2
22222
111111
(c)

FIGURE 20.36 Heart cells (a) in the resting state and (b) partially depolarized,
!
resulting in a dipole moment p . (c) Typical orientation of the heart’s dipole
moment vector. Cells along the line are depolarizing.
 21 Gauss’s Law
New Concepts, New Skills
By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Represent electric fields using field
lines and interpret field-line
diagrams (21.1).
■ Explain Gauss’s law for electric fields
and relate it to Coulomb’s law (21.3).
■ Calculate electric fields of symmetric
charge distributions using Gauss’s
law (21.4).
■ Give the electric fields of basic charge
distributions, and estimate the fields
of arbitrary distributions under
appropriate approximations (21.5).
■ Explain the concept of electrostatic
equilibrium, and why Gauss’s law
requires excess electric charge to
reside only on the surface of a
conductor in equilibrium (21.6).
Huge sparks jump to the operator’s cage in
the Hall of Electricity at the Boston Museum of
Science, but the operator is unharmed. Why?

I n this chapter we introduce an elegant way of describing electric fields that makes it much eas-
ier to calculate the fields of certain charge distributions. In the process we’ll formulate one of
the four fundamental laws of electromagnetism—a statement that embodies Coulomb’s law but
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ This chapter expands on the concepts
of electric force and, especially,
that gives deeper insights into the electric field. electric field (20.2, 20.3).
■ Integration becomes more central—
although easier to apply—than in
21.1 Electric Field Lines Chapter 20. To review integration,
We can visualize electric fields by drawing electric field lines, continuous lines whose see (9.1) and Appendix A.2.
direction is everywhere the same as that of the electric field. To draw a field line, deter-
mine the field direction at some point. Move a small distance in the direction of the field,
and evaluate the field direction at the new point. Extending the process in both directions
from your starting point traces out an electric field line. You’ll find that field lines begin
on positive charges and either end on negative charges or extend to infinity. Drawing many
field lines gives a picture of the overall field.

351
352 Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law

Vectors give the

electric field’s Continuous field lines
magnitude and have the same direction
direction at specific as the electric field.
points.

Where the lines

are closer together,
the field is stronger.
(a) (b)

FIGURE 21.1 Vectors (a) and field lines (b) provide two ways to visualize the
electric field.

Direction of To explore the field of a positive point charge, as shown in Fig. 21.1a, start near the
net field is charge. The field points radially outward, so move a little way outward. The field is still
tangent to r
E+ radial. Repeat the process, and you’ll trace a straight line that extends indefinitely. So the
field line. r
E
field lines of a positive point charge are straight lines that begin on the charge and extend
Field r
radially to infinity (Fig. 21.1b).
line E– In Fig. 21.1b the field lines spread apart as they extend farther from the point charge.
Coulomb’s law shows that the field weakens farther from the charge, so in Fig. 21.1b the
field is stronger where the lines are closer and weaker where they’re farther apart. This is
(a) generally true, and lets us infer the field’s relative magnitude as well as direction from
field-line pictures.
Field is To trace the field lines of a charge distribution, follow the net field—the vector sum of
strongest the field contributions from all charges in the distribution. Usually the field direction
where lines
are closest. varies, so the line is curved. Figure 21.2a shows the details for one field line of a dipole.
Figure 21.2b shows a number of dipole field lines; here you can see that the field is
strongest near the individual charges and in the region between them. The electric field
exists everywhere, so there are really infinitely many field lines. We obviously can’t draw
them all. To make field-line pictures somewhat more precise, we associate a fixed number
of field lines with a charge of a given magnitude. In Fig. 21.3, for example, eight field
lines correspond to a charge of magnitude q. Study the figure, and you’ll see how all the
(b)
fields are consistent with this convention.
FIGURE 21.2 Field of an electric dipole.
(a) At each point, the field-line !direction
! !
is that of the net electric field, E 5 E1 1 E2.
Eight lines begin on 1q . . . so 16 lines begin on 12q . . . and eight end on 2q.
(b) Tracing several field lines shows the
overall dipole field.

q –q
2q

(a) (b) (c)

Eight lines begin on each 1q. Eight lines begin on 1q Eight lines begin on 1q.
and eight end on 2q. Four go to infinity
and four end on 2q/2.

q q 2q 1q 2q/2
q

(d) (e) (f)

FIGURE 21.3 Field lines for six charge distributions, using the convention that eight
lines correspond to a charge of magnitude q.
 21.2 Electric Flux and Field 353

21.2 Electric Flux and Field

In Fig. 21.4 we’ve surrounded each charge distribution from Fig. 21.3 with several sur-
faces. Each surface is closed, so it’s impossible to get from inside to outside without cross-
ing the surface. (Figure 21.4 shows only the two-dimensional cross section of each
surface.) How many field lines emerge from within each surface?
In Fig. 21.4a the answer for surfaces 1 and 2 is obvious: eight. For surface 3 one field line
crosses twice going out and once going in; if we count the inward-going line as negative,
then there’s still a net of eight lines going out. Any closed surface surrounding 1q will have
eight lines emerging from it, for the simple reason that eight lines begin on the charge and
extend to infinity; to get there they all have to cross the closed surface.
What about surface 4? Two lines cross going outward and two inward, for a net of zero
lines emerging. What’s different is that surface 4 doesn’t enclose the charge. You can con-
vince yourself that any surface not enclosing the charge will have as many lines going in
as out, for zero net field lines emerging.

16 lines emerge from (c) is like (a) but now

These count as one lines go inward, so 28
outward crossing, surfaces 1, 2, and 3.
Eight field lines lines emerge from
emerge from so eight lines emerge surfaces 1, 2, and 3.
surfaces 1 from surface 3.
and 2.

4 1 4
1 4 1
q 2q 2 –q
2 2
3 Inward and outward 3 3 And still no
crossings sum to No net lines net lines cross
zero net crossings for cross surface 4. surface 4.
surface 4.
(a) (b) (c)

Eight lines emerge from . . . and 16 from Going inward, 28 lines

surfaces 1 and 2 . . . surface 3. emerge from surface 1.

3
2 2 1 2
q q 3 2q 1 +q 2q/2 q
1 4
3
4 Eight lines emerge
from surface 2.

But zero net lines emerge But zero net lines Count these field lines! FIGURE 21.4 The number of field lines
from surface 4. emerge from surface 3. emerging from a closed surface depends
(d) (e) (f) only on the net charge enclosed.

Figure 21.4b is identical except that now 16 field lines emerge from any surface sur-
rounding the charge: 12q enclosed, so 16 field lines emerge. And Fig. 21.4c is similar,
too, but with the negative charge, the field lines go inward and we count them as negative:
2q enclosed, so 28 field lines emerge. And, in all three cases, zero net lines emerge from
surface 4, the one that doesn’t enclose the charge: zero charge enclosed, so zero field lines
emerging. The same is true even for surface 3 surrounding the dipole in Fig. 21.4e; here
there are two charges within the surface, but the net charge enclosed is zero, and sure
enough, there are zero net field lines emerging. Study the rest of Fig. 21.4 and you can
convince yourself that in all cases the number of field lines emerging from any closed
surface is proportional to the net charge enclosed.
This statement is very general. It doesn’t matter what shape the surface is or whether the
enclosed charge is a single point charge or a lot of charges carrying the same net charge.
Nor does it matter how the charges are arranged, as long as they’re enclosed by the surface
in question. The presence of charges outside the surface doesn’t alter our conclusion about
the number of field lines emerging—although it may alter the shape of individual lines.
We’ll now rephrase our statement mathematically to obtain one of the four fundamental
354 Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law

laws of electromagnetism. As we proceed, remember that the mathematics just reflects

what’s clear from Fig. 21.4: The number of field lines emerging from a closed surface de-
pends only on the net charge enclosed.

Electric Flux
Figure 21.5 shows that the number of field lines crossing a flat surface depends on three
factors: the field strength E, the surface area A, and the orientation of the surface relative
(a)
to the field. We get the most field-line crossings when the surface is perpendicular to the
field and! none when it’s parallel; Fig. 21.5d shows an intermediate case. If we define a
vector A normal to the surface, then the number of field-line
! crossings is! proportional to
With a stronger cos u, where u is the angle between the normal vector A and the field E. Putting all this
field than in (a), together, we find that the number of field lines crossing the surface is proportional to
the flux is greater.
EA cos u. This quantity has a definite value that captures the spirit of the more vague
“number of field lines crossing a surface.” We call EA cos u the electric
! flux F through
the surface. If we make the magnitude of the surface normal vector A equal to the surface
area A, then we can define flux using the vector dot product:
! !
(b) F5E#A (21.1)
where the dot product, defined in Chapter 6, is the product of !the two vector magnitudes
A smaller surface with the cosine of the angle between them. Since the units of E are N/C, flux is measured
area than in (b) in N # m2/C.
reduces the flux.
The surfaces in Fig. 21.5 are open surfaces, meaning it’s possible to get from one side
to the other without passing through the surface.
! For open surfaces there’s an ambiguity in
the sign of F, since we could have taken A in either of the two directions along the per-
pendicular
! to the surface. But for closed surfaces, we unambiguously define the direction
r
The vector A is of A as the direction of the outward-pointing normal to the surface.
(c)
perpendicular to
the surface and
has magnitude
✓TIP The Flux Is Not the Field
equal to the
!
r
A surface area.
The flux F and field E are related but distinct quantities. The field is a vector defined
at each point in space. The flux is a scalar and a global property, depending on how
e the field behaves over an extended surface rather than at a single point; it’s a quantifi-
The electric flux
F depends on the cation of the number of field lines crossing a surface.
r angle
r
urbetween
E A and E.
What if a surface is curved and/or the field varies with position? Then we divide
(d)
the surface into patches, each small enough that it’s essentially flat and that the field
FIGURE 21.5 Electric flux through flat is essentially uniform over each
! (Fig.
! 21.6). If a patch has! area dA, then Equation 21.1 gives
surfaces. the flux through it: dF 5 E # dA, where the vector dA is normal to the patch. The total
flux through the surface is then the sum over all the patches. If we make the patches arbi-
trarily small, that sum becomes an integral, and the flux is
Although the surface curves ! !
and the field varies . . . F 5 3 E # dA (21.2)
surface

r
The limits of the
! integral range over the entire surface, picking up contributions from all
E the patches dA. Although the integral can be difficult to evaluate, we’ll find it most useful
in cases where it’s almost trivial.
. . . the flux
through a GOT IT? 21.1 The figure shows a cube!
small enough of side s in a uniform electric field E. B s
patch is B
What’s the flux through each of the three
dF = E # dA.
r r
r
cube faces A, B, and C with the cube ori- s A
C A E
r
E ented as in (a)? Repeat for the orientation in C 45°
r (b), with the cube rotated 45°.
dA
(a) (b)
FIGURE 21.6 Finding the flux through a small
area dA, so small it’s essentially flat.
 21.3 Gauss’s Law 355

21.3 Gauss’s Law

We’ve seen that the number of field lines emerging from a closed surface is proportional
to the charge enclosed. Now that we’ve developed electric flux to express more rigorously
the notion “number of field lines,” we can state that the electric flux through any closed
surface is proportional to the net ! charge
! enclosed by that surface. Writing the same
thing mathematically gives F 5 $ E # dA ~ qenclosed, where the circle indicates that the in-
tegral is over a closed surface.
To evaluate the proportionality between flux and charge, consider a positive point
charge q and a spherical surface of radius r centered on the charge (Fig. 21.7). The flux
The field’s r
through this surface is given by Equation 21.2: magnitude
E
r
! ! is the same
F 5 C E # dA 5 C E dA cos u over the q
sphere . . .
! !
But Fig. 21.7 shows that the surface normal dA and the electric field E are parallel at any point
on the sphere, so cos u 5 1. Since the electric field varies as 1/r2, its magnitude is the same
everywhere at the fixed radius r of our sphere. Thus, we can take E outside the integral, giving

F 5 C E dA 5 E C dA 5 E14pr22 . . . and at
sphere sphere each
r
point
r
E and dA
where the last step follows because $ dA is just the surface area of the sphere. Now, the r are parallel.
electric field of a point charge is given by Equation 20.3: E 5 kq/r2. So we have F 5 dA
E14pr22 5 1kq/r2214pr22 5 4pkq. Since the point charge q is the only charge inside our
r
spherical surface, the proportionality constant between flux and enclosed charge is 4pk. E
Before proceeding, we introduce the so-called permittivity constant P0, defined as
P0 5 1/4pk, where k is the Coulomb constant. The value of P0 is 8.85310212 C 2/N # m2.
FIGURE 21.7 The electric field of a point charge,
shown with a spherical surface centered on
There’s no physics here, just a new constant that conveys the same information as k. That the charge.
there are two redundant constants is a historical artifact, and we switch now from k to P0
because doing so makes subsequent formulas simpler. In terms of P0, the proportionality
4pk between flux and enclosed charge becomes 1/P0. So our statement that the flux
through any closed surface is proportional to the net charge enclosed becomes
! ! qenclosed
# 1Gauss’s law2
C E dA 5 P (21.3)
0

Here the integral is taken over any closed surface, and qenclosed is the charge enclosed by
that surface.
Equation 21.3 is Gauss’s law, one of four fundamental relations that govern the behav-
ior of electromagnetic fields throughout the universe. Whether you journey into a star in
some remote galaxy, down among the strands of a DNA molecule, or into the micro-
processor chip at the heart of your computer, you’ll find that the flux of the electric field
through any closed surface depends only on the enclosed charge. In nearly 200 years of
experiments, no electric field has ever been found to violate Gauss’s law.
Gauss’s law, though clothed in the mathematical finery of a surface integral, is just a The outer sphere has
more rigorous way of saying what’s clear in Fig. 21.4: The number of field lines emerging 4 times the surface area . . .
from a closed surface is proportional to the net charge enclosed.
. . . but the field
is 14 as strong . . .
r
Gauss and Coulomb E

Gauss’s law and Coulomb’s law look completely different, but they’re closely related.
Figure 21.8 shows that their relationship involves the inverse-square law. Gauss’s law tells
us that the flux through the two surfaces in the figure is the same and is equal to q/P0. But r 2r
why? Because, as our arguments leading to Gauss’s law show, the flux through a spherical . . . so the flux
surface of radius r centered on a point charge is the product of the surface area 4pr2 and the is the same.
electric field E at the surface. But Coulomb’s law says that the electric field drops off as 1/r2.
As r increases, the surface area grows as r2, but the 1/r2 decrease in field strength just com-
pensates, giving a constant value for the flux. If the inverse-square law (e.g., Coulomb’s law) FIGURE 21.8 Gauss’s law follows from the
didn’t hold, then the flux wouldn’t be constant and Gauss’s law wouldn’t hold either. inverse-square aspect of Coulomb’s law.
356 Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law

It’s also the inverse-square law that makes electric field-line pictures useful for visualiz-
ing fields. Field lines begin or end only on charges; otherwise, they go off to infinity. As the
field lines of a point charge spread in three dimensions, the number crossing any spherical
surface (or any closed surface) remains the same. But larger spheres have larger surface ar-
eas, in proportion to r2—and that means the density of field lines drops as 1/r2, accurately
reflecting the field strength. Once again, the inverse-square law (Coulomb) and the relation
between flux and enclosed charge (Gauss) are intimately connected. Incidentally, field-line
pictures printed in a book or drawn on a blackboard generally can’t be quantitatively correct
because they don’t show the spreading of field lines in all three dimensions.
We’ve been talking here only about isolated point charges, but we emphasize that
Gauss’s law applies to all electric fields, no matter how complicated the charge distribu-
tions that produce them. That’s because the superposition principle allows us to add vec-
torially the electric fields described individually by Coulomb’s law for the ! point-charge
field. So our argument leading to Gauss’s law still applies when the field E is a superposi-
tion of point-charge fields.
For static charge distributions, Gauss’s and Coulomb’s laws are completely equivalent.
But with moving charges only Gauss’s law remains exact. So Gauss’s law is more funda-
mental, and we count it among the four basic laws of electromagnetism.

GOT IT? 21.2 A spherical surface surrounds A second charge

is placed outside
an isolated positive charge, as shown. If a second the surface. What
charge is placed outside the surface, which of the A spherical happens to the
following will be true of the total flux through the surface surrounds total flux through
a point charge. the surface . . .
surface? (a) It doesn’t change; (b) it increases; (c) it
decreases; (d) it increases or decreases depending
on the sign of the second charge. Repeat for the
electric field on the surface at the point between the
charges. . . . and to the electric
field at this point?

21.4 Using Gauss’s Law

Gauss’s law is a universal statement about electric fields; it’s true for any surface enclos-
ing any charge distribution. For charge distributions with sufficient symmetry—symmetric
about a point, a line, or a plane—Gauss’s law also provides a powerful alternative to
Coulomb’s law that makes electric-field calculations much easier. For such distributions
it’s possible to evaluate the flux integral on the left-hand side of Gauss’s law (Equation 21.3)
without actually knowing the field. We can then solve for E in terms of the enclosed
charge. We begin with a general strategy for applying Gauss’s law to symmetric charge
distributions, followed by examples of the three symmetries.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 21.1 Gauss’s Law

INTERPRET Check that your charge distribution has sufficient symmetry to use Gauss’s law to
find the electric field, and identify the symmetry. Is it spherical, line, or plane? If the charge
distribution doesn’t exhibit one of these symmetries, then Gauss’s law—though always true—
won’t help you find the field.
DEVELOP Draw a diagram showing the charge distribution, and use the symmetry to infer the
direction of the electric field. Then draw an appropriate Gaussian surface—an imaginary,
closed surface that will let you evaluate the flux integral in Gauss’s law. The field should have
constant magnitude over the surface and should be perpendicular to the surface. Sketch some
field lines; the symmetry should indicate their direction. With line and plane symmetry, there
may be parts of the surface where the field is perpendicular and parts where it’s parallel; we’ll
show in examples how to handle these situations. If you can’t find a suitable Gaussian surface,
there probably isn’t sufficient symmetry to use Gauss’s law to calculate the field.
 21.4 Using Gauss’s Law 357

EVALUATE ! !
● Evaluate the flux F 5 $ E # dA over ! your Gaussian surface. Since !you’ve found a surface to
which the field is perpendicular, E and the surface normal vector dA are parallel, so cos u 5 1
and the dot product becomes E dA. With the field strength E constant over the surface, it can
come! out of the integral, leaving $ dA. And that’s the surface area A. So the flux will be EA.
If E is! parallel
! to! some
! parts of the area—as happens in line and plane symmetry—
then E'dA, so E # dA 5 0 and there’s no contribution to the flux from those areas.
● Evaluate the enclosed charge. This may or may not be the same as the total charge,
depending on whether the position at which you’re evaluating the field lies outside or in-
side the charge distribution.
● Evaluate the field E by invoking Gauss’s law, equating the flux to qenclosed /P0, and solving
for E. This is the field magnitude; the direction should be evident from symmetry.
ASSESS Does your answer make sense? Does the field behave as you would expect given what
you know of simpler charge distributions—point charges, line charges, or charged sheets,
depending on the symmetry?

You’ll quickly get the hang of this strategy because Gauss’s law is useful for finding
the field only in the three common symmetries. That means you need to evaluate the inte-
gral for the flux just once for a given symmetry.

Spherical Symmetry
A charge distribution has spherical symmetry when the charge density depends only on the
radial distance r from the center of the distribution—also called the point of symmetry. A
point charge is one example; so is the uniformly charged sphere that we’ll treat in the next
example. So, in fact, is a nonuniform spherical charge, provided the charge density varies
solely with distance from the center. The only electric field consistent with spherical sym-
metry is a field that points in the radial direction, either away from or toward the point of
symmetry. The next example shows the application of Gauss’s law to spherical symmetry.

EXAMPLE 21.1 Gauss’s Law: A Uniformly Charged Sphere

A charge Q is spread uniformly throughout a sphere of radius R. Find EVALUATE ! !
the electric field at all points, first outside and then inside the sphere. ● We begin with the! flux integral F 5 $ E # dA. Our strategy
shows that with E perpendicular to the area, cos u 5 1 and the
INTERPRET The charge distribution has spherical symmetry, so we dot product becomes E dA. So the flux integral simplifies to
can use Gauss’s law to find the field. $ E dA. With the Gaussian surface centered on the point of sym-
metry, all points on the surface are the same distance from the
DEVELOP Figure 21.9 shows the spherical charge distribution. Given the
center, so E has the same value over our surface. E comes
symmetry, the field has to point radially, outward for a positive charge or
outside the integral, leaving $ dA, with the integral over the
inward for a negative one. We’ve shown some field lines on our drawing.
entire spherical surface. That’s just the surface area, 4pr2, so the
So an appropriate Gaussian surface is itself a sphere, centered on the cen-
flux is F 5 4pr2E. Which surface were we using in doing this
ter of the charge distribution. Since we’re asked for the field both outside
calculation? It doesn’t matter; the result holds for any spherical
and inside the charge distribution, we’ve drawn two such Gaussian sur-
surface centered on the symmetry point at the center of the
faces in Fig. 21.9, one outside and one inside the distribution.
charge distribution. So our expression F 5 4pr2E is valid for
both our Gaussian surfaces.
● Now we evaluate the enclosed charge. That is different for the
Surface 1 encloses two surfaces, so we’ll first deal with surface 1, which lies
all of the charge Q . . . outside the charge distribution. This Gaussian surface encloses
the entire charge Q, so qenclosed 5 Q for r . R. The interior is a
bit trickier. Here, Gaussian surface 2 has radius r, so it encloses
volume 43 pr3. The volume of the entire sphere is 34 pR3, so
Gaussian surface 2 encloses a fraction r3/R3 of the total volume.
. . . while surface 2
We’re told that the sphere is uniformly charged, so that’s also the
encloses only some
of it. fraction of the total charge Q enclosed by the Gaussian surface.
So for r , R, the enclosed charge is qenclosed 5 Q1r3/R32.

FIGURE 21.9 Finding the field of a uniformly charged sphere. (continued)

358 Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law

● Next we apply Gauss’s law, evaluating the field by equating the flux 1/r2 decrease in the field. At the same time, the enclosed charge grows as
F 5 4pr2E to the enclosed charge divided by P0. When we’re the enclosed volume—that is, as r3. The result is a linear increase in field
outside the sphere, qenclosed 5 Q, so we have 4pr2E 5 Q/P0, or strength. Figure 21.10 shows the combined results for the field both in-
Q side and outside the sphere. As a check on our results, the figure shows
E5 1field outside spherical charge distribution2 (21.4) that our two expressions agree at r 5 R. ■
4pP0r2
Inside the sphere, qenclosed 5 Q1r3/R32; equating qenclosed /P0 to the
flux F 5 4pr2E gives 4pr2E 5 Qr3/P0R3. Solving for E, we get kQ/R2
Qr Inside:
Outside:
E5 1field inside uniformly charged sphere2 (21.5) E 12
4pP0R 3 E r E r

ASSESS Make sense? Consider first the field outside the spherical charge.
Since 1/4pP0 is the Coulomb constant k, this field can be written as R
r
E 5 kQ/r2—precisely the field of a point charge! Inside, in contrast, the
field increases linearly with distance from the center, reflecting two oppo- FIGURE 21.10 Field strength versus radial distance for a uniformly charged
site effects. First, we’re getting farther from the center, which causes a sphere of radius R.

Our result for the field outside a spherical charge distribution (Equation 21.4) is not an
approximation but an exact result that holds right up to the sphere’s surface. So a spherical
charge distribution produces exactly the same field as a point charge located at its center—
at least for points outside the charge. Imagine how hard it would have been to calculate!
this using the superposition principle! Yet somehow all the charge elements produce dE
vectors that add to give the same field as a single point charge. That result doesn’t even
require the sphere to be charged uniformly, as long as the distribution of charge is spheri-
cally symmetric. Outside any spherically symmetric charge distribution, the electric field
is exactly the same as that of a point charge at the center.
Incidentally, this result also holds for gravity because it, too, obeys an inverse-square
law. That’s why we can treat planets as though they’re point masses located at their cen-
ters. And our result for the field inside the charged sphere (Equation 21.5) shows also why
the gravitational acceleration g decreases approximately linearly as one descends into
Earth’s interior.
What if our charged sphere wasn’t uniformly charged throughout its interior? The next
example considers the extreme case when there’s no charge in the interior.

EXAMPLE 21.2 Gauss’s Law: A Hollow Spherical Shell

A thin, hollow spherical shell of radius R contains a total charge Q
distributed uniformly over its surface. Find the electric field both in-
side and outside the shell.

INTERPRET This is a spherically symmetric charge distribution, so we

can apply Gauss’s law just as we did in Example 21.1. There we found
that the field outside any spherically symmetric charge distribution
is that of a point charge: E 5 kQ/r2, pointing radially. So we need to
find the field only inside the spherical shell.

DEVELOP Figure 21.11 is a sketch of the hollow shell. With spherical FIGURE 21.11 Sketch for Example 21.2.
symmetry, the appropriate Gaussian surface is itself a concentric
sphere, which we’ve drawn inside the shell.
● Next we need the enclosed charge. But there’s no charge
EVALUATE inside the hollow shell and therefore none inside our Gaussian
● The flux F 5 4pr2E from Example 21.1 holds for any spherical surface. So qenclosed 5 0.
Gaussian surface centered on a spherically symmetric charge ● Equating the flux 4pr2E to qenclosed /P0—zero in this case—gives
distribution, so we’ve already got the flux. 4pr2E 5 0. Therefore, E 5 0 inside the shell.
 21.4 Using Gauss’s Law 359

ASSESS Make sense? The radius r of our Gaussian sphere is arbitrary Charges at B contribute EB
r

as long as r , R, so we’re inside the shell. Thus this example shows to the field at P . . .
that the electric field is exactly zero everywhere inside the shell.
Figure 21.12 shows how this remarkable result is a consequence of the B
inverse-square law. ■ r
EA
r
EB
P
A
FIGURE 21.12 At any point P inside a charged shell, the field from
the relatively few nearby charges at A is exactly canceled by the
r
field from the more numerous but more distant charges at B. . . . and charges at A contribute EA.
The result is zero field everywhere inside the shell. The two fields cancel.

GOT IT? 21.3 A spherical shell carries charge Q uniformly distributed over its sur-
face. If the charge on the shell doubles, what happens to the electric field (a) inside and
(b) outside the shell?

EXAMPLE 21.3 Gauss’s Law: A Point Charge Within a Shell

A positive point charge 1q is at the center of a spherical shell of ra- EVALUATE
dius R carrying charge 22q, distributed uniformly over its surface. ● We already know that the flux through a spherical Gaussian
Find expressions for the field strength inside and outside the shell. surface is F 5 4pr2E when we have spherical symmetry, so
that’s the flux for both surfaces.
INTERPRET This problem is about a charge distribution with spherical ● The outer surface encloses the charge 1q at the center and 22q
symmetry. on the shell, so the net charge enclosed is qenclosed 5 2q for
r . R. The inner surface encloses only the point charge 1q, so
DEVELOP We want to find the fields both inside and outside the qenclosed 5 1q for r , R.
distribution, so we show two spherical Gaussian surfaces in our ● Now we find the field by equating the flux F 5 4pr2E to
sketch, Fig. 21.13. We’ve also drawn some field lines, which will qenclosed /P0. The result for r . R is E 5 2q/4pP0 r2, where the
help in assessing our answer. minus sign appears because the enclosed charge is 2q. For
r , R with enclosed charge 1q, the result is E 5 q/4pP0 r2.

ASSESS Make sense? We’ve seen that the field outside a spherically
Eight lines Any Gaussian surface symmetric charge distribution is that of an equivalent point charge at
start on +q. outside the shell has
the center. Here the net charge is 2q, and our result for r . R is in-
eight lines going
inward. deed the field of a point charge 2q. Another way to see this is to ap-
ply superposition: The field outside due to the shell alone is that of a
point charge 22q; that adds to the field of the central point charge 1q
Sixteen lines Any Gaussian surface
end on –2q.
to give, again, the field of a point charge 2q outside the shell. In Ex-
inside the shell has ample 21.2 we found that the shell produces no field in its interior, so
eight lines going
outward. here superposition leaves us with the field of the central point charge
alone, just as our result shows. The field lines in Fig. 21.13 also show
how our results make sense. ■
FIGURE 21.13 A shell carrying charge 22q surrounds a point charge 1q.

✓TIP Symmetry Matters!

We used the fact that there’s no charge inside an
Net charge inside:
empty spherical shell to conclude that the field q 1 (2q) 5 0
inside the shell is zero. But be careful: That con-
Gaussian
clusion follows only when there’s enough sym- surface
metry, as Fig. 21.14 makes obvious. Here, the
Gaussian surface encloses zero net charge, so the
flux through the surface is zero. But the electric E20
field both on and inside the surface isn’t zero. inside
and on
surface
FIGURE 21.14 A spherical Gaussian surface surrounds a
dipole. We have qenclosed 5 0, but E 2 0 inside the sur-
face because the dipole isn’t spherically symmetric.
360 Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law

Line Symmetry
A charge distribution has line symmetry when its charge density depends only on the per-
pendicular distance r from a line, called the symmetry axis. Symmetry then requires that
the field point radially and that the field magnitude depend only on distance from the axis.
It also requires the charge distribution to be infinitely long, so there’s no variation parallel
to the line. That’s impossible, of course, but nevertheless the infinite line is a reasonable
approximation to elongated structures like wires. The next two examples explore the ap-
plication of Gauss’s law to line symmetry.

EXAMPLE 21.4 Gauss’s Law: An Infinite Line of Charge

Use Gauss’s law to find the electric field of an infinite line charge car- simplifies to #curved part E dA. But the cylinder has ends, and
rying charge density l in coulombs per meter. Gauss’s law requires that we consider the flux through those
ends, too. No field lines! emerge from the ends, so there’s no
INTERPRET An infinite line has line symmetry, so we can apply flux. E is perpendicular to the normal vector
! Mathematically,
! !
Gauss’s law to find the electric field. dA, so E # dA 5 0 on the ends. All we need is the flux through
the curved part. Since the cylindrical Gaussian surface is
DEVELOP Symmetry requires that the field point radially and its mag-
concentric with the line of symmetry, all points on it are the
nitude be the same at a given distance r from the line charge. So an ap- same distance r from the line, and thus the magnitude E is the
propriate Gaussian surface is a cylinder coaxial with the line, as we’ve same over the curved part of the cylinder. So we can take E
drawn in Fig. 21.15. outside the integral, giving E #curved part dA. The integral is just
the surface area of the curved part, which, if you unwound it,
EVALUATE ! ! ! would be a rectangle of length L and width equal to the
● We begin with the flux F 5 $ E # dA. E is everywhere perpen-
circumference 2pr. So the surface area is 2prL, and the flux
dicular to! the curved
! part of the cylinder, so here the dot
becomes F 5 2prLE. This result depends only on the symme-
product E # dA becomes E dA, and this part of the flux integral
try, so it applies in all problems involving line symmetry.
● Next we need the enclosed charge. The line carries l C/m and
Field is radial.
our Gaussian cylinder encloses L meters of the line, so
qenclosed 5 lL.
Infinite line,
l C/m
● Finally, we invoke Gauss’s law by equating the flux F to
qenclosed /P0. The result, 2prLE 5 lL/P0, solves to give
l
E5 1field of a line charge2 (21.6)
2pP0 r

ASSESS Make sense? We worked this same problem in Example 20.7

Gaussian No flux through
surface the ends
in a much more difficult calculation involving a complicated integral.
Since 1/2pP0 5 2k, our result here is the same. But Gauss’s law
FIGURE 21.15 A cylindrical Gaussian surface surrounds a line charge. makes the problem much easier! ■

Although Example 21.4 involved an infinitesimally thin line of charge, you can see
from Fig. 21.16 that our result must hold outside any charge with line symmetry. And, as
we argued in Example 20.7, it’s a good approximation for the field of any long, cylindrical
structure as long as we’re not too near its ends.

r l
E5 rˆ
2pe0r

l C/m

FIGURE 21.16 The arguments of

Example 21.4 apply outside any Gaussian
cylindrical charge distribution. surface
 21.4 Using Gauss’s Law 361

EXAMPLE 21.5 Gauss’s Law: A Hollow Pipe

A thin-walled pipe 3.0 m long and 2.0 cm in radius carries a net EVALUATE
charge q 5 5.7 mC distributed uniformly over its surface. Find the ● We showed in Example 21.4 that the flux integral in line
electric field both 1.0 cm and 3.0 cm from the pipe axis, far from symmetry gives F 5 2prLE.
either end. ● Next we need the enclosed charge. At 3 cm we’re outside the pipe,
so the Gaussian surface with this radius encloses all the charge:
INTERPRET Although the pipe has finite length, both distances are qenclosed 5 5.7 mC. The pipe is hollow, so at 1 cm the enclosed
small compared with the length, so we can approximate the pipe as an charge is zero.
infinitely long structure with line symmetry. ● Equating the flux to qenclosed /P0 and solving for E give

DEVELOP With line symmetry the appropriate Gaussian surface is qenclosed 5.7 mC
E5 5 5 1.1 MN/C
a cylinder coaxial with the pipe. We’ve drawn two such cylinders in 2pP0 rL 12pP0213.031022 m213.0 m2
Fig. 21.17, one for each radius where we’re asked to evaluate the for the field at 3 cm and E 5 0 for the field inside the pipe.
field.
ASSESS Make sense? Inside the pipe, there’s no field, and for the
same reason as inside a uniformly charged hollow sphere—namely,
that fields from near and far parts of the pipe cancel due, ultimately, to
the inverse-square law. Again, be careful: That result follows because
of the symmetry, although we’ll soon see that with conducting pipes
and shells there’s no interior field even without that symmetry. We ar-
gued earlier that the field outside any line-symmetric distribution
FIGURE 21.17 Gaussian surfaces for Example 21.5.
should be given by Equation 21.6, E 5 l/2pP0 r. In our result, the
quantity qenclosed /L is the line charge density l, so our result is indeed
consistent with that equation. ■

Plane Symmetry
A charge distribution has plane symmetry when its charge density depends only on the
perpendicular distance from a plane. The only electric-field direction consistent with this
symmetry is perpendicular to the plane. As with line symmetry, true plane symmetry im-
plies a charge distribution that’s infinite in extent. That’s impossible—but plane symmetry
remains a good approximation when charge is spread uniformly over large, flat surfaces
or slabs. The next example applies Gauss’s law to plane symmetry.

EXAMPLE 21.6 Gauss’s Law: A Sheet of Charge

An infinite sheet of charge carries uniform surface charge density s A Gaussian surface The distribution
in coulombs per square meter. Find the resulting electric field. has sides parallel and extends infinitely
ends perpendicular in two dimensions.
r
to E.
INTERPRET Since the sheet is infinite, we have plane symmetry with
the sheet itself as the symmetry plane.

DEVELOP Figure 21.18 shows the Gaussian surface as a cylinder

that straddles the charged sheet, extending equally on either side.
r
Then the electric field is perpendicular to the ends and parallel to A E
the sides; symmetry requires that it be uniform over the ends.

EVALUATE The sheet

Each end
First we evaluate the flux through our Gaussian cylinder. The carries a
● has area A.
uniform Symmetry The field
field is parallel to the sides, so there’s no flux contribution here. charge of plane is perpendicular
Then the total flux is through the ends, each of which has area A. s C/m2. to the plane.
Since the field is uniform over each end and perpendicular to
the ends, the flux through each end is EA. So the total flux FIGURE 21.18 An infinite sheet of charge, with a Gaussian surface
through both ends is F 5 2EA. This result is independent of straddling the sheet.
the details of the charge distribution, so it holds in all cases of
plane symmetry.
● Next we need the enclosed charge. The Gaussian surface encloses an
area of the sheet equal to the area A of its ends. With surface charge
density s on the sheet, the enclosed charge is qenclosed 5 sA.
(continued)
362 Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law

● Now we apply Gauss’s law, equating the flux to qenclosed /P0. Thus ASSESS Make sense? With an infinite plane, symmetry requires that
2EA 5 sA/P0, so the field lines be perpendicular to the plane. So they don’t spread out,
s and that means the field doesn’t vary with distance—as Equation 21.7
E5 1field of a charged sheet2 (21.7) shows because it doesn’t involve the distance from the sheet. Al-
2P0
though our result is exact only for a truly infinite sheet, it’s a good ap-
The direction of this field on either side of the sheet is outward proximation near any large, flat, uniformly charged surface as long as
from the sheet if it’s positively charged and inward if negative. we’re not close to an edge. ■

21.5 Fields of Arbitrary Charge Distributions

Although Gauss’s law is always true, most charge distributions lack the symmetry needed to
apply Gauss’s law to find the field. The alternative, Coulomb’s law, is hard to use in all but
the simplest cases. But we can often learn a lot by considering the distributions whose fields
we calculated here and in Chapter 20. Figure 21.19 summarizes four of these fields. For the
last three, note the simple relation between the number of dimensions and the behavior of
the field. The plane has two dimensions, and its field doesn’t decrease with distance. The
line has one dimension, and its field decreases as 1/r. The point has no dimensions, and its
field falls as 1/r2. In a sense, the dipole continues this progression. It consists of opposite
point charges whose effects nearly cancel; no wonder its field decreases faster still, as 1/r3.
In fact, there’s a hierarchy of charge distributions whose fields decrease ever faster, as
dipoles nearly cancel dipoles, and so on. Scientists and engineers use this hierarchy in mod-
eling charged structures ranging from molecules to radio antennas.

Charge Field Dependence of

distribution lines field strength
on distance

Dipole 1
r3

Point 1
charge r2

Line 1
r
charge

1
11
1 1 11
1
1 1 11
1
Plane 1 1 11
1
charge 1 1 11
1 1
1 1 11
1
11 r0
(constant)

FIGURE 21.19 Fields of a dipole, a point charge, a charged line,

and a charged plane.
 21.6 Gauss’s Law and Conductors 363

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 21.1 A Charged Disk

Sketch some electric field lines for a uniformly charged disk, starting a nonzero net charge, the field approximates that of a point charge, so
at the disk and extending out to several disk diameters. farther away we draw field lines going radially outward. Field lines be-
gin only on charges—in this case on the charged disk—so we have to
EVALUATE When we’re near the disk and not close to its edge, the disk
connect close-in and far-out lines. We don’t know exactly how the field
looks like a large, flat, charged plane. Its field is essentially the uniform
looks in the intermediate region neither close to nor far from the disk,
field of an infinite plane charge, so we draw straight field lines emanat-
so we connect them as best we can. Figure 21.20 is the result.
ing perpendicular to the disk. Far from any finite distribution carrying
ASSESS Our sketch is a good approximation to the field of a charged
disk. And it certainly obeys Gauss’s law because the same number of
field lines—namely, all 16 lines we chose to draw—cross any closed
surface surrounding the entire disk.

MAKING THE CONNECTION Suppose the disk is 1.0 cm in diam-

eter and carries charge 20 nC spread uniformly over its surface. Find
the electric field strength (a) 1.0 mm from the disk surface and (b) 1.0 m
from the disk.
Field in close
Field out here is essentially EVALUATE (a) Close to the disk, assuming we’re not near the edge,
is essentially that of an
Equation 21.7 applies: E 5 s/2P0 5 14 MN/C, where we used the to-
that of a point infinite plane
charge. of charge. tal charge and the disk area to get the surface charge density s. (b) At
1 meter, the disk is so small it looks essentially like a point charge, so
FIGURE 21.20 The field of a charged disk. Equation 20.3 applies: E 5 kq/r2 5 180 N/C.

21.6 Gauss’s Law and Conductors A neutral

conductor
Electrostatic Equilibrium
We’ve defined conductors as materials that contain free charges, like the free electrons in (a)
metals. Figure 21.21 shows what happens when! an electric field is applied to a conduc-
tor. Free charges respond to the electric force qE by moving—in the direction of the field
A uniform
if they’re positive, opposite the field if negative. The resulting charge separation gives electric
rise to an electric field within the material that’s opposite to the applied field. As more field
charge moves, this internal field becomes stronger until its magnitude eventually equals
that of the applied field. At that point free charges within the conductor experience zero (b)
net force, and the conductor is in electrostatic equilibrium. Although individual charges
continue to move about in random thermal motion, there’s no longer any net charge mo- When the
conductor
tion. Once equilibrium is reached, the internal and applied fields are equal but opposite, is placed in
and therefore: the field,
charges move
to cancel the
field inside . . .
The electric field is zero inside a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium.
(c)

It could not be otherwise: Since a conductor contains free charges, the presence of any in- . . . resulting in
ternal electric field would result in bulk charge motion, and we wouldn’t have equilibrium. this net field.
This result doesn’t depend on the size or shape of the conductor, the magnitude or direc-
tion of the applied field, or even the nature of the material as long as it’s a conductor. This
is a macroscopic view; it considers only average fields within the material. At the atomic
and molecular level, there are still strong electric fields near individual electrons and posi-
tive ions. But the average field, taken over larger distances, is zero inside a conductor in (d)
electrostatic equilibrium. FIGURE 21.21 A conductor in a uniform electric
field.
Charged Conductors
Although they contain free charges, conductors are normally electrically neutral because
they include equal numbers of electrons and protons. But suppose we give a conductor a
nonzero net charge, for example, by injecting excess electrons into its interior. There’s a
364 Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law

There’s no electric . . . so there’s no mutual repulsion among the electrons and, because these are excess electrons, there’s no
field inside the flux F through this compensating attraction from positive charges. We might expect, therefore, that the
conductor . . . Gaussian surface.
electrons will move as far apart as possible—namely, to the surface of the conductor.
We now use Gauss’s law to prove that excess charge must be at the surface of a conduc-
tor in electrostatic equilibrium. Figure 21.22 shows a conducting material with a Gaussian
surface drawn just below the material surface. In equilibrium there’s no electric field inside
E50
the! conductor,
! and thus the field is zero everywhere on the Gaussian surface. The flux,
$ E # dA, through the Gaussian surface is therefore also zero. But Gauss’s law says that the
flux through a closed surface is proportional to the net charge enclosed, and therefore the
Because Gauss’s law says F qenclosed, all net charge inside our Gaussian surface must be zero. This is true no matter where the
excess charge resides on the conductor surface.
Gaussian surface is as long as it’s inside the conductor. We can move it arbitrarily close to
FIGURE 21.22 Gauss’s law implies that any net the conductor surface and it still encloses no net charge. If there is a net charge on the con-
charge resides on the surface of a conductor in ductor, it lies outside the Gaussian surface, and therefore we conclude: If a conductor in
electrostatic equilibrium. electrostatic equilibrium carries a net charge, it must reside on the conductor surface.

EXAMPLE 21.7 Gauss’s Law: A Hollow Conductor

An irregularly shaped conductor has a hollow cavity. The conductor
itself carries a net charge of 1 mC, and there’s a 2-mC point charge in-
side the cavity. Find the net charge on the cavity wall and on the outer
surface of the conductor, assuming electrostatic equilibrium.

INTERPRET This problem involves a conductor in electrostatic equi-

librium, which means (1) there’s no electric field inside the conduct-
ing material and (2) the net charge resides on the conductor
surface—which in this case includes both the inner and outer surfaces.

DEVELOP We draw the situation in Fig. 21.23. Our plan is to apply FIGURE 21.23 The Gaussian surface encloses zero net charge, so there
Gauss’s law to find the charges. We consider a Gaussian surface inside must be 22 mC on the cavity wall.
the conductor and enclosing the cavity, as shown.
ASSESS Make sense? Yes: This distribution of charge is the only one
EVALUATE Since there’s no electric field inside the conductor, the that’s consistent with both Gauss’s law and the requirement E 5 0
flux through the Gaussian surface is zero, and therefore the net inside a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium. As another check,
charge enclosed is also zero. But there’s that 12-mC point charge think about what this charge distribution must look like from far
in the cavity. For the Gaussian surface to enclose zero net charge, away—namely, a point charge with net charge of 3 mC. Since the
there must be 22 mC somewhere else—and the only place it can fields of the cavity wall and the inner point charge don’t penetrate the
be is on the cavity wall. However, the entire conductor carries conductor, the only field lines that reach out beyond the conductor
11 mC. With 22 mC on the inside wall, that leaves 13 mC on the are those from the charge on its outer surface. So that charge must be
outer surface. 3 mC, as we’ve found. ■

+ Charged

GOT IT? 21.4 A conductor carries a net charge 1Q. There’s a cavity inside the con-
Uncharged ductor that contains a point charge 2Q. In electrostatic equilibrium, is the charge on the
outer surface of the conductor (a) 22Q, (b) 2Q, (c) 0, (d) Q, or (e) 2Q?

1
1 1
1 Charge Experimental Tests of Gauss’s Law
1 1 moves
to
That net charge moves to a conductor surface provides a sensitive test of Gauss’s law and
1 1
1 1 outside . . . thus—through the arguments of pp. 355–356—a test of the inverse-square law for the
1 1 1
electric force. Figure 21.24 shows a charged conducting ball touched to the inside of a
hollow, initially neutral conductor. As required by Gauss’s law, charge flows to the outer
. . . leaving the
ball uncharged.
surface of the hollow conductor, leaving the ball uncharged. Measuring zero charge
1 1 on the ball confirms Gauss’s law, and thus the inverse-square law; such experiments
1 1
1 1
show that the exponent in 1/r2 is indeed 2 to some 16 decimal places!
1 1
1 1
1 1 1

FIGURE 21.24 Experimental test of Gauss’s law.

 21.6 Gauss’s Law and Conductors 365

r
The Field at a Conductor Surface E is perpendicular to surface.

There can’t be an electric field within a conductor in electrostatic equilibrium, but there may
be a field right at the conductor surface (Fig. 21.25a). Such a field must be perpendicular to
1 1 1 1
the surface; otherwise, charge would move along the surface in response to the field’s par- 11 1
1 1 r
allel component, and we wouldn’t have equilibrium. 1 1 E
We can compute the strength of this surface field by considering a small Gaussian surface 1 1
1 1 1
that straddles the conductor surface, as shown in Fig. 21.25b. There’s no flux through the
sides, and because the field is zero inside the conductor, there’s no flux through the inner end
either. So the only flux is through the outer end, with area A. Since the end is perpendicular to
the field, the flux is EA. The Gaussian surface encloses charge sA, where s is the surface (a)
charge density. Gauss’s law equates the flux with qenclosed /P0, so we have EA 5 sA/P0, or A patch of surface
s so small it’s flat
E5 1field at conductor surface2 (21.8) 1
P0 1 1
1 1
1
This result shows that large fields develop where the charge density on a conductor is high. 1 1 A
Engineers who design electrical devices must avoid high charge densities whose associ- 1 1
1
ated fields lead to sparks, arcing, and breakdown of electric insulation. 1 1
Equation 21.8 gives a field that depends only on the local charge density. Does that Gaussian
surface
mean the field at a conductor surface arises only from the local charge? No! As always,
(b)
the field is the vector sum of contributions from all charges. Remarkably, Gauss’s law re-
quires that charges on a conductor arrange themselves in such a way that the field at any FIGURE 21.25 (a) The electric field at the surface
point on the conductor surface depends only on the surface charge density right at that of a charged conductor is perpendicular to the
point—even though that field arises from all the charges on the surface (as well as from conductor surface. (b) A Gaussian surface
straddles the conductor surface.
charges elsewhere if there are any)!
Consider a thin, flat, isolated, conducting sheet that has charge density s on one of its
two faces (Fig. 21.26a). Equation 21.8 shows that the field at the surface of this plate is
s/P0. But if the plate is large and flat, we can approximate it as an infinite sheet of
charge—for which we found earlier (Equation 21.7) that the field should be s/2P0. Is there
a contradiction here? No! If the plate is isolated, then symmetry requires that the charge
spread itself evenly over both faces. If one face has charge density s, so must the other—
so we really have two charge sheets, each with density s (Fig 21.26b). Each gives a field
of magnitude s/2P0, and outside the conductor those fields superpose to give the net field
s/P0 (Fig. 21.26c). Inside the conductor their directions are opposite, and the result is zero
field inside the conductor. Applying Equation 21.8 skips these details. But because
Equation 21.8 was derived on the assumption that the field inside the conductor is zero, it

1
1
1 r
1 E
1
1 1
1
1

(a)
Symmetry requires
equal charge density . . . so there are really
on both faces . . . two charged sheets.
11 1 1
11 1 1
11
11
5 1
1
1 1
1
11 1 Fields cancel 1 . . . but reinforce
s s s inside . . . s outside.
(b) (c)

FIGURE 21.26 (a) An isolated, charged conducting plate. Its field points outward
from both faces. (b) Edge-on view of the plate. (c) The field anywhere is the
sum of the fields of the two faces, each treated as a single charged sheet.
366 Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law

APPLICATION Shielding and Lightning Safety

We’ve seen that charge moves to the outside of a conductor surface, leaving
the interior free of charge and electric field—even if the interior is hollow.
This is the basis of electric shielding, in which a conducting enclosure keeps
out external electric fields. A common example is the coaxial cable that deliv-
ers TV signals from your cable company; coaxial cables also connect electronic
instruments in scientific and medical research. A coaxial cable consists of an in-
ner wire surrounded by a cylindrical conducting shield in which charge moves
to block external electric fields that could cause interference. In another applica-
tion of shielding, researchers doing experiments with very weak electric signals
often construct entire rooms with conducting walls to minimize interference.
Shielding is also the reason a car is a relatively safe place in a thunderstorm.
A lightning strike dumps charge on the car’s metal body, but the charge distrib-
utes itself on the outside so as to prevent any electric fields from developing in-
side the car (see photo). That, in turn, prevents harmful currents from flowing
through the cars’ occupants. The operator’s cage in this chapter’s opening photo
has the same effect, harmlessly deflecting charge from the artificial lightning
and keeping the interior free of electric fields.
Strictly speaking, charge resides on the outside of a conductor only in equi-
librium. But electrons in metals respond so quickly that equilibrium results al-
most instantaneously—meaning that metallic shielding is effective even against
the rapidly varying electric fields of high-frequency radio, TV, and microwave
signals.

Charge resides
on inner faces,
giving two oppositely
charged sheets. “knows” about charges everywhere on the conductor—and in this case that means on the
second face.
Equation 21.8 also applies to a pair of oppositely charged conducting plates (Fig. 21.27);
1 2 the result, for the field between the plates, is s/P0, where s is the surface charge density on
1 2
1 2 either plate. Why not 2s/P0? Again, Equation 21.8 gives the field at a conductor surface—
1 2
1 2 and it takes into account other charges that may be present. Here each plate’s charge attracts
1 2 the other’s opposite charge, all to the inner face. Each plate is thus a single charge layer,
1m 2m giving a field s/2P0, and between the plates the fields sum to Equation 21.8’s result, s/P0.
FIGURE 21.27 Edge-on view of two parallel Beyond the plates the fields sum to zero—a result that also follows from Equation 21.8
conducting plates carrying opposite charges. because now there’s zero surface charge on the outer faces.
CHAPTER 21 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is Gauss’s law—a universal statement about electric fields that’s closely related to Coulomb’s inverse-square law but expressed
in terms of the global behavior of the field over any closed surface. Using the electric field-line picture, Gauss’s law says that the number of field
lines emerging from a closed surface depends only on the net charge enclosed; more rigorously, it says that the electric flux through the surface is
proportional to the enclosed charge.

The number of lines

through a surface
Eight lines pass depends on the net
through any closed charge enclosed.
surface surrounding q.

Point charge q Point charges 1q, 2q/2

Key Concepts and Equations

Electric flux F describes the amount of electric field crossing an area.
! !
F 5 EA for a flat area perpendicular to a uniform field F 5 3 E # dA, in general r
E

r
E
! !
In terms of flux, Gauss’s law reads $ E # dA 5 qenclosed /P0. r
dA
Here P0 5 1/4pk 5 8.85310212 C 2/N # m2 is another way of expressing the Coulomb constant k 5 9.03109 N # m2/C 2.

Applications
Gauss’s law gives the fields of symmetric charge distributions:
Spherical symmetry: Line symmetry: Plane symmetry:
s C/m2

Q R 11
1 1 11
l C/m 1 1 1111 r
1 1 1111 E
1 1 1111
1 1 1111
Q kQ l 1 1 1111
Outside: E 5 5 Outside: E 5 1 1 1 1 11
4pP0 r2 r2 2pP0 r 1111
11
Inside uniformly charged sphere: Inside hollow pipe:
kQr E50
E5 s
R 3
Outside charged slab: E 5
2P0
Inside hollow sphere: E 5 0

Gauss’s law and conductors: Surface

E 5 s/e0 charge density s
● The field is zero inside a conductor in electrostatic
equilibrium.
● Any net charge resides on a conductor’s surface. 11
1 1 1 1
1
● The field at the surface is perpendicular to the surface 1 r 1
1 E50 1
and has magnitude s/P0. 1
1 1 1
1
368 Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion charge, but of course the charge is spread over its surface only.
Compare the electric fields outside these two charge distributions.
1. Can electric field lines ever cross? Why or why not? 15. Why must the electric field be zero inside a conductor in electro-
2. The electric flux through a closed surface is zero. Must the elec- static equilibrium?
tric field be zero on that surface? If not, give an example. 16. The electric field of a flat sheet of charge is s/2P0. Yet the field
3. If the flux of the gravitational field through a closed surface is of a flat conducting sheet—even a thin one, like a piece of
zero, what can you conclude about the region interior to the aluminum foil—is s/P0. Explain this apparent discrepancy.
surface?
4. Under what conditions can the electric flux through a surface be Exercises and Problems
written as EA, where A is the surface area?
5. Eight field lines emerge from a closed surface surrounding an Exercises
isolated point charge. Would the number of field lines change if Section 21.1 Electric Field Lines
a second identical charge were brought to a point just outside the 17. In Fig. 21.30, the magnitude of the middle charge is 3 mC.
surface? If not, would anything change? Explain. What’s the net charge shown?
6. If a charged particle were released from rest on a curved field
line, would its subsequent
! ! motion follow the field line?! Explain.
7. In Gauss’s law, $ E # dA 5 q/P0, does the field E necessarily
arise only from charges within the closed surface?
8. In a certain region the electric field points to the right and its mag-
nitude increases as you move to the right, as shown in Fig. 21.28.
Does the region contain net positive charge, net negative charge, or
zero net charge?

FIGURE 21.30 Exercise 17

r
18. Charges 12q and 2q are near each other. Sketch some field
E
lines for this charge distribution, using eight lines for a charge
of magnitude q.
19. The net charge shown in Fig. 21.31 is 1Q. Identify each of the
charges A, B, and C shown.
FIGURE 21.28 For Thought and Discussion 8. Left side marks the
beginning of the field lines, which extend indefinitely to the right.

9. A point charge is located a fixed distance outside of a uniformly A

charged sphere. If the sphere shrinks in size without losing any
charge, what happens to the force on the point charge?
B
10. The field of an infinite charged line decreases as 1/r. Why isn’t
this a violation of the inverse-square law? C
11. Why can’t you use Gauss’s law to determine the field of a uni-
formly charged cube? Why couldn’t you use a cubical Gaussian
surface?
12. You’re sitting inside an uncharged, hollow spherical shell. Sud- FIGURE 21.31 Exercise 19
denly someone dumps a billion coulombs of charge on the shell,
distributed uniformly. What happens to the electric field at your Section 21.2 Electric Flux and Field
location? 20. A flat surface with area 2.0 m2 is in a uniform 850-N/C electric
13. Does Gauss’s law apply to a spherical Gaussian surface not cen- field. Find the electric flux through the surface when it’s (a) at right
tered on a point charge, as shown in Fig. 21.29? Would this be a angles to the field, (b) at 45° to the field, and (c) parallel to the field.
useful surface to use in calculating the electric field? 21. What’s the electric field strength in a region where the flux
through a 1.0 cm31.0 cm flat surface is 65 N # m2/C, if the field is
uniform and the surface is at right angles to the field?
22. A flat surface with area! 0.14 m2 lies in the x-y plane, in a uni-
form electric field E 5 5.1ı^ 1 2.1/^ 1 3.5k^ kN/C. Find the flux
 through the surface.
23. The electric field on the surface of a 10-cm-diameter sphere is
perpendicular to the sphere and has magnitude 47 kN/C. What’s
the electric flux through the sphere?

Section 21.3 Gauss’s Law

FIGURE 21.29 For Thought and Discussion 13
24. A sock comes out of the dryer with a trillion 110122 excess elec-
14. An insulating sphere carries charge spread uniformly throughout trons. What’s the electric flux through a surface surrounding
its volume. A conducting sphere has the same radius and net the sock?
 Exercises and Problems 369

25. What’s the electric flux through the closed surfaces marked (a), 41. A total charge of 18 mC is applied to a thin, square metal plate
(b), (c), and (d) in Fig. 21.32? 75 cm on a side. Find the electric field strength near the plate’s
surface.
(c) (b)
  13q Problems
(a)
22q (d) 42. What’s the flux through the hemispherical open surface of radius

1q   23q R in a uniform field of magnitude E shown in Fig. 21.33? (Hint:
2q
Don’t do a messy integral!)

FIGURE 21.32 Exercise 25

r
26. A 6.8-mC charge and a 24.7-mC charge are inside an uncharged E
sphere. What’s the electric flux through the sphere?
27. A 2.6-mC charge is at the center of a cube 7.5 cm on each side.
What’s the electric flux through one face of the cube? (Hint:
Think about symmetry, and don’t do an integral.) FIGURE 21.33 Problem 42
Section 21.4 Using Gauss’s Law !
28. The electric field at the surface of a 5.0-cm-radius uniformly 43. An electric field is given by E 5 E01y/a2k^ , where E0 and a are
charged sphere is 90 kN/C. What’s the field strength 10 cm from constants. Find the flux through the square in the x-y plane
the surface? bounded by the points 10, 02, 10, a2, 1a, a2, 1a, 02!.
29. A solid sphere 25 cm in radius carries 14 mC, distributed uni- 44. The electric field in a certain region is given by E 5 axı^, where
formly throughout its volume. Find the electric field strength a 5 40 N/C # m and x is in meters. Find the volume charge density
(a) 15 cm, (b) 25 cm, and (c) 50 cm from its center. in the region. (Hint: Apply Gauss’s law to a cube 1 m on a side.)
30. A 10-nC point charge is located at the center of a thin spherical 45. A study shows that mammalian red blood cells (RBCs) carry
shell of radius 8.0 cm carrying 220 nC distributed uniformly BIO electric charge resulting from 4.4 million (rabbit cells) to 15 mil-
over its surface. Find the magnitude and direction of the electric lion (human cells) excess electrons spread over their surfaces.
field (a) 2.0 cm, (b) 6.0 cm, and (c) 15 cm from the point charge. Approximating rabbit and human RBCs as spheres with radii
31. The electric field strength outside a charge distribution and 18 cm 30 mm and 36 mm, respectively, find the electric field strengths
from its center has magnitude 55 kN/C. At 23 cm the field strength at the cells’ surfaces.
is 43 kN/C. Does the distribution have spherical or line symmetry? 46. Positive charge is spread uniformly over the surface of a spherical
32. An electron close to a large, flat sheet of charge is repelled from balloon 70 cm in radius, resulting in an electric field of 26 kN/C at
the sheet with a 1.8-pN force. Find the surface charge density on the balloon’s surface. Find the field strength (a) 50 cm from the bal-
the sheet. loon’s center and (b) 190 cm from the center. (c) What’s the net
33. Find the field produced by a uniformly charged sheet carrying charge on the balloon?
87 pC/m2. 47. A solid sphere 2.0 cm in radius carries a uniform volume charge
34. What surface charge density on an infinite sheet will produce a density. The electric field 1.0 cm from the sphere’s center has
1.4-kN/C electric field? magnitude 39 kN/C. (a) At what other distance does the field
have this magnitude? (b) What’s the net charge on the sphere?
Section 21.5 Fields of Arbitrary Charge Distributions 48. A point charge of 22Q is at the center of a spherical shell of radius
35. A rod 50 cm long and 1.0 cm in radius carries a 2.0 -mC charge R carrying charge Q spread uniformly over its surface. Find the
distributed uniformly over its length. Find the approximate mag- electric field at (a) r 5 12R and (b) r 5 2R. (c) How would your
nitude of the electric field (a) 4.0 mm from the rod surface, not answers change if the charge on the shell were doubled?
near either end, and (b) 23 m from the rod. 49. A friend is working on a biology experiment and needs to create
36. What’s the approximate field strength 1 cm above a sheet of pa- an electric field of magnitude 430 N/C at 10 cm from the central
per carrying uniform surface charge density s 5 45 nC/m2? portion of a large nonconducting square plate 4.5 m on each side.
37. The disk in Fig. 21.20 has area 0.14 m2 and is uniformly charged She needs to know how much charge to put on the plate. What do
to 5.0 mC. Find the approximate field strength (a) 1 mm from the you tell her?
disk, not near the edge, and (b) 2.5 m from the disk. 50. A spherical shell of radius 15 cm carries 4.8 mC distributed uni-
formly over its surface. At the center of the shell is a point
Section 21.6 Gauss’s Law and Conductors charge. (a) If the electric field at the sphere’s surface is 750 kN/C
38. What is the electric field strength just outside the surface of a and points outward, what are (a) the point charge and (b) the field
conducting sphere carrying surface charge density 1.4 mC/m2? just inside the shell?
39. A net charge of 5.0 mC is applied on one side of a solid metal 51. A spherical shell 30 cm in diameter carries 85 mC distributed
sphere 2.0 cm in diameter. Once electrostatic equilibrium is uniformly over its surface. A 1.0-mC point charge is located at
reached, and assuming no other conductors or charges nearby, the shell’s center. Find the electric field strength (a) 5.0 cm from
what are (a) the volume charge density inside the sphere and the center and (b) 45 cm from the center. (c) How would your an-
(b) the surface charge density on the sphere? swers change if the charge on the shell were doubled?
40. A positive point charge q lies at the center of a spherical conduct- 52. A thick, spherical shell of inner radius a and outer radius b car-
ing shell carrying net charge 32 q. Sketch the field lines both inside ries a uniform volume charge density r. Find an expression for
and outside the shell, using eight field lines to represent a charge the electric field strength in the region a , r , b, and show that
of magnitude q. your result is consistent with Equation 21.5 when a 5 0.
370 Chapter 21 Gauss’s Law

53. A long, thin wire carrying 5.6 nC/m runs down the center of a long, carrying 232 q. Draw a cross section of this structure, and sketch
thin-walled, pipe with radius 1.0 cm carrying 24.2 nC/m spread the electric field lines using the convention that eight lines corre-
uniformly over its surface. Find the electric field (a) 0.50 cm from spond to a charge of magnitude q.
the wire and (b) 1.5 cm from the wire. 64. A point charge q is at the center of a spherical shell of radius R
54. An infinitely long rod of radius R carries a uniform volume carrying charge 2q spread uniformly over its surface. Write ex-
charge density r. Show that the electric field strengths outside pressions for the electric field strength at (a) 12 R and (b) 2R.
and inside the rod are given, respectively, by E 5 rR2/2P0 r and 65. The volume charge density inside a solid sphere of radius a is
E 5 rr/2P0, where r is the distance from the rod axis. (Although r 5 r0 r/a, where r0 is a constant. Find (a) the total charge and
an infinite rod is an impossibility, your answer is a good approxi- (b) the electric field strength within the sphere, as a function of
mation for the field of a finite rod whose length is much greater distance r from the center.
than its diameter.) 66. Figure 21.35 shows a rectangular box with sides 2a and length L
55. A long, solid rod 4.5 cm in radius carries a uniform volume surrounding a line carrying uniform line charge density l. The line
charge density. If the electric field strength at the surface of the passes directly through the center of the box faces. Integrate the field
rod (not near either end) is 16 kN/C, what’s the volume charge of the line charge over strips of width dx as shown to find the elec-
density? tric flux through one face of the box. Multiply by 4 to get the total
56. If you “painted” positive charge on the floor, what surface charge flux, and show that your result is consistent with Gauss’s law.
density would be necessary to suspend a 15 μC, 5.0-g particle
dx
above the floor?
L
57. A charged slab extends infinitely in two dimensions and has
thickness d in the third dimension, as shown in Fig. 21.34. The
slab carries a uniform volume charge density r. Find expressions 2a
for the electric field strength (a) inside and (b) outside the slab,
as functions of the distance x from the center plane. (Although
the infinite slab is impossible, your answer is a good approxima- 2a
tion to the field of a finite slab whose width is much greater than
its thickness.) FIGURE 21.35 Problem 66

67. The charge density within a uniformly charged sphere of radius

R is r 5 r0 2 ar2, where r0 and a are constants and r is the dis-
tance from the center. Find an expression for a such that the elec-
d tric field outside the sphere is zero.
68. Calculate the electric fields in Example 21.2 directly, using the
superposition principle and integration. Consider the shell to be
FIGURE 21.34 Problem 57
composed of charge elements that are coaxial rings, whose axes
58. A solid sphere 10 cm in radius carries a 40-mC charge distributed pass through the field point, which is a distance r from the center.
uniformly throughout its volume. It’s surrounded by a concentric (Hint: Consult Example 20.6. You’ll have to evaluate the cases
shell 20 cm in radius, also uniformly charged with 40 mC. Find r , R and r . R separately.)
the electric field (a) 5.0 cm, (b) 15 cm, and (c) 30 cm from the 69. A solid sphere of radius R carries volume charge density
center. r 5 r0er/R, where r0 is a constant and r is the distance from the
59. A nonconducting square plate 75 cm on a side carries a uniform center. Find an expression for the electric field strength at the
surface charge density. The electric field strength 1 cm from the sphere’s surface.
plate, not near an edge, is 45 kN/C. What’s the approximate field 70. Problem 76 of Chapter 13 explored what happened to a person
strength 15 m from the plate? falling into a hole extending all the way through Earth’s center
60. A 250-nC point charge is placed at the center of an uncharged and out the other side, assuming that g1r2 5 g01r/RE2 for points
spherical conducting shell 20 cm in radius. Find (a) the surface inside Earth 1r , RE2. Prove this assumption, treating Earth as a
charge density on the outer surface of the shell and (b) the elec- uniform sphere! and using the gravitational version of Gauss’s
!
tric field strength at the shell’s outer surface. law: $ g # dA 5 2 4pGMenclosed.
61. An irregular conductor containing an irregular, empty cavity car-
ries a net charge Q. (a) Show that the electric field inside the cav- Passage Problems
ity must be zero. (b) If you put a point charge inside the cavity, Coaxial cables are widely used with audio-visual technology, elec-
what value must it have in order to make the charge density on tronic instrumentation, and radio broadcasting, because they minimize
the outer surface of the conductor everywhere zero? interference with or from signals traveling on the cable. Coaxial ca-
62. You’re an engineer for a cable TV company that delivers signals bles consist of a wire inner conductor surrounded by a thin cylindrical
over coaxial cables consisting of an inner wire and a concentric conducting shield, usually of braided copper (Fig. 21.36). Flexible
cylindrical outer conductor. A new colleague in your department
is worried that electric fields from charge on the outer conductor
will interfere with other electrical signals. Formulate an argu- Outer conductor
Inner conductor
ment to convince your colleague that, as long as the conductors
carry equal but opposite charges, any electric field associated
with the cable can’t extend beyond the outer conductor. Insulation
Insulation
63. A point charge 2q is at the center of a spherical shell carrying
charge 12q. That shell, in turn, is concentric with a larger shell FIGURE 21.36 A coaxial cable (Passage Problems 71–74)
 Answers to Chapter Questions 371

insulation separates the conductors. A straight length of coaxial cable 74. A coaxial cable in electrostatic equilibrium carries charge 2Q on
can be approximated as an infinitely long wire surrounded by a cylin- its inner conductor and 1Q on its shield. If the charge on the
drical shell. Normally the two conductors carry charges of equal mag- shield only is doubled,
nitude but opposite sign. (Charge actually varies with time and a. the magnitude of the electric field between the conductors
position as signals travel down the cable, but for these problems con- will double.
sider the charge to be fixed and spread uniformly.) b. the magnitude of the electric field outside the shield will
71. For a coaxial cable in electrostatic equilibrium carrying equal but double.
opposite charges on its two conductors, there’s a nonzero electric c. the magnitude of the electric field at the outer surface of the
field shield will become twice the magnitude of the field at the
a. only in the space between the wire and shield. shield’s inner surface.
b. in the space between wire and shield, and outside the shield. d. the magnitude of the electric field at the outer surface of the
c. inside the metal conducting wire and shield, as well as shield will equal the magnitude of the field at the shield’s in-
between the wires and outside the shield. ner surface.
d. only outside the shield.
72. A coaxial cable carries equal but opposite charges on its two con- Answers to Chapter Questions
ductors. In electrostatic equilibrium, charge on the shield
a. lies entirely on its outer surface. Answer to Chapter Opening Question
b. is divided evenly between inner and outer surfaces.
Gauss’s law requires that electric charge remain on the outside of the
c. lies entirely on its inner surface.
metal cage, arranging itself so there’s no electric field within the cage.
d. distributes itself differently depending on the magnitude of
the charge. Answers to GOT IT? Questions
73. How does the electric field between the conductors in a coaxial 21.1. (a) FA 5 0, FB 5 0, FC 5 s2E;
cable in electrostatic equilibrium depend on the radial distance r (b) FA 5 0, FB 5 FC 5 s2E cos 45° 5 s2E/12
from the cable’s axis? 21.2. Flux: (a); doesn’t change. Field: (d); increases if charges are
a. it’s constant opposite, decreases if same.
b. as 1/r 21.3. (a) The field stays zero; (b) the field kQ/r2 doubles.
c. as 1/r2 21.4. (c).
d. as 1/r3
 22 Electric Potential

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Explain the meaning of electric
potential difference, including the
familiar term “volt” (22.1).
■ Calculate the potential difference be-
tween two points in simple electric
fields using a line integral (22.1).
■ Describe the potential in the field of
a point charge, and use superposition
to calculate potential differences
by summing or integrating over
point charges (22.2).
■ Explain the concept of equipoten-
tials, and determine electric fields
from potential differences (22.3).
■ Describe qualitatively how charge
distributes itself on conductors
(22.4).
This parasailer landed on a 138,000-volt power
line. Why wasn’t he electrocuted?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter merges the concepts of
work (6.1, 6.2), conservative forces
L ike gravity, the electric force is conservative. That means the work done in moving a charge
against an electric force results in stored potential energy. It’s convenient to consider the en-
ergy per unit charge, a measure that defines the concept of electric potential. Here we’ll see how
(7.1), and potential energy (7.2) with potential provides a simpler approach to calculating electric fields and helps characterize every-
that of the electric field (20.3). day devices like batteries.
■ We build on results from Chapters 20
and 21, including the fields of a dipole 22.1 Electric Potential Difference
(20.4), a spherical charge distribution
In Chapter 7 we defined the potential-energy
! difference DUAB as the negative of the work
(21.4), a line charge (20.4, 21.4), and a
WAB done by a conservative force F on an object moved from point A to point B (Equation 7.2):
charged sheet (21.4).
■ We further our understanding
B
!
DUAB 5 UB 2 UA 5 2WAB 5 2 3 F # dr^
of charged conductors (21.6). A
■ We use Tactics 9.1 for handling where dr^ is an element of the path from A to B, and DUAB is independent of the path taken
integrals (9.1). from A to B. When the! force
!
doesn’t vary, we can calculate the work more easily using
Equation 6.5, W 5 F # Dr .

372
 22.1 Electric Potential Difference 373

Consider a positive charge q moved between points A and B a distance Dr apart in a Positive charge q is
! initially at A in uniform
uniform electric! field! E, as shown in Fig. 22.1. Since the field is uniform, a constant r
electric field E . . .
electric force F 5 qE acts on the charge, so we use Equation 6.5 to evaluate the work
Dr
done by the field and the resulting potential-energy change:
! !
DUAB 5 2WAB 5 2qE # Dr 5 2qE Dr cos 180° 5 qE Dr r
E
! ! A B
where the factor cos 180° 5 21 appears because E and Dr have opposite directions.
Make sense? Pushing a positive charge from A to B against the electric field is like push-
ing a car up a hill: Potential energy increases in both cases. Let go of the charge, and the . . . Moving the charge a
distance Dr from A to B
field accelerates it back, just as gravity would accelerate the car back down the hill. requires work qE Dr.
Had we moved a charge 2q in Fig. 22.1, the potential-energy change DU would have
been twice as great; a charge 12 q would have cut DU in half. Since DU is proportional to FIGURE 22.1 Work done in! moving a charge q
against an electric field E.
charge, it’s convenient to consider the potential-energy change per unit ! charge
! involved
in moving a charge between two points. Mathematically, we write F 5 qE in our gen-
eral expression for DUAB and divide by q. The result defines the electric potential dif-
ference DV:

The electric potential difference from point A to point B is the potential-energy

change per unit charge in moving a charge from A to B:
DUAB B
! !
DVAB 5 5 23 E # dr 1electric potential difference2 (22.1a)
q A

Here D and the subscripts AB show explicitly that we’re talking about a change or Table 22.1 Force and Field, Potential Energy
difference from one point to another. We’ll sometimes use just the symbol V for potential and Electric Potential
difference, in cases where the starting point A is understood. Note that potential differ- Quantity Symbol/Equation Units
ence, although computed from vectors, is itself a scalar quantity. !
The switch from potential energy to electric potential is analogous to Chapter 20’s in- Force F N
!
troduction of the electric field as the electric force per unit charge; similarly, the electric ! F
potential difference is the change in potential energy per unit charge. The reason is the Electric field E5 N/C
q or
same: We want to express electric properties in terms that don’t involve specific charges. V/m
Table 22.1 summarizes the relations among force and field, potential energy and electric
potential. Potential-energy B
! !
In the special case of a uniform field, Equation 22.1a reduces to difference DU 5 23 F # d r J
A
! !
DVAB 5 2E # Dr 1uniform field2 (22.1b) Electric potential DU
! ! difference DV 5 J/C
where Dr is a vector from A to B. Figure 22.1 shows the special case when the field E and q or V
!
path Dr are in opposite directions; here, Equation 22.1b gives DVAB 5 E Dr. or
Potential difference can be positive or negative, depending on whether the path goes B
! !
against or with the field. Moving a positive charge through a positive potential difference DV 5 2 3 E # d r
A
is like going uphill: Potential energy increases. Moving a positive charge through a nega-
tive potential difference is like going downhill: Potential energy decreases. The converse
is true for a negative charge; even though the potential difference remains the same, the Potential difference DVAB
depends only on points
force is opposite and so the potential energy reverses sign. A and B.
We emphasize that potential difference is a property of two points; it doesn’t depend on 1
the path between those points. In Fig. 22.1, considering a straight path from A to B made Dr
the calculation of potential difference easy, but we would have found the same result— 2
albeit with much more effort—using any path (Fig. 22.2). r A B
E 3

GOT IT? 22.1 What would happen to the potential difference VAB in Fig. 22.1 if
(a) the electric field strength were doubled; (b) the distance Dr were doubled; (c) the Calculating potential difference
points were moved so the path lay at right angles to the field; and (d) the positions of A along any path (1, 2, or 3) gives DVAB = E Dr.
and B were interchanged? FIGURE 22.2 Potential difference is path
independent.
374 Chapter 22 Electric Potential

The Volt and the Electronvolt

Potential difference measures work or energy per unit charge, so its units are joules per
coulomb, as shown in Table 22.1. Potential difference is important enough that this unit has
a special name, the volt (V). To say that a car has a 12-V battery, for example, means the bat-
tery does 12 J of work on every coulomb of charge that moves between its terminals. Multi-
plying the first equality in Equation 22.1a by q shows that the change in potential energy of
a charge q as it moves through a potential difference DV is DU 5 q DV. If a charge q “falls”
freely through a potential difference DV, it therefore gains kinetic energy given by ƒq DVƒ.
Table 22.2 Typical Potential Differences We often use the term voltage to mean potential difference, especially in electric cir-
cuits. The two are subtly different, however, when changing magnetic fields are present;
Between human arm and leg 1 mV
due to heart’s electrical
more on this in Chapter 27. Table 22.2 lists some typical potential differences in techno-
activity logical and natural systems.
Across biological cell 80 mV
membrane ✓TIP Potential Difference Involves Two Points
Between terminals of 1.5 V
Potential difference is the energy per unit charge involved in moving between those
flashlight battery
points. This is ultimately a practical matter; if you forget it, you won’t be able to hook
Car battery 12 V
up a voltmeter properly or connect jumper cables safely to your car battery! This
Electric outlet (depends 100–240 V
on country) chapter’s opening photo provides a dramatic illustration of this point.
Between long-distance electric 365 kV Sometimes we say “the potential (or voltage) at point P.” This is always a short-
transmission line and ground hand way of talking, and we must have in mind some other point. What we mean is
Between base of thunderstorm 100 MV the potential difference going from that other point to P.
cloud and ground

In molecular, atomic, and nuclear systems it’s often convenient to measure energy in
electronvolts (eV), defined as the energy gained by a particle carrying one elementary
charge when it moves through a potential difference of 1 volt. Since one elementary
charge is 1.6310219 C, 1 eV is 1.6310219 J. Energy in eV is particularly easy to calculate
when charge is given in units of the elementary charge e; then, with DV in volts, q DV
gives the energy in eV. However, the eV is not an SI unit and should be converted to joules
before calculating other quantities, like velocity.

GOT IT? 22.2 (a) A proton (charge e), (b) an alpha particle (charge 2e), and (c) a
singly ionized oxygen atom each move through a 10-V potential difference. What’s the
work in eV done on each?

EXAMPLE 22.1 Potential Difference, Work, and Energy: X Rays

In an X-ray tube, a uniform electric field of 300 kN/C extends over a
distance of 10 cm, from an electron source to a target; the field points
from the target to the source. Find the potential difference between
source and target and the energy gained by an electron as it acceler-
ates from source to target (where its abrupt deceleration produces
X rays). Express the energy in both electronvolts and joules.

INTERPRET This problem requires first calculating the potential differ-

ence from the field and then the energy from the potential difference.
FIGURE 22.3 Sketch for Example 22.1.
DEVELOP Figure 22.3 is our drawing with point
! A the source and
!
point B the target. Equation 22.1b, DVAB 5 2E # Dr , determines the Although this difference is positive, a negative electron moves “down-
potential difference in this uniform field. Given the potential differ- hill” from source to target, and thus gains kinetic energy as work gets
ence, or energy per unit charge, we can find the energy gain from the done on it. With the charge measured in elementary charges, the prod-
magnitude of the product q DV. uct ƒq DVƒ gives this energy directly in electronvolts: 11 elementary
charge e2130 kV2 5 30 keV. With 1.6310219 J/eV, this is 4.8 fJ.
EVALUATE With the field and path in opposite directions, cos u 5 21
in the dot product, so Equation 22.1b gives ASSESS Make sense? An electronvolt is a lot smaller than a joule, so
DVAB 5 E Dr 5 1300 kN/C210.10 m2 5 30 kV the SI answer (in fJ 5 10215 J ) is numerically much smaller. ■
 22.2 Calculating Potential Difference 375

EXAMPLE 22.2 Potential of a Charged Sheet

An isolated, infinite charged sheet carries uniform surface charge den-
sity s. Find an expression for the potential difference from the sheet
to a point a perpendicular distance x from the sheet.

INTERPRET This is a question about calculating the potential differ-

ence from the field.

DEVELOP The result of Example 21.6 gives the field of a charged

sheet: It’s uniform, with magnitude E 5 s/2P0 and direction perpen-
dicular to the sheet. We’ve drawn the sheet and a few of its field lines
in Fig.
! ! 22.4. Since the field is uniform, Equation 21.1b, DVAB 5
2E # D r , determines the potential difference.

EVALUATE Moving away from the sheet means going in the direction
of the field (assuming positive s), so cos u 5 1 in the dot product, and
we evaluate to get FIGURE 22.4 Sketch for Example 22.2. The field also extends to the left from
the sheet, but we haven’t drawn that.
sx
V0x 5 2Ex 5 2
2P0
charge away from the sheet is like going “downhill,” in this case with
Here we’ve used x for the displacement Dr and V0x for the potential
a constant slope. Give the sheet a negative charge 1s , 02 and the
difference because we’re measuring from the sheet 1x 5 02 to the
potential difference changes sign; now moving a positive charge
point x.
away from the sheet is going “uphill.” (And moving a negative charge
ASSESS Make sense? Our result shows that the potential difference
away is “downhill”—since like charges repel.) ■
in a uniform field varies linearly with distance. Moving a positive

Curved Paths and Nonuniform Fields

If the electric field isn’t uniform or the path isn’t straight, then we need to use the integral
r
in Equation 22.1a to find the potential difference. With that equation we’re dividing the
! E
path into segments dr , each so short that it’s essentially straight with a uniform field! over
!
its length (Fig. 22.5). Then Equation 22.1b gives the potential difference dV 5 2E # dr
B

across the segment, and in integrating we’re summing infinitely many infinitesimal dV
values to get the potential difference between two points A and B. We’ll see some exam-
ples in the next section.

GOT IT? 22.3 The figure shows three straight paths AB of the same length, each in a dif-
ferent electric field. The field at A is the same in each. Rank the potential differences DVAB.
A

B B
r r r r
E E E DVAB 53 dV 523 E·drr
A B A B A B
A A

r
(a) (b) (c) E
e
r
dr

22.2 Calculating Potential Difference r

dV 52E·drr 52Edr cos e
Here we use Equation 22.1a to calculate the potential differences for several charge distri- FIGURE 22.5 The integral in Equation 22.1a is
butions. Most important is the point charge, which then provides an easy way to find po- the sum of infinitely many infinitesimally small
tential differences for more complicated charge distributions. potential differences dV.
376 Chapter 22 Electric Potential

The electric field The Potential of a Point Charge

of a point charge !
r kq Equation 20.3 gives the electric field of a point charge: E 5 1kq/r22r^ . Let’s find the po-
is E 5 2 rˆ . . .
r tential difference between two points A and B at distances rA and rB from a positive point
charge, as shown in Fig. 22.6. We can’t just multiply the distance rB 2 rA by E because
the field varies with position. Instead we integrate, using Equation 22.1a:
rB
! !
rB
kq !
DVAB 5 V1B2 2 V1A2 5 2 3 E # dr 5 2 3 2 r^ # dr
rB rA rA r
A B
As we move from A to B, the path elements are increments dr in the radial direction, so
r !
rA
E we write dr 5 r^ dr. Then the potential difference is
rB rB
kq #
DVAB 5 2 3 ^
r ^
r dr 5 2kq 3 r dr
22

rA r 2
rA

since the dot product of the unit vector r^ with itself is 1. Evaluating the integral gives
rB
. . . so finding the potential difference DVAB 1 1 1
DVAB 5 2kq c2 d 5 kq a 2 b (22.2)
between A r
and B requires integration r rA rB rA
because E varies with position.
Make sense? For rB . rA, the potential difference is negative, showing that a positive
FIGURE 22.6 Potential difference in the field of a
point charge. test charge at rA would “fall” toward rB. Going the other way would require that work be
done on a positive charge, as it’s pushed “up” against the repulsive force of the charge q.
Our result holds as well for q , 0, in which case the sign of the potential difference
changes.
DV 5 0 on arc r Although we derived Equation 22.2 for two points on the same radial line, Fig. 22.7
perpendicular to E, shows that the result holds for any two points in the field of a charge q. It doesn’t matter
because E # drr 5 0.
r

which point is at the greater distance either; if rB , rA, Equation 22.2 still gives the cor-
rect potential difference, which then becomes positive, showing that we do work to move
a positive test charge toward a positive q.
B
rB The Zero of Potential
A
Only potential differences have physical significance. But it’s often convenient to define a
r point of zero potential; we can then speak of the potential V at some other point P, mean-
E
rA ing the potential difference between our zero point and P. In this context the expression
DV from DVAB can be written V1B2 2 V1A2. The choice for the zero of potential is usually based
Equation 22.2
on mathematical or physical convenience. In electric power systems, Earth, called
“ground,” is usually taken as the zero of potential; in automobile electric systems, the car’s
metal frame is a convenient zero point.
rA, B
When we deal with isolated charges, it’s convenient to take the zero of potential at in-
FIGURE 22.7 Potential difference is path finity. Then rA S ` in Equation 22.2 and 1/rA becomes zero. We’ll omit the subscript on
independent, so DVAB here still follows from rB because it can be any point; then Equation 22.2 becomes
Equation 22.2.
kq
V`r 5 V1r2 5 1point-charge potential2 (22.3)
r
When we call this expression V1r2 “the potential of a point charge,” we really mean that
V1r2 is the potential difference going from a point very far from a charge q to a point a
distance r from the charge—an interpretation that’s consistent with our definition of po-
tential difference as depending on two points. Because the field outside any spherically
symmetric charge distribution is that of a point charge, Equation 22.3 also gives the poten-
tial outside a spherically symmetric charge distribution.
Does it bother you that potential difference can be finite over an infinite distance? The
reason lies in the inverse-square dependence of the field, which drops so rapidly that the
work done in moving a charge from infinity to the vicinity of a point charge remains finite.
We found an analogous result in Chapter 8, where it took only a finite amount of energy to
escape completely from a planet’s gravitational attraction. As long as a charge distribution
is finite in size—so its field at large distances falls at least as fast as 1/r2—it makes sense
to take the zero of potential at infinity.
 22.2 Calculating Potential Difference 377

GOT IT? 22.4 You measure a potential difference of 50 V between two points a dis-
tance 10 cm apart in the field of a point charge. If you move closer to the charge and meas-
ure the potential difference over another 10-cm interval, will it be (a) greater, (b) less, or
(c) the same?

EXAMPLE 22.3 Potential and Work: At the Science Museum

The Hall of Electricity at the Boston Museum of Science contains a
large Van de Graaff generator, a device that builds up charge on a
metal sphere (see Chapter 21’s opening photo). The sphere has radius
R 5 2.30 m and develops a charge Q 5 640 mC. Considering this to
be a single isolated sphere, find (a) the potential at its surface, (b) the
work needed to bring a proton from infinity to the sphere’s surface, (a)
and (c) the potential difference between the sphere’s surface and a
point 2R from its center.

INTERPRET This problem is about potential differences in the field of

a spherically symmetric charge distribution. In Chapter 21 we found
that the field outside such a distribution is identical to that of a point
charge. The term “potential” is meaningless unless we’re talking
about two points, so here, with a point-charge field, we interpret the
question as asking us to take the zero of potential at infinity.
(b)
DEVELOP Because the field outside the spherical charge distribution
FIGURE 22.8 Sketch for Example 22.3.
is the same as that of a point charge, Equation 22.3, V1r2 5 kQ/r, de-
termines the potential for r $ R. We’ve sketched this 1/r potential
curve in Fig. 22.8. Because the zero of potential is at infinity, we can charge e—from infinity is 2.5 MeV or 4.0310213 J. (c) We find the
multiply the potential at the surface by the proton’s charge to get the potential difference from the surface to 2R by subtracting the poten-
work required to bring a proton from infinity. Finally, we can evaluate tials at the two points:
the potential difference DVR2R from the potentials at R and 2R. kQ kQ kQ
DVR2R 5 V12R2 2 V1R2 5 2 52 5 21.25 MV
EVALUATE (a) Equation 22.3 gives 2R R 2R
kQ
V1R2 5 5 2.50 MV ASSESS Make sense? The potential difference DVR2R is negative be-
R cause we’re moving away from the positively charged sphere. Our re-
using Q and R given for the museum’s device. (b) This 2.5-MV sult also shows that fully half the potential difference between the
result is the potential difference between infinity and the sphere’s sphere and infinity occurs within one radius of the sphere’s surface—
surface. Then the work needed to move a proton—1 elementary a consequence of the rapid 1/r2 decrease in the field. ■

EXAMPLE 22.4 Potential Difference: A High-Voltage Power Line

A long, straight power-line wire has radius 1.0 cm and carries line We want the potential difference from
charge density l 5 2.6 mC/m. Assuming no other charges are present, the wire surface, a distance rA from the
what’s the potential difference between the wire and the ground, 22 m axis, to the ground, a distance rB below.
below?

INTERPRET We can interpret the long, straight wire as essentially an

infinitely long charge distribution with line symmetry.

DEVELOP In Chapter 21 we found that the field! outside any line-

symmetric distribution is that of a line charge, E 5 1l/2pP0 r2r^ , so
this equation determines the power line’s field. We haven’t been given
any explicit expression for potential differences in this field, so be-
cause the field
! varies with position, our plan is to apply Equation 22.1a,
!
DV 5 2 #E # d r . We’ve drawn the situation in Fig. 22.9.
FIGURE 22.9 A long, straight power line approximated as an infinite charged
rod whose field is that of a line charge.
(continued)
378 Chapter 22 Electric Potential

EVALUATE We evaluate the integral in Equation 22.1a over a straight ASSESS Make sense? Our result is negative because the path AB
path perpendicular to the wire, from its surface at rA to the ground at rB: goes away from a positive charge. (Mathematically, rA , rB so the
rB
! !
rB
l logarithm is negative.) The symbolic form of our answer shows that
DVAB 5 2 3 E # d r 5 2 3 r^ # r^ dr we can’t let rB go to infinity. Physically, that’s because we’re assum-
rA rA 2pP r
0
rB
ing the charge distribution has infinite extent, so it never resembles
rB
l dr l a point charge no matter how far away we get; mathematically, it’s
52 52 ln r 2 (22.4)
2pP0 3rA r 2pP0 rA
because the field falls off more slowly than a point-charge field—
namely, as 1/r. In practice, our answer here should be modified to
l rA
5 ln a b account for the presence of other wires and of charges drawn to the
2pP0 rB ground surface. ■
where the last step follows because ln x 2 ln y 5 ln1x/y2. The num-
bers of this example give DV 5 2360 kV, a value typical of long-
distance electric power transmission lines.

Finding Potential Differences Using Superposition

When we don’t know the field of a charge distribution, or when the field is too compli-
cated to integrate easily, we can find the potential using superposition. This often provides
an easier approach to calculating the field, as we’ll see in Sec. 22.3.
Consider a charge q brought from infinity to a point P in the vicinity of some other
charges. The superposition principle states that the electric field of a charge distribution is
the sum of the fields of the individual charges that make up the distribution. Therefore, the
work per unit charge—that is, the potential difference—between infinity and P is the sum
of the potential differences associated with the individual point charges. Mathematically,
we find V1P2 by summing Equation 22.3 over the individual point charges qi:
kqi
V1P2 5 a (22.5)
i ri
where the ri’s are the distances from each of the charges to the point P. Equation 22.5 has
one enormous advantage over its counterpart for the electric field, Equation 20.4. Electric
potential is a scalar, so the sum in Equation 22.5 is a scalar sum, with no angles, vector
components, or unit vectors.

EXAMPLE 22.5 Discrete Charges: The Dipole Potential

An electric dipole consists of point charges 6q a distance 2a
apart. Find the potential at an arbitrary point P, and approximate
for the case where the distance to P is large compared with the
charge separation.

INTERPRET We have two point charges, so this problem is based on

the point-charge potential, and therefore we’ll take the zero of poten- This is approximately
tial at infinity. the difference
r2 2 r1.
DEVELOP Figure 22.10 is our drawing, showing the distances from
the two charges to a point P. Our plan is to apply superposition, sum-
ming the potentials of the individual point charges at P as determined This angle
in Equation 22.5, V1P2 5 g 1kq/r2. is ~u.

EVALUATE Applying Equation 22.5 gives

kq k12q2 kq1r2 2 r12
V1P2 5 1 5
r1 r2 r1r2 FIGURE 22.10 Finding the dipole potential.

This is an exact result valid for any P. We’re also asked for an ap- are nearly the same and the term r1r2 is very nearly r2. We have to
proximation for large distances. If r is the distance to the dipole cen- be a little more careful with the term r1 2 r2 because here we’re
ter, as shown in Fig. 22.10, then for r W a, the quantities r1, r2, and r comparing nearly equal quantities. Figure 22.10 shows that this
 22.2 Calculating Potential Difference 379

term—the difference between the distances from the two charges Positive charge
to P—is approximately 2a cos u. So the dipole potential for r W a is a “hill.”
becomes
k12aq2 cos u kp cos u
V1r, u2 5 5 (dipole potential) (22.6) Bisector is at V 5 0.
r 2
r2
with p 5 2aq the dipole moment.

ASSESS Make sense? The dipole potential drops as 1/r 2; earlier, we

found the dipole field dropping as 1/r3. The difference of one power
in r occurs because the potential results from integrating the field
over distance. The same is true for the point charge, whose field drops
as 1/r2 while its potential drops as 1/r. Note also that Equation 22.6
gives V 5 0 when u 5 90°. There, on the dipole’s perpendicular bi-
sector, a charge brought from infinity is always moving at right an-
gles to the dipole field (recall Fig. 21.2), so no work is involved Negative charge
is a “hole.”
(Fig. 22.11). ■
FIGURE 22.11 3-D plot of the dipole potential in the plane of Fig. 22.10.

GOT IT? 22.5 The figure shows three paths from in- ` `
finity to a point P on a dipole’s perpendicular bisector. 2 3
Compare the work done in moving a charge to P on each
of the paths. P
1
`
2q q

Continuous Charge Distributions

We can calculate the potential of a continuous charge distribution by considering it to be
made up of infinitely many infinitesimal charge elements dq. Each acts like a point charge
and therefore contributes to the potential at some point P an amount dV given by
dV 5 k dq/r, where the zero of potential is at infinity. The potential at P is the sum—that
is, the integral—of the contributions dV from all the charge elements:

k dq potential of a continuous
V 5 3 dV 5 3 a b (22.7)
r charge distribution

where the integration is over the entire charge distribution.

EXAMPLE 22.6 Potential of a Continuous Distribution: A Charged Ring

A total charge Q is distributed uniformly around a thin ring of radius a. Same r for all
Find the potential on the ring’s axis. dq’s in the ring

INTERPRET We interpret the ring as a continuous charge distribution.

DEVELOP Equation 22.7, V 5 #k dq/r, gives the potential for con-

tinuous charge distributions. Figure 22.12 is our drawing, showing
an x-axis coincident with the ring axis, with x 5 0 at the ring center.
Charge elements dq in this case are small segments of the ring, and
Fig. 22.12 shows that the distance r 5 2x2 1 a2 is the same for all
charge elements.
FIGURE 22.12 A charged ring.
(continued)
380 Chapter 22 Electric Potential

EVALUATE Equation 22.7 becomes ASSESS Make sense? At large distances 1x W a2, a 2 is negligible and
k dq k kQ kQ our result becomes V1x2 5 kQ/x. This is the potential of a point
V1x2 5 3 5 3 dq 5 5 (22.8) charge Q—just as we’d expect when we’re so far from the ring that its
r r r 2x2 1 a2 size isn’t significant. At the ring’s center, on the other hand, V102 5
The integration here simplified because r is the same for all charge kQ/a. Here we’re a distance a from all parts of the ring, and since po-
elements within the ring and so comes outside the integral; the re- tential is a scalar, the different directions don’t matter. The result is
maining integral, #dq, is the total charge Q. Example 22.7 will present therefore the same as being a distance a from a point charge Q. ■
a more typical—and more challenging—integral.

EXAMPLE 22.7 Potential of a Continuous Distribution: A Charged Disk

A charged disk of radius a carries a charge Q distributed uniformly ratio of ring area to disk area is the same as the ratio of dq to the
over its surface. Find the potential at a point P on the disk axis, a dis- total charge Q. “Unwinding” a ring gives a rectangle of length 2pr
tance x from the disk. and width dr, so the ring area is 2pr dr. The disk area is pa2, so
dq/Q 5 2pr dr/pa2, giving dq 5 12Q/a22r dr.
INTERPRET This problem, too, involves a continuous charge distribution.
EVALUATE Using this result in our integral for the potential V1x2
DEVELOP Equation 22.7, V 5 #k dq/r, determines the potential. But gives
now all parts of the charge distribution aren’t the same distance from a
kQ a 2r dr
2kQ r dr
P, so we have to set up the integral using the procedure first outlined V1x2 5 3 2 5 23
0 a 2x2 1 r2 a 0 2x2 1 r2
in Chapter 9 and used more recently in Chapter 20 when we calculated
the fields of continuous charge distributions. We’ve drawn the disk and Now, 2r dr 5 d1r22 5 d1x 2 1 r22 since x is a constant with respect
its axis in Fig. 22.13. The preceding example suggests that we divide to the integration. The integral therefore has the form #u21/2 du, where
the disk into ring-shaped charge elements, as we’ve drawn in the u 5 x2 1 r2, and the result is 2u1/2 or
figure. Each ring contributes a potential dV given by Equation 22.8: r5a
2kQ 2kQ
dV 5 k dq/ 2x2 1 r2, where r is the ring radius. We get the potential V1x2 5 2x 1 r 2
2 2
5 1 2x2 1 a2 2 ƒxƒ 2
of the entire disk by integrating over all the rings that make up the a2 r50 a2
disk:
r5a ASSESS Make sense? Figure 22.14 shows that it does. Close to the
k dq
V1x2 5 3 dV 5 3 disk, the potential resembles that of an infinite sheet, changing linearly
r50 2x 1 r
2 2
disk with distance (recall Example 22.2); far away, it has the 1/r behavior
Before we can evaluate this integral, we need to relate the charge element of a point-charge potential. It’s only at intermediate distances—on the
dq and the geometric variable r. Here the relation involves area: The order of the disk radius a—that we really need our exact expression. ■

2kQ
a Point-charge
potential
dq
Potential, V

Potential of
charged disk

Infinite-
sheet
potential

0 1a 2a 3a
Distance, x, along disk axis

FIGURE 22.13 A charged disk, showing a ring-shaped charge element dq of FIGURE 22.14 Charged-disk potential approaches that of an infinite sheet for
radius r and width dr. points close to the disk, and that of a point charge far from the disk.

22.3 Potential Difference and the Electric Field

It takes no work to move a charge at right angles to an electric field, so there’s no po-
tential difference between two points on a surface perpendicular to the field. Such sur-
faces are called equipotentials. Equipotentials are like contour lines on a topographic
 22.3 Potential Difference and the Electric Field 381

map (Fig. 22.15). A contour is a line of constant elevation, so it takes no work to move
along it. Where contours are close, elevation changes rapidly. Similarly, closely spaced
equipotentials indicate a large potential difference between nearby points. That means
there must be a strong electric field present. Figure 22.15 might just as well represent elec-
tric potential, with closely spaced equipotentials—steep slopes on the “potential hill”—
representing strong electric fields. Similarly, the equipotentials for a dipole (Fig. 22.16)
describe the steep “hill” of the positive charge and the “hole” of the negative charge
(a)
that we showed in Fig. 22.11. There is one difference, though: Equipotentials are sur- Steep hill,
faces in three dimensions, and when we draw them as contour lines, we’re showing close contours,
strong field Field and
only the surfaces’ intersections with a plane. equipotentials
are perpendicular.

r
E
GOT IT? 22.6 The figure shows cross sec-
tions through two equipotential surfaces. In
both diagrams the potential difference between
adjacent equipotentials is the same. Which could
represent the field of a point charge? Explain.

(a) (b)

(b)

FIGURE 22.15 A flat-topped hill (a) and its con-

tour map (b) represent equipotentials (dashed
Calculating Field from Potential curves) for a charged spherical shell, in a plane
Given electric field lines, we can construct equipotentials. Conversely, given equipoten- through the shell’s center.
tials, we can reconstruct the field by sketching field lines at right angles to the equipoten-
tials. Specifying the potential at each point thus conveys all the information needed to
determine the field.
We can quantify the relation between potential and field by considering the potential
difference dV between two nearby points. Suppose they’re separated by a small displace-
ment dx in the x-direction. Then Equation 22.1b becomes dV 5! 2Ex dx, where we han- V , 0 on the V 5 0 on the V . 0 on the
negative side. bisector. positive side.
dled the dot product by considering only the component of E along the displacement.
Dividing through by dx shows that we can write the electric-field component in the
x-direction as Ex 5 2dV/dx. We can write similar expressions for the y- and z-components.
When a function depends on more than one variable, as the potential generally does, we
write derivatives with the partial derivative symbol ' instead of d to indicate the rate of
change with respect to only one variable. Thus we have Ex 5 2'V/'x, Ey 5 2'V/'y, and
Ez 5 2'V/'z. Putting together these three components lets us write the entire electric-
field vector:
! 'V 'V 'V ^ r
E
E 5 2 a ı^ 1 ^/ 1 kb (22.9)
'x 'y 'z
Equation 22.9 confirms that the electric field is strong where the potential changes rap- Field and
equipotentials
idly. The minus sign here is the same as in Equation 22.1: It says that if we move in the di- are perpendicular.
rection of increasing potential, then we’re moving against the electric field. Equation 22.9
FIGURE 22.16 Equipotentials (dashed curves)
also shows that the units of electric field, N/C, can be written as volts per meter—a unit
and field lines for a dipole, in a plane contain-
widely used in both science and engineering. ing the dipole. You should convince yourself
Because potential is a scalar, it’s often easier to calculate the potential and then use that the equipotentials provide a contour map
Equation 22.9 to get the field. The next example shows how. of Fig. 22.11.
382 Chapter 22 Electric Potential

EXAMPLE 22.8 Field from Potential: A Charged Disk

Use the result of Example 22.7 to find the electric field on the axis of EVALUATE We apply Equation 22.9 to V1x2 to get
a charged disk. dV d 2kQ
Ex 5 2 52 c a 2x2 1 a2 2 ƒxƒ b d
INTERPRET Example 22.7 gives the potential of a charged disk, so this dx dx a2
problem is about calculating electric field from potential. 2kQ x
5 2 a 61 2 b
a 2x 1 a2
2
DEVELOP Example 22.7 gives the potential on the axis of a charged
disk: V1x2 5 12kQ/a22 A 2x2 1 a2 2 ƒx ƒ B . Equation 22.9 shows that where the 1/2 signs apply for x . 0 and x , 0, respectively. Because
we can get the electric field by differentiating the potential with re- V depends only on x, we wrote the total derivative dV/dx rather than the
spect to! all three coordinates. But here the potential depends only on partial derivative.
x, so E has only an x-component—a fact that should also be evident
ASSESS Make sense? In Fig. 22.14 we showed that the field of a disk
from symmetry. Our plan is to apply Equation 22.9, differentiating
V1x2 to get the field component Ex. ought to look like that of a charged sheet close up and like a point
charge far away. For ƒxƒ V a, our result gives ƒEx ƒ 5 2kQ/a2. With
k 5 1/4pP0 and Q/pa2 5 s, this is indeed the field E 5 s/2P0 of a
charged sheet. You can show in Problem 68 that the case ƒxƒ W a
reduces to the field of a point charge Q, as expected. ■

✓TIP Field and Potential

Note that the values of field and potential at a single point aren’t related; rather, as
Equation 22.9 shows, field measures the rate of change of potential. Field and poten-
tial are related in the same way as acceleration and velocity; their values are inde-
pendent, but one is the rate of change of the other—although with a negative sign in
the case of field and potential. In particular, the field can be zero where the potential
isn’t, and vice versa.

22.4 Charged Conductors

There’s no electric field inside a conducting material in electrostatic equilibrium, and at
the conductor surface there’s no field component parallel to the surface. Therefore, it takes
no work to move a test charge on or inside a conductor—and that means a conductor in
electrostatic equilibrium is an equipotential.
Consider an isolated, spherical conductor of radius R carrying charge Q. Charge is
distributed uniformly over its surface, so the field outside the sphere is that of a point
charge. Then the potential at its surface is V1R2 5 kQ/R, as we found in Example 22.3.
Same potential
Now consider two widely separated spheres of different sizes. If we connect them by a
thin conducting wire (Fig. 22.17), charge will move through the wire until both spheres
are at the same potential. But since the spheres are widely separated, each still has an
R2
R1 essentially spherical charge distribution, so V1R2 5 kQ/R gives each sphere’s potential.
Because the spheres have the same potential, kQ1 /R1 5 kQ2 /R2. We can write each
charge as the surface area multiplied by the surface charge density: Q 5 4pR2s. Sub-
Smaller R, stituting for the Q’s in the above equation and solving for the ratio of surface charge
higher s, densities then give
larger E

FIGURE 22.17 Two conducting spheres

s1 R2
5
connected by a long conducting wire. s2 R1
Thus the smaller sphere has the higher surface charge density. Since the electric field at a
conductor surface has magnitude E 5 s/P0, the field must also be stronger at the smaller
sphere. Conceptual Example 22.1 explores this situation further.
 22.4 Charged Conductors 383

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 22.1 An Irregular Conductor

Sketch some equipotentials and electric field lines for an isolated egg- ASSESS Our analysis here applies only to an isolated conductor. Fig-
shaped conductor. ure 22.19 shows how the presence of nearby charges alters the charge
distribution on a conductor.
EVALUATE Where the conductor surface curves sharply, it’s like the
small sphere of Fig. 22.17. It therefore has higher surface charge den- Charged sphere is isolated
sity and a stronger electric field, which means more field lines emerge and field is symmetric . . .
. . . but the presence
where the surface curves sharply. Since the field is perpendicular at of a nearby charge
the conductor surface, equipotentials just above the surface have es- r breaks the symmetry.
sentially the same shape as the surface. Far from the charged conduc- E
r
tor, on the other hand, its field resembles that of a point charge, with E
radial field lines and circular equipotentials. Figure 22.18 gives an + ++
approximate picture of the field and equipotentials based on these + +
+ + + ++
considerations. + + +
++ + +
+
+
+ 
+ +
+ +

Sharp curve,
r
strong E,
Flatter surface, close equipotentials
r (a) (b)
weaker E,
widely spaced FIGURE 22.19 Distribution of charge on a conductor changes in the presence
equipotentials
of another charge.

MAKING THE CONNECTION The potential difference between

the conductor in Fig. 22.18 and the outermost equipotential shown is
70 V. Determine approximate values for the strongest and weakest
electric fields in the region shown in the figure, assuming it’s drawn at
actual size.

EVALUATE Electric field is the rate of change of potential. At the tip,

where the field is strongest, the outermost equipotential is about 7 mm
from the conductor. So the field here is approximately 70 V/7 mm;
that’s 10 V/mm or 10 kV/m. At its most distant, the outer equipoten-
tial is about 12 mm from the conductor, giving a field of 70 V/12 mm
FIGURE 22.18 Equipotentials and field of a charged conductor. or nearly 6 kV/m.

APPLICATION Corona Discharge, Pollution Control, and Xerography

called corona discharge, resulting from electrons recombining with atoms.

Corona discharge causes energy loss from high-voltage transmission lines, so
engineers try to avoid sharp edges on conducting structures. The photo shows
corona discharge leaking current across a power-line insulator.
Corona discharge can also be useful. Pollution-control devices called
electrostatic precipitators use a thin wire at a high negative potential to pro-
duce a strong field that ionizes gas molecules. Ions adhere to pollutant parti-
cles, which are then attracted to positively charged collecting plates. Such
devices remove up to 99% of particulate pollutants from power plants and
factories.
You’re using corona discharge when you make a photocopy or use a laser
printer. The “ink” in these devices consists of tiny plastic “toner” particles that
adhere to charged regions on a special light-sensitive drum. The drum is ini-
tially charged uniformly by a corona discharge from a thin wire at high volt-
The large electric fields that develop at sharply curved conductors can cause age; light then neutralizes all but the dark regions. Toner particles are
serious problems in electric equipment. Fields stronger than 3 MN/C strip elec- electrically attracted to those regions and then transferred to paper, where
trons from air molecules, making air a conductor. The result is a blue glow, they’re melted in to make a permanent image.
CHAPTER 22 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is electric potential difference—a measure of the energy per unit charge involved in moving charge between two points in an
electric field. Because the electric field is conservative, potential difference is path independent and thus depends only on the two points in question.

Key Concepts and Equations

Electric potential difference between points A and B is the negative of In a uniform field, the potential difference becomes
! !
the line integral of the electric field over any path from A to B: DVAB 5 2E # Dr
DUAB B
! !
DVAB 5 5 23 E # dr B
q A
r
r E Drr
When a charge “falls” through a E
potential difference DV, it gains A
B
energy q DV.
r
E
e The potential in the field of a E
r
V(r) is energy per
point charge is V1r2 5 kq/r, unit charge to get
drr where the zero of potential is from ` to P.
taken at infinity and r is the r
dV 5 2E # drr
r
A q
distance from the point P
charge.

Potentials of charge distributions follow by summing or integrating

the fields of pointlike charge elements:
kqi
V5a 1discrete charges2
ri Equipotentials are surfaces of constant potential perpendicular to the
electric field. Where equipotentials are close, the field is strong. The
P field component in a given direction depends on the rate at which po-
r1 tential changes with position; thus,
q1
dV
r2 r3 Ex 5 2
dx
q2
q3

k dq E
r

V5 3 1continuous charge distribution2

r

P
k dq
r dV 5 r Circles are
equipotentials.
dq
Steep hill, close
contours, strong field

Applications
The dipole potential is V50 In charged conductors, the charge
V , 0 on the on the V . 0 on the density is generally highest, and
kp cos u negative side. bisector. positive side.
V5 the field strongest, where a con-
r2 ductor curves sharply.
11
1
where p 5 qd is the dipole 11

moment and the angle u is

measured from the dipole axis.
Strongest field
r
E

Field and
equipotentials
are perpendicular.
 Exercises and Problems 385

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion Section 22.2 Calculating Potential

!
Difference
23. An electric field is given by E 5 E0 ^/, where E0 is a constant.
1. Why can a bird perch on a high-voltage power line without get- Find the potential as a function of position, taking V 5 0 at
ting electrocuted? y 5 0.
2. One proton is accelerated from rest by a uniform electric field, 24. The classical picture of the hydrogen atom has the electron orbit-
another proton by a nonuniform electric field. If they move ing 0.0529 nm from the proton. What’s the electric potential as-
through the same potential difference, how do their final speeds sociated with the proton’s electric field at this distance?
compare? 25. The potential at the surface of a 10-cm-radius sphere is 4.8 kV.
3. Would a free electron move toward higher or lower potential? What’s the sphere’s total charge, assuming charge is distributed
4. The electric field at the center of a uniformly charged ring is ob- in a spherically symmetric way?
viously zero, yet Example 22.6 shows that the potential at the 26. You’re developing a switch for high-voltage power lines. The
center isn’t zero. How is this possible? smallest part in your design is a 5.0-cm-diameter metal sphere.
5. Must the potential be zero at any point where the electric field is What do you specify for the maximum potential on your
zero? Explain. switch if the electric field at the sphere’s surface isn’t to ex-
6. Must the electric field be zero at any point where the potential is ceed the 3-MV/m breakdown field of air?
zero? Explain. 27. A 3.5-cm-diameter isolated metal sphere carries 0.86 mC. (a) Find
7. The potential is constant throughout an entire volume. What the potential at the sphere’s surface. (b) If a proton were released
must be true of the electric field within that volume? from rest at the surface, what would be its speed far from the sphere?
8. In considering the potential of an infinite flat sheet, why isn’t it
useful to take the zero of potential at infinity? Section 22.3 Potential Difference and the Electric Field
9. “Cherry picker” trucks for working on power lines often carry 28. In a uniform electric field, equipotential planes that differ by 1.0 V
electrocution hazard signs. Explain how this hazard arises and are 2.5 cm apart. What’s the field strength?
why it might be more of a danger to someone on the ground than 29. Figure 22.20 shows a plot of potential versus position along the
to a worker on the truck. x-axis. Make a plot of the x-component of the electric field for
10. Can equipotential surfaces intersect? Explain. this situation.
11. Is the potential at the center of a hollow, uniformly charged spher-
ical shell higher than, lower than, or the same as at the surface?
12. A solid sphere contains positive charge uniformly distributed 2

throughout its volume. Is the potential at its center higher than, 1

lower than, or the same as at the surface?

V (V)
13. Two equal but opposite charges form a dipole. Describe the 0
2 4 6 8 10
equipotential surface on which V 5 0. –1 x (m)
14. The electric potential in a region increases linearly with distance.
–2
What can you conclude about the electric field in this region?

FIGURE 22.20 Exercise 29

Exercises and Problems
Exercises 30. Figure 22.21 shows some equipotentials in the x-y plane. (a) In
what region is the electric field strongest? What are (b) the direc-
Section 22.1 Electric Potential Difference
tion and (c) the magnitude of the field in this region?
15. How much work does it take to move a 50-mC charge against a
12-V potential difference?
y (m)
16. The potential difference between the two sides of an ordinary
40 V
electric outlet is 120 V. How much energy does an electron gain
30 V
when it moves from one side to the other?
17. It takes 45 J to move a 15-mC charge from point A to point B. 20 V
3
What’s the potential difference DVAB? V 5 10 V
1
18. Show that 1 V/m is the same as 1 N/C. x (m)
25 23 21 1 2 3 4 5
19. Find the magnitude of the potential difference between two
points located 1.4 m apart in a uniform 650-N/C electric field, if 23
a line between the points is parallel to the field.
20. A charge of 3.1 C moves from the positive to the negative termi-
nal of a 9.0-V battery. How much energy does the battery impart
to the charge?
21. A proton, an alpha particle (a bare helium nucleus), and a singly FIGURE 22.21 Exercise 30
ionized helium atom are accelerated through a 100-V potential
difference. How much energy does each gain? 31. The electric potential in a region is V 5 2xy 2 3zx 1 5y2, with
22. The potential difference across a typical cell membrane is about V in volts and the coordinates in meters. Find (a) the potential and
BIO 80 mV. How much work is done on a singly ionized potassium (b) the components of the electric field at the point x 5 1 m,
ion moving through the membrane? y 5 1 m, z 5 1 m.
386 Chapter 22 Electric Potential

Section 22.4 Charged Conductors 48. Your radio station needs a new coaxial cable to connect the
32. Dielectric breakdown of air occurs at fields of 3 MV/m. Find transmitter and antenna. One possible cable consists of a 2.0-mm-
(a) the maximum potential (measured from infinity) for the sphere diameter inner conductor and an outer conductor with diameter
of Example 22.3 before dielectric breakdown occurs at the 1.6 cm and negligible thickness (Fig. 22.22); the maximum safe
sphere’s surface and (b) the charge on the sphere at this potential. potential difference between the conductors is 2 kV. In your ap-
33. You’re an automotive engineer working on the ignition system plication, the conductors carry charge densities 662 nC/m. Will
for a new engine. Its spark plugs have center electrodes made this cable work for you?
from 2.0-mm-diameter wire. The electrode ends gradually wear
to a hemispherical shape, so they behave approximately like
charged spheres. Your job is to specify the minimum potential
that ensures these plugs will spark in air, neglecting the presence 2.0 mm
of the second electrode.
34. A large metal sphere has three times the diameter of a smaller
sphere and carries three times the charge. Both spheres are iso-
lated, so their surface charge densities are uniform. Compare
(a) the potentials and (b) the electric field strengths at their
surfaces. 1.6 cm

Problems
FIGURE 22.22 Problem 48
35. Two points A and B lie 15 cm apart in a uniform electric field,
with the path AB parallel to the field. If the potential difference 49. The potential difference between the surface of a 3.0-cm-diameter
DVAB is 840 V, what’s the field strength? power line and a point 1.0 m distant is 3.9 kV. Find the line charge
36. The electric field within a cell membrane is approximately density on the power line.
BIO 8.0 MV/m and is essentially uniform. If the membrane is 10 nm 50. Three equal charges q form an equilateral triangle of side a. Find
thick, what’s the potential difference across the membrane? the potential at the center of the triangle.
37. What’s the potential difference between the terminals of a battery 51. A charge 1Q lies at the origin and 23Q at x 5 a. Find two
that can impart 7.2310219 J to each electron that moves between points on the x-axis where V 5 0.
the terminals? 52. Two identical charges q lie on the x-axis at 6a. (a) Find an ex-
38. What’s the charge on an ion that gains 1.6310215 J when it pression for the potential at all points in the x-y plane. (b) Show
moves through a potential difference of 2500 V? that your result reduces to the potential of a point charge for dis-
39. Two flat metal plates are a distance d apart, where d is small tances large compared with a.
compared with the plate size. If the plates carry surface charge 53. A dipole of moment p 5 2.9 nC # m consists of two charges sep-
densities 6s, show that the magnitude of the potential difference arated by far less than 10 cm. Find the potential 10 cm from the
between them is V 5 sd/P0. dipole (a) on its axis, (b) at 45° to its axis, and (c) on its perpen-
40. An electron passes point A moving at 6.5 Mm/s. At point B it’s dicular bisector.
come to a stop. Find the potential difference DVAB. 54. A thin plastic rod 20 cm long carries 3.2 nC distributed uni-
41. A 5.0-g object carries 3.8 mC. It acquires speed v when accelerated formly over its length. (a) If the rod is bent into a ring, find
from rest through a potential difference V. If a 2.0-g object acquires the potential at its center. (b) If it’s bent into a semicircle, find
twice the speed under the same circumstances, what’s its charge? the potential at the center (i.e., at the center of the circle of
42. Points A and B lie 20 cm apart on a line extending radially from which the semicircle is part).
a point charge Q, and the potentials at these points are VA 5 55. A thin ring of radius R carries charge 3Q distributed uniformly
280 V and VB 5 130 V. Find Q and the distance r between A and over three-fourths of its circumference, and 2Q over the rest.
the charge. Find the potential at the ring’s center.
43. A sphere of radius R carries negative charge of magnitude Q, dis- 56. The potential at the center of a uniformly charged ring is 45 kV,
tributed in a spherically symmetric way. Find the escape speed and 15 cm along the ring axis the potential is 33 kV. Find the
for a proton at the sphere’s surface—that is, the speed that would ring’s radius and total charge.
enable the proton to escape to arbitrarily large distances starting 57. The annulus shown in Fig. 22.23 carries a uniform surface charge
at the sphere’s surface. density s. Find an expression for the potential at an arbitrary
44. Proton-beam therapy is preferable to X rays for cancer treatment point P on its axis.
BIO because protons deliver most of their energy to the tumor, with
less damage to healthy tissue. A cyclotron used to accelerate pro-
tons for cancer treatment repeatedly passes the protons through a
15-kV potential difference. (a) How many passes are needed to
bring the protons’ kinetic energy to 1.2310211 J? (b) What’s the b
a
resulting proton energy in electronvolts? P
45. A thin spherical shell has radius R and total charge Q distributed x
uniformly over its surface. Find the potential at its center.
46. A solid sphere of radius R carries charge Q distributed uniformly
throughout its volume. Find the potential difference from the
sphere’s surface to its center. (Hint: Consult Example 21.1.)
47. Find
! the potential as a function of position in the electric field
E 5 axı^, where a is a constant and V 5 0 at x 5 0. FIGURE 22.23 Problem 57
 Exercises and Problems 387

58. The potential in a region is V 5 axy, where a is a constant. the center of the cylinder. (Hint: Treat the cylinder as a stack of
(a) Determine the electric field in the region. (b) Sketch some charged rings, and integrate.)
equipotentials and field lines. 73. A line charge extends along the x-axis from 2L/2 to L/2. Its
59. Use Equation 22.6 to calculate the electric field on the perpendi- line charge density is l 5 l01x/L22, where l0 is a constant.
cular bisector of a dipole, and show that your result is equivalent Find an expression for the potential on the x-axis for x . L/2.
to Equation 20.6a. Check that your expression reduces to an expected result for
60. Use the result of Example 22.6 to determine the on-axis field of x W L.
a charged ring, and verify that your answer agrees with the result 74. Repeat Problem 73 for the charge distribution l 5 l0 x/L. (Hint:
of Example 20.6. What does this charge distribution resemble at large distances?)
61. The electric potential in a region is V 5 2V01r/R2, where V0 and 75. You’re sizing a new electric transmission line, and you can save
R are constants and r is the radial distance from the origin. Find C money with thinner wire. The potential difference between the line
expressions for the magnitude and direction of the electric field and the ground, 60 m below, is 115 kV. The field at the wire surface
in this region. cannot exceed 25% of the 3-MV/m breakdown field in air. Neglect-
62. Two metal spheres each 1.0 cm in radius are far apart. One ing charges in the ground itself, what minimum wire diameter do
sphere carries 38 nC, the other 210 nC. (a) What’s the potential you specify? (Hint: You’ll have to do a numerical calculation.)
on each? (b) If the spheres are connected by a thin wire, what
will be the potential on each once equilibrium is reached? (c) How Passage Problems
much charge moves between the spheres in order to achieve BIO Standard electrocardiography measures time-dependent potential dif-
equilibrium? ferences between multiple points on the body, giving cardiologists
63. Two 5.0-cm-diameter conducting spheres are 8.0 m apart, and multiple perspectives on the heart’s electrical activity. In contrast,
each carries 0.12 mC. Determine (a) the potential on each sphere, Fig. 22.24 is a “snapshot” showing a more detailed picture at an in-
(b) the field strength at the surface of each sphere, (c) the poten- stant of time. The lines are equipotentials on the surface of a human
tial midway between the spheres, and (d) the potential difference torso, associated with the heart’s electrical activity. Relative to the
between the spheres. line marked V 5 0, the potential is negative to the upper left (black)
64. A 2.0-cm-radius metal sphere carries 75 nC and is surrounded by and positive to the lower right (green).
a concentric spherical conducting shell of radius 10 cm carrying
275 nC. (a) Find the potential difference between shell and
sphere. (b) How would your answer change if the shell’s charge
were 1150 nC?
65. A sphere of radius R carries a nonuniform but spherically sym- V50
metric volume charge! density that results in an electric field in B
the sphere given by E 5 E01r/R22 r^ , where E0 is a constant. Find
the potential difference from the sphere’s surface to its center.
V 5 20.5 mV
66. The potential as a function of position in a region is V1x2 5
3x 2 2x2 2 x3, with x in meters and V in volts. Find (a) all
points on the x-axis where V 5 0, (b) an expression for the elec-
tric field, and (c) all points on the x-axis where E 5 0.
C
67. A conducting sphere 5.0 cm in radius carries 60 nC. It’s sur-
rounded by a concentric spherical conducting shell of radius 15 cm A
carrying 260 nC. (a) Find the potential at the sphere’s surface,
taking V 5 0 at infinity. (b) Repeat for the case when the shell D
carries 160 nC.
V50
68. Show that the result of Example 22.8 approaches the field of a
point charge for x W a. (Hint: You’ll need to apply the binomial
approximation from Appendix A to the expression 1/ 2x2 1 a2.)
69. The potential on the axis of a uniformly charged disk at 5.0 cm
from the disk center is 150 V; the potential 10 cm from the disk
center is 110 V. Find the disk radius and its total charge.
70. A uranium nucleus (mass 238 u, charge 92e) decays, emitting an
FIGURE 22.24 Equipotentials on a human torso (Passage Problems 76–79)
alpha particle (mass 4 u, charge 2e) and leaving a thorium nu-
cleus (mass 234 u, charge 90e). At the instant the alpha particle
leaves the nucleus, the centers of the two are 7.4 fm apart and es- 76. From the equipotentials, you can infer that the heart’s electrical
sentially at rest. Treating each particle as a spherical charge dis- structure resembles that of a
tribution, find their speeds when they’re a great distance apart. a. uniform charged sheet.
71. A disk of radius a carries nonuniform surface charge density b. dipole.
s 5 s01r/a2, where s0 is a constant. (a) Find the potential at an c. point charge.
arbitrary point x on the disk axis, where x 5 0 is the disk center. d. uniformly charged sphere.
(b) Use the result of (a) to find the electric field on the disk axis, 77. The electric field in the vicinity of the heart points approximately
and (c) show that the field reduces to an expected form for a. from upper left to lower right.
x W a. b. from lower left to upper right.
72. An open-ended cylinder of radius a and length 2a carries c. from upper right to lower left.
charge q spread uniformly over its surface. Find the potential at d. from lower right to upper left.
388 Chapter 22 Electric Potential

78. The electric field is strongest in the region marked Answers to GOT IT? Questions
a. A. 22.1. (a) doubles; (b) doubles; (c) becomes zero; (d) reverses sign.
b. B. 22.2. (a) 10 eV; (b) 20 eV; (c) 10 eV.
c. C. 22.3. (c) has the highest DVAB; (b) has the lowest.
d. D. 22.4. (a), because the field is stronger.
79. The electric field in region A is approximately 22.5. They’re all equal to zero, because the potential anywhere on the
a. 20 mN/C. perpendicular bisector of a dipole is zero, and they’re all the
b. 2 mN/C. same, because potential difference is path independent.
c. 20 mN/C. 22.6. (a), because the equipotentials are closer nearer the center, indi-
d. 2 kN/C. cating a stronger field. In (b) the field actually gets stronger far-
ther from the center.
Answers to Chapter Questions
Answer to Chapter Opening Question
138,000 volts is a measure of electric potential difference—the energy
per unit charge involved in moving electric charge between two
points. Luckily, the parasailer is in contact with only one wire, so he
doesn’t experience that lethal potential difference.
 Electrostatic Energy
23 and Capacitors
New Concepts, New Skills
By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Calculate the electrostatic energy of
a system of discrete charges (23.1).
■ Explain the concept of capacitance,
and relate charge, potential diffe-
rence, and capacitance (23.2).
■ Calculate the capacitance of a parallel-
plate capacitor (23.2).
■ Find the charge and energy stored in
a capacitor (23.2).
■ Calculate the equivalent capacitance
of parallel and series capacitor com-
binations, and determine maximum
working voltages (23.3).
■ Describe how all electric fields repre-
sent stored energy, and calculate
that energy from the electric energy
density (23.4).
The lifesaving jolt of a defibrillator requires a
large amount of energy delivered in a short
time. Where does that energy come from?

F igure 23.1 shows three positive charges arranged to form a triangle. Stored in this charge dis-
tribution is electrostatic energy representing the work done against the repulsive electric
forces as the charges were brought into proximity. Although this example may seem trivial, its
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ This chapter builds on the concept
of electric potential (22.1, 22.2).
implications are not. Energy storage in configurations of electric charge is a vital aspect of natu- ■ You should be familiar with the elec-
ral and technological systems. The energy of chemical reactions—including metabolizing food tric fields of charged conductors
and burning fuels—is ultimately electric energy released in the rearrangement of molecular (21.6, 22.4).
charge distributions. Energy storage using charged conductors is essential in technologies rang- ■ You should also be familiar with the
ing from computer memories to cameras to high-powered lasers. concept of dielectrics (20.5).

q1

a a

FIGURE 23.1 Electrostatic energy is stored

in this configuration of three point
q2 a q3 charges.

389
390 Chapter 23 Electrostatic Energy and Capacitors

23.1 Electrostatic Energy

Let’s find the energy stored in the configuration of Fig. 23.1, assuming we start with
widely separated charges and bring them in sequentially. It takes no work to bring in
charge q1, since there’s initially no electric field. But with q1 in place, bringing in q2 means
doing work against q1’s electric field. In Chapter 22 we found that the potential of a point
charge q is V 5 kq/r. So the potential V1 due to q1 at the eventual location of q2 is kq1 /a,
where a is the side of the triangle. That potential is the energy per unit charge; given q2’s
charge, the work needed to bring in q2 is W2 5 q2V1 5 kq1q2 /a. Then we bring in q3,
which experiences the electric fields of both q1 and q2. This requires work done against
both fields; following our reasoning for q2, that work is W3 5 kq1q3 /a 1 kq2q3 /a. The de-
nominator is the same in both terms because the charges form an equilateral triangle. So
the total work done to assemble this charge distribution is
W2 1 W3 5 kq1q2 /a 1 kq1q3 /a 1 kq2 q3 /a.
Because the electric field is conservative, this work becomes the stored electrostatic
energy, U.
Although we considered the three charges in Fig. 23.1 to be positive, our expression for
work holds no matter what the signs. That means electrostatic energy can be positive or nega-
tive, depending on the sign of the work done in assembling a charge distribution. If it’s nega-
tive, then it takes work to separate the charges. Although we considered assembling our
charges in the order 1, 2, 3, the expression for work would have been the same no matter what
the order—showing that electrostatic energy is a property of a charge distribution, independent
of how it’s assembled. Figure 23.1 is a simple metaphor for a molecule. Water, for example,
consists of a negatively charged oxygen atom and two positively charged hydrogen atoms. The
electrostatic energy is negative and represents the energy it would take to dissociate the mole-
cule; equivalently, it’s the energy released when the water forms from individual atoms.

23.2 Capacitors
In technological applications, we often store energy in capacitors—pairs of electrical con-
Conducting plates with ductors that carry equal but opposite charges. Although capacitors come in many configu-
area A are a small
distance d apart.
rations, it’s easiest to analyze the parallel-plate capacitor consisting of two closely spaced
conducting plates (Fig. 23.2a). Understanding this device not only is technologically valu-
able, but will also give us deep insights into the electric field and electrostatic energy.
A Initially both capacitor plates are electrically neutral. We charge the capacitor by trans-
d ferring charge between the plates, building up positive charge on one plate and equal neg-
ative charge on the other. In practice, we accomplish this by connecting the capacitor to a
(a) battery, but here it’s easier to imagine grabbing charge from one plate and physically mov-
ing it to the other. Charge on the plates produces an electric field between them, as shown
Field inside is
essentially uniform.
in Fig. 23.2b. With closely spaced plates that field is essentially uniform in the region be-
tween the plates, except right near the edges. Outside, the field is so small as to be negligi-
ble. So we can approximate the parallel-plate capacitor as having a uniform field confined
entirely to the region between its plates.
Field outside In Chapter 21 we showed that the electric field at the surface of a conductor is
is negligible. E 5 s/P0, with s the charge per unit area. Here we’ve got charge spread uniformly over
(b) the capacitor plates, so if there’s charge Q on a plate, then s 5 Q/A, and the uniform field
between the plates is E 5 Q/P0A. (If you think this should be doubled because there are
FIGURE 23.2 (a) A parallel-plate capacitor two plates, reread the discussion around Figs. 21.26 and 21.27 to see why not.) In this uni-
consists of closely spaced conducting plates
with area A and spacing d. (b) Edge-on view,
form field, the potential difference between the plates is the product of the field and the
showing the electric field. plate separation: V 5 Ed 5 Qd/P0A.

Capacitance
We can rewrite our expression for the potential difference between the plates of the capaci-
tor in the form Q 5 1P0A/d2V. We added the parentheses to emphasize two things: First,
charge is linearly proportional to potential difference and, second, the proportionality factor
depends only on the constant P0 and on the geometry—here the plate area and spacing—of
 23.2 Capacitors 391

the two charged conductors. This factor gives the ratio of charge to potential difference,
which defines the capacitance of a configuration of two conductors:
Q
C5 1capacitance2 (23.1)
V
Capacitance depends on the physical arrangement of the conductors, and it’s a constant
for a given capacitor. Our expression Q 5 1P0A/d2V shows that the capacitance of a par-
allel-plate capacitor is
P0A
C5 1parallel-plate capacitor2 (23.2)
d
Problems 40 and 41 explore capacitance for other configurations.
Equation 23.1 shows that the units of capacitance are coulombs/volt. This unit has its
own name, the farad (F), in honor of the 19th-century scientist Michael Faraday. One
farad is a large capacitance; practical capacitors are often measured in mF 11026 F2 or pF
110212 F2. Incidentally, Equation 23.2 shows that the units of P0 may be expressed as F/m.

Energy Storage in Capacitors

Imagine moving a small charge dQ from the negative to the positive plate of a capacitor
when there’s a potential difference V between the plates. Since potential difference is work
per unit charge, this takes work dW 5 V dQ. The additional charge increases the electric
field in the capacitor, resulting in an increase dV in the potential difference. Equation 23.1
shows that the increases dQ and dV are related by dQ 5 C dV. So the work involved in
moving the charge dQ between the plates becomes dW 5 V dQ 5 CV dV.
If we start with the capacitor uncharged and then begin transferring charge between the
plates, we’ll need to do increasing amounts of work because the electric field and poten-
tial difference increase continuously with the charge we’ve already transferred. The total
work involved will be the sum of all the dW values. Here the potential difference increases
continuously, so that sum becomes an integral:
V
W 5 3 dW 5 3 CV dV 5 12 CV2
0
where the last step follows because the integral has the familiar form #x dx 5 12 x 2. The
work we do in charging the capacitor is stored as potential energy U, so
U 5 12 CV2 1energy in a capacitor2 (23.3)
We can measure potential difference V directly, with a voltmeter, so it’s more useful to
express the energy in terms of voltage rather than charge.

✓TIP Charged but Neutral

A “charged capacitor” means a capacitor with one plate positive and the other negative;
overall, the capacitor remains neutral (Fig. 23.3). The charge Q refers to the magnitude
of the charge on either plate—not to the capacitor’s net charge, which is zero.

Each plate now

Each plate is carries a net
neutral, and so is charge, but the +Q –Q
the entire capacitor. entire capacitor
is still neutral.

FIGURE 23.3 The net charge on the entire capacitor is zero, whether it’s uncharged (left)
or charged (right).
392 Chapter 23 Electrostatic Energy and Capacitors

EXAMPLE 23.1 Capacitance, Charge, and Energy: A Parallel-Plate Capacitor

A capacitor consists of two circular metal plates of radius R 5 12 cm,
separated by d 5 5.0 mm. (a) Find its capacitance. Find (b) the charge
on the plates and (c) the stored energy when the capacitor is connected
to a 12-V battery.

INTERPRET Because the plates’ area is much larger than their separa-
tion, we can treat the field between them as uniform. So we identify
the configuration as a parallel-plate capacitor.
FIGURE 23.4 Sketch for Example 23.1.
DEVELOP We’ve sketched the capacitor in Fig. 23.4. Equation 23.2,
C 5 P0A/d, determines the capacitance for part (a) from the separa- For part (b) the definition of capacitance then gives
tion distance and plate area 1A 5 pR22. For parts (b) and (c) the 12-V
battery maintains a 12-V potential difference across the capacitor. Q 5 CV 5 180 pF2112 V2 5 960 pC
Knowing that voltage and the capacitance, we can find the capacitor’s or just under 1 nC. Then (c) the stored energy is
charge from Equation 23.1, C 5 Q/V, and the stored energy from U 5 12 CV2 5 12 180 pF2112 V22 5 5760 pJ
Equation 23.3, U 5 12 CV2.
or about 5.8 nJ.
EVALUATE We first solve part (a) for the capacitance:
ASSESS Make sense? At 80 pF, this is a pretty small capacitor,
P0 A P0pR2 so no wonder the charge and energy are measured in nano-units
C5 5 5 80 pF
d d (nC and nJ). ■

23.3 Using Capacitors

Capacitors are essential in modern technology. They range from the billions of 25-fF
110215 F2 capacitors that store individual bits of information in your computer’s mem-
ory, to millifarad-range capacitors that smooth 60-Hz AC power to provide steady cur-
rent to your stereo, to ultracapacitors measuring hundreds of farads that store electric
energy for short bursts of power in some gas–electric hybrid and fuel-cell vehicles
(Fig. 23.5).

Practical Capacitors
Equation 23.2 shows that the way to achieve a large capacitance is with large plate area
and small spacing. That’s true in general, whether or not a capacitor has parallel-plate
FIGURE 23.5 Typical capacitors. The large unit is geometry. Inexpensive capacitors are often made from two long strips of aluminum foil
an 18-mF electrolytic capacitor. At top right is
an air-insulated variable capacitor in which
separated by thin plastic insulation. This foil “sandwich” is rolled into a compact cylin-
one set of plates rotates to change the capaci- der, wires are attached, and the whole thing is dipped in a protective coating. Very large
tance. The smaller capacitors range from capacitances are achieved with electrolytic capacitors, in which a thin insulating layer
43 pF to 10 F. develops chemically under the influence of the applied voltage. Capacitors are among
the hardest components to fabricate on integrated-circuit chips, but small-capacitance
Molecular The dipoles’ electric
dipoles align units can be made by alternating conductive material with an insulating layer.
fields superpose with
with negative r
the original field E 0 , Our analysis of the parallel-plate capacitor assumed air between the plates. But most
ends toward capacitors have solid insulating materials, or dielectrics, that contain molecular
reducing the net field . . .
the positive
plate. dipoles but no free charge. In Section 20.5 we showed how the alignment of molecular
+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + dipoles in a dielectric reduces the field in the material. In a capacitor, the effect is to
reduce also the potential difference V between the plates (Fig. 23.6). The factor by
  
r which the field and potential difference decrease is the dielectric constant k (Greek
E0
   kappa). For a given charge Q, decreased potential difference means a larger capaci-
tance C 5 Q/V. Thus a parallel-plate capacitor with a dielectric between its plates has
capacitance
P0A
C5k 1parallel-plate capacitor with dielectric2 (23.4)
. . . charge Q stays the same, so the reduced
r r d
/
field E 5 E0 k results in a lower
/
potential V 5 V0 k and therefore larger Most materials have dielectric constants between about 2 and 10; see Table 23.1. Some
capacitance C 5 kC0 .
tantalum compounds have much higher values of k, making this rare element a crucial ma-
FIGURE 23.6 A capacitor with a dielectric. terial in today’s electronic age.
 23.3 Using Capacitors 393

Table 23.1 Properties of Some Common Dielectrics

Dielectric Material Dielectric Constant Breakdown Field (MV/m)

Air 1.0006 3
Aluminum oxide 8.4 670
Glass (Pyrex) 5.6 14
Paper 3.5 14
Plexiglas 3.4 40
Polyethylene 2.3 50
Polystyrene 2.6 25
Quartz 3.8 8
Tantalum oxide 26 500
Teflon 2.1 60
Water 80 depends on time and purity

Another practical consideration is a capacitor’s working voltage, the maximum safe

potential difference, beyond which there’s a risk of dielectric breakdown. For a given ma-
terial, breakdown occurs at a fixed electric field; for air it’s 3 MV/m, while polyethylene
breaks down at 50 MV/m. In a parallel-plate capacitor the field is E 5 V/d, so the smaller
the spacing, the lower the allowed voltage before breakdown. Thus there’s a trade-off be-
tween large capacitance (small d) and high working voltage (large d). Large-capacitance,
high-voltage capacitors are expensive!

EXAMPLE 23.2 Finding Charge and Energy: Which Capacitor?

A 100-mF capacitor has a working voltage of 20 V, while a 1.0-mF ca- and, similarly, Q1mF 5 0.30 mC. The energies follow from Equa-
pacitor is rated at 300 V. Which can store more charge? More energy? tion 23.3:
U100mF 5 12 CV2 5 12 1100 mF2120 V22 5 20 mJ
INTERPRET This problem involves the charge and energy stored in
capacitors, now constrained by the working voltage. and, similarly, U1mF 5 12 11.0 mF21300 V22 5 45 mJ. So the 100-mF
capacitor stores more charge, but the 1-mF capacitor stores more
DEVELOP Equation 23.1, in the form Q 5 CV, determines the charge, energy.
and Equation 23.3, U 5 12 CV2, determines the stored energy. Setting V
equal to the working voltage will give the maximum charge and energy. ASSESS Make sense? The larger capacitor holds more charge, despite
its lower working voltage. But the energy depends on V2, so the smaller
EVALUATE For the charges on the two capacitors, we get from Equa- capacitor wins out because of its much higher working voltage. ■
tion 23.1,
Q100mF 5 CV 5 1100 mF2120 V2 5 2.0 mC

GOT IT? 23.1 You need to replace a capacitor with one that can store more energy. The two top
Which will give you greater energy increase: (a) a capacitor with twice the capacitance plates are So two
at the same capacitors
and the same working voltage as the old one, or (b) a capacitor with the same capacitance potential . . . C1 C2 in parallel
but twice the working voltage? have the same
. . . as are the
two bottom potential
plates. difference.

Connecting Capacitors: Parallel (a)

Connecting capacitors together lets us achieve capacitance or working voltage that might
not be available in a single capacitor. There are two simple ways to connect capacitors and
C1
other electronic components: parallel and series (Fig. 23.7).
With capacitors in parallel, a conducting wire connects the top plates of each capaci-
tor and another connects the bottom plates. Therefore, both top plates are at the same C2
potential, and so are both bottom plates. That means two capacitors in parallel have
the same potential difference between their plates. We’ll find that’s always true for
electric components in parallel. We want the equivalent capacitance of the parallel com- (b)
bination, meaning the ratio of the total charge on both capacitors to their common volt- FIGURE 23.7 Connecting capacitors: (a) parallel
age V. Given the definition C 5 Q/V, we can write Q1 5 C1V and Q2 5 C2V. So the and (b) series. ' is the standard circuit symbol
'
total charge is Q 5 Q1 1 Q2 5 C1V 1 C2V. The equivalent capacitance is then for a capacitor.
394 Chapter 23 Electrostatic Energy and Capacitors

C 5 Q/V or C 5 C1 1 C2. So capacitors in parallel add, a result that generalizes to any

number of capacitors:
C 5 C1 1 C2 1 C3 1 c 1parallel capacitors2 (23.5)

Connecting Capacitors: Series

Figure 23.8 is a closer look at the series combination of Fig. 23.7b, showing what happens
1Q on here . . . . . . pulls 2Q to here.
if we put charge 1Q on the top plate of C1 and charge 2Q on the lower plate of C2. Each
1Q r
of these charged plates pulls the opposite charge to the other plate of the individual ca-
C1 E
2Q
pacitors—and that means two capacitors in series carry the same charge. But now the
voltages can be different; they’re given by Equation 23.1 as V1 5 Q/C1 and V2 5 Q/C2,
where Q is the common charge. Since the electric fields in the two capacitors point the same
way, the voltage across the series combination is V 5 V1 1 V2 5 Q/C1 1 Q/C2. Dividing
1Q
C2 E
r
through by Q gives V/Q, which is the inverse of the equivalent capacitance Q/V. Thus
2Q
1 1 1
2Q here . . . . . . pulls 1Q to here. 5 1
C C1 C2
More generally, capacitors in series add reciprocally:
FIGURE 23.8 Capacitors in series carry the
same charge. 1 1 1 1
5 1 1 1c 1series capacitors2 (23.6a)
C C1 C2 C3
With two capacitors it’s straightforward to invert Equation 23.6a to get
C1C2
C5 (23.6b)
C1 1 C2
Either way, the combined capacitance is less than the individual capacitances.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 23.1 Parallel and Series Capacitors

Using parallel-plate capacitors, explain why capacitance should commercially. You might wonder about the wire connecting the se-
increase with capacitors in parallel and decrease with capacitors in ries capacitors in Fig. 23.7b: Does it also affect the separation? No,
series. What happens to the working voltage in each case? because it doesn’t separate charge, which is free to move along the
conducting wire.
EVALUATE Equation 23.2 shows that capacitance increases with in-
creasing plate area and decreases with increasing plate separation.
Figure 23.7a shows that two capacitors in parallel have greater area, MAKING THE CONNECTION You’ve got two 10-mF capacitors
with no change in spacing, so the combined capacitance increases. In rated at 15 V. What are the capacitances and working voltages of their
contrast, the series combination in Figure 23.7b effectively increases parallel and series combinations?
the plate separation because it’s the sum of the individual separations,
so the capacitance goes down. EVALUATE Applying Equation 23.5 to equal capacitors shows that the
What about working voltage? In Fig. 23.7a, the parallel capacitors capacitance doubles with two capacitors in parallel. So the parallel
have the same voltage, so the working voltage of the combination is that combination has C 5 20 mF, and its working voltage is still 15 V be-
of whichever capacitor has the lower working voltage. But in Fig. 23.7b, cause each capacitor gets the full voltage. Apply Equation 23.6b to
each series capacitor gets less than the total voltage, so the working equal capacitances and you’ll see that the series capacitance is half
voltage increases. How much depends on the ratio of the capacitances. that of either capacitor, in this case 5 mF. Since the individual capaci-
tances are equal, each must get half the applied voltage, giving the
ASSESS Series and parallel combinations let us build arbitrary ca- combination a working voltage of 30 V.
pacitances and working voltages from standard capacitors available

GOT IT? 23.2 You have two identical capacitors with capacitance C. How would you
connect them to get equivalent capacitances (a) 2C and (b) 12 C? Which combination would
have the higher working voltage?
 23.3 Using Capacitors 395

EXAMPLE 23.3 Equivalent Capacitance: Connecting Capacitors

Find the equivalent capacitance of the combination shown in Fig. 23.9a. Next we see that C1 is in series with C23, so their equivalent capaci-
If the maximum voltage to be applied between points A and B is 100 V, tance follows from Equation 23.6b:
what should be the working voltage of C1? C1C23 112 mF214.0 mF2
C123 5 5 5 3.0 mF
C1 1 C23 12 mF 1 4.0 mF
A
C1 5 12.0 mF We’ve redrawn the circuit again with this equivalent capacitance
(Fig. 23.9c).
C2 5 3.0 mF C3 5 1.0 mF Now we want the working voltage of C1. Our plan is to go back-
B ward from the simple circuit of Fig. 23.9c until we have enough infor-
(a)
mation to find the voltage on C1. With the voltage VAB across A and B
known, we can calculate the charge on C123 using Equation 23.1:
C2 and C3 form the parallel equivalent C23.
Q123 5 C123VAB. But C123 is the series combination of C1 and C23, and
we know that series capacitors carry the same charge—and that’s the
charge of their equivalent capacitance. So Q1 5 Q123, and we can ap-
ply Equation 23.1 again, this time to C1 alone, to get V1 5 Q1 /C1.

EVALUATE With VAB 5 100 V across the combination C123, the corre-
(b) sponding charge is Q123 5 C123VAB 5 13.0 mF21100 V2 5 300 mC.
Because Q1 5 Q123, the charge on C1 is also 300 mC. We then substi-
C1 and C23 form the series equivalent C123. tute this into V1 5 Q1 /C1 to get V1 5 1300 mC2/112.0 mF2 5 25 V,
the minimum working voltage for C1.

ASSESS Make sense? Since C1 is in series with C23, it doesn’t “feel”

the full 100 V applied across AB, so its working voltage can be lower.
And because its capacitance is larger, its share of the voltage is
(c) smaller, thanks to the relation V 5 Q/C and the fact that series capac-
FIGURE 23.9 Finding the equivalent capacitance.
itors carry the same charge.

✓TIP Series and Parallel

INTERPRET This problem is about an electric circuit—in this case, an
assemblage of three capacitors. Parallel components have their ends connected directly together;
series components are connected in such a way that if you move
DEVELOP To handle such circuit problems, we find combinations through one component, the only place you can go is into the next.
of series and parallel components, and then simplify the circuit by In Fig. 23.9a, C2 and C3 are definitely in parallel. But C1 isn’t in
treating each combination as a single component. Here all compo- series with either of the other single capacitors because after C1,
nents are capacitors, and each time we compute an equivalent ca- the circuit splits and you could go into either C2 or C3. Equa-
pacitance for two capacitors, we’ll redraw the circuit with the new tions 23.5 and 23.6 apply only to true parallel and series combina-
equivalent capacitance. We begin by noting that C2 and C3 are in tions. C1 is in series with the combination C23, so we could apply
parallel, so the equivalent capacitance is given by Equation 23.5: Equation 23.6b in analyzing Fig. 23.9b.
C23 5 C2 1 C3 5 4.0 mF. In Fig. 23.9b we’ve redrawn the original
circuit showing this combination of the two individual capacitors. ■

APPLICATION Bursts of Power

Capacitors are excellent devices for short-term storage of electric energy be-
cause they can deliver their stored energy very quickly—much faster than a
battery that might contain a lot more total energy.
When you use a flash camera, you have to wait a few seconds before the
flash is ready to fire again. That’s because the flash requires power—energy
per time—far greater than the camera’s battery could supply. So the battery
gradually charges a capacitor, whose energy is then dumped abruptly to
power the brief flash. It takes a while to recharge the capacitor before it’s
ready again. Much the same thing happens in a defibrillator, which delivers
several hundred joules to restore a heart’s normal beating. Again, the en-
ergy is stored in capacitors, which discharge in milliseconds. On a much
larger scale, whole rooms full of capacitors store the energy that drives
nanosecond laser pulses pouring millions of joules into tiny targets in ex-
periments aimed at making nuclear fusion a viable energy source. And in-
creasingly, so-called ultracapacitors supply extra energy for bursts of
As San Francisco’s BART trains decelerate, their kinetic energy is stored as elec- power in machinery from amusement park rides to mass-transit trains to
tric energy in an ultracapacitor. The stored energy is then used to accelerate the hybrid cars.
train. This system saves BART some 320 megawatt-hours of energy each year.
396 Chapter 23 Electrostatic Energy and Capacitors

23.4 Energy in the Electric Field

What’s the difference between a charged and an uncharged capacitor? Not the total charge,
which is zero, but the arrangement of charge. And with the charge arrangement comes
stored energy. Where, exactly, is this energy? We can ask the same question for the triangu-
lar charge distribution we assembled in Fig. 23.1. The individual charges didn’t change, but
their arrangement did. With the new arrangement came energy, but where is that energy?
What’s changed in both cases is the electric field. There’s no electric field in the un-
charged capacitor, but once charged, there’s a field between the plates. The triangular dis-
tribution started with three isolated point-charge fields and ended with a more complex
field. So where’s the stored energy? It’s in the electric field. In fact, every electric field
represents stored energy. Rearrange the charges to their original state—by discharging the
capacitor or letting the three point charges fly apart—and you get back that energy. Be-
cause electric forces govern much of the behavior of everyday matter, many seemingly
different forms of energy are actually electric. Burn gasoline or metabolize food, and
you’re rearranging the charge distributions we call molecules into new configurations
whose electric fields contain less energy.
Since electric fields can vary with position, we specify the energy density, or energy
stored per unit volume. For a capacitor, we can use Equation 23.1 in the form V 5 Q/C to
write the stored energy U 5 12 CV2 as U 5 Q2/2C. For a parallel-plate capacitor, Equation
23.2 gives C 5 P0 A/d, so the stored energy becomes U 5 Q 2d/2P0 A. This energy is asso-
ciated with the uniform electric field inside the capacitor, where it occupies a volume Ad.
So the energy density is U/Ad 5 Q 2/2P0 A2. We can rewrite this in terms of the field, which
we found to be E 5 Q/P0A. Then Q 5 P0AE, and the energy density becomes

uE 5 12 P0E 2 1electric energy density2 (23.7)

Although we derived Equation 23.7 for the uniform field of a parallel-plate capacitor, it
is in fact universal. Anywhere there’s an electric field, there’s also stored energy with
density, in J/m3, given by 12 P0E 2. That’s the deep significance of Equation 23.7: Every elec-
tric field represents stored energy. The energy that drives much of the physical universe, from
everyday events here on Earth to happenings in distant galaxies, results from the release
of energy stored in electric fields.

EXAMPLE 23.4 Electric Energy: A Thunderstorm

Typical electric fields in thunderstorms average around 105 V/m. Con- The cylindrical cloud has volume
sider a cylindrical thundercloud with height 10 km and diameter 20 km, V 5 pr2h 5 p110 km2110 km22 5 3.131012 m3
and assume a uniform electric field of 13105 V/m. Find the electric
Multiplying energy density by volume gives the total stored energy:
energy contained in this cloud.
U 5 uEV 5 14.431022 J/m3213.131012 m32 5 140 GJ
INTERPRET This problem is about stored electric energy.
ASSESS Make sense? A gallon of gasoline contains about 0.1 GJ (see
DEVELOP Since the field and hence the energy density are uniform, Appendix C), so the thundercloud stores the energy equivalent of
our plan is to find the energy density and then multiply it by the about 1400 gallons of gasoline. That’s not a whole lot for such a vast
cloud’s cylindrical volume to calculate the total electric energy. We’ll volume, showing that the energy density of macroscopic electric fields
use Equation 23.7, uE 5 12 P0 E 2, for the energy density. can’t compare with the electric energy density locked into the molec-
ular structure of a fuel. You’ll never see cars running on the energy
EVALUATE The energy density is
stored in atmospheric electric fields! ■
uE 5 12 P0 E 2 5 12 P0 113105 V/m22 5 4.431022 J/m3

When the electric field is uniform, as in our thundercloud, the total energy is the prod-
uct of energy density and volume. But when the field changes with position, we need cal-
culus. Consider a small volume dV, so small that the electric field is essentially uniform
 23.4 Energy in the Electric Field 397

over this volume. The stored energy is then dU 5 uE dV 5 12 P0 E 2 dV. The total energy in
the field is the sum—here the integral—of all the dU values:

U 5 12 P0 3 E 2 dV (23.8)

Because Equation 23.8 gives the energy stored in an electric field, it also represents the
work done in assembling the charge distribution resulting in that field. The next example
illustrates this point.

EXAMPLE 23.5 Work and Energy: A Shrinking Sphere

A sphere of radius R1 carries charge Q distributed uniformly over its
surface. How much work does it take to compress the sphere to a Surface area
is 4pr 2 . . .
smaller radius R2?
r
INTERPRET This problem asks for the work done in rearranging a dr
charge distribution, which we know is equal to the change in stored . . . and thickness
FIGURE 23.11 A thin spherical
electric energy. Here we start with a charged sphere already assembled, is dr.
shell has volume dV 5 4pr 2 dr.
and rearrange the charge by shrinking the sphere to a smaller radius.

DEVELOP We have spherical symmetry, so the field and thus the

stored energy outside the original radius R1 don’t change. Therefore, field is a point-charge field: E 5 kQ/r2. To use Equation 23.8 we need
we need to find the energy stored in the new field created when the an appropriate volume element dV. With spherical symmetry, Fig. 23.11
sphere shrinks. Figure 23.10 is our sketch of the situation before shows that we can use a thin spherical shell of volume dV 5 4pr2 dr.
and after the sphere shrinks. Then Equation 23.8 becomes
R1
Here the field varies with kQ 2 kQ2 R1 22
U 5 12 P0 3 E 2 dV 5 12 P0 3 a b 4pr2 dr 5 r dr
2 3R2
position, so Equation 23.8,
R2 r 2

U 5 12P0 #E 2 dV
where we substituted 1/4pk for P0.
gives the stored energy. Our
plan is to evaluate the field r21 1
EVALUATE The integral is 3 r 22 dr 5 5 2 , so
in the region R2 , r , R1 21 r
and use the result in Equa- R1
tion 23.8. Given the spher- kQ2 1 kQ2 1 1
U5 a2 b 2 5 a 2 b
ical symmetry, the new (a) 2 r R2 2 R2 R1
The work involved in shrinking the sphere
ends up as energy in the electric field here.
ASSESS Make sense? Here R2 , R1, so the stored energy is positive
and indicates that this much work had to be done to shrink the
sphere. Of course: The sphere carries charge of the same sign, and
shrinking it moves that charge closer together, against the repulsive
electric force. Letting R1 go to infinity gives the work needed to as-
semble a spherical surface charge distribution. Putting R2 5 0
FIGURE 23.10 (a) A charged makes the work and therefore the stored energy infinite—suggesting
sphere and its electric field. that the notion of a point charge is an impossible idealization. Prob-
(b) Shrinking the sphere lem 68 explores some implications of this result in the theory of ele-
creates field and energy in mentary particles. ■
the region R2 , r , R1. (b)

GOT IT? 23.3 You’re at a point P a distance a from a a

point charge 1q. You then place a point charge 2q a dis- 1q P
tance a on the opposite side of P as shown. What happens
to (a) the electric field strength and (b) the electric energy a a
density at P? (c) Does the total electric energy U 5 #uE dV
1q P 2q
of the entire field increase, decrease, or remain the same?
CHAPTER 23 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is that all electric fields represent stored energy. This energy is associated with the work needed to assemble a distribution of
electric charge, and may be negative or positive.
You do positive work to assemble You do negative work to assemble
U.0 this charge distribution . . . U,0
this charge distribution . . .
. . . and therefore the stored electric 1q 1q . . . and therefore the stored electric 1q 2q
energy U is positive. energy U is negative.

Key Concepts and Equations

The energy density in an electric field E is uE 5 12 P0E 2. At this point The electric energy U
the field strength stored in the shaded
r
Integrating over volume gives the total electric energy U stored in the field: is E, so there’s E volume is
electric energy
U 5 3 uE dV. whose density U 5 3uE dV 5
1
2
E03E2 dV.
1
is uE 5 2 e0E2.

Applications
A capacitor is a pair of insulated conductors used to store electric energy. Capacitance is the
ratio of charge to potential difference:
Spacing d
C 5 Q/V Q A
Potential
For a parallel-plate capacitor: difference V 2Q
C 5 P0A/d

The energy stored in a capacitor is U 5 12 CV2.

Capacitors in parallel add: C 5 C1 1 C2. 1 1 1

Capacitors in series add reciprocally: 5 1 .
C C1 C2

C1
C1 C2 C 5 C1 1 C2 1
C
5 1
C1
1
1
C2
C2

Capacitors in parallel have the same voltage. Capacitors in series have the same charge.

Complicated circuits are analyzed by breaking them into parallel and series combinations:

A A A
C1 C1
C123
C2 C3 C23
B B B
(a) (b) (c)

A dielectric between capacitor plates increases the capacitance, as determined by the dielectric constant k of the material: C S kC0.
 Exercises and Problems 399

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion the electrostatic energy of this configuration, which is therefore
the magnitude of the energy released in forming this molecule.
1. Two positive point charges are infinitely far apart. Is it possible, (Note: Your answer is an overestimate because electrons are ac-
using a finite amount of work, to move them until they’re a small tually “shared” among the three atoms, spending more time near
distance d apart? the oxygen.)
2. How does the energy density at a certain distance from a nega-
tive point charge compare with the energy density at the same Section 23.2 Capacitors
distance from a positive point charge of equal magnitude? 18. A capacitor consists of square conducting plates 25 cm on a side
3. A dipole consists of two equal but opposite charges. Is the total and 5.0 mm apart, carrying charges 61.1 mC. Find (a) the elec-
energy stored in the dipole’s electric field zero? Why or why not? tric field, (b) the potential difference between the plates, and
4. Charge is spread over the surface of a balloon, which is then al- (c) the stored energy.
lowed to expand. What happens to the energy of the electric field? 19. An uncharged capacitor has parallel plates 5.0 cm on a side,
5. Does the superposition principle hold for electric-field energy spaced 1.2 mm apart. (a) How much work is required to transfer
densities? That is, if you double the field strength at some point, 7.2 mC from one plate to the other? (b) How much work is re-
do you double the energy density as well? quired to transfer an additional 7.2 mC?
6. A student argues that the total energy associated with the electric 20. (a) How much charge must be transferred between the initially
field of a charged sphere must be infinite because its field ex- uncharged plates of Exercise 19 in order to store 15 mJ of en-
tends throughout an infinite volume. Critique this argument. ergy? (b) What will be the resulting potential difference between
7. A capacitor is said to carry a charge Q. What’s the net charge on the plates?
the entire capacitor? 21. A capacitor’s plates hold 1.3 mC when charged to 60 V. What’s
8. Does the capacitance describe the maximum amount of charge a its capacitance?
capacitor can hold, in the same way that a bucket’s capacity de- 22. The “memory” capacitor in a video recorder stores program
scribes the maximum amount of water it can hold? Explain. recording information during power outages. It has capacitance
9. Is a force needed to hold the plates of a charged capacitor in 4.0 F and is charged to 3.5 V. What’s the charge on its plates?
place? Explain. 23. What voltage is needed to put 1.6 mC on a 100-mF capacitor?
10. A solid conducting slab is inserted between the plates of a capac- 24. Show that the units of P0 may be written as F/m.
itor, not touching either plate. Does the capacitance increase, de- 25. Find the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor with circular
crease, or remain the same? plates 20 cm in radius separated by 1.5 mm.
11. Two capacitors contain equal amounts of energy, yet one has 26. A parallel-plate capacitor with 1.1-mm plate spacing has 62.3 mC
twice the capacitance. How do their voltages compare? on its plates when charged to 150 V. What’s the plate area?
12. A parallel-plate capacitor is connected to a battery that imposes a 27. The power supply in a stereo receiver contains a 2500-mF capac-
potential difference V between its plates. If a dielectric slab is itor charged to 35 V. How much energy does it store?
inserted between the plates, what happens to (a) the potential 28. Find the capacitance of a capacitor that stores 350 mJ when the
difference, (b) the capacitor charge, and (c) the capacitance? potential difference across its plates is 100 V.

Exercises and Problems Section 23.3 Using Capacitors

29. You have a 1.0-mF and a 2.0-mF capacitor. What capacitances
Exercises can you get by connecting them in series or in parallel?
Section 23.1 Electrostatic Energy 30. Two capacitors are connected in series and the combination is
13. Four 50-mC charges, initially far apart, are brought onto a line charged to 100 V. If the voltage across each capacitor is 50 V,
where they’re spaced at 2.0-cm intervals. How much work does how do their capacitances compare?
it take to assemble this charge distribution? 31. (a) Find the equivalent capacitance of the combination shown in
14. Three point charges 1q and a fourth, 212 q, are assembled to form Fig. 23.13. Find (b) the charge and (c) the voltage on each capac-
a square of side a. Find an expression for the electrostatic energy itor when a 100-V battery is connected across the combination.
of this charge distribution.
15. Repeat Exercise 14 for the case when the fourth charge is 2q.
16. If the three particles in Fig. 23.1 have identical charge q and C1 5 0.02 mF
mass m, and if they’re released from their positions on the trian-
gle, what speed v will they have when they’re far away?
17. A crude model of the water molecule has a negatively charged C2 5 0.01 mF C3 5 0.02 mF
oxygen atom and two protons, as shown in Fig. 23.12. Calculate

10
m
2 22e
10
13 FIGURE 23.13 Exercise 31
105°
1e 1e 32. You’re given three capacitors: 1.0 mF, 2.0 mF, and 3.0 mF. Find
(a) the maximum, (b) the minimum, and (c) two intermediate capac-
FIGURE 23.12 Exercise 17 itances you could achieve using combinations of all three capacitors.
400 Chapter 23 Electrostatic Energy and Capacitors

Section 23.4 Energy in the Electric Field discharges 300 J of its stored energy in 2.5 ms, what’s the
33. The energy density in a uniform electric field is 3.0 J/m3. What’s power delivered during this time?
the field strength? 48. A camera requires 5.0 J of energy for a flash lasting 1.0 ms.
34. A car battery stores about 4 MJ of energy. If this energy were (a) What power does the flashtube use while it’s flashing? (b) If
used to create a uniform 30-kV/m electric field, what volume the flashtube operates at 200 V, what size capacitor is needed to
would it occupy? supply the flash energy? (c) If the flashtube is fired once every
35. Air undergoes dielectric breakdown at a field strength of 3 MV/m. 10 s, what’s its average power consumption?
Could you store energy in an electric field in air with the same en- 49. What is the equivalent capacitance of the four identical capaci-
ergy density as gasoline? (Hint: See Appendix C.) tors in Fig. 23.15, measured between A and B?
36. Consider a proton to be a uniformly charged sphere 1 fm in ra- C
dius. Find the electric energy density at the proton’s surface. A

C C C
Problems
37. A charge Q0 is at the origin. A second charge, Qx 5 2Q0, is B
brought from infinity to the point x 5 a, y 5 0. Then a third
charge Qy is brought from infinity to x 5 0, y 5 a. If it takes twice FIGURE 23.15 Problem 49
as much work to bring in Qy as it did Qx, what’s Qy in terms of Q0?
38. A conducting sphere of radius a is surrounded by a concentric 50. Your company’s purchasing department bought lots of cheap
spherical shell of radius b. Both are initially uncharged. How 2.0-mF, 50-V capacitors. Your budget is maxed out and they
much work does it take to transfer charge from one to the other won’t let you buy additional capacitors for a circuit you’re de-
until they carry charges 6Q? signing. You need 2.0-mF, 100-V capacitors and 0.5-mF, 50-V
39. Two closely spaced square conducting plates measure 10 cm on a capacitors. How will you combine the available capacitors to
side. The electric-field energy density between them is 4.5 kJ/m3. make these?
What’s the charge on the plates? 51. What’s the equivalent capacitance measured between A and B in
40. A capacitor consists of two long concentric metal cylinders Fig. 23.16?
(Fig. 23.14). Find an expression for its capacitance in terms of 3.0 + F
the dimensions shown. A

2.0 + F 1.0 + F
L
B
2.0 + F

FIGURE 23.16 Problems 51 and 52

a 52. In Fig. 23.16, find the energy stored in the 1-mF capacitor when
b a 50-V battery is connected between A and B.
53. Capacitors C1 and C2 are in series, with voltage V across the
FIGURE 23.14 Problem 40 combination. Show that the voltages across the individual capac-
itors are V1 5 C2V/1C1 1 C22 and V2 5 C1V/1C1 1 C22.
41. A capacitor consists of a conducting sphere of radius a sur- 54. You’re evaluating a new hire in your company’s engineering de-
rounded by a concentric conducting shell of radius b. Show that partment. Together you’re working on a circuit where a 0.1-mF,
its capacitance is C 5 ab/k1b 2 a2. 50-V capacitor is in series with a 0.2-mF, 200-V capacitor. The
42. The potential difference across a cell membrane is 65 mV. On the new engineer claims you can safely put 250 V across the combi-
BIO outside are 1.53106 singly ionized potassium atoms. Assuming nation. What do you say?
an equal negative charge on the inside, find the membrane’s 55. A parallel-plate capacitor has plates with area 50 cm2 separated
capacitance. by 25 mm of polyethylene. Find its (a) capacitance and (b) work-
43. A capacitor stores 40 mJ of energy when charged to 100 V. ing voltage.
(a) How much would it store at 25 V? (b) What’s its capacitance? 56. A 470-pF capacitor consists of two 15-cm-radius circular plates,
44. Which can store more energy: a 1.0-mF capacitor rated at 250 V insulated with polystyrene. Find (a) the thickness of the poly-
or a 470-pF capacitor rated at 3 kV? styrene and (b) the capacitor’s working voltage.
45. As an electrical engineer, you’re asked to specify a capacitor that 57. The first accurate estimate of cell membrane thickness used a
can store 12 mJ of energy. The largest capacitor that will physi- BIO capacitive technique, which determined the capacitance per unit
cally fit on your circuit board is 10 mF. The manufacturer pro- area of cell membrane in a macroscopic suspension of cells; the
duces capacitors with voltage ratings in multiples of 25 V. What result was about 1 mF/cm2. Assuming a dielectric constant of
voltage do you specify? about 3 for the membrane, find the membrane’s thickness.
46. A 0.01-mF, 300-V capacitor costs 25¢; a 0.1-mF, 100-V capaci- (Note: Your answer is the thickness of the bipolar lipid layer
tor costs 35¢; and a 30-mF, 5-V capacitor costs 88¢. (a) Which alone, and is lower by a factor of about 3 than values based on
can store the most charge? (b) Which can store the most energy? X-ray techniques.)
(c) Which is the most cost-effective energy-storage device, meas- 58. Your company is still stuck with those 2-mF capacitors from
ured in J/¢? Problem 50. They turn out to be so cheap that their capacitances
47. A medical defibrillator stores 950 J in a 100-mF capacitor. are all too low, ranging from 1.7 mF to 1.9 mF. A colleague
BIO (a) What is the voltage across the capacitor? (b) If the capacitor suggests you put variable “trimmer” capacitors in parallel with
 Exercises and Problems 401

the cheap capacitors and adjust the combination to precisely With a V b, their electric field is the superposition of the fields from
2.00 mF. The available trimmers have variable capacitance from two long straight lines of charge. Find the capacitance per unit length
25 nF to 350 nF. Will they work? for this transmission line.
59. A cubical region 1.0 m on a side is located between x 5 0 and 72. An infinitely long rod of radius R carries uniform volume charge
x 5 1 m. The region contains an electric field whose magnitude density r. Find an expression for the electrostatic energy per unit
varies with x but is independent of y and z: E 5 E01x/x02, where length contained within the rod. (Hint: See Problem 21.54.)
E0 5 24 kV/m and x0 5 6.0 m. Find the total energy in the 73. (a) Write the electrostatic potential energy of a pair of oppositely
region. charged, closely spaced parallel plates as a function of their sep-
60. A sphere of radius R contains charge Q spread uniformly through- aration x, their area A, and the charge magnitude Q. (b) Differen-
out its volume. Find an expression for the electrostatic energy tiate with respect to x to find the magnitude of the attractive force
contained within the sphere itself. (Hint: Consult Example 21.1.) between the plates. Why isn’t the force equal to the charge on
61. A sphere of radius R carries total charge Q distributed uniformly one plate times the electric field between the plates?
over its surface. Show that the energy stored in its electric field is 74. An unknown capacitor C is connected in series with a 3.0-mF
U 5 kQ2/2R. capacitor; this pair is placed in parallel with a 1.0-mF capacitor,
62. A uranium-235 nucleus has diameter 6.6 fm and contains and the entire combination is put in series with a 2.0-mF capaci-
92 protons and 143 neutrons. Assuming that charge is distrib- tor. (a) Make a circuit diagram of this network. (b) When a po-
uted uniformly throughout the nucleus, use the results of Prob- tential difference of 100 V is applied across the open ends of the
lems 60 and 61 to calculate the total electrostatic energy of this network, the total energy stored in all the capacitors is 5.8 mJ.
configuration. Find C.
63. Two widely separated 4.0-mm-diameter water drops each carry
15 nC. Assuming all charge resides on the drops’ surfaces, find Passage Problems
the change in electrostatic potential energy if they’re brought Nuclear fusion could provide humankind with limitless energy, mak-
together to form a single spherical drop. ing a gallon of seawater the energy equivalent of 300 gallons of gaso-
64. A 2.1-mm-diameter wire carries a uniform line charge density line. The National Ignition Facility (NIF) at Lawrence Livermore
l 5 28 mC/m. Find the energy in a region 1.0 m long within one National Laboratory was designed for the “ignition” of nuclear fusion
wire diameter of the wire surface. by bombarding a tiny deuterium-tritium pellet with energy from 192
65. A typical lightning flash transfers 30 C across a potential differ- converging laser beams. The NIF lasers deliver 2 MJ of energy in
ence of 30 MV. Assuming such flashes occur every 5 s in the about 1 ns; Fig. 23.18 shows the target chamber where the laser beams
thunderstorm of Example 23.4, roughly how long would the converge. The energy is stored in capacitors that, because of conver-
storm last if its electric energy were not replenished? sion inefficiencies, have to store some 400 MJ. (Note: NIF is more
66. Show that the result of Problem 41 reduces to that of a parallel-plate complicated than described here, and the numbers and technical de-
capacitor when the separation b 2 a is much less than the radius a. scriptions are only approximate.)
67. A solid sphere contains a uniform volume charge density. What
fraction of the total electrostatic energy of this configuration is
contained within the sphere?
68. A classical view of the electron pictures it as a purely electric en-
tity, whose Einstein rest mass energy, E 5 mc2, is the energy
stored in its electric field. If the electron were a sphere with
charge distributed uniformly over its surface, what radius would
it have in order to satisfy this condition? (Note: Your answer, and
the picture of the electron as a sphere, aren’t consistent with
quantum theory.)
69. An air-insulated parallel-plate capacitor of capacitance C0 is
charged to voltage V0 and then disconnected from the charging
battery. A slab with dielectric constant k and thickness equal to
the capacitor spacing is then inserted halfway into the capacitor
FIGURE 23.18 The NIF target chamber, shown during installation (Passage
Problems 75–78)
L

75. What total capacitance is required if the capacitor system is

charged to 20 kV?
a. 100 mF
b. 200 mF
FIGURE 23.17 Problems 69 and 70
c. 1 F
(Fig. 23.17). Determine (a) the new capacitance, (b) the stored d. 2 F
energy, and (c) the force on the slab in terms of C0, V0 , k, and the 76. If it were technically and economically feasible to double the
plate length L. voltage, how would the required capacitance change?
70. Repeat parts (b) and (c) of Problem 69, now assuming the battery a. drop to 1/4 its original value
remains connected while the slab is inserted. b. drop to 1/2 its original value
71. A transmission line consists of two parallel wires, of radius a and c. would not change
separation b, carrying uniform linear charge densities 6l, respectively. d. would double
402 Chapter 23 Electrostatic Energy and Capacitors

77. While they’re firing, the power delivered by the laser beams is Answers to GOT IT? Questions
a. 2 MW 123106 W2. 23.1. (b), because U depends on V2.
b. 2 GW 123109 W2. 23.2. (a) parallel; (b) series. The working voltage of the series com-
c. 2 TW 1231012 W2. bination is twice that of the parallel combination, which is the
d. 2 PW 1231015 W2. same as that of the individual capacitors.
78. Among the capacitors that store energy at NIF are 1200 300-mF 23.3. (a) E1P2 doubles; (b) uE1P2 quadruples; (c) U decreases, since
units charged to about 20 kV. The energy stored in each capaci- the charges are attracted and therefore you do negative work to
tor is about bring in the negative charge.
a. 3 J.
b. 20 kJ.
c. 60 kJ.
d. 400 MJ.

Answers to Chapter Questions

Answer to Chapter Opening Question
The energy is stored in the electric field of a pair of charged conductors—
a capacitor—and dumped quickly to the defibrillator when it’s needed.
 24 Electric Current

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Describe quantitatively electric cur-
rent and current density in terms of
the microscopic properties
characterizing the flow of electric
charge (24.1).
■ Explain the mechanisms of electrical
conduction in different materials,
especially metals (24.2).
■ Describe electrical resistance, and
relate current, voltage, and resistance
using Ohm’s law (24.3).
■ Calculate electric power (24.4).
■ Use electricity safely (24.5).
How does electric current heat this lightbulb
filament? Where does the energy come from?

W e now move beyond electrostatic equilibrium and consider situations in which charges are
moving. The flow of charge constitutes electric current, and it occurs in materials contain-
ing free charges—that is, in conductors.
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ This chapter draws on the concepts
of electric charge and conductors
Electric current is essential in many technological and natural processes. Currents in light- (20.1, 20.5).
bulbs, toasters, and stoves produce heat and light. Currents in electric motors run refrigerators, ■ We’ll look again at potential
hybrid cars, and subway trains. In computers, currents move and process data. In your body, they difference (22.1, 22.3).
regulate heartbeat and control muscles. Currents in Earth’s liquid outer core generate the ■ We’ll be venturing away from
planet’s magnetism, protecting us from cosmic radiation. And currents in the Sun are responsi- electrostatic equilibrium, so we’ll
ble for giant eruptions that can spew high-energy particles toward Earth. revisit the behavior of charge in
conductors (21.6).

24.1 Electric Current

Quantitatively, current is the net rate of charge crossing an area. Its units are coulombs per
second, which is given the name ampere (A) after the French physicist André Marie Ampère
(1775–1836). In electronics and biomedical applications, currents are small enough that
milliamperes (mA) and microamperes 1A2 are widely used. When current I is steady or
a time average will do, we write
DQ
I5 1steady current2 (24.1a)
Dt

403
404 Chapter 24 Electric Current

where DQ is the charge crossing the given area in time D t. For time-varying currents we
take the limit of small time intervals:
dQ
I5 1instantaneous current2 (24.1b)
dt
Current is in the direction in which positive charge flows. If the moving charge is nega-
tive, as with electrons in a metal, then the current is opposite the charge motion.
Protons moving right: I is to right. A current may consist of one kind of moving charge, or both. If it’s both, then the net
Net
current
current is the sum of the currents carried by positive and negative charges (Fig. 24.1a).
That’s why the bulk motion of a neutral object—even though it contains lots of positive
and negative charge—doesn’t constitute a current (Fig. 24.1b).
Negative electrons moving left: I is to right.
(a)
Zero net
GOT IT? 24.1 Which of the following represents a nonzero current? What’s its di-
current rection? (a) a beam of electrons moves from left to right; (b) a beam of protons moves up-
vr ward; (c) in a solution, positive ions move left and negative ions move right; (d) blood,
carrying positive and negative ions at the same speed, moves up through a vein; (e) a metal
car with no net charge speeds westward.
Both charges moving right; no net current.
(b)

FIGURE 24.1 The net current is the sum Current: A Microscopic Look
of the currents carried by both positive and
negative charges. Current depends on the speed of the charge carriers, their density, and their charge. In
some cases, like a beam of electrons in vacuum, “speed” here means the actual speed of
the charges. But in typical conductors, charges are moving about at high speed with ran-
dom thermal velocities that don’t result in a net flow of charge. When a current is present,
there’s an additional and usually very small drift velocity superposed on the charges’ ran-
vrd dom motion, and it’s this drift velocity that determines the current. We’ll see this in more
n charges/unit volume, each charge q detail when we consider metallic conductors.
Figure 24.2 shows a conductor that contains n charges per unit volume, each with
A charge q and drift speed vd. We want to express the current in terms of these microscopic
properties and macroscopic properties like length and area. With A the conductor’s cross-
L
sectional area, a length L of conductor has volume AL and contains nAL individual charges
for a total charge DQ 5 nALq. Moving at vd, this charge takes time Dt 5 L/vd to pass a
This volume contains charge DQ 5 nALq.
given point. Then the current is
DQ nALq
FIGURE 24.2 A conductor of cross-sectional area I5 5 5 nAqvd (24.2)
A containing n charges per unit volume. Dt L/vd

EXAMPLE 24.1 Finding Current: A Copper Wire

A 5.0-A current flows in a copper wire with cross-sectional area 1.0 mm2, EVALUATE Solving, we get
carried by electrons with number density n 5 1.131029 m23. Find the I
electrons’ drift speed. vd 5
nAq
INTERPRET We’re given microscopic parameters, so this is a problem 5.0 A
5 5 0.28 mm/s
about the relation between current and the parameters n, q, and vd. 11.131029 m23211026 m2211.6310219 C2

DEVELOP Figure 24.3 is our sketch. Equation 24.2, I 5 nAqvd, relates ASSESS Make sense? Our answer seems awfully small. After all,
current to the macroscopic parameters, so our plan is to solve for vd. when you flip a light switch, the light comes on immediately, not sev-
eral thousand seconds later as our answer might imply. But the answer
is right. Electrons in the wire all get their “marching orders” from the
electric field, and that’s established almost instantaneously. As a re-
sult electrons throughout the wire start moving almost simultaneously.
That’s why the light comes on immediately. ■

FIGURE 24.3 Sketch for Example 24.1.

 24.2 Conduction Mechanisms 405

✓TIP Drift Speed and Signal Speed

Example 24.1 points to an important distinction between the drift speeds of electrons
and speed of electric signals. The former is typically about 1 mm/s, but the latter is
close to the speed of light. When you connect a wire across a battery, for example, an
electric field develops, starting at both battery terminals and moving along the wire at
nearly the speed of light. As soon as electrons experience the field, they start to move.
So there’s almost no time delay before the start of the current.

Current Density
Currents aren’t always confined to wires. Currents in the Earth, in chemical solutions, in
your body, and in ionized gases flow in ill-defined paths, and their magnitude and direc-
tion may vary
! with position. We characterize such diffuse currents in terms of current
density, J, a vector whose direction at each point is that of the local current and whose
magnitude is the current per unit area. Dividing Equation 24.2 by area and using the drift
!
velocity vector vd instead of speed vd gives the current density:
! !
J 5 nqvd 1current density2 (24.3)
When the current density is uniform, as in a wire, the total current is just the product of
the current density and the wire’s cross-sectional area. But when the current density varies,
it’s necessary to integrate to find the total current; see Problem 57.

EXAMPLE 24.2 Current and Current Density: Through the Cell Membrane
Ion channels are narrow pores that allow ions to pass through cell DEVELOP Current is the rate of charge passing through a given area,
membranes (Fig. 24.4). A particular channel has a circular cross sec- here the opening of an ion channel. Equation 24.1a, I 5 DQ/Dt, de-
tion 0.15 nm in radius; it opens for 1 ms and passes 1.13104 singly termines the current. Current density, however, is current per unit
ionized potassium ions. Find both the current and the current density area, which we can compute from J 5 I/A.
in the channel.
EVALUATE With each ion carrying charge e, a total charge DQ 5
Ion channels 1.13104e 5 1.8310215 C flows through the channel in Dt 5 1023 s,
giving a current I 5 DQ/Dt 5 1.8 pA. For current density we then
find
I 1.8310212 A
J5 5 5 2.53107 A/m2
A p10.1531029 m22
Lipid
~0.3 nm
molecules
ASSESS Make sense? How can something so tiny as a cell have a
current density of 25 million amperes per square meter? No prob-
FIGURE 24.4 Diagram of a cell membrane, showing ions passing through an lem: Current density measures current per unit area. The ion chan-
ion channel. nel is so small that the total current—1.8 picoamperes—is tiny. But
that channel is impressive in its own right; its 25 MA/m2 is about
INTERPRET This problem describes a flow of individual ions and asks four times the maximum safe current density in typical household
for two distinct but related quantities: current and current density. wiring. ■

24.2 Conduction Mechanisms

Electric fields exert forces on charges, so it’s the presence of electric fields in conductors
that results in electric current. Fields in conductors? Yes. With moving charge we no
longer have electrostatic equilibrium, so the field inside a conductor need not be zero.
Newton’s law suggests that an electric field should accelerate free charges in a conductor,
resulting in an ever-increasing current. But in most conductors charges collide, usually
with ions, and lose energy they’ve gained from the field. These collisions provide an ef-
fective force that counters the electric force, and the end result is that it takes an electric
406 Chapter 24 Electric Current

field to sustain a steady current. In most materials the field and current are in the same di-
rection, and we can therefore express the relation between the two as
! !
J 5 sE 1Ohm’s law, microscopic version2 (24.4a)

where the quantity s is the material’s conductivity.

Ohm’s Law: A Microscopic View

For many common conductors, including metals, conductivity s is independent of electric
field. Such materials are called ohmic, and for them Equation 24.4a states that current
density and electric field are linearly proportional. In nonohmic
! ! materials, conductivity
does depend on field, and thus the relationship between J and E isn’t linear.
You may be familiar with the macroscopic version of Ohm’s law, which relates electric
Table 24.1 Resistivities current and voltage in a piece of conducting material. Equation 24.4a is the microscopic
Material #
Resistivity 1V m2 version of Ohm’s law, describing the relation between electric field and current density at
each point within a conductor. The macroscopic version is helpful in analyzing electric cir-
Metallic conductors 120°C2 cuits, and we’ll derive it in the next section. But the microscopic version is important in
Aluminum 2.6531028 biophysics, geophysics, astrophysics, semiconductor engineering, and other areas where
Copper 1.6831028 electric fields vary with position and we want to know what’s going on at each point.
Gold 2.2431028 Conductivity s tells how large a current density will result from a given electric field;
Iron 9.7131028 it’s a measure of how easily charges in a material can move. A perfect conductor would
Mercury 9.8431027 have s 5 `; a perfect insulator, s 5 0. A related quantity is resistivity, r, defined as the
Silver 1.5931028 inverse of conductivity: r 5 1/s. Then Equation 24.4a can be written
Ionic solutions (in water, 18°C) !
! E
1-molar CuSO4 3.931024 J5 (24.4b)
1-molar HCl 1.731022 r
1-molar NaCl 1.431024
Resistivity tells how hard it is for charge to move; the higher a material’s resistivity, the
H 2O 2.63105
stronger the electric field needed to produce a given current density. You may be familiar
Blood, human 0.70
with electrical resistance, and we’ll soon see how resistance and resistivity are related.
Seawater (typical) 0.22
Equation 24.4b shows that the units of resistivity are V # m/A. One V/A is given the
Insulators
name ohm, V, after the German physicist Georg Ohm (1789–1854), who explored the re-
1011–1014
Ceramics
lation between voltage and current. Thus the SI units of resistivity are V # m; reciprocally,
1010–1014
those of conductivity are 1V # m221. Conductivity and resistivity range widely, spanning
Glass
Polystyrene 1015–1017
some 24 orders of magnitude. Table 24.1 lists the resistivities of some typical materials.
Rubber 1013–1016
Measurement of electrical resistivity provides information on the composition of materi-
Wood (dry) 108–1014
als in fields from medicine to geophysics.

EXAMPLE 24.3 Finding the Electric Field: Household Wiring

A 1.8-mm-diameter copper wire carries 15 A to a household appli- EVALUATE Solving for the field magnitude, we have
ance. Find the magnitude of the electric field in the wire. Ir 115 A211.6831028 V # m2
E 5 Jr 5 5 5 99 mV/m
INTERPRET This problem asks us to calculate the electric field within A p10.9031023 m22
a conductor carrying an electric current.
ASSESS Make sense? This number is a lot smaller than the electric
! !
DEVELOP Equation 24.4b, J 5 E/r, relates electric field and current fields we discussed in electrostatic situations. Because copper is such
density. Here we’re given the total current I and the wire diameter, so a good conductor, a weak field can drive a substantial current. In well-
we can write the current density as J 5 I/A, with A the wire’s cross- engineered circuits, the field inside conducting wires is often so small
sectional area. We also need the resistivity of copper from Table 24.1. as to be negligible, even when the current is large. ■
Then we can solve Equation 24.4b for the electric field.

GOT IT? 24.2 Two wires carry the same current I. Wire A has a larger diameter, a
higher density of current-carrying electrons, and a lower resistivity than wire B. Rank in or-
der (a) the current densities, (b) the electric fields, and (c) the drift speeds in the two wires.
 24.2 Conduction Mechanisms 407

Conduction in Metals
Metals are good conductors because they contain abundant free electrons, which respond
readily to electric fields. Each atom in a metal typically contributes one or more electrons
to this “sea” of free electrons. The remaining ions form a regular crystal lattice (Fig. 24.5).
Electrons move through the lattice at about 106 m/s, colliding frequently with ions and
bouncing off in random directions. In the absence of an electric field, there’s no net flow
of electrons in any particular direction, and so no current.
FIGURE 24.5 Atoms of a metal form a
We’ll now consider what happens when an electric field is applied to a metal, regular crystal lattice.
and we’ll show why metals obey Ohm’s law. However, our explanation is necessar-
ily incomplete because a full description of metallic conduction involves quantum
mechanics.
An electric field accelerates negative electrons in the direction opposite the field.
But like a car in stop-and-go traffic, the electron soon gives up the energy and speed it
gained from the field. For the car, that happens at the next stoplight; for the electron,
it’s at the next collision with an ion, where it rebounds in a random direction (Fig. 24.6). r
Like the car, the electron thus acquires an average velocity that’s proportional to the E
acceleration it experiences between collisions—that is, proportional to the electric
field. There’s one difference, though, between the electron and the car: The electron
has also a high random thermal velocity, so the average velocity is a tiny effect super-
FIGURE 24.6 An electron’s path in a metal is al-
posed on the electron’s random thermal motion. That average velocity is the drift ve-
! most completely random, but in the presence
locity, vd. All electrons share this common drift velocity, so their motion constitutes a of an electric field there’s a slight drift antipar-
current proportional to vd. allel to the field.
The drift velocity depends on two things: the electrons’ acceleration and the rate at
which they undergo collisions. The electric field provides the acceleration, so vd is propor-
tional to E. The collision rate depends on how fast the electrons are moving, and here’s
the important point: Because thermal motions are so fast, the additional drift velocity
makes essentially no difference in the collision rate, so the latter is constant. Therefore,
the drift velocity and hence the current are proportional to the electric field—and that
makes Equation 24.4a a linear relationship between current density and field. That’s why
metals are ohmic.
Although a metal’s conductivity is independent of the applied field, it does depend on

Resistivity (10 –8 V·m)

temperature T. That’s because the thermal speed and hence the collision rate increase with 6
temperature, decreasing conductivity and increasing resistivity. Classical physics gives
thermal speed proportional to 1T, as we saw in Section 17.1, so we might expect resis- 4
tivity to depend similarly on temperature. Experiment, however, shows that resistivity is
nearly linear with temperature (Fig. 24.7)—a result that can be explained using quantum 2
mechanics.
Although the current associated with random thermal motions averages to zero, at any 0
given instant short-term fluctuations can result in more electrons moving in a particular 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (K)
direction. The result is a very small current whose direction and magnitude fluctuate ran-
domly. This thermal noise can overwhelm currents of interest in sensitive electronic FIGURE 24.7 Resistivity of copper has a nearly lin-
equipment. Circuits like the amplifiers in radio telescopes are often cooled to decrease ear dependence on temperature, in contrast to
thermal noise. the classical prediction of a dependence on 1T.

Ionic Solutions
Liquid solutions contain positive and negative ions that respond to an electric field by
moving in opposite directions, resulting in a net current. Conductivity is limited by colli-
sions between ions and neutral atoms and, as Table 24.1 suggests, ionic solutions are
poorer conductors than metals. Ionic conduction is essential to life, as the transport of
ions through cell membranes in Example 24.2 suggests. Electric eels use ionic conduc-
tion to sense and kill their prey. Batteries and fuel cells use ionic conduction, which also
plays a role in the corrosion of metals. And an ionic solution—sweat—increases our vul-
nerability to electric shock.
408 Chapter 24 Electric Current

Thermal motion has

dislodged an electron . . .
Plasmas
Plasma is ionized gas that conducts because it contains free electrons and ions. It takes sub-
stantial energy to ionize atoms, so plasmas usually exist only at high temperatures. Plasmas
are rare on Earth; they’re in fluorescent lamps, plasma TVs, neon signs, the ionosphere,
flames, and lightning flashes. Yet much of the universe’s ordinary matter is in the plasma
state; stars, in particular, are mostly plasma.
The electric properties of plasma make it so different from ordinary gas that plasma is
often called “the fourth state of matter.” Some plasmas—like the Sun’s corona—are so dif-
fuse and therefore collisions so rare as to make them far better conductors than metals.
These “collisionless” plasmas can sustain large currents with minimal electric fields.

. . . leaving a hole. Semiconductors

(a) Even in insulators, random thermal motions dislodge a few electrons, giving these materi-
als very modest conductivity. In a few materials—notably the element silicon—this effect
Electron and hole move is significant at room temperature. Such materials have conductivities between those of
oppositely in an electric field.
good insulators and metals, so they’re called semiconductors. Semiconductors make pos-
Electrons Holes
sible the microelectronic technology so pervasive in modern civilization. Here we give a
qualitative description of semiconductors based on classical physics; we’ll revisit semi-
Hole
conductors from a quantum-mechanical viewpoint in Chapter 37.
A dislodged electron leaves behind a “hole,” into which an adjacent electron, nudged
A bound
Free
electron
by the electric field, can “fall” (Fig. 24.8). The result is a movement of holes in the direc-
electron r
E jumps tion of the field. Thus holes act as positive charges, so a pure semiconductor contains
leftward, equal numbers of negative charge carriers (electrons) and positive carriers (holes).
moving the
hole to the
The key to semiconductor technology lies in doping with impurities that greatly alter a
right. semiconductor’s intrinsic conductivity. Figure 24.9 shows how a single phosphorus atom,
with five valence electrons, fits into silicon’s crystal structure but leaves a free electron. It
(b)
doesn’t take much phosphorus for these extra electrons to constitute the vast majority of
charge carriers. Since the charge carriers are negative, the material is called an N-type
FIGURE 24.8 Structure of a silicon crystal, show- semiconductor. Doping with trivalent atoms like boron, in contrast, leaves extra holes and
ing each atom bound to each of its neighbors makes a P-type semiconductor.
by two shared electrons. (a) Thermal motion
dislodges electrons, creating electron-hole
pairs. (b) An electric field drives electrons
The phosphorus fits into the Si
and holes in opposite directions, creating an
structure but leaves an extra free electron.
electric current.

Phosphorus, with
five valence electrons

FIGURE 24.9 Phosphorus-doped silicon has extra free electrons, making it an

N-type semiconductor.

The essential element of nearly every semiconductor device is the PN junction. Elec-
trons and holes diffuse across such a junction and recombine, depleting the junction re-
gion of charge carriers and making it a poor conductor. Applying a voltage from the P to
the N region—but not the other way—lets charge flow through the junction. So the PN
junction conducts in one direction but not the other (Fig. 24.10). The wide range of semi-
conductor devices in use today results largely from carefully engineered combinations of
PN junctions.
 24.2 Conduction Mechanisms 409

Battery
2 1
Battery
1 2
Depletion Depletion
region region
I
P N P N P N

With no battery, electrons and

holes diffuse across the junction. Connecting the battery like this Now the battery drives charge
Holes and electrons recombine, pulls electrons and holes away carriers to the junction region,
depleting the junction region of from the junction. The depletion permitting current to flow.
charge carriers. region widens and little current
flows.

FIGURE 24.10 A PN junction conducts in only one direction.

Superconductors

Resistivity (mV ·cm)

600 Transition
In 1911 the Dutch physicist H. Kamerlingh Onnes found that the resistivity of mercury temperature
dropped to zero at a temperature of 4.2 K. Today we know thousands of substances that 93 K
400
become superconductors at sufficiently low temperatures. Currents in superconduc-
tors persist for years without measurable decrease, suggesting the resistivity is truly
200
zero (Fig. 24.11). For decades the known superconductors were metals and metal al-
r50
loys that required cooling with liquid helium. Then, in 1986, physicists at IBM’s
0
Zurich laboratory stunned the scientific community with the discovery of ceramic ma- 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
terials that become superconducting at around 100 K—high enough to cool with inexpen- Temperature (K)
sive liquid nitrogen. The search for higher-temperature superconductors continues, with
FIGURE 24.11 Resistivity versus temperature for
the highest temperature reported now over 160 K. Development of a room-temperature a thin film of yttrium–barium–copper-oxide
superconductor could revolutionize much of electrical technology. superconductor.

APPLICATION The Transistor

Few inventions have revolutionized society as much as the transistor, the semi- temporarily N-type, as in part (b). That eliminates the PN junctions, and now
conductor device at the root of all modern electronics. The figure shows one current flows through the transistor.
type, the field-effect transistor, or FET. This particular FET is a slab of P-type Varying the gate voltage continuously makes the transistor an amplifier, in
semiconductor with two embedded N-type regions. Normally no current can which a weak gate signal controls a larger current. Swinging between fully on
flow through the transistor because one of its two PN junctions is backward, as and off makes the transistor a digital switch, providing the binary 1 and 0 from
shown in part (a) of the figure. But atop the so-called channel between the which all digital information is built. Today, transistors by the billions are fab-
N-type regions is a thin insulating layer, and over it a metal layer called the ricated on single chips of silicon, making the powerful microprocessors that
gate. Make the gate positive, and it pulls electrons into the channel, making it are the “brains” of computers.

Gate Gate
Insulating layer 11 111 Insulating layer
11 111
I50 I 11 111
11 111
11 111 Positive charge on the
gate attracts electrons
N N N N N to the channel. The
P P channel becomes
N-type, and the
  Channel Channel   transistor conducts.

Battery Normally the transistor Battery

doesn't conduct because
one of the PN junctions
is backward.
(a) (b)
410 Chapter 24 Electric Current

Superconductors offer loss-free flow of electric power. Today, superconductors are

widely used in high-strength electromagnets, including those in MRI scanners; in devices
that measure weak magnetic fields in biomedical, geophysical, and other applications; for
electric-power transmission in high-density urban applications; and in motors for ship
propulsion. Expect more applications in the near future.

24.3 Resistance and Ohm’s Law

How much current does it take to run this hair dryer? Do I risk a fatal shock if I touch this
wire? How long an extension cord can I use with this electric saw? How long will it take
to recharge my cell phone? Is the wiring in my house safe? All these questions are ulti-
mately about the electric current flowing in wires, bodies, and batteries. The answer
in each case depends on two things: the voltage V applied across the object and the
resistance R that the object offers to the flow of electric current.
The macroscopic version of Ohm’s law relates voltage, current, and resistance. Ohm’s
law states that the current through an object is proportional to the voltage across it and
inversely proportional to the object’s resistance:
V
I5 1Ohm’s law, macroscopic version2 (24.5)
R
Ohm’s law shows that a given voltage can push more current through a lower resistance.
It’s worth noting two extreme cases: An open circuit is a nonconducting gap with infinite
resistance. No matter what the voltage is across an open circuit, Equation 24.5 shows that
no current can flow. A switch in its “off” position is an open circuit. A short circuit, in
contrast, has zero resistance. In a short circuit, current of any magnitude is possible with-
out any voltage or electric field. A switch in its “on” position approximates a short circuit.
An unintentional short circuit is dangerous; short circuits in household wiring, for exam-
ple, are a leading cause of fires because they allow large currents to flow, resulting in ex-
cessive heating. All real situations, with the exception of superconductors, lie between the
extremes of short and open circuits.
1 V 2 We can understand how the macroscopic version of Ohm’s law follows from the mi-
r
E croscopic version by considering
! the conductor shown in Fig. 24.12. Suppose there’s a
l A uniform electric field E within the! conductor.
! Then there must be a uniform current den-
r
J sity given by Equation 24.4b: J 5 E/r, where r is the resistivity of the material. Then
L
the total current is I 5 JA 5 EA/r, where A is the conductor’s cross-sectional area. If the
conductor has length L, then the potential difference between its ends is V 5 EL, since
FIGURE 24.12 A cylinder of conducting material the electric field is uniform. Solving to get E 5 V/L and using the result in our expression
with resistivity r. for I give
VA V
I5 5
Lr rL/A
Comparison with the macroscopic Ohm’s law, Equation 24.5, lets us identify the resis-
tance with the term rL/A. Thus resistance depends on the resistivity r and the geometry—
length and area—of the particular piece of material:
rL
R5 (24.6)
A
We derived this expression for a conductor of uniform cross section; although Ohm’s law
still holds for a nonuniform conductor, integration is required to calculate the resistance
(see Problem 61). Equations 24.5 and 24.6 both show that the units of resistance are
ohms 1V2.
We emphasize that Ohm’s law is not fundamental; rather, it’s an empirical law that
describes electrical conduction in some materials. Table 24.2 summarizes the relation be-
tween microscopic and macroscopic quantities in Ohm’s law.
 24.3 Resistance and Ohm’s Law 411

Table 24.2 Microscopic and Macroscopic Quantities and Ohm’s Law

Microscopic Macroscopic Relation

! !
Electric field, E Voltage, V E is defined at each
! point in a material; V is
the integral of E over a path. In a uniform
field, V 5 EL.
! !
Current density, J Current, I J is defined at each
! point in a material; I is
the integral of J over an area. With uniform
current density, I 5 JA.

Resistivity, r Resistance, R r is a property of a given material; R is a

property of a particular piece of that material.
In a piece with uniform cross section,
R 5 rL/A.

Ohm’s law Ohm’s law Microscopic version relates current density

!
! E V to electric field at a point in a material.
J5 I5 Macroscopic version relates current
r R through to voltage across a given piece
of material.

EXAMPLE 24.4 Resistance and Ohm’s Law: Starting Your Car

A copper wire 0.50 cm in diameter and 70 cm long connects your EVALUATE Table 24.1 gives r 5 1.6831028 V # m for copper, so for
car’s battery to the starter motor. What’s the wire’s resistance? If the the resistance we get
starter motor draws a current of 170 A, what’s the potential difference rL 11.6831028 V # m210.70 m2
across the wire? R5 5 5 0.60 mV
A p10.2531022 m22
INTERPRET This problem involves Ohm’s law, and we identify the Then Ohm’s law gives the voltage: V 5 IR 5 1170 A210.60 mV2 5
wire as the object in which we want to relate current, voltage, and 0.10 V.
resistance.
ASSESS Make sense? These numbers seem awfully small. They should
DEVELOP Figure 24.13 shows the wire. Equation 24.6, R 5 rL/A, be! A wire carrying a large amount of current needs to have a very low
determines the resistance, so our plan is first to use the resistivity of resistance so the voltage across the wire remains low. We want that
copper from Table 24.1 in Equation 24.6 and then to use the resulting 12-V potential difference from the battery to appear across the starter
resistance in Ohm’s law (Equation 24.5), I 5 V/R, to find the poten- motor, not the connecting wires. A thinner, higher-resistance wire
tial difference. would mean lower voltage across the starter and a significant reduction
in current. ■

FIGURE 24.13 Sketch for Example 24.4.

A resistor is a piece of conductor made to have a specific resistance. Heating elements

in electric stoves, hair dryers, irons, space heaters, and the like are all essentially resistors;
so are the filaments of incandescent lightbulbs. In all these cases the resistance—ultimately
resulting from collisions between conduction electrons and lattice ions—provides a means
of turning electric energy into heat. Resistors also set appropriate values of current and
voltage in electronic circuits; for this purpose, they’re made in a wide range of resistances.
Resistors are rated not only by their resistance but also by the maximum power they can
dissipate without overheating.
412 Chapter 24 Electric Current

GOT IT? 24.3 The figure shows three pieces of wire. (1) and (2) are made from the
same material, while (3) is made from a material with twice the resistivity. (1) and (3) have
twice the diameter of (2), while (2) is twice as long as the others. (a) Which has the highest
resistance? (b) If the same voltage is applied across each, which will pass the largest current?

(1) (2) (3)

24.4 Electric Power

Impose a potential difference V across a resistor, and a current I flows through it. The
quantity V is the energy gained per unit charge as charge “falls” through the potential dif-
ference. In a resistor, that energy is dissipated through collisions, heating the material. So
V is also the energy per unit charge going into heating. Meanwhile, the current I is the rate
at which charge flows through the resistor. Then the energy per unit time—that is, the
power dissipated in heating the resistor—is the product of the energy per unit charge and
the rate at which charge moves through the conductor:
P 5 IV 1electric power2 (24.7)
Although we developed Equation 24.7 for power dissipated as heat in a resistor, it holds
any time electrical energy is being converted to some other form. If we measure 5 V across
an electric motor and 2 A through the motor, we can conclude that the motor is converting
electrical to mechanical energy at the rate of 10 W (actually less because some of the
power goes into heating).
Solving Ohm’s law for V and putting the result in Equation 24.7 give
P 5 I 2R (24.8a)
Solving instead for I gives
V2
P5 (24.8b)
R
These are useful forms when we know the resistance and either the voltage or the current.

✓TIP What’s Constant?

Equation 24.8a seems to imply that power increases with increasing resistance, while
Equation 24.8b seems to suggest the opposite. Both implications are correct—if I
in Equation 24.8a and V in Equation 24.8b are constants. But there’s no contradic-
tion because I and V can’t both be constant while the resistance R—the ratio of V
to I—changes. In most cases we work with sources of constant voltage, and then
the power dissipated is inversely proportional to the resistance.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 24.1 Power Transmission

Long-distance power transmission lines operate at very high volt- increases as the square of the current. So use of high voltage and low
ages—often hundreds of kilovolts. Why? current minimizes transmission losses (Fig. 24.14).
EVALUATE Equation 24.7, P 5 IV, shows that we can get the same ASSESS As a user, you don’t encounter these high voltages. That’s be-
electric power from low voltage V and high current I, or vice versa. cause transformers “step down” the voltage before it reaches the end
But Equation 24.8a shows that power loss in a transmission line user (we’ll explore transformers in Chapter 28). The lower voltages
 24.5 Electrical Safety 413

Power loss depends on are safer and easier to handle, although even standard 120-V house-
wire resistance Rw and hold power is far from “safe.”
on current I.

Wire Rw MAKING THE CONNECTION What’s the current in a typical

Power V I VL Load 120-V, 100-W lightbulb? What’s the bulb’s resistance?
plant
EVALUATE Solving Equation 24.7 for I gives I 5 P/V 5 100 W/
Power plant imposes Voltage VL across load 120 V 5 0.833 A. Knowing the current, you can get the resistance ei-
voltage V across is lower because of ther from Ohm’s law or from Equation 24.8a. Or you can get it di-
transmission line. power lost in wires.
rectly from Equation 24.8b. All three approaches give R 5 144 V.
FIGURE 24.14 High voltage and low current minimize losses in power The filament temperature is 3000 K, so this resistance is much higher
transmission. than what you’d measure with the bulb off.

24.5 Electrical Safety

Whether you’re in a lab hooking up electronic equipment, or in a hospital connecting in-
strumentation to a patient, or on a job designing electric devices, or simply at home plug-
ging in appliances and tools, you should be concerned with electrical safety.
Everyone knows enough to be wary of “high voltage.” People with a little more sophis-
tication say, “It isn’t the voltage but the current that kills.” In fact, both points of view are
partially correct. Current through the body is dangerous, but as with any resistor it takes
voltage to drive that current.
Table 24.3 shows typical effects of electric currents entering the body through skin
contact. A primary danger is disturbance of the electric signals that pace heartbeat; this
is reflected in the lethal zone of 100–200 mA at which the heart goes into fibrillation—
uncontrolled spasms of the cardiac muscle. With electric signals applied internally,
much lower currents can be lethal. Doctors performing cardiac catheterization worry
about currents at the microampere level.

Table 24.3 Effects of Externally Applied Current on Humans

Current Range Effect

0.5–2 mA Threshold of sensation

10–15 mA Involuntary muscle contractions; can’t let go
15–100 mA Severe shock; muscle control lost; breathing difficult
100–200 mA Fibrillation of heart; death within minutes
.200 mA Cardiac arrest; breathing stops; severe burns

Above 200 mA, complete cardiac arrest may occur, breathing may stop, and burns may
occur. Sometimes high currents are useful: Emergency defibrillators briefly apply a high
enough current to stop the heart, which often restarts normal beating. The figures in Table 24.3
are rough averages and vary from person to person as well as with duration of the shock
and whether alternating or direct current is involved. Very young children and people with
heart conditions are at higher risk.
Under dry conditions, the typical human has a resistance of about 105 V between two
points on unbroken skin. What voltages are dangerous to such a person? At 105 V it takes
V 5 IR 5 10.1 A21105 V2 5 10,000 V
to drive the fatal 100 mA. But a person who’s wet or sweaty has a much lower resistance
and may be electrocuted by 120-V household electricity or even lower.
To be dangerous, an electric circuit must have high voltage and be capable of driving
sufficient current. For example, a car battery can deliver 300 A, but it can’t electrocute you
because its 12 V won’t drive much current through you. On the other hand, the 20,000 V
414 Chapter 24 Electric Current

that runs your car’s spark plugs won’t electrocute you either, since the high-voltage circuit
can’t deliver more than a few mA.
Because potential difference is a property of two points, receiving an electric shock re-
quires that two parts of the body contact conductors at different potentials; this chapter’s
opening photo provides a dramatic example. In typical 120-V wiring used throughout
North America, one of the two wires is connected physically to the ground. This ground
connection prevents the wiring from reaching arbitrarily high potentials, as might other-
wise happen in a thunderstorm or if a short circuit occurred in a power line. At the same
time it means that an individual contacting the “hot” side of the circuit and any grounded
conductor such as the ground, a water pipe, or a bathtub will receive a shock.
Many devices use three-wire cords to reduce shock hazard. Exposed metal parts con-
nect directly to a third ground wire that normally carries no current. If something goes
wrong and a “hot” wire accidentally short-circuits to the metal case, this wire provides a
low-resistance path to ground (Fig. 24.15). A large current flows and blows the fuse or cir-
cuit breaker, shutting off the current. Even better are ground fault circuit interrupters used
in kitchens, bathrooms, and other high-risk locations. These devices sense a slight imbal-
ance in current on the two wires, and shut off the circuit on the assumption that the “miss-
ing” current is leaking to ground, perhaps through a person.

Operator stays
safely at ground
potential.

I Short circuit Short circuit

to metal case to metal case

Large current
flows, blowing I
fuse.
Ground Ground
Fuse I “Hot” Fuse I “Hot”
120 V 120 V
“Neutral”
Two-wire “Neutral”
I “Ground”
Ground outlet and plug Three-wire
outlet and plug
(a) (b)

FIGURE 24.15 (a) A short circuit in an ungrounded tool could result in a lethal shock.
(b) With a grounded tool, the fuse blows and the operator is safe.
CHAPTER 24 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is electric current—the flow of electric charge—and its microscopic cousin, current density. With current we don’t have elec-
trostatic equilibrium, and there’s usually an electric field in a current-carrying conductor. Ohm’s law is an empirical statement—not a fundamental
law of physics—that relates current and voltage, or current density and electric field.

Key Concepts and Equations

Quantitatively, current is defined as the rate of charge flow: The microscopic version of Ohm’s law relates electric field, current
DQ density, and conductivity s (or its inverse, resistivity r):
I5 ! !
Dt J 5 sE
Current density is the current per unit area. Its magnitude is The macroscopic version relates voltage, current, and resistance:
I I 5 V/R
J5
A Current I
Voltage V across
through
Charge DQ conductor
conductor
crosses this r
area in time Dt. E
A
r
J I 5 JA
A
Conductor of Electric field and current
material with density are vectors defined
There are n charge conductivity at each
r
point;
r
they're related
carriers per unit volume, s and resistivity by J 5 sE.
with charge q and drift /
r 5 1 s;
rL
velocity vd. resistance R 5 A

Microscopically, current depends on the density of charge carriers,

their charge, and the drift velocity:
Electric power is the product of voltage and current:
I 5 nqAvd and
! ! P 5 IV
J 5 nqvd
Using Ohm’s law, this can also be written
P 5 I 2R
V2
P5
R

Applications
Different types of conductors have different conduction mechanisms. In metals, free electrons Electron and hole move
carry the current; in ionic solutions, both positive and negative ions are involved; in plasmas, oppositely in an electric field.
the charge carriers are free electrons and ions; and in semiconductors, both electrons and posi- Electrons Holes
tive holes carry current, with semiconductor conduction properties readily adjustable.
Superconductors are materials that exhibit zero resistance at sufficiently low temperatures. Hole

Free A bound
electron r
electron
E jumps
r leftward,
E
moving the
hole to the
right.

Electrical safety is a matter of avoiding currents high enough to cause biological harm, and that means avoiding voltages high enough to drive
such currents.
416 Chapter 24 Electric Current

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 20. A 1.0-cm-diameter rod carries a 50-A current when the elec-
tric field in the rod is 1.4 V/m. What’s the resistivity of the rod
1. Explain the difference between current and current density. material?
2. A constant electric field generally produces a constant drift ve- 21. Use Table 24.1 to determine the conductivity of (a) copper and
locity. How is this consistent with Newton’s assertion that force (b) seawater.
results in acceleration, not velocity?
Section 24.3 Resistance and Ohm’s Law
3. When caught in the open in a lightning storm, a person should
crouch low with feet close together rather than lie flat on the 22. Find the resistance of a heating coil that draws 4.8 A when the
ground. Why? voltage across it is 120 V.
4. Good conductors of electricity are often good conductors of heat. 23. What voltage does it take to drive 300 mA through a 1.2-kV re-
Why might this be? sistance?
5. Why can current persist forever in a superconductor with no 24. What’s the current in a 47-kV resistor with 110 V across it?
applied voltage? 25. The “third rail” that carries electric power to a subway train is an
6. Does an electric stove burner draw more current when it’s first iron bar whose rectangular cross section measures 10 cm by 15 cm.
turned on or when it’s fully hot? Find the resistance of a 5.0-km length of this rail.
7. A person and a cow are standing in a field when lightning strikes 26. What current flows when a 45-V potential difference is imposed
the ground nearby. Why is the cow more likely to be electro- across a 1.8-kV resistor?
cuted? 27. A uniform wire of resistance R is stretched until its length dou-
8. You put a 1.5-V battery across a piece of material, and a 100-mA bles. Assuming its density and resistivity remain constant, what’s
current flows. With a 9-V battery, the current increases to 400 mA. its new resistance?
Is the material ohmic or not? Section 24.4 Electric Power
9. The resistance of a metal increases with increasing temperature,
28. A car’s starter motor draws 125 A with 11 V across its terminals.
while the resistance of a semiconductor decreases. Why the
What’s its power consumption?
difference?
29. A 4.5-W flashlight bulb draws 750 mA. (a) At what voltage does
10. A 50-W and a 100-W lightbulb are both designed to operate at
it operate? (b) What’s its resistance?
120 V. Which has the lower resistance?
30. A watch uses energy at the rate of 240 mW. What current does it
11. Equation 24.8a suggests that no power can be dissipated in a su-
draw from its 1.5-V battery?
perconductor because R 5 0. But Equation 24.8b suggests the
31. A 35-V electric stove burner consumes 1.5 kW of power. At
power should be infinite. Which is right, and why?
what voltage does it operate?
12. What’s wrong with this news report: “A power-line worker was
32. An incandescent lightbulb draws 0.50 A, while a compact fluo-
injured when 4000 volts passed through his body”?
rescent with the same light output draws 125 mA. Both operate
on standard 120-V household power. How do their energy-
Exercises and Problems consumption rates compare?

Exercises Section 24.5 Electrical Safety

33. Though rare, electrocution has been reported under wet condi-
Section 24.1 Electric Current tions with voltages as low as 30 V. What resistance would be nec-
13. A wire carries 1.5 A. How many electrons pass through the wire essary for this voltage to drive a fatal current of 100 mA?
in one second? 34. You touch a defective appliance while standing on the ground,
14. A 12-V car battery is rated at 80 ampere-hours, meaning it can and you feel the tingle of a 2.5-mA current. What’s your resist-
supply 80 A of current for 1 hour before it becomes discharged. ance, assuming you’re touching the “hot” side of the 120-V
If you accidentally leave the headlights on until the battery dis- household wiring?
charges, how much charge moves through the lights? 35. You have a typical resistance of 100 kV. (a) How much current
15. Biologists measure the total current due to potassium ions mov- could a 12-V car battery pass through you? (b) Would you feel this?
BIO ing through the membrane of a rock crab neuron cell as 30 nA.
How many ions pass through the membrane each second? Problems
16. The National Electrical Code specifies a maximum current of 36. An ion channel in a cell membrane carries 2.4 pA when it’s open,
10 A in 16-gauge (1.29-mm-diameter) copper wire. What’s the BIO which is only 20% of the time. (a) What’s the average current in
corresponding current density? the channel? (b) If the channel opens for 1.0 ms, how many
singly ionized ions pass through in this time?
Section 24.2 Conduction Mechanisms 37. A lightbulb filament has diameter 0.050 mm and carries 0.833 A.
17. The electric field in an aluminum wire is 85 mV/m. Find the cur- Find the current density (a) in the filament and (b) in the 12-gauge
rent density in the wire. wire (diameter 2.1 mm) supplying current to the lightbulb.
18. What electric field is necessary to drive a 7.5-A current through 38. A gold film in an integrated circuit measures 2.5 mm thick by
a 0.95-mm-diameter silver wire? 0.18 mm wide. It carries a current density of 0.68 MA/m2.
19. A cylindrical tube of seawater carries 350 mA of current. If What’s the total current?
the electric field in the water is 21 V/m, what’s the tube’s 39. A copper wire joins an aluminum wire whose diameter is twice
diameter? that of the copper. The same current flows in both wires. The
 Exercises and Problems 417

density of conduction electrons in copper is 1.131029 m23; in Having read Example 24.4, you know that the resistance between
aluminum it’s 2.131029 m23. Compare (a) the drift speeds and battery and starter should be around 1 mV. While your friend
(b) the current densities in each. cranks the starter, you measure 4.2 V between the battery termi-
40. In Fig. 24.16, a 100-mA current flows through a copper wire nal and the wire carrying current to the starter motor. If the mo-
0.10 mm in diameter, a salt solution in a 1.0-cm-diameter glass tor draws 125 A, is the resistance in its normal range?
tube, and a vacuum tube where the current is carried by an elec- 51. Two cylindrical resistors are made from the same material and
tron beam 1.0 mm in diameter. The density of conduction elec- have the same length. When connected across the same battery,
trons in copper is 1.131029 m23. The current in the solution is one dissipates twice as much power as the other. How do their
carried equally by positive and negative ions with charges 62e ; diameters compare?
the density of each ion species is 6.131023 m23. The electron 52. You’re working on a new high-speed rail system. It uses 6000-
density in the beam is 2.231016 m23. Find the drift speed in horsepower electric locomotives, getting power from a single
each region. overhead wire with resistance 15 mV/km, at 25 kV potential rel-
ative to the track. Current returns through the track, whose resist-
Vacuum ance is negligible. Energy-efficiency standards call for no more
1.0 cm tube
1.0 mm than 3% power loss in the wire. How far from the power plant
0.10 mm
can the train go and still meet this standard?
Wire Wire 53. A 100%-efficient electric motor is lifting a 15-N weight at
Solution
Electron beam 25 cm/s. How much current does it draw from a 6.0-V battery?
54. A power plant produces 1000 MW to supply a city 40 km away.
FIGURE 24.16 Problem 40 Current flows from the power plant on a single wire with resist-
ance 50 mV/km through the city and returns via the ground, with
41. In a study of proteins mediating cell membrane transport, biolo-
negligible resistance. At the power plant the voltage between
BIO gists measure current versus time through the cell membranes of
wire and ground is 115 kV. Find (a) the current in the wire and
oocytes (nearly mature egg cells) taken from the African clawed
(b) the fraction of the power lost in transmission.
frog, Xenopus. The measured current versus time is given ap-
55. You’re estimating costs for a new power line with your com-
proximately by I 5 60t 1 200t2 1 4.0t3 with t in seconds and
pany’s financial group. Engineering specifies a resistance per
I in nA. Find the total charge that flows through the cell mem-
unit length of 50 mV/km. The costs of copper and aluminum
brane in the interval from t 5 0 to t 5 5.0 s.
wire are $4.65/kg and $2.30/kg and their densities are 8.9 g/cm3
42. There’s a 2.5-V potential difference between opposite ends of a
and 2.7 g/cm3, respectively. Which material is more economical?
6.0-m-long iron wire 1.0 mm in diameter. Assuming a uniform
56. A 240-V electric motor is 90% efficient, meaning that 90% of the
electric field in the wire, find (a) the current density and (b) the
energy supplied to it ends up as mechanical work. If the motor
total current.
lifts a 200-N weight at 3.1 m/s, how much current does it draw?
43. The maximum safe current in 12-gauge (2.1-mm-diameter) cop-
57. A metal bar has rectangular cross section 5.0 cm by 10 cm, as
per wire is 20 A. Find (a) the current density and (b) the electric
shown in Fig. 24.17. The bar has a nonuniform conductivity, and
field under these conditions.
as a result the current density increases linearly from zero at the
44. Silver and iron wires of the same length and diameter carry the
bottom to 0.10 A/cm2 at the top. Find the total current in the bar.
same current. How do the voltages across the two compare?
45. You have a cylindrical piece of material 2.4 cm long and 2.0 mm
in diameter. When you attach a 9-V battery to its ends, a 2.6-mA
current flows. Which material from Table 24.1 do you have?
46. How must the diameters of copper and aluminum wire be related 5.0 cm J = 0.10 A/cm2
if they’re to have the same resistance per unit length?
47. You’re writing the instruction manual for a power saw, and you 10 cm
have to specify the maximum permissible length for an extension
cord made from 18-gauge copper wire (diameter 1.0 mm). The J=0
saw draws 7.0 A and needs a minimum of 115 V across its motor
when the outlet supplies 120 V. What do you specify for the max- FIGURE 24.17 Problem 57
imum length extension cord, given that they come in 25-foot
increments? 58. An immersion-type heating coil is connected to a 120-V outlet
48. An implanted pacemaker supplies the heart with 72 pulses per and immersed in a 250-mL cup of water initially at 10°C. The
BIO minute, each pulse providing 6.0 V for 0.65 ms. The resistance water comes to a boil in 85 s. Assuming no heat loss, and ne-
of the heart muscle between the pacemaker’s electrodes is 550 V. glecting the heater’s mass, find (a) the power and (b) the heater’s
Find (a) the current that flows during a pulse, (b) the energy de- resistance.
livered in one pulse, and (c) the average power supplied by the 59. The resistivity of copper as a function of temperature is given ap-
pacemaker. proximately by r 5 r031 1 a1T 2 T024, where r0 is Table 24.1’s
49. A solid rectangular iron bar measures 0.50 cm by 1.0 cm by 20 cm. entry for 20°C, T0 5 20°C, and a 5 4.331023 °C 21. Find the
Find the resistance between each of the three pairs of opposing temperature at which copper’s resistivity is twice its room-
faces, assuming the faces in question are equipotentials. temperature value.
50. You’re heading out for spring break, but your car won’t start. Your 60. Each atom in aluminum contributes about 3.5 conduction elec-
friend says you might have corrosion at the battery terminals—a trons. Find the drift speed in a 2.1-mm-diameter aluminum wire
frequent cause of hard starting because of increased resistance. carrying 20 A.
418 Chapter 24 Electric Current

61. A circular pan of radius b has a plastic bottom and metallic side- Passage Problems
wall of height h. It’s filled with a solution of resistivity r. A A brownout occurs when an electric utility can’t supply enough power
metal disk of radius a and height h is at the center, as shown to meet demand. Rather than cut off some customers completely, the
in Fig. 24.18. The side and disk are essentially perfect conduc- utility reduces the voltage across its system. Brownouts are most
tors. Show that the resistance measured from side to disk is likely on hot summer days, when heavy air-conditioning loads drive
R 5 r ln 1b/a2/2ph. up demand for electricity. In a particular brownout, the utility reduces
the voltage by 10%.
66. During the brownout, the current in conductors whose resistance
is nearly independent of temperature
a
a. decreases by approximately 10%.
h
b. decreases by approximately 20%.
c. decreases by approximately 5%.
d. You can’t tell without knowing the resistance.
67. Which of the following occurs in the conductors of the preceding
b
problem during the brownout?
FIGURE 24.18 Problem 61 a. Both the electric field and electron drift speed decrease.
b. The electric field decreases but the electron drift speed doesn’t.
62. Figure 24.19 shows a truncated cone of material with resistivity c. The current is carried by fewer electrons.
r. Assume the equipotentials are planes parallel to the two faces, d. The electrons undergo more frequent collisions.
and integrate over slices of thickness dx like the one shown to 68. During the brownout, the power dissipated in conductors whose
find an expression for the total resistance between the faces. resistance is nearly independent of temperature
a. decreases by approximately 10%.
L
b. decreases by approximately 20%.
c. decreases by approximately 5%.
b d. You can’t tell without knowing the resistance.
a
69. Metallic conductors like lightbulb filaments and electric stove
burners have resistance that increases with increasing tempera-
ture. During the brownout, the current in such devices
a. decreases by 10%.
dx
b. decreases by more than 10%.
FIGURE 24.19 Problem 62
c. decreases by less than 10%.
d. You can’t tell without knowing more about how the resistance
63. The current density in a particle beam with circular cross section varies.
of radius a points along the beam axis with a magnitude that de-
creases linearly from J0 at the center 1r 5 02 to half that value at Answers to Chapter Questions
the edge 1r 5 a2. Find an expression for the total current in the
beam. Answer to Chapter Opening Question
64. A cylindrical resistor is 5.0 mm in diameter and 1.5 cm long. It’s Collisions between electrons and the metal ions in the filament dissi-
made of a composite material whose resistivity varies from one end pate electric energy as heat. The energy results from the electrons’ be-
to the other according to the equation r 5 r011 1 x/L2ex/L, for ing accelerated by an electric field.
0 # x # L, where r0 5 2.4131023 V # m. Find its resistance.
65. You work for an automobile manufacturer developing a new Answers to GOT IT? Questions
plug-in hybrid car. The car’s mass is 1200 kg, and it uses a 360-V 24.1. (a) current, right to left; (b) current, up; (c) current, left; (d), (e)
battery driving an electric motor that can handle a maximum cur- no current.
rent of 180 A. You’re to specify the greatest slope the car can 24.2. (a) JA , JB; (b) EA , EB; (c) vdA , vdB.
climb, maintaining 60 km/h, without its gasoline engine coming 24.3. (a) (2); it’s twice as long as (3) but with one-fourth the area and
on to assist. half the resistivity; (b) (1), because it has the lowest resistance.
 25 Electric Circuits

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ “Read” an electric-circuit diagram,
identifying individual components
and their interconnections (25.1).
■ Analyze simple circuits using series
and parallel combinations (25.2).
■ Analyze more complex circuits by ap-
plying the node and loop laws (25.3).
■ Use electrical measuring instruments
(25.4).
■ Describe the time-dependent behav-
ior of circuits that include capacitors
(25.5).
Festive lights decorate a city. If one of
them burns out, they all go out. Are they
connected in series or in parallel?

A n electric circuit is a collection of electrical components connected by conductors. Human-

made circuits range from simple flashlights to computers. Electric circuits also exist in na-
ture, including your own nervous system and Earth’s atmospheric circuit in which thunderstorms
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ This chapter draws on the concepts
of electric current (24.1) and voltage
are the batteries and the atmosphere a resistor. Understanding circuits will help you use effec- (22.1).
tively and safely the myriad electrical devices in your life, and can even help you design new ■ We’ll use the ideas of Ohm’s law and
devices or troubleshoot old ones. resistance as well as electric power
(24.3, 24.4).
■ We’ll work with series and parallel
25.1 Circuits, Symbols, and Electromotive Force connections of electrical
We diagram circuits using standard symbols for circuit components and lines to represent components (23.3).
wires (Fig. 25.1). We usually approximate wires as perfect conductors; then all points con- ■ We’ll revisit capacitors, now using
nected by a wire are at the same potential and are electrically equivalent. Realizing this them in circuits (23.2).
will help you understand circuit diagrams.


V A


Resistor Capacitor Source Voltmeter Switch Ammeter Variable Variable Ground Fuse
of emf resistor capacitor

FIGURE 25.1 Common circuit symbols.

419
420 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits

Gravitational field Mass is It takes an electric field to drive current through a conductor with nonzero resistance.
gr is analogous to analogous But unless we actively maintain the field, charge will quickly move to establish electro-
r
electric field E. to charge.
static equilibrium, with no field inside the conductor and no current. So we need a device
that can maintain a fixed potential difference and therefore an electric field in a current-car-
rying conductor. Such a device is called a source of electromotive force, or emf. (The name
“force” here is inaccurate and is used only for historical reasons.) Most sources of emf have
two terminals for connection to other circuit components. An emf converts some other form
gr
of energy to electrical energy by separating positive and negative charge to maintain a fixed
potential difference between its terminals. The most familiar example is a battery, in which
chemical reactions drive charge to the two terminals. Others include electric generators,
which convert mechanical to electrical energy; photovoltaic cells, which use sunlight to sep-
arate charge; and cell membranes, which control ion flow into and out of the cell.
Lifting against gravity Charge “falls” through When a source of emf is connected to an external circuit, current flows through the cir-
represents the energy- an external circuit,
conversion process in dissipating energy in cuit from the emf’s positive terminal to the negative terminal. Energy-conversion
an emf. collisions. processes in the emf then “lift” charge against the emf’s internal electric field, maintain-
ing a fixed potential difference across its terminals. The charge then “falls” through the
FIGURE 25.2 Gravitational analog for emf.
external circuit, dissipating its energy in the circuit resistance. The result is a steady cur-
rent, driven by the constant voltage across the emf. Figure 25.2 shows a gravitational anal-
ogy for an emf connected across an external circuit.
Quantitatively, emf is the work per unit charge involved in “lifting” charge against the
electric field. Its units are therefore volts. An ideal emf maintains the same voltage across
its terminals under all conditions. Real emfs have internal energy losses, and the terminal
voltage may not equal the rated emf.
In Fig. 25.3 an ideal battery of emf E drives current through resistor R. We’re assuming
the wires connecting the battery and the resistor are perfect conductors, so the voltage
 across the resistor is equal to the battery’s emf. Ohm’s law then gives the resistor current:
 I 5 E/R. Energetically, this circuit is analogous to Fig. 25.2: Charge gains E joules per
coulomb as it’s “lifted” against the electric field inside the battery, then dissipates that
Battery is (a)
. . . and the emf energy in heating the resistor.
drives current
the source
through the
of emf . . .

resistor. ✓TIP Don’t Get Hung Up on Wires
E I R We approximate wires as perfect conductors, so it takes no potential difference to

drive current through a wire. Thus all points on the wire are at the same potential and
are electrically equivalent. That means there are many ways to draw the same circuit;
(b)
as long as two points are connected by a wire, that’s all that matters. Of course real
FIGURE 25.3 A circuit consisting of a battery wires have some resistance, but if it’s negligible compared with other resistances in
and a resistor: (a) physical circuit; (b) schematic the circuit, then we can approximate the wires as being ideal.
diagram.

GOT IT? 25.1 The figure shows three circuits. Which are electrically equivalent?

(a) (b) (c)

25.2 Series and Parallel Resistors

We considered series and parallel capacitors in Section 23.3. Series and parallel are the
two simplest ways to connect any electric components. Two components are in series if
the current flowing through one component has nowhere to go but through the other com-
ponent. Two components are in parallel if they’re connected together at each end. Here
we’ll consider series and parallel resistors.
 25.2 Series and Parallel Resistors 421

Series Resistors
Figure 25.4 shows a circuit with two resistors in series. We’d like to know the current through

and the voltage across each resistor. Neither is connected directly across the battery, so we
can’t argue that either resistor “sees” the battery emf. But the resistors are in series, and that 
means the only place for current to go after R1 is through R2. In a steady state, with no charge
buildup in the circuit, that means the current through both resistors—and through the battery (a)
as well—must be the same. This is true whenever circuit components are in series:
R1 Current from R1
can't go anywhere
The current through circuit components in series is the same. but through R2 . . .

E
If I is the current in Fig. 25.4, then by Ohm’s law there must be a voltage V1 5 IR1 across 
R2
R1 to drive the current through this resistor. Similarly, the voltage across R2 is V2 5 IR2. . . . so current
Thus, the voltage across the two resistors together is V1 1 V2 5 IR1 1 IR2. But the battery through R1 and R2
(b) is the same.
is connected directly across this series combination, so we have IR1 1 IR2 5 E, or
FIGURE 25.4 A battery and two resistors in
E
I5 series: (a) physical circuit; (b) schematic
R1 1 R2 diagram.

Comparison with Ohm’s law in the form I 5 V/R shows that the two resistors in series
behave like an equivalent resistance equal to the sum of their resistances. In an obvious
generalization to more resistors in series, we have

Rseries 5 R1 1 R2 1 R3 1 c 1series resistors2 (25.1)

In other words, resistors in series add.

Given the current, we can use Ohm’s law in the form V 5 IR to solve for the voltage
across each resistor:
R1 R2
V1 5 E and V2 5 E (25.2a, b)
R1 1 R2 R1 1 R2
These expressions show that the battery voltage divides between the two resistors in pro-
portion to their resistance. For this reason a series combination of resistors is called a
voltage divider.

✓TIP How Does the Battery Know?

How does the battery in Fig. 25.4 “know” how much current to supply? For a brief in-
stant when the circuit is first connected, it doesn’t. But in a very short time an electric
field is established throughout the wires and resistors, and the circuit settles into a
steady state, with the same current everywhere. Later, with circuits including capaci-
tors, we’ll analyze the approach to the steady state; for now, assume that the circuit
reaches that state essentially instantaneously.

EXAMPLE 25.1 Series Resistors: Designing a Voltage Divider

A lightbulb with resistance 5.0 V is designed to operate at a current of
600 mA. To operate this lamp from a 12-V battery, what resistance
The lightbulb
should you put in series with it? is a resistor.

INTERPRET This problem is about a series circuit like Fig. 25.4, with
a lightbulb and unknown resistance for the two resistors.

DEVELOP We’ve sketched the circuit in Fig. 25.5, taking R1 as the un-
known and R2 as the 5-V lightbulb. The same current flows through
series resistors, so our plan is to find an expression for that current and FIGURE 25.5 Sketch for Example 25.1. (continued)
422 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits

then solve for the value of R1 that will make the current 600 mA. ASSESS Make sense? The lightbulb’s operating voltage is
Since resistors in series add, the current through both resistors follows V 5 IR2 5 10.60 A215.0 V2 5 3.0 V
from Ohm’s law: I 5 E/1R1 1 R22.
This is one-fourth of the battery voltage, so Equation 25.2b shows that
EVALUATE We solve for R1 to get the bulb’s 5-V resistance should be one-fourth of the total. That makes
the total 20 V, leaving 15 V for R1. This isn’t a very efficient way to
E 2 IR2 12 V 2 10.60 A215.0 V2
R1 5 5 5 15 V run the bulb, since a lot more energy gets dissipated in R1 than goes
I 0.60 A into lighting the bulb. Better to use a 3-V battery and no resistor. ■

GOT IT? 25.2 Rank from highest to lowest the voltages across the identical resistors
R at the top of each circuit shown, and give the actual voltage for each. In (a) the second
resistor has the same resistance R, and in (b) the gap is an open circuit (infinite resistance).
R R R
  
6V R 6V 6V
  

(a) (b) (c)

Real Batteries
What’s the difference between the two 1.5-V batteries in Fig. 25.6? If they were ideal, both
would maintain 1.5 V across their terminals no matter how much current was flowing. But
these are real batteries. Chemical reaction rates limit the current, so it’s not surprising that
the larger battery can deliver more current.
We model a real battery as an ideal emf in series with an internal resistance
(Fig. 25.7). Of course there is no ideal emf! The internal resistance is intrinsic to the bat-
tery, and there’s no way to circumvent it. Some of it is actual resistance, but most repre-
sents the limited rate at which chemical reactions can separate charge. For a given battery
voltage, lower internal resistance implies a more powerful battery—one that can deliver
more current.
FIGURE 25.6 Both batteries are rated at 1.5 V, but Figure 25.8 shows that the internal resistance Rint is in series with the external load
they have different internal resistances. Which RL to which the battery supplies power; the resulting circuit is a voltage divider. If Rint
do you think has the higher Rint? is small compared with RL, Equation 25.2b shows that the voltage across the load will
be very nearly the battery voltage. Then the battery is behaving nearly ideally because
 it has essentially E volts across its terminals. But if we lower RL, more current flows
and more voltage drops across Rint —and that leaves less voltage at the battery termi-
Rint nals and across the load. Even if we short-circuit the battery (not a good idea!), we
won’t get an infinite current; in fact, we’ll get I 5 E/Rint, the most current this battery
 can deliver.
E


 Current I means a voltage
IRint across Rint . . .
FIGURE 25.7 A real battery modeled I
Rint
as an ideal emf in series with an internal
Vterminal RL
resistance.

E
. . . that leaves a terminal 
voltage less than E.


FIGURE 25.8 A real battery connected to an external load. Some voltage

drops across the internal resistance, making the terminal voltage less than
the battery’s rated voltage.
 25.2 Series and Parallel Resistors 423

EXAMPLE 25.2 Internal Resistance: Starting a Car

Your car has a 12-V battery with internal resistance 0.020 V. When These points are
the starter motor is cranking, it draws 125 A. What’s the voltage the battery terminals.
across the battery terminals while starting?

INTERPRET This problem is about a real battery connected to a load,

as in Fig. 25.8. We identify one resistor as the internal resistance and
the load resistance as the starter motor.

DEVELOP Figure 25.9 is our sketch, showing the internal resistance in

series with the load. The current is the same everywhere in a series
circuit, so we can use Ohm’s law to find the voltage across Rint. Sub-
tracting that voltage from the battery’s emf will then tell what’s left
across the load. FIGURE 25.9 Sketch for Example 25.2.

EVALUATE For the internal resistance, Ohm’s law gives

motor runs only briefly; most of the time the load on the battery—
Vint 5 IRint 5 1125 A210.020 V2 5 2.5 V headlights, ignition system, electronics, and so on—draws far less
That leaves 12 V 2 2.5 V or 9.5 V across the battery terminals. current and so the battery behaves essentially like an ideal 12-V emf.
A battery voltage of 9–11 V is typical during starting; much less
ASSESS Make sense? That 9.5 V is substantially less than the bat- than 9 V indicates a weak battery, a defective starter, or very cold
tery’s 12-V rating, so we’re hardly treating it ideally. But the starter weather. ■

Parallel Resistors
Figure 25.10 shows two resistors in parallel, connected across an ideal battery. Since the I delivers . . . I1 and I2
two resistors are connected at top and bottom by ideal wires, the voltage across each must charge to carry charge
point A . . . away from A . . .
be the same. We made this point in Chapter 23 when we discussed parallel capacitors, and
it’s worth repeating here: I
A

The voltage across circuit elements in parallel is the same. 

E R1 I1 R2 I2

The parallel resistors are connected directly across the battery, so their common volt-
age is the battery emf E. Applying Ohm’s law then gives the current through each resistor: I

E E
I1 5 and I2 5 . . . therefore, I1 1 I2 5 I.
R1 R2
FIGURE 25.10 Parallel resistors connected across
At point A in Fig. 25.10, a current I brings in charge from the battery, while the currents I1 a battery.
and I2 carry charge away. Charge can’t accumulate at this point (see Problem 63), so the
incoming and outgoing currents must be equal: I 5 I1 1 I2. Using our expressions for the
two resistor currents gives
E E 1 1
I5 1 5 Ea 1 b
R1 R2 R1 R2
Comparison with Ohm’s law in the form I 5 V/R shows that the equivalent resistance of
the parallel combination is given by
1 1 1
5 1
Rparallel R1 R2
This result readily generalizes to more parallel resistors:
1 1 1 1
5 1 1 1c 1parallel resistors2 (25.3a)
Rparallel R1 R2 R3
424 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits

In other words, resistors in parallel add reciprocally. Equation 25.3a shows that the
resistance of a parallel combination is always lower than that of the lowest resistance
in the combination. You should confirm this for yourself.
An analogy with highway traffic shows why this makes sense: Adding a lane to a
crowded highway eases congestion (i.e., lowers the overall resistance), allowing a greater
traffic flow (i.e., greater current). Putting one resistor in parallel with another is like
adding an extra traffic lane.
When there are only two parallel resistors, we can rewrite Equation 25.3a using a com-
mon denominator to obtain
R1R2
Rparallel 5 (25.3b)
R1 1 R2
Note that parallel resistors combine in the same way as series capacitors, and vice versa.

GOT IT? 25.3 The figure shows all four possible combinations of three identical re-
sistors. Rank them in order of highest to lowest resistance.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Analyzing Circuits
Many circuits contain series and parallel combinations. We analyze these circuits using
the tactics outlined next, following the approach we used with series and parallel capaci-
tors in Example 23.3.

TACTICS 25.1 Analyzing Circuits with Series and Parallel Components

1. Identify series and parallel combinations. Remember that components are in parallel only if they’re con-
nected directly together at each end. Components are in series only if current through one component
has no place to go but through the next component. If you can’t find at least one series or parallel com-
bination, then you have to use the methods of Section 25.3.
2. Solve for the series and parallel equivalents using Equations 25.1 and 25.3 for resistors:
Rseries 5 R1 1 R2 1 R3 1 c (25.1)
1 1 1 1
5 1 1 1c (25.3a)
Rparallel R1 R2 R3
R1R2
Rparallel 5 (25.3b)
R1 1 R2
If you’re dealing with capacitors, use Equations 23.6 and 23.5, respectively.
3. Redraw the circuit, replacing series and parallel combinations with their one-component equivalents.
4. Repeat Steps 1–3, each time identifying series and parallel combinations and then reducing each to a
single equivalent. Continue until either you’ve found the quantity you’re asked for or the circuit consists
of just an emf and one other component. You can then solve for the current in this component.
5. Work backward, replacing series and parallel equivalents with combinations of individual components.
At each point apply Ohm’s law, I 5 V/R, to find the currents through and/or the voltages across the in-
dividual components. As you work backward, remember that series components carry the same current
as their series equivalent, and parallel components have the same voltage as their parallel equivalent.
Continue until you’re able to evaluate the quantity you’re asked for.
 25.2 Series and Parallel Resistors 425

EXAMPLE 25.3 Analyzing a Circuit: Series and Parallel Components

Find the current through the 2-V resistor in the circuit of Fig. 25.11a. DEVELOP We follow the steps in Tactics 25.1:

1. We identify the 2-V and 4-V resistors as being in parallel, and

1.0 V we find no other series or parallel resistor combinations. The
1-V resistor, for example, is not in series with either the 2-V or
 4-V resistor because current leaving the 1-V resistor can take
12 V 2.0 V 4.0 V either of two paths.
 2. We apply Equation 25.3b, Rparallel 5 R1R2 /1R1 1 R22, to find the
parallel combination: 12 V214 V2/12 V 1 4 V2 5 1.33 V.
3. We redraw the circuit as Fig. 25.11b, replacing the two parallel
3.0 V
(a) resistors with their 1.33-V equivalent.
4. We repeat Steps 1–3 for the circuit in Fig. 25.11b, this time find-
ing a series combination of three resistors. Applying Equation
25.1, Rseries 5 R1 1 R2 1 R3, gives 5.33 V for the equivalent re-
sistance, and we redraw the circuit to get the simple circuit of
Following steps 1 – 3 of Tactics 25.1
Fig. 25.11c. Ohm’s law, I 5 V/R, gives the current in the 5.33-V
gives the equivalent resistance
of the parallel 2-V and 4-V equivalent resistance: I5.33 V 5 112 V2/15.33 V2 5 2.25 A.
resistors in (a). 5. Now we work backward, “unsimplifying” the circuit. That 5.33-V
resistor is really the series combination in Fig. 25.11b; since the
current through series components is the same, 2.25 A flows
(b) through each resistor—including the 1.33-V resistor that’s really
the parallel combination shown in Fig. 25.11a. We want the cur-
rent in the 2-V member of that combination, and we could get that
if we knew the voltage across it. But the voltage across parallel
Applying steps 1 – 3 again leads
to the equivalent resistance of components is the same, and the same as the voltage across their
the series 1-V, 1.33-V, and parallel equivalent—in this case the 1.33-V resistance. We’ve
3-V resistors in (b). found the current through that resistance, so Ohm’s law gives the
voltage: V1.33 V 5 I1.33 V R1.33 V 5 12.25 A211.33 V2 5 3.0 V.
(c)
EVALUATE Our last result is the voltage across each of the original
FIGURE 25.11 Analyzing a circuit.
parallel resistors, including the 2-V resistor whose current we want.
So we’re finally ready to compute our answer: I2 V 5 V2 V /R2 V 5
INTERPRET This problem asks for the current in one resistor that’s
13.0 V2/12.0 V2 5 1.5 A. Done!
part of a more complex circuit. So it’s about analyzing a circuit with
series and parallel components. ASSESS Make sense? A total of 2.25 A is flowing around the circuit;
when it encounters the parallel combination, more should flow
through the lower resistance, which is just what we found. Quantita-
tively, the current divides in inverse proportion to the parallel resist-
ances, with 1.5 A through 2 V, and half as much, 0.75 A, through 4 V.
Note how, in solving this problem, we used Ohm’s law to find, alter-
nately, voltage and then current in different resistances. ■

✓TIP Using Ohm’s Law

Ohm’s law relates the voltage across a resistor to the current through that resistor. It
does not relate arbitrary voltages and currents anywhere in a circuit. Just because
there’s a 12-V battery in Fig. 25.11 doesn’t mean there’s 12 V across the 2-V resistor.
And just because we found a total current of 2.25 A in Fig. 25.11c doesn’t mean that’s
the current through the 2-V resistor.

GOT IT? 25.4 The figure shows a circuit with three iden-
tical lightbulbs and a battery. (a) Which, if any, of the bulbs is A
brightest? (b) What happens to each of the other two bulbs if 
you remove bulb C?

B C
426 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits

R1 R2 25.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Multiloop Circuits

 R3
Some circuits can’t be simplified using series and parallel combinations. This happens
E
 when there’s more than one emf, or when components are connected in complex ways. In
R4 R5
Fig. 25.12, are R1 and R2 in parallel? No, because R3 separates their lower ends. Are R1
and R4 in series? No, because the current splits after leaving R1. Analyzing such circuits
requires a more general technique.
FIGURE 25.12 This circuit can’t be analyzed using
series and parallel combinations.
Kirchhoff’s Laws
Charges moving through a circuit gain energy at emfs and lose energy in resistors. If we
go completely around a circuit, the changes in energy per unit charge—that is, increases
and decreases in voltage—sum to zero. This is Kirchhoff’s loop law, and it holds for any
closed loop even if it’s part of a more complex circuit: The sum of voltage changes
around a closed loop is zero. The loop law is essentially a statement of energy conserva-
tion for circuits.
In analyzing parallel resistors, we saw that the current flowing into point A in Fig. 25.10
had to equal the current flowing out. That’s because charge is conserved, and in a steady
state charge can’t be accumulating anywhere in a circuit. A junction of three or more
wires, like point A in Fig. 25.10, is a node. If we count the currents flowing into a node as
positive and those flowing out as negative, then we can state Kirchhoff’s node law: The
sum of currents at any node is zero.

Multiloop Circuits
Kirchhoff’s laws allow us to analyze even the most complex circuits; the following strat-
egy details the approach.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 25.1 Multiloop Circuits

INTERPRET
● Identify circuit loops and nodes. A loop is any complete closed path; a node is any point
where three or more wires meet.
● Label the currents at each node, assigning a direction to each. The directions are arbitrary,
and the actual direction may not be obvious.
DEVELOP
● For all but one node, write equations expressing Kirchhoff’s node law: The sum of the cur-
rents at each node is zero. Take a current flowing into the node as positive, a current flowing
out as negative.
● For as many independent loops as necessary, write equations expressing Kirchhoff’s loop
law: The sum of the voltage changes around a closed loop is zero. You can go either clock-
wise or counterclockwise, following these rules:
° The voltage change going through a battery from the negative to the positive terminal is
1E; the voltage change from 1 to 2 is 2E.
° For resistors traversed in the direction you’ve assigned to the current, the voltage change is
2IR; for the opposite direction, it’s 1IR.
° For other circuit components, use each component’s characteristics to determine the volt-
age change.
● You don’t need equations for all the nodes and loops because some are redundant, as you’ll
see in the next example.
EVALUATE Solve the equations to determine the unknown currents or other quantities.

ASSESS Assess your answer to see that it makes sense, paying particular attention to signs. A
negative answer for a current means that the current actually flows opposite the direction you
arbitrarily assigned.
 25.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Multiloop Circuits 427

EXAMPLE 25.4 Using Kirchhoff’s Laws: A Multiloop Circuit

Find the current in resistor R3 of Fig. 25.13a, following Problem- equations for any two of these loops contain all the information we
Solving Strategy 25.1. need. So one of the loop equations is redundant.

E1 = 6 V E2 = 9 V DEVELOP We need a current equation for one of the two nodes. Given
the arbitrary current directions, the equation at node A is
   
2I1 1 I2 1 I3 5 0 1node A2
To get the equation for loop 1, let’s go counterclockwise around the
R1 = 2 V R3 = 1 V R2 = 4 V loop, as shown. Starting at node A, we first encounter a positive volt-
age change 1E1, then 2I1R1, then 2I3R3. So the loop 1 equation is
E1 2 I1R1 2 I3R3 5 0. Here it’s simplest if we substitute the numeri-
(a) cal values shown in Fig. 25.13a and temporarily drop the units to
avoid clutter. Then we have
6 2 2I1 2 I3 5 0 1loop 12
Loop 2 is similar except here we’re going “backward” through R2, so
its term is positive:
9 1 4I2 2 I3 5 0 1loop 22

EVALUATE We want I3, so we eliminate the other two currents. The

node equation gives I1 5 I2 1 I3; substituting in the loop 1 equation
gives 6 2 2I2 2 3I3 5 0 or I2 5 1216 2 3I32. We use this result in the
loop 2 equation to get 9 1 216 2 3I32 2 I3 5 0, or 21 2 7I3 5 0.
Solving gives our answer: I3 5 3 A.
(b)
ASSESS We assigned I3 an upward direction through R3, so our posi-
FIGURE 25.13 Example 25.4. tive answer means that this is indeed the direction of the current in R3.
This makes sense because both batteries have their negative terminals
INTERPRET In Fig. 25.13b we’ve redrawn the circuit with three loops at node A. If either battery had been reversed, however, the situation
and two nodes identified. We also labeled three currents at node A. wouldn’t have been so clear and we would have had to rely on the al-
The directions shown are completely arbitrary and may or may not be gebraic sign to determine the current direction. Even with the circuit
the actual directions of current flow. Because currents in series ele- as shown in Fig. 25.13, the directions of I1 and I2 depend on the rela-
ments are the same, we can put the current labels anywhere on the se- tive strengths of the two batteries. With the values we’re given, I2
ries paths leading to the node. Our drawing shows that the same comes out 21.5 A, showing that the current actually flows downward
currents flow at node B; that’s why one of the node equations is re- in R2. But if we reduce E2 to 2 V, I2 becomes zero; lower still, and it
dundant. Note also that loop 3 comprises parts of loops 1 and 2, so flows upward and “backward” through E2. ■

APPLICATION The Cell Membrane

Many natural systems can be modeled as electric circuits. In 1952, Alan L.

Hodgkin and Andrew F. Huxley developed a circuit model for the cell mem-
brane; their work won them a share of the 1963 Nobel Prize for Physiology or RK IK RNa INa RL IL
Medicine. The figure shows a simplified version of the Hodgkin–Huxley
model. The batteries EK, ENa, and EL represent the electrochemical effects of VM C
potassium, sodium, and other ions, respectively; their emfs have values in the
  
tens of millivolts. RK, RNa, and RL are the resistances the cell membrane offers EK ENa EL
to each ionic species. The currents IK, INa, and IL represent ion flows across the   
membrane, and their values and signs follow from solving a multiloop-circuit
problem similar to Example 25.4. The voltage VM is the membrane potential
between the inside and outside of the cell. The Hodgkin–Huxley model also
contains a capacitor, which causes time-dependent behavior of the sort we’ll
see in Section 25.5.
428 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits

25.4 Electrical Measurements

Voltmeters
A voltmeter is a device that indicates the potential difference across its two terminals. The
indicator is usually a digital readout, although older meters use a moving needle. Potential
difference—voltage—is a property of two points, and therefore to measure the voltage
between two points, we connect the two terminals of the voltmeter to those points. So to
measure the voltage across resistor R2 in Fig. 25.14a we connect the voltmeter across R2, as
shown. We do not break the circuit and insert the meter as in Fig. 25.14b, for then we would-
n’t be measuring the voltage across the resistor; in fact, as Conceptual Example 25.1 makes
clear, we would radically alter the circuit.

R1
R1

V

 E
E R2 V  R2


(b)
(a)

FIGURE 25.14 Correct (a) and incorrect (b) ways to measure the voltage
across R2.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 25.1 Measuring Voltage

What should be the electrical resistance of an ideal voltmeter?
MAKING THE CONNECTION What do you get if you measure the
EVALUATE Before we attach the voltmeter in Fig. 25.14a, the battery voltage across the 40-V resistor in Fig. 25.15 with (a) an ideal volt-
“sees” the resistors R1 and R2 in series. When we connect a meter with meter and (b) a voltmeter whose resistance is 1000 V?
resistance Rm, then we’ve got a parallel combination of R1 and Rm
where before we had just R1. Since two parallel resistors have a lower 80 V
resistance than either of the individual resistors, the overall circuit cur-
rent increases—and so does the voltage across R1, which carries the
total current. That in turn leaves the voltage across R2 lower than be-

12 V 40 V
fore. Even if the meter is perfectly accurate, the voltage it reads will  FIGURE 25.15 What’s the voltage across
be lower than it was before we connected the meter.
the 40-V resistor?
How can we avoid this effect? By giving the meter a high resis-
tance—ideally, infinite resistance, so the meter won’t draw any current EVALUATE (a) The circuit is a simple voltage divider, and Equation
and therefore won’t affect the circuit. The meter will therefore read 25.2b shows that the voltage across the 40-V resistor is one-third of
the voltage that was there before we connected it. the battery voltage, or 4.00 V. With its infinite resistance, the ideal
ASSESS Truly infinite resistance is impossible—but as long as the voltmeter doesn’t alter the circuit, so it reads 4.00 V. (b) Connecting
meter’s resistance is much larger than resistances in the circuit, the ef- the voltmeter gives the circuit of Fig. 25.16; now Equation 25.3b gives
fect of finite meter resistance will be negligible. Modern digital me- 38.5 V for the parallel combination of the 1000-V meter and 40-V re-
ters come close to the ideal, with resistances of 10 MV and higher. sistor. Applying the voltage divider equation (25.2b) gives 3.95 V,
2.5% lower than the ideal voltmeter.

FIGURE 25.16 A nonideal voltmeter 1Rm2 alters the circuit.

 25.5 Capacitors in Circuits 429

GOT IT? 25.5 If an ideal voltmeter is connected between points R R

A
A and B in the figure, what will it read? All the resistors have the same 
resistance R. E R
 B

Ammeters  
A
An ammeter measures the current flowing through itself. To measure the current through 
a circuit component, it’s necessary to break the circuit and insert the ammeter in series E R
with that component (Fig. 25.17a); only then will all the current also go through the me- 
ter. Connecting the ammeter across the resistor as in Fig. 25.17b is wrong because then
the current through the resistor isn’t going through the meter. (a)
If the ammeter has any resistance, the total resistance of the circuit will increase with
the meter connected in series. This in turn will decrease the current, giving an incorrect
reading. So an ideal ammeter should have zero resistance. In practice, ammeter resistance
should be much lower than typical resistances in the circuit being measured.

E A
✓TIP Watch Your Language  R

A voltmeter measures potential difference between two points; hence, we connect it (b)
across—that is, in parallel with—the circuit element whose voltage we wish to meas-
ure. An ammeter measures the current through itself; hence, we connect it in series
with the circuit element whose current we wish to measure. If you get used to volt- FIGURE 25.17 Correct (a) and incorrect (b) ways
to connect an ammeter.
ages appearing across things and currents flowing through them, you’ll have no trou-
ble connecting meters. The ways to connect meters, and the words across for voltage
and through for current, go back to the definitions of potential difference as a prop-
erty of two points and of current as a flow.

Ohmmeters and Multimeters

Often we want the resistance of a particular component. Connecting a known voltage in
series with an ammeter and the unknown resistance gives both current and voltage, letting
us calculate the unknown resistance. A meter used for this purpose can be calibrated di-
rectly in ohms even though it’s really measuring current; it’s then an ohmmeter. The func-
tions of voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter are often combined in a single instrument
called a multimeter.

25.5 Capacitors in Circuits

So far we’ve considered only circuits with steady current. A flashlight is a good example:
Turn it on and current starts almost instantaneously, and it then continues flowing steadily
until you turn the flashlight off.
Capacitors alter this picture, causing circuit quantities to change more slowly. Recall
that a capacitor is a pair of insulated conductors with charge and voltage related by
Q 5 CV, where Q is the magnitude of the charge on either conductor, V is the potential
difference between them, and C is the capacitance. Because charge and voltage are pro-
portional in a capacitor, a change in voltage requires a change in charge. Charge changes
when current flows through the wires connecting the capacitor to the rest of a circuit, and
the magnitude of the current gives the rate at which capacitor charge increases or de-
creases. Since the current in any real circuit is finite, the charge on the capacitor cannot
change instantaneously. But capacitor voltage is proportional to charge, so:

The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.

430 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits

This statement is the key to understanding circuits with capacitors. It says that the voltage on
a capacitor can’t jump abruptly from one value to another; mathematically, capacitor voltage
VC must be a continuous function of time, its derivative always finite. Just how rapidly the
voltage can change depends on the capacitance and other circuit quantities, as we’ll now see.
We consider an RC circuit, one that includes a resistor and capacitor. RC circuits are
ubiquitous, appearing everywhere from microbiological structures to stereo amplifiers to
giant energy-storage systems. We examine separately the two cases in which the capacitor
is (1) charging and (2) discharging.

The RC Circuit: Charging

R In Fig. 25.18 the capacitor is initially uncharged, so the voltage across it is zero. Closing
Switch
the switch connects the left side of the resistor to the battery, bringing its potential imme-
 diately to E volts (we’re taking V 5 0 at the negative battery terminal). The right end of
E C the resistor remains at the same voltage as the upper capacitor plate—and that’s still zero
 because the voltage across the capacitor can’t change instantaneously. So there’s E volts
across the resistor, and therefore a current I 5 E/R through it. This current delivers posi-
FIGURE 25.18 An RC circuit. The switch is closed tive charge to the upper capacitor plate and negative charge to the lower plate.
at time t 5 0. As charge accumulates on the plates, the capacitor voltage increases proportionately.
But the capacitor and resistor voltages sum to the battery voltage E, so as the capacitor volt-
age increases, the resistor voltage drops. By Ohm’s law, the resistor current I 5 V/R drops
as well. This in turn decreases the rate at which charge accumulates in the capacitor. The
capacitor voltage continues to increase as charge accumulates, but at an ever-slower rate.
Eventually the capacitor voltage approaches the battery voltage, and the resistor volt-
age and current tend to zero; so, therefore, does the rate at which charge accumulates on
the capacitor. The whole system approaches a final state in which the capacitor is charged
to the full battery voltage and the current in the circuit is zero. Figure 25.19 summarizes
the interplay among current, charge, and voltage.

Voltage across Current decreases at

resistor decreases at ever-decreasing rate.
ever-decreasing rate.

I
VR

E I

VC
I

Voltage across Current puts charge

capacitor increases at on capacitor at
ever-decreasing rate. ever-decreasing rate.

FIGURE 25.19 Interrelationships among quantities in a charging

RC circuit.
VR = IR
 
We can analyze the circuit of Fig. 25.18 quantitatively using the loop law. Going
 I  Q clockwise around the loop, we first encounter a voltage increase E across the battery,
E VC =
  C then a drop IR across the resistor, then a drop VC from the upper to lower capacitor plate
I
(Fig. 25.20). But VC 5 Q/C, so the loop equation becomes
Q
FIGURE 25.20 Voltage changes in a charging E 2 IR 2 50
RC circuit. C
 25.5 Capacitors in Circuits 431

This equation contains two unknowns, I and Q, but they’re related because the current is
the rate at which charge is accumulating on the capacitor: I 5 dQ/dt. To use this relation,
we take the time derivative of the loop equation:
dI 1 dQ
2R 2 50
dt C dt
The battery voltage E doesn’t appear here because it’s constant. Using I 5 dQ/dt and
rearranging the equation give
dI I
52 (25.4)
dt RC
This equation shows that the rate of change of current is proportional to the current itself.
Equations like this arise whenever a quantity changes at a rate proportional to the quantity
itself. Population growth, the increase of money in a bank account, and the decay of a ra-
dioactive element are all described by similar equations.
Like the equation for simple harmonic motion in Chapter 13, Equation 25.4 is a
differential equation because the unknown quantity I occurs in a derivative. The solution
to a differential equation isn’t a single number but a function expressing the relation be-
tween the unknown quantity—in this case current—and the independent variable—in this
case time. We can solve this particular differential equation by multiplying both sides by
dt/I in order to collect all terms involving I on one side of the equation. This gives
dI dt
52
I RC
We can then integrate both sides, noting that RC is constant:
I t
dI 1
3 I 5 2 RC 3 dt
I0 0

where I0 5 E/R is the initial current at the time t 5 0 just after the switch is closed and
where the integration runs to an arbitrary time t. The integral on the left is the natural log-
arithm of I, and on the right it’s just t. Then we have
I t
ln a b 5 2
I0 RC
where we used ln I 2 ln I0 5 ln1I/I02. To get an equation for I we exponentiate both
sides, recalling that eln x 5 x. This gives I/I0 5 e2t/RC, or, since I0 5 E/R, E
E 2t/RC
voltage, VC
Capacitor

I5 e (25.5)
R
In one time constant RC,
Thus the current in the circuit decreases exponentially with time, in agreement with our VC rises to about 23 E.
qualitative analysis. The capacitor voltage is VC 5 E 2 VR, or, since VR 5 IR 5 Ee2t/RC,
RC 2RC 3RC 4RC
VC 5 E11 2 e2t/RC2 1RC circuit, charging2 (25.6) Time, t

Equation 25.6 shows the capacitor voltage starting at zero and rising, with its rate of rise In one time constant RC, I drops
ever slowing as it gradually approaches the battery voltage E—just as we reasoned in our to about 13 of its initial value E/R.
qualitative analysis. Figure 25.21 plots capacitor voltage and current using the equations
we’ve just derived. E/R
Current, I

When is the capacitor fully charged? Never, according to our equations! But the rate at
which it approaches full charge is determined by the so-called time constant, RC—a charac-
teristic time for changes to occur in a circuit containing a capacitor. Equation 25.6 shows that
in one time constant, the voltage rises to E11 2 1/e2, or to about two-thirds of the battery
voltage. A practical rule of thumb says that in five time constants 1t 5 5RC2 a capacitor is RC 2RC 3RC 4RC
99% charged (see Exercise 33). The RC time constant clarifies our statement that the voltage Time, t
across a capacitor can’t change instantaneously. We can now say that the voltage can’t change
FIGURE 25.21 Time dependence of capacitor
appreciably in times small compared with the time constant. On the other hand, after many voltage and circuit current in a charging RC
time constants, we’ll find essentially no current flowing to the capacitor. We’ve shown quanti- circuit. The approximate values 32 and 13 are
tatively the role of the time constant RC by marking the time in units of RC on Fig. 25.21. actually 1 2 1/e and 1/e, respectively.
432 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits

Resistors and capacitors are available in a wide range of values, so practical values for
RC span many orders of magnitude. RC circuits with time constants from microseconds to
hours are widely used in electronic devices to control the rates at which electric quantities
vary. For example, circuits with RC many times the sixtieth-of-a-second period of stan-
dard AC power produce steady, direct-current power for audio and video equipment.
Equalizers in audio systems are variable resistances in RC circuits; changing the resis-
tance changes the time constant and therefore the way the circuit handles rapidly changing
audio signals. Sometimes, though, the time constant can be a nuisance. Capacitance in au-
dio systems can limit high-frequency response, decreasing the quality of music reproduc-
tion. With computer speeds in the GHz range—meaning basic operations occur billions of
times a second—even tiny RC time constants associated with the resistance of wires and
the capacitance of adjacent conductors can cause trouble.

The RC Circuit: Discharging

Suppose we connect a charged capacitor across a resistor, as shown in Fig. 25.22. If the ca-
 pacitor voltage is initially V0, then when the circuit is connected, this voltage will drive a
V

C R current I0 5 V0 /R through the resistor. This current transfers charge from the positive to the
I negative capacitor plate, lowering the charge on the capacitor. Since capacitor charge and
voltage are proportional, the capacitor voltage drops, too. So, therefore, does the current
FIGURE 25.22 A discharging RC circuit. and therefore the rate at which the capacitor discharges. We expect both the voltage and
current in this circuit to decay toward zero. In terms of energy, that happens because the en-
ergy stored in the capacitor’s electric field is gradually dissipated as heat in the resistor.
The loop equation for Fig. 25.22 is particularly simple; going clockwise, we have
Q/C 2 IR 5 0, where the two terms are the voltage changes across the capacitor and re-
sistor, respectively. Since we’ve indicated positive current in Fig. 25.22 in the direction
that would reduce the capacitor charge Q, the rate of change dQ/dt and the current have
opposite signs: I 5 2dQ/dt. Differentiating our loop equation and substituting this ex-
pression for I give dI/dt 5 2I/RC. This is Equation 25.4; the solution is therefore Equa-
tion 25.5, but with I0 5 V0 /R instead of E/R:
V0 2t/RC
I5 e (25.7)
R
In this circuit the capacitor and resistor voltages are the same, since the two are in parallel
(in this simplest of circuits, they’re also in series). Because the resistor voltage and the
current are proportional, the voltage across the capacitor and resistor is
V 5 V0e2t/RC 1RC circuit, discharging2 (25.8)
Equations 25.7 and 25.8 show that the capacitor discharges with the same characteristic
time constant RC that governs its charging.

EXAMPLE 25.5 Charging Capacitors: A Camera Flash

A camera flash gets its energy from a 150-mF capacitor and requires Then we take the natural logarithm of both sides, recalling that
170 V to fire. If the capacitor is charged by a 200-V source through an ln ex 5 x, so
18-kV resistor, how long must the photographer wait between t VC
flashes? Assume the capacitor is fully discharged with each flash. 2 5 ln a 1 2 b
RC E
INTERPRET This is a problem about a charging capacitor, and we Solving for t and setting VC 5 170 V, E 5 200 V, R 5 18 kV, and
want to find the time to reach a given voltage. C 5 150 mF give
VC
DEVELOP Equation 25.6, VC 5 E11 2 e2t/RC2, gives the voltage across t 5 2RC ln a 1 2 b 5 5.1 s
E
a charging capacitor, so our plan is to solve this equation for the time t.
ASSESS The time constant here is RC 5 2.7 s, and 170 V is well over
EVALUATE First we solve for the exponential term that contains the time: two-thirds of the 200-V source. Therefore, we expect a charging time
VC longer than one time constant. Our 5.1-s answer is nearly 2RC. Prob-
e2t/RC 5 1 2 lem 66 explores energy and power in this circuit. ■
E
 25.5 Capacitors in Circuits 433

RC Circuits: Long- and Short-Term Behavior

It’s not always necessary to solve exponential equations in analyzing RC circuits. If we’re
interested only in times much shorter than the time constant, then it’s enough to remember
that the voltage across a capacitor can’t change instantaneously. And after many time con-
stants, a capacitor has essentially reached its final voltage, and no current is flowing to it.
These conditions are sufficient to analyze circuits on short and long time scales.

TACTICS 25.2 Analyzing Long- and Short-Term Behavior of RC Circuits

Short-Term Behavior
For times much shorter than the time constant RC, capacitor voltage remains essentially unchanged. There-
fore, you can replace the capacitor with a short circuit if it’s uncharged or, if it’s charged, with a battery whose
emf is the capacitor’s initial voltage. Then solve the circuit using the techniques of Section 25.2 or 25.3.

Long-Term Behavior
For times much longer than RC, no current is flowing to a capacitor. Therefore, you can replace the capaci-
tor with an open circuit, and again solve using earlier techniques.

EXAMPLE 25.6 An RC Circuit: Long and Short Times

The capacitor in Fig. 25.23a is initially uncharged. Find the current INTERPRET We interpret “the instant the switch is closed” to mean a
through R1 (a) the instant the switch is closed and (b) a long time after time much shorter than the time constant RC, and “a long time” to
the switch is closed. mean a time much longer than RC. Then this is a problem involving
the long- and short-term behavior of a circuit containing a capacitor.
R1
DEVELOP We follow Tactics 25.2 and first redraw the circuit with the
 capacitor replaced by a short circuit (Fig. 25.23b). Solving this circuit
E R2 C will give the current in R1 right after the switch is closed. For the long-
 term behavior we redraw the circuit with the capacitor an open circuit
(Fig. 25.23c).
(a)
EVALUATE There can’t be any voltage across a short circuit—a per-
fect conductor—so there’s no voltage across R2 in Fig. 25.23b. Thus
for part (a) the entire battery voltage appears across R1, giving a cur-
rent I 5 E/R1. In Fig. 25.23c we have two resistors in series and the
current in both is I 5 E/1R1 1 R22, our answer to part (b).

ASSESS The current through R1 starts out at E/R1 and gradually drops
to E/1R1 1 R22. That makes sense because the uncharged capacitor
(b) initially “shorts out” R2, making it irrelevant. But as the capacitor
charges, current starts flowing through R2 and its presence is “felt.”
Without solving more complicated equations, we can’t describe the
intermediate behavior of the circuit, but getting the short- and long-
term behavior is straightforward. ■

FIGURE 25.23 Original (a) and equiv-

alent short-term (b) and long-term
(c) (c) circuits for Example 25.6.

GOT IT? 25.6 A capacitor is charged to 12 V and then connected 1 kV

between points A and B in the figure, with its positive plate at A.  A
6V 2 kV
What’s the current through the 2-kV resistor (a) immediately after the
 B
capacitor is connected and (b) a long time after it’s connected?
CHAPTER 25 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is the electric circuit—an interconnection of electric components that usually includes one or more sources of electric energy,
such as batteries.

Key Concepts and Equations

A source of emf (or an emf, for short) is a battery or Resistors in series add: R1 R2 R3
other device that imparts energy to electric charge Rseries 5 R1 1 R2 1 R3 1 c
flowing through it. The value of the emf, E, is the en-
ergy imparted per unit charge, measured in volts. An
ideal emf maintains a fixed potential difference (volt- Resistors in parallel add reciprocally: R1
age) across its terminals.
1 1 1 1
5 1 1 1c R2
Rparallel R1 R2 R3
 R3
E volts


Simple circuits are analyzed by evaluating series and parallel To analyze more complicated circuits, use Kirchhoff’s node and loop
combinations. laws.

 E1 E2 
Node A Current into node A is 0:
   I1
I3 I2 2I1 1 I2 1 I3 5 0
Voltage changes around loops sum to 0:
   R1 R3 R2 loop 1: E1 2 I1R1 2 I3R3 5 0
Loop 1 Loop 2 loop 2: E2 1 I2R2 2 I3R3 5 0
Node B

Capacitors result in time-changing behavior of circuit quantities.

The time constant RC governs the time scales.

R


E C VC 5 E(1 2 e2t/RC ) C R VC 5 V0 e2t /RC

Charging Discharging

Applications
Batteries and other electric-energy sources A voltmeter measures the voltage across its An ammeter measures the current through it-
have internal resistance. When they supply two terminals. It goes in parallel with the self. It goes in series with the component
current, their terminal voltage is therefore component whose voltage you want to whose current you want to measure.
less than their rated voltage E. measure.
A Reads current
R1 through R2
 
Reads voltage R1 R2
Rint
 across R2 
R2 V
Vterminal 
 An ideal ammeter has zero resistance.
E
 An ideal voltmeter has infinite resistance.

 Exercises and Problems 435

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 14. Sketch a diagram for a circuit consisting of two batteries, a resis-
tor, and a capacitor, all in series. Does the circuit description
1. Are household electrical outlets connected in series or parallel? allow you any flexibility?
How do you know? 15. Resistors R1 and R2 are in series, and the series combination is in
2. All the resistors in Fig. 25.24 have the same resistance. In which parallel with R3. This parallel combination is connected across a
circuits does the battery supply the same current? battery. Draw a diagram of this circuit.
16. What’s the emf of a battery that delivers 27 J of energy as it
moves 3.0 C between its terminals?
  17. A 1.5-V battery stores 4.5 kJ of energy. How long can it light a
  flashlight bulb that draws 0.60 A?
(a) (b)
18. If you accidentally leave your car headlights (current 5 A) on for
an hour, how much energy drains from the car’s 12-V battery?

 
Section 25.2 Series and Parallel Circuits
  19. A 47-kV resistor and a 39-kV resistor are in parallel, and the pair
is in series with a 22-kV resistor. What’s the resistance of the
(c) (d) combination?
20. What resistance should you place in parallel with a 56-kV resis-
FIGURE 25.24 For Thought and Discussion 2
tor to make an equivalent resistance of 45 kV?
21. A defective starter motor draws 300 A from a car’s 12-V battery,
3. Can the voltage across a battery’s terminals differ from the bat- dropping the battery terminal voltage to 6 V. A good starter should
tery’s rated voltage? Explain. draw only 100 A. What will the battery terminal voltage be with a
4. Can the voltage across a battery’s terminals be higher than the good starter?
battery’s rated voltage? Explain. 22. Find the internal resistance of the battery in Exercise 21.
5. In some cities, streetlights are wired in such a way that when one 23. When a 9-V battery is temporarily short-circuited, a 200-mA cur-
burns out, they all go out. Are the lights in series or parallel? rent flows. What’s the battery’s internal resistance?
6. When the switch in Fig. 25.25 is open, what’s the voltage across 24. You have a 1.0-V, a 2.0-V, and a 3.0-V resistor. What equivalent
the resistor? Across the switch? resistances can you form using all three?

Section 25.3 Kirchhoff’s Laws and Multiloop Circuits


E R 25. Find all three currents in the circuit of Fig. 25.13, but now with

E2 5 1.0 V.
26. What’s the current through the 3-V resistor in Fig. 25.26? (Hint:
FIGURE 25.25 For Thought and Discussion 6 This is trivial. Can you see why?)
5V
7. Two identical resistors in series dissipate equal power. How can
this be, when electric charge loses energy in flowing through the  
6V 3V 9V
first resistor?  
8. When a large electric load such as a washing machine or oven
comes on, lights throughout a house often dim. Why? FIGURE 25.26 Exercise 26
9. How would you connect a pair of equal resistors across an ideal
battery in order to get the greatest power dissipation? 27. Find I2 in Example 25.4 for the case E2 5 2.0 V.
10. You have a battery whose voltage and internal resistance are un-
known. Using an ideal voltmeter and an ideal ammeter, how Section 25.4 Electrical Measurements
would you determine each of these characteristics? 28. A voltmeter with 200-kV resistance is used to measure the volt-
11. A student who’s confused about voltage and current hooks a age across the 10-kV resistor in Fig. 25.27. By what percentage is
nearly ideal ammeter across a car battery. What happens? the measurement in error because of the finite meter resistance?
12. A student who’s confused about voltage and current tries to
5 kV
measure the voltage across a lighted lightbulb by inserting a volt-
meter in series with the bulb. What happens to the bulb? Explain. 
150 V 10 kV


Exercises and Problems FIGURE 25.27 Exercises 28 and 29

Exercises 29. An ammeter with 100-V resistance is inserted in the circuit of
Section 25.1 Circuits, Symbols, and Electromotive Force Fig. 25.27. By what percentage is the measured current in error
13. Sketch a circuit diagram for a circuit that includes a resistor R1 because of the nonzero meter resistance?
connected to the positive terminal of a battery, a pair of parallel 30. A new mechanic foolishly connects an ammeter with 0.1-V
resistors R2 and R3 connected to the lower-voltage end of R1 and resistance directly across a 12-V car battery with internal resist-
then returned to the battery’s negative terminal, and a capacitor ance 0.01 V. What’s the power dissipation in the meter? (No
across R2. wonder it gets destroyed!)
436 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits

Section 25.5 Capacitors in Circuits 46. In the circuit of Fig. 25.30, find (a) the current supplied by the
31. Show that the quantity RC has the units of time (seconds). battery and (b) the current through the 6-V resistor.
32. If capacitance is in mF, what will be the units of the time constant 1V
RC when resistance is in (a) V, (b) kV, and (c) MV? (Your

answers eliminate the need for tedious power-of-10 conversions.) 6V 2V 4V 6V

33. Show that a capacitor is charged to approximately 99% of the ap-
plied voltage in five time constants 15RC2.
34. An uncharged 10-mF capacitor and a 470-kV resistor are in se- FIGURE 25.30 Problems 46 and 47
ries, and 250 V is applied across the combination. How long does
47. In Fig. 25.30, how much power is dissipated in the 4-V resistor?
it take the capacitor voltage to reach 200 V?
48. What’s the ammeter reading in Fig. 25.31?
35. Find an expression for the voltage across the capacitor in Exam-
ple 25.6 when it’s fully charged.
2V 2V

6V A
Problems 
2V 4V
36. In Fig. 25.28, all resistors have the same value, R. What will be the
resistance measured (a) between A and B or (b) between A and C?
FIGURE 25.31 Problem 48
A
49. In Fig. 25.32, find the equivalent resistance measured between A
C
and B.
B
A
FIGURE 25.28 Problems 36 and 37 R 2R
R

37. In Fig. 25.28, take all resistors to be 1 kV. Find the current in 2R R
the vertical resistor when a 6.0-V battery is connected between B
A and B.
FIGURE 25.32 Problem 49
38. Three 1.5-V batteries, with internal resistances 0.01 V, 0.1 V,
and 1 V, each have 1-V resistors connected across their termi- 50. Find all three currents in the circuit of Fig. 25.13 with the values
nals. What’s the voltage between each battery’s terminals, to given, but with battery E2 reversed.
three significant figures? 51. The voltage across the 30-kV resistor in Fig. 25.33 is measured
39. A partially discharged car battery can be modeled as a 9-V emf with (a) a 50-kV voltmeter, (b) a 250-kV voltmeter, and (c) a
in series with a 0.08-V internal resistance. Jumper cables connect 10-MV digital meter. What does each read, to two significant
this battery to a fully charged battery, modeled as a 12-V emf in figures?
series with a 0.02-V internal resistance. The cables connect  to
 and  to . What current flows through the discharged battery? 30 kV
40. Your company is overstocked on 50-V, 12 -W resistors. Your proj- 
ect requires 50-V resistors that can be safely connected across a 100 V 40 kV 40 kV


12-V power source. How many of the available resistors will you
need, and how will you connect them?
FIGURE 25.33 Problem 51
41. A 6.0-V battery has internal resistance 2.5 V. If the battery is
short-circuited, what’s the rate of energy dissipation in its inter- 52. In Fig. 25.34, what are the meter readings when an ideal (a) volt-
nal resistance? meter or (b) ammeter is connected between A and B?
42. How many 100-W, 120-V lightbulbs can be connected in parallel
10 kV
before they trip a 20-A circuit breaker? A
43. You company is designing a battery-based backup power source, 
30 V 20 kV
BIO and your job is to assess its safety. You know that under damp or 

sweaty conditions, the resistance between two points of unbroken B

skin on the human body can be as low as 500 V. Your product uses
FIGURE 25.34 Problem 52
a 72-V battery whose internal resistance is 100 V. Is it capable of
passing a fatal 100 mA (Table 24.3) through a damp human body? 53. A resistor draws 1.00 A from an ideal 12.0-V battery. (a) If an
44. Take E 5 12 V and R1 5 270 V in Fig. 25.4. (a) What’s the re- ammeter with 0.10-V resistance is inserted in the circuit, what
sistance R2 if there’s 4.5 V across it? (b) What will be the power will it read? (b) If this current is used to calculate the resistance,
dissipation in R2? by what percent will the result be in error?
45. In Fig. 25.29, R1 is a variable resistor and the other two resistors 54. The voltage across a charging capacitor in an RC circuit rises to
have equal resistances R. (a) Find an expression for the voltage 1 2 1/e of the battery voltage in 5.0 ms. (a) How long will it take
across R1, and (b) sketch a graph of this voltage as R1 varies from to reach 1 2 1/e3 of the battery voltage? (b) If the capacitor is
0 to 10R. charging through a 22-kV resistor, what’s the capacitance?
55. You’re designing an external defibrillator that discharges a ca-
R
BIO pacitor through the patient’s body, providing a pulse that stops
 ventricular fibrillation. Specifications call for a capacitor storing
E R R1
 250 J of energy; when discharged through a body with 40-V
transthoracic resistance, the capacitor voltage is to drop to half its
FIGURE 25.29 Problem 45 initial value in 10 ms. Determine the capacitance (to the nearest
 Exercises and Problems 437

10 mF) and initial capacitor voltage (to the nearest 100 V) that 67. Find the equivalent resistance between A and B for the circuits in
meet these specs. Fig. 25.37.
56. A capacitor used to provide steady voltages in the power supply
A A A
of a stereo amplifier charges rapidly to 35 V every 1/60 second. R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 R1
It must then hold that voltage to within 1.0 V for the next 1/60 s R2
while it discharges through the amplifier. If the amplifier draws
R1 R1 R1 R1 R1 R1
1.2 A from the 35-V supply, (a) what’s its effective resistance, B B B
and (b) what capacitance is needed? (a) (b) (c)
57. A capacitor is charged until it holds 5.0 J of energy, then con-
FIGURE 25.37 Problem 67
nected across a 10-kV resistor. In 8.6 ms, the resistor dissipates
2.0 J. Find the capacitance. 68. A 50-V resistor is connected across a battery, and a 26-mA cur-
58. In Fig. 25.35 the 2.0-mF capacitor is charged to 150 V, while the rent flows. When the resistor is replaced with a 22-V resistor,
1.0-mF capacitor is initially uncharged. Switch S is then closed. 43 mA flows. Find the battery’s voltage and internal resistance.
Find the total energy dissipated in the resistor as the circuit 69. Obtain an expression for the rate of increase 1dV/dt2 of the volt-
comes to equilibrium. (Hint: Think about charge conservation.) age across a charging capacitor in an RC circuit. Evaluate your
2.2 kV
result at time t 5 0, and show that if the capacitor continued
S
charging steadily at this rate, it would reach full charge in exactly
2.0 mF 1.0 mF one time constant.
70. The circuit in Fig. 25.38 extends forever to the right, and all the
resistors have the same value R. Show that the equivalent resist-
FIGURE 25.35 Problem 58 ance measured across the two terminals at left is R11 1 152/2.
(Hint: You don’t need to sum an infinite series.)
59. For the circuit of Example 25.6, take E 5 100 V, R1 5 4.0 kV,
and R2 5 6.0 kV, and assume the capacitor is initially un- ...
charged. Find the capacitor voltage and the currents in both re-
sistors (a) just after the switch is closed, and (b) a long time after
...
the switch is closed. Long after the switch is closed it’s re-
opened. What are VC, I1, and I2 (c) just after this switch opening, FIGURE 25.38 Problem 70
and (d) a long time later?
60. In Fig. 25.36, the switch is initially open and both capacitors are 71. Figure 25.39 shows the voltage across a capacitor that’s charging
initially uncharged. All resistors have the same value R. Find ex- through a 4700-V resistor in the circuit of Fig. 25.18. Use the
pressions for the current in R2 (a) just after the switch is closed, graph to determine (a) the battery voltage, (b) the time constant,
and (b) a long time after the switch is closed. and (c) the capacitance.

R1 C2 10
9
8
 Voltage (V)
7
E R2 C1 R3 6

5
4
3
2
FIGURE 25.36 Problem 60 1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
61. A battery’s voltage is measured as 4.36 V with a voltmeter
Time (ms)
whose resistance is 1000 V. When measured with a 1500-V me-
ter, it’s 4.41 V. Find (a) the battery’s voltage and (b) its internal FIGURE 25.39 Problem 71
resistance.
62. Find the resistance needed in an RC circuit to bring a 20-mf ca- 72. Figure 25.40 shows a portion of a circuit used to model muscle
pacitor from zero charge to 45% charge in 140 ms. BIO cells and neurons. All resistors have the same value R 5 1.5 MV,
63. Suppose the currents into and out of a circuit node differ by and the emfs are E1 5 75 mV, E2 5 45 mV, and E3 5 20 mV.
1 mA. If the node consists of a small metal sphere with diameter Find the current through E3, including its direction.
1 mm, how long would it take for the electric field around the
node to reach the 3-MV/m breakdown field in air?
  
64. Show that a battery delivers the most power when the load resist- E1 E2 E3
  
ance across its terminals is equal to its internal resistance. (This
is not the way to treat a battery, but it’s the basis for load match-
ing in amplifiers; see Problem 65.) FIGURE 25.40 Problems 72 and 73
65. You’re writing the instruction manual for a stereo amplifier with
73. An electrochemical impulse traveling along the cell modeled in
a maximum output of 100 W. The amplifier can be modeled as an
BIO Fig. 25.40 changes the value of E3 so now it supplies a 40-nA up-
emf in series with an 8-V resistance. What should you specify
ward current. Assuming the rest of the circuit remains as de-
for the loudspeaker resistance to be used with the amplifier? How
scribed in Problem 72, what’s the new value of E3?
much power can the amplifier deliver to a speaker with half the
74. A parallel-plate capacitor has plates of area 10 cm2 separated
optimum resistance?
by a 0.10-mm layer of glass insulation with resistivity
Show that only half the total energy drawn from a battery in
r 5 1.231013 V # m and dielectric constant k 5 5.6. Because of
66.
charging an RC circuit ends up stored in the capacitor. (Hint:
the finite resistivity, charge leaks through the insulation. (a) How
What happens to the rest? You’ll need to integrate.)
 438 Chapter 25 Electric Circuits

can such a leaky capacitor be represented in a circuit diagram? 79. The voltage across the cow shown is
(b) Find the time constant for this capacitor to discharge through a. 2 V.
its insulation, and show that it depends only on the properties of b. 4 V.
the insulating material and not on its dimensions. c. 6 V.
75. Write the node and loop equations for the circuit in Fig. 25.23a d. nearly 0 V.
(Example 25.6), and find the time constant. 80. In an effort to diagnose the problem, a farmer connects an ideal
76. In Problem 60, take C1 5 C2 5 C, and find the current through voltmeter between the water bowl and ground, with the cow
R2 as a function of time. (Hint: Use the node and loop laws to get absent. The voltmeter reading is
a differential equation for the current, and use the initial con- a. 2 V.
ditions on current and its derivative to evaluate the constants of b. 4 V.
integration.) c. 6 V.
77. You’re about to purchase a battery. Normally, batteries are rated d. none of the above.
in ampere-hours—the total charge they can deliver. Your appli-
To explore the problem further, a farmer connects an ideal am-
cation calls for a 5-A # h battery. But the 6-V battery you see while
81.
meter between the water bowl and ground, with the cow absent.
shopping online is rated at 50 watt-hours. Will it work?
The ammeter reading is
a. 4 mA.
Passage Problems b. 6 mA.
BIO Stray voltage is a serious problem on dairy farms, often resulting
c. 12 mA.
from corroded wiring or poor wiring practices. These conditions can
d. infinite.
produce several volts between the ground and metal watering bowls,
feed troughs, or milking equipment. Cows feel shocks that make
them nervous, reducing milk output and sometimes leading to mam- Answers to Chapter Questions
mary gland infections. As a result, farmers can face serious financial
losses. Figure 25.41 shows a typical stray-voltage situation, with the Answer to Chapter Opening Question
source of stray voltage modeled as a 6-V emf in series with a 1-kV Series.
resistance.
Answers to GOT IT? Questions
1 kV Water bowl
25.1. (a) and (b).
25.2. (c) 6 V . (a) 3 V . (b) 0 V.

6.0 V 25.3. Ra . Rd . Rc . Rb.
25.4. (a) A is brightest because it carries more current; after A the
Rcow 5 500 V
current splits between B and C. (b) A and B become equally
Ground bright, with A dimming and B brightening relative to when C
was in the circuit.
FIGURE 25.41 Stray voltage can bankrupt a dairy farm (Passage Problems 78–81)
25.5. There’s no current through the top right resistor, so the voltage
78. The current through the 500-V cow will be is divided evenly across the other two resistors and the meter
a. 3 mA. reads 12 E.
b. 4 mA. 25.6. (a) 6 mA; (b) 2 mA.
c. 6 mA.
d. 12 mA.
 26 Magnetism: Force and Field
New Concepts, New Skills
By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Describe the fundamental nature of
magnetism and its relation to electric
charge (26.1).
■ Explain the relation between magnetic
force and magnetic field (26.2).
■ Calculate the motion of charged
particles in magnetic fields (26.3).
■ Calculate magnetic forces on electric
currents (26.4).
■ Explain the origin of magnetic
fields (26.5).
■ Recognize the essential role of mag-
netic dipoles and describe the mag-
netic field produced by a dipole as
well as the interaction of a dipole
with an external field (26.6).
■ Describe the effects of magnetism in
matter (26.7).
■ Understand Ampère’s law and use it
to find the magnetic fields of
symmetric currents (26.8).
This ultraviolet image shows delicate loops of million-kelvin
ionized gas—plasma—in the Sun’s atmosphere. What force
shapes the gas into such intricate structures, and why don’t
we see similar things in Earth’s atmosphere?

P eople are fascinated with magnets and the mysterious, invisible force they produce. Magnet-
ism plays essential roles in technology and the natural universe. We use magnetism for
everything from holding notes on refrigerators to storing computer data to propelling high-
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ This chapter introduces a lot of new
material but builds on the funda-
speed trains. Earth’s magnetism protects us from dangerous solar radiation, which itself origi- mental ideas of electric charge and
nates in violent magnetic storms on the Sun. Without magnetism we wouldn’t even see, for light force (20.1, 4.2).
itself results from an interaction between magnetism and electricity. In fact, magnetism and elec- ■ You should also review vector cross
tricity are intimately related, and you’ll soon see them as inseparable aspects of the same under- products and line integrals (11.2, 6.2)
lying phenomenon. and uniform circular motion
(3.6, 5.3).

26.1 What Is Magnetism?

You know from experience that magnets exert forces on each other and on certain materials,
like iron. As we did with the gravitational and electric
! forces, it’s convenient to describe this
interaction in terms of a magnetic field (symbol B). One magnet produces a magnetic field,
and another responds to the field in its vicinity. We use field lines to picture the field, and we

439
440 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field

can trace those lines using small iron filings that align with the field (Fig. 26.1). In our il-
lustrations, we’ll use color for magnetic field lines to distinguish them from electric fields.
But the magnetism you’re most familiar with is only one manifestation of a much more
fundamental and universal phenomenon that’s intimately linked with electricity. Here
we’ll go straight to the essence of magnetism; later, we’ll see how familiar magnets fit into
the big picture.
In Chapter 20 we introduced electric charge, a fundamental property of matter, and de-
scribed its interactions using the concept of electric field. Magnetism, too, is based in
electric charge. One crucial point both distinguishes and relates electricity and magnetism:

The phenomena of magnetism involve moving electric charge.

FIGURE 26.1 Iron filings align with the magnetic
field, tracing out the field of a bar magnet.
In particular, moving electric charge is the source of magnetic fields, and moving electric
charge is what responds to magnetic fields.

26.2 Magnetic Force and !Field ! ! !

vr ' B:
r
In Chapter 20 we defined the electric field E with the equation FE 5 qE, where FE is the
greatest force electric force on a charge q. Now consider a region where there’s no electric field, but
where there is a magnetic field. You could confirm the presence of the field and determine
r
its direction with a compass, which is just a small magnet free to pivot into alignment with
vr F the field. Or, more fundamentally, you could explore the behavior of an electric point
charge q in this field. If the charge is at rest, nothing happens. But if it’s moving, it experi-
ences a magnetic force as shown in Fig. 26.2. Experiment shows that:
r !
vr F 1. The magnetic force !is always at right angles to both the velocity v of the charge and
the magnetic field B.
r
B 2. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of the charge q, its speed
v, and the magnetic field strength B.
vr 3. The force is greatest when the charge moves at right angles to the field and is zero
r
vr i B: ! is proportional to sin u, where u
for motion parallel to the field. In general, the force
r
F50
r
!
no force is the angle between the velocity v and the field B.
FIGURE 26.2 The magnetic force on a charged Putting these facts together lets us write the magnetic force compactly using the vector
particle is perpendicular to both the
! particle’s
! cross product introduced in Chapter 11:
velocity v and the magnetic field B.
! ! !
FB 5 qv 3 B 1magnetic force2 (26.1)
! !
Recall that the cross product v 3 B is a vector of magnitude vB sin u, so the magnitude of
the magnetic force is
!
ƒFB ƒ 5 ƒqƒvB sin u
! !
The direction of v 3 B is given by the right-hand rule (Fig. 26.3), and Equation 26.1
shows that the magnetic force has that same direction for positive q and the opposite
direction for negative q.

r
vr 3 B
Curl your fingers
r in the direction
vr 3 B . . . and your
that would
r
rotate thumb points
vr onto B . . . in the direction
r
of vr 3 B.

vr
u
r
B

(a) (b)
! !
FIGURE 26.3 Finding the direction of the cross product v 3 B with the
right-hand rule.
 26.3 Charged Particles in Magnetic Fields 441

Equation 26.1 shows that the units of magnetic field are N # s/1C # m2, a unit given the
name tesla (T) after the Serbian-American inventor Nikola Tesla (1856–1943). One tesla
is a strong field, and a smaller unit called the gauss (G), equal to 1024 T, is often used.
Earth’s magnetic field is a little less than 1 G, while the field of a refrigerator magnet is
about 100 G. The fields used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be as strong as
several tesla, while the incredibly dense, rapidly rotating collapsed stars called magnetars
have fields up to 1011 T.

GOT IT? 26.1 The figure shows a proton in a mag-

netic field. For which of the three proton velocities
(a) (b)
shown will the magnetic force be greatest? What will be B
r

the direction of the force in all three cases?

(c)

EXAMPLE 26.1 Finding the Magnetic Force: Steering Protons

! ! !
Figure 26.4 shows three protons entering a 0.10-T magnetic field. All DEVELOP Equation 26.1, FB 5 qv 3 B, gives the magnetic force, so
three are moving at 2.0 Mm/s. Find the magnetic force on each. we’ll apply it to each of the particles.
! !
r EVALUATE Proton 2 is moving parallel to the field, so v2 3 B 5 0 and
B
it experiences no magnetic force. Protons 1 and 3 are moving at right
angles to the field, so sin u 5 1, and the magnitude of the force on
each is FB 5 qvB sin u 5 qvB. Using the proton charge q 5 e 5
1.6310219 C and the given values for B and ! v yields F 5 32 fN.
Since !protons are positive, the direction of FB is the same as that of
1 3 !
v 3 B; applying the right-hand rule shows that the direction is out of
the page for proton 1 and into the page for proton 3.

ASSESS Our answer 32 fN 132310215 N2 is a tiny force, but that’s

2 not surprising given the proton’s tiny charge. Note that the magnetic
field alone doesn’t determine the force; in this example identical par-
FIGURE 26.4 What’s the magnetic force on each proton?
ticles experience different forces because they’re moving in different
directions relative to the field. ■
INTERPRET This problem is about the magnetic force on moving
charged particles with the same speed but different directions of
motion.

Although electricity and magnetism are related, the electric and magnetic forces are Magnetic and electric
distinct. Both may be present simultaneously, in which case forces cancel when
! ! ! a charged particle experiences v 5 E/B.
both an electric force FE 5 qE and a magnetic force FB given by Equation 26.1. The
result is an electromagnetic force:
! ! ! !
F 5 qE 1 qv 3 B 1electromagnetic force2 (26.2) r r
FB FE r
E
Because the magnetic force depends on velocity but the electric force doesn’t, it’s possible r
v
to use perpendicular electric and magnetic fields to select particles of a particular velocity
(Fig. 26.5). Such velocity selectors serve to prepare particle beams with uniform velocity
as well as to analyze charged-particle populations in interplanetary space. r
B

FIGURE 26.5 A velocity selector. The electric and

26.3 Charged Particles in Magnetic Fields magnetic forces cancel when qE 5 qvB, so only
particles with speed v 5 E/B pass through un-
Following Newton’s law, the magnetic force deflects charged particles from their other- !
deflected. The velocity v points into the page.
wise straight-line paths. Magnetic forces “steer” charged particles in a host of practical
devices ranging from microwave ovens to giant particle accelerators, and they shape parti-
cle trajectories throughout the astrophysical universe.
442 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field

Dots represent The magnitude of The magnetic force always acts at right angles to a particle’s velocity. Therefore, it
magnetic field the velocity is changes the direction of motion but not the speed, and it does no work. In the special
lines coming constant.
case of a particle moving at right angles to a uniform field, the magnetic force has a constant
out of the page. !
magnitude
! and the result, as Fig. 26.6 shows, is uniform circular motion. With v perpendicu-
r vr
r F lar to B, the magnetic force of Equation 26.1 has magnitude qvB. This force provides the ac-
Bout
r
celeration v2/r that characterizes circular motion with radius r. Then Newton’s law, F 5 ma,
F reads qvB 5 mv2/r. We can solve for the radius of the particle’s circular path to get
r
vr mv
F r5 (26.3)
qB
This result makes sense: The greater the particle’s momentum mv, the harder it is for the
magnetic force to bend its path and the larger the radius. On the other hand, a larger charge
The magnetic force vr or field increases the force and makes a tighter orbit.
is always perpendicular
to the velocity.
GOT IT? 26.2 A uniform magnetic field points out of this page. Will an electron
FIGURE 26.6 A charged particle moving at right that’s moving in the plane of the page circle (a) clockwise or (b) counterclockwise as
angles to a uniform magnetic field describes
circular motion.
viewed from above the page?

EXAMPLE 26.2 Magnetic Deflection: A Mass Spectrometer

A mass spectrometer separates ions according to their ratio of charge INTERPRET This problem is about charged particles undergoing cir-
to mass. Such devices are widely used in science and engineering to cular motion in a uniform magnetic field. The distance we’re asked for
analyze unknown mixtures and to separate isotopes of chemical ele- is the diameter of the particles’ circular path.
ments. Figure 26.7 shows ions of charge q and mass m first being ac-
celerated from rest through a potential difference V and then entering DEVELOP Equation 26.3, r 5 mv/qB, shows that the path radius de-
a region of uniform magnetic field B pointing out of the page. Only pends on the field and on the particle’s mass, charge, and speed. We
the magnetic force acts on the ions in this region, so they undergo cir- know everything but the speed, so this becomes a two-step problem in
cular motion and, after half an orbit, land on a detector. Find an ex- which we’ll first find the speed. We’re given the potential difference—
pression for the horizontal distance x from the entrance slit to the energy per unit charge—so we can use energy conservation to find the
point where an ion lands on the detector. kinetic energy and hence the ions’ speed in the magnetic-field region.
Then we’ll use Equation 26.3 to find the radius of the ions’ circular path.

EVALUATE A charge q gains kinetic energy qV in “falling” through a

r
Bout of page potential difference V, so an ion’s kinetic energy once it enters the mag-
netic field is 12 mv2 5 qV. Solving for v gives v 5 12qV/m. Our an-
swer, the path diameter x, is then twice the radius given in Equation 26.3:
2mv 2m 12qV/m 2 2mV
x 5 2r 5 5 5
 qB qB BA q
x
V Detector
 ASSESS Make sense? The greater the mass or speed—which increases
with the accelerating voltage V—the harder it is to deflect the ion and
q Ion source the larger the diameter of its semicircular path. The larger the field or
charge, the larger the force and the smaller the semicircle. Note that
FIGURE 26.7 A mass spectrometer. for a fixed voltage and magnetic field, this device sorts ions by their
charge-to-mass ratio q/m. ■

The Cyclotron Frequency

What’s the period of a particle’s circular orbit in a uniform magnetic field? The orbit cir-
cumference is 2pr, so the period is T 5 2pr/v. Using Equation 26.3 for the radius gives
2pr 2p mv 2pm
T5 5 5
v v qB qB
Remarkably, the period is independent of the particle’s speed and orbital radius. Equation 26.3
shows why: The higher the speed v, the larger the radius r and hence the circumference. So a
faster particle describes a larger circle and ends up taking the same amount of time to go around.
 26.3 Charged Particles in Magnetic Fields 443

Equivalently, we can describe the particle’s circular motion in terms of its frequency f,
in revolutions per second, which is just the inverse of the period:
qB
f5 1cyclotron frequency2 (26.4)
2pm
This quantity is the cyclotron frequency. Because it depends only on the field and the
charge-to-mass ratio, cyclotron motion provides astrophysicists with a direct measure of
magnetic fields in distant objects. Conversely, a fixed magnetic field guarantees a specific
cyclotron frequency regardless of the particles’ speeds. Microwave ovens exploit this fact, Motion parallel to the
with their microwaves generated by electrons circling 2.4 billion times per second in a field isn’t affected
by the magnetic force.
special tube called a magnetron.

Particle Trajectories in Three Dimensions

When a charged particle moves in an arbitrary direction, we consider velocity compo- r
nents both perpendicular and parallel to the magnetic field. Our previous analysis applies B
to the perpendicular component, giving circular motion in a plane perpendicular to the
field. And because there’s no magnetic force with velocity parallel to the field, the parallel
component is unaffected. The result, in a uniform field, is a spiral path the field direction FIGURE 26.8 A particle in a uniform magnetic
(Fig. 26.8). field describes a spiral path.

APPLICATION The Cyclotron

Physicists use high-energy particles to probe the structure of matter; engineers electric field, so here the particles follow circular paths in the magnetic field.
and physicians need high-energy particle beams in manufacturing, diagnostic, Halfway around they again encounter the dee gap. Because the potential is
and therapeutic procedures. The easiest way to produce such beams is to accel- changing polarity in step with the particles’ cyclotron motion, they again gain
erate ions through a potential difference, but the difficulties of handling high energy as they cross the gap. They move faster and in ever-larger circles, but al-
voltages make that impractical for all but the lowest energies. One of the earliest ways with the same orbital period. When they approach the edge of the machine,
and most successful devices to circumvent this problem is the cyclotron, whose an electric field deflects the ions and they emerge as a high-energy beam.
essential parts are shown in the figure. The device consists of an evacuated Cyclotrons produce ions with energies of millions of electronvolts. This is
chamber between the poles of a magnet. Ions are produced at the center and un- high enough to cause nuclear reactions, and many medically useful radioactive
dergo circular motion in the magnetic field. isotopes are made using cyclotrons. In particular, the diagnostic procedure
called PET (positron emission tomography) relies on cyclotron-produced ra-
r
dioisotopes; the photo shows a hospital-based cyclotron used for this purpose.
B At higher energies the theory of relativity alters our conclusion that the cy-
clotron frequency is independent of energy, and the cyclotron becomes useless.
An alternative design is the synchrotron, in which both the magnetic field and
the frequency vary to account for increasing particle energy.
Dees

To target

N
To source of
Magnet alternating emf

Also in the chamber are two hollow conducting structures shaped like the
letter D. A modest potential difference is applied across these “dees,” and it al-
ternates polarity at the cyclotron frequency. As ions circle around inside the cy-
clotron, they gain energy from the strong electric field associated with the
potential difference at the gap. Inside the hollow conducting dee there’s no
444 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field

r
B The absence of magnetic force in the field direction means it’s easy to move charged
particles along the field. But try to push a charged particle at right angles to the field, and
it goes into circular motion; push harder and the circle only gets bigger. As a result,
charged particles are effectively “frozen” to the field lines and move along the field like
beads strung on a wire (Fig. 26.9). Nonuniform fields and particle collisions make this
“freezing” less than perfect, but in many cases particle density is low enough that the
“frozen” assumption is an excellent approximation. The coronal loops in this chapter’s
(a)
opening photo are a beautiful example of charged particles “frozen” to the solar magnetic
field. Similarly, high-energy particles from the Sun get trapped on Earth’s magnetic field
Wire
lines; where the field intersects the atmosphere, particles collide with atmospheric nitro-
gen and oxygen to produce the spectacular displays we call the aurora. Here on Earth,
trapping of charged particles on magnetic field lines enables researchers to confine plas-
Beads mas at temperatures of 100 MK in attempts to harness the energy of nuclear fusion.
(b)

FIGURE 26.9 (a) Charged particles undergoing 26.4 The Magnetic Force on a Current
spiral motion about the magnetic field are
“frozen” to the field like (b) beads sliding along An electric current consists of charges in motion, so a current in a magnetic field should!
a wire. experience a magnetic force. Figure 26.10 shows a straight wire in a magnetic field B.
Charges in the wire are moving about with thermal motions, but because these are ran-
dom, the magnetic force on all the charges averages to zero. But if there’s a current I in
r
B !
the wire, then the charges share a common ! drift! velocity
! vd, and thus each experiences a
magnetic force given by Equation 26.1: Fq 5 qvd 3 B. If the wire has cross-sectional area
A and contains n charges
! per unit! volume, then the force on all the charge carriers in a
!
l length l of wire is F 5! nAlqvd 3 B. But nAqvd is the current, I, as we found in Chapter 24.
If we define a vector l whose magnitude is the wire length l and whose direction is along
u I the current, then we can write
! ! !
F 5 Il 3 B 1magnetic force on a current2 (26.5)
The magnetic force acts on all This force is perpendicular to both the current and the magnetic field, or out of the page in
moving charges and points out
of the page. Fig. 26.10. The direction of the magnetic force doesn’t depend on the sign of the charge
carriers; they could be negative electrons moving leftward, opposite the current direction
FIGURE 26.10 A straight wire carrying current I in Fig. 26.10, or positive charges moving rightward. For a given current, changing the sign
through a uniform magnetic field. !
of the charge carriers reverses both the sign of q and the direction of vd, leaving the force
unchanged.
Electrons moving leftward are deflected Equation 26.5 gives the net force on the charge carriers in the wire. In a physical wire,
upward by the magnetic force . . .
the magnetic force deflects charge carriers to one side of the wire, producing a charge sep-
r aration and an electric field that results in a force on the rest of the wire (Fig. 26.11).
Binto page
Although its origin is not entirely magnetic, we loosely call the force in Equation 26.5 “the
r r magnetic force on a wire.” The magnetic force on a current-carrying wire is the basis for
Fmag. on Felec.
electrons on ions I many practical devices, including loudspeakers and the electric motors that start cars and
run refrigerators, disk drives, subway trains, pumps, food processors, power tools, and
myriad other instruments of modern society.
. . . the resulting charge separation Equation 26.5 holds for straight wires in uniform magnetic fields. In other cases we ap-
leads to an upward electric force on ply Equation 26.5 to very short segments of a wire that’s either curved or in a nonuniform
the rest of the wire.
field, and we integrate to find the net force. Problem 57 explores this situation.
FIGURE 26.11 Origin of the magnetic force on a
current-carrying wire.
GOT IT? 26.3 The figure shows a flexible wire passing
through a magnetic field that points out of the page. The wire
is deflected upward, as shown. Is the current flowing (a) to the
r
left or (b) to the right? Bout
 26.4 The Magnetic Force on a Current 445

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 26.1 Magnetic Force: A Power Line

A power line runs along Earth’s equator, where the magnetic field
points horizontally from south to north; the line carries current flow-
ing from west to east. What’s the direction of the magnetic force on
the power line?
EVALUATE We’ve sketched the situation in Fig. 26.12. Using the
right-hand rule with the current eastward and magnetic field north-
ward shows that the force is vertically upward.
ASSESS As always, the force is at right angles to both the current and
the magnetic field. As you’ll see below, this force is pretty feeble
compared with the power line’s weight.

MAKING THE CONNECTION Earth’s equatorial field strength is

30 mT, and the power line carries 500 A. What’s the magnetic force
on a kilometer of the line? FIGURE 26.12 Sketch for Conceptual Example 26.1.
EVALUATE Equation 26.5 gives
! !
F 5 ƒIl 3 B ƒ 5 IlB sin 90° 5 1500 A211.0 km2130 mT2112 5 15 N
That’s far less than the line’s weight, on the order of 10 kN.

The Hall Effect Electrons moving to

Magnetic
field points
We noted earlier that the direction of the magnetic force depends on the direction of left are deflected upward . . . r into page.
B
the current, not on the sign of the charge carriers. However, there’s a subtle difference be-
tween two conductors with the same current yet different charge carriers. In Fig. 26.13, t
2
moving charge carriers of either sign are deflected to the upper surface of the conduc- r h I
tor. Again, that’s because the signs of both charge and velocity are opposite in the two EH VH
cases. In both cases the result is a small electric field and its associated potential differ-
1
ence across the wire. The direction of the electric field and the sign of the potential difference
. . . resulting in a Hall electric
depend on the sign of the charge carriers. field pointing upward. Current
The separation of charges across a current-carrying wire is the Hall effect, and the po- (a)
direction
is the same.
tential difference is the Hall potential. In a steady state, the magnetic force on the charge
carriers is just balanced by the electric force associated with charge separation, giving r
qE 5 qvdB, or simply E 5 vdB. In the rectangular conductor of Fig. 26.13, the electric Protons moving to right B
are deflected upward . . .
field is uniform and the Hall potential is then VH 5 Eh 5 vdBh. Using I 5 nqAvd and
solving for vd, we can then write VH 5 IBh/nAq. Since A 5 ht, with t the conductor thick- 1 t
ness in the field direction (see Fig. 26.13), this becomes r h I
EH V H
IB
VH 5 1Hall potential2 (26.6) 2
nqt
. . . resulting in a Hall electric field pointing
The quantity 1/nq is the Hall coefficient. Measuring the Hall coefficient gives informa- downward.
tion on the nature and density of the charge carriers. Alternatively, measuring VH in a ma- (b)
terial of known coefficient carrying a known current gives a direct measure of the !
FIGURE 26.13 The Hall electric field EH and Hall
magnetic field strength. potential VH arise from the magnetic deflection
of charge carriers. In both (a) and (b) the current
is to the right, carried in (a) by negative charge
moving to the left and in (b) by positive charge
moving to the right.
446 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field

26.5 Origin of the Magnetic Field

Electric charges respond to electric fields, and electric charges produce electric fields.
So it is with magnetism. We’ve just explored how moving electric charges respond to
magnetic fields; we’ll now see how moving electric charges produce magnetic fields.
The first inkling of a relation between electricity and magnetism came in 1820 when
the Danish scientist Hans Christian Oersted discovered that a compass needle is de-
flected by an electric current. A month after Oersted’s discovery became known in
Paris, the French scientists Jean Baptiste Biot (rhymes with “Leo”) and Félix Savart
(rhymes with “bazaar”) had experimentally determined the form of the force arising
from a steady current.

The Biot–Savart Law

!
r The Biot–Savart law gives the contribution dB to the magnetic field at a point P due to a!
dl is a small
piece of the wire. rˆ is a unit vector small element of current, in much the way that Coulomb’s law gives the electric field dE
r
from dl toward P. due to a charge !element dq. Figure 26.14 shows a wire carrying a steady current I and the
r contribution dB to the field at P from a small length dl of the wire. The current element
r dB is into page.
dl e I dl is the source of the field; it plays the same role as the charge dq in Coulomb’s law. The
rˆ P magnetic field decreases with the inverse square of the distance, just as in Coulomb’s law
r for the electric field.
There are important differences between the Coulomb and Biot–Savart laws. Charge—
the source of electric field—is a scalar quantity. But moving charge—the source of mag-
netic field—has
! direction. The Biot–Savart law accounts for ! that direction by defining a!
vector dl along the current; then the field contribution
! dB from the source element Idl
I
depends on the sine of the angle between dl and the unit vector r^ from the source toward
the point where we’re evaluating the field. Mathematically, all this is summarized in a
compact vector equation:
FIGURE 26.14 The Biot–Savart
! law gives the
!
magnetic field d B at the point P arising from ! m0 Idl 3 r^
the current
! I flowing along the infinitesimal dB 5 1Biot–Savart law2 (26.7)
vector d l . 4p r2

where m0 is the permeability constant, whose exact value is 4p31027 N/A2 (equivalent
and often-used units are T # m/A).
Besides the more complicated directionality evidenced by the cross product in the
Biot–Savart law, there’s another distinction between the Coulomb and Biot–Savart laws.
Both describe fields of localized structures—namely, point charges and current elements.
It makes sense to talk about an isolated point charge. But an isolated current element is
impossible in the steady state; any steady current must flow in a complete circuit. So a
r Biot–Savart calculation necessarily involves the fields produced by current elements
Point your right B
around an entire circuit. The magnetic field obeys the superposition principle, so the net
thumb in the direction
of the current. I field at any point is the vector sum, or integral, of the field contributions of all the individ-
ual current elements:
!
Then curl your ! ! m0 Idl 3 r^
B 5 3 dB 5 1Biot–Savart law, integrated2 (26.8)
fingers to get
the field direction.
4p 3 r2
I
The field given in Equation 26.8 depends on the details of the current distribution, but the
directionality associated with the cross product means that, quite generally, magnetic field
FIGURE 26.15 Magnetic field lines generally
lines encircle the current that is their source (Fig. 26.15). The next two examples use the
encircle a current, with direction given by the Biot–Savart law; later we’ll find a simpler way to calculate magnetic fields for some
right-hand rule. current distributions.
 26.5 Origin of the Magnetic Field 447

EXAMPLE 26.3 Using the Biot–Savart Law: The Field of a Current Loop
!
Find the magnetic field at an arbitrary point P on the axis of a circular P, and we’ve identified the vectors dl and r^ that appear in the law. As
loop of radius a carrying current I. Fig. 26.16b shows, the individual field components perpendicular to
the axis cancel, giving a net field that’s along the axis. So our plan is
INTERPRET This is a problem involving the magnetic field produced to !find an expression for the x-components of the field contributions
by a specified current distribution. dB, and then integrate to get the net field.
!
DEVELOP Figure 26.16a shows the current loop with the point P a EVALUATE Figure 26.16a shows that the x-component of any dB is
distance x along the axis. The Biot–Savart law determines the field at dBx 5 dB cos !u, where cos u 5 a/r 5 a/ 2x2 1 a2. The figure also
r shows that! dl and r^ are perpendicular; since r^ is a unit
! vector, the
dl and rˆ are
perpendicular. product dl 3 r^ has magnitude dl. Then the term dl 3 r^ /r2 in the
Biot–Savart law has magnitude dl/1x2 1 a22, and we have
r
dl Same u; m0I dl a
B 5 3 dBx 5
I rˆ cos u 5 a/r 4p 3loop x2 1 a2 2x2 1 a2
e
a m0Ia
r
5 dl
r
dB
4p1x2 1 a223/2 3 loop

x where the integral reduces to a simple form because the distance x is

e the same for all points on the loop. The remaining integral is the sum
P
of infinitesimal lengths around the loop, or the loop circumference
(a) 2pa. So we have
I m0 Ia2
B5 (26.9)
Field contributions 21x2 1 a223/2
perpendicular to the
axis cancel . . .
The direction of the field, as suggested in Fig. 26.16b, is along the
axis.

ASSESS The field is strongest right at the loop center 1x 5 02 because

here we’re closest to the loop and so the contributions from all segments
. . . leaving a of the loop are greatest. The field decreases as we move away from the
net field along
loop. In general the field is a complicated function of distance, but for
the axis. r r
B = 3dB large distances 1x W a2 it falls off as 1/x3. That should remind you of
(b) the field we found for an electric dipole in Chapter 20. We’ll have more
FIGURE 26.16 Finding the magnetic field on the axis of a current loop.
to say about this dipole-like behavior in Section 26.6. ■

EXAMPLE 26.4 Using the Biot–Savart Law: The Field of a Straight Wire
!
Find the magnetic field produced by an infinitely long straight wire an infinitesimal segment dl of the wire and the unit vector r^ toward
!
carrying steady current I. the field point. Our plan is to calculate the field contributions dB
! from
all such current elements, and then integrate to find the field B.
INTERPRET This example, too, is about the field produced by a speci- !
fied current distribution. EVALUATE
! Both dl and r^ lie in the plane of the page, so at P the vec-
tor dl 3 r^ in the Biot–Savart law is out of the page. This is true for
DEVELOP Figure 26.17 is our drawing of the wire on a coordinate sys- any segment of the wire. Therefore, we can sum the magnitudes of
tem with the x-axis along the wire. Since the wire is infinite, the field !
the contributions dB to find the magnitude of the net field, and we
magnitude must be the same at all points equidistant from the wire.
We show one such point P, a distance y from the wire. We also show ! its direction at P will be out of the page. With r^ a unit vector,
know
ƒdl 3 r^ ƒ 5 dl sin u, where Fig. 26.17 shows that sin u 5 y/r 5
y/ 2x2 1 y2. Then the Biot–Savart law gives a field contribution of
magnitude
!
m0 I ƒdl 3 r^ ƒ m0 I dl sin u m0 I y dl
dB 5 5 5
4p r 2
4p r 2
4p 1x 1 y223/2
2
!
Since the segment dl lies along the x-axis, dl 5 dx. Also, y is a con-
stant here, so the net field becomes
m0 Iy ` dx
B 5 3 dB 5
FIGURE 26.17 Calculating the magnetic field at P due to an infinite straight 4p 32` 1x2 1 y223/2
wire carrying current I along the x-axis. (continued)
448 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field

where we chose the limits to include the entire infinite wire. The in- r
B
tegral is a standard one, given in the integral tables of Appendix A;
the result is
m0 I
B5 (26.10)
2py I
ASSESS This result for the magnetic field of a long current-carrying
wire should remind you of our earlier finding for the electric field of a
line charge; both decrease as the inverse of the distance from the line. r
B
But where the electric field of a line charge points radially outward,
the magnetic field of a line current encircles the current, as shown in
Fig. 26.18. Of course, an infinite line current is impossible, but our re-
sult is a good approximation to the fields of finite wires if we’re close
compared with the wire’s length. ■ FIGURE 26.18 Magnetic field lines encircle a
I straight wire, with their direction given by
the right-hand rule.

The Magnetic Force Between Conductors

r
B1
In! Section
! 26.4
! we found the force on a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field:
F 5 Il 3 B. Now we find that a straight wire produces a magnetic field. That means
r
current-carrying wires exert magnetic forces on each other. Figure 26.19 shows the situa-
F l
r tion for two parallel wires carrying currents in the same direction. The wires are a distance
F
d apart, so the field of wire 1 at the location of wire 2 follows from Equation 26.10:
l I2
r
B1 5 m0 I1 /2pd. The field is perpendicular to wire 2, so the force on a length l of wire 2 is
B2 I1
m0 I1I2 l
F2 5 I2 l 3 B1 5 1magnetic force between two wires2 (26.11)
FIGURE 26.19 The magnetic force between par- 2pd
allel currents in the same direction is attractive.
Figure 26.19 shows that the direction of this force is toward wire 1, so the parallel currents
attract. Analyzing the force on wire 1 from wire 2 amounts to interchanging the subscripts
1 and 2, giving an attractive force of the same magnitude. Reversing one of the currents
would change the signs of both forces, showing that antiparallel currents repel.
The force between nearby conductors can be quite large, so engineers who design high-
strength electromagnets must provide enough physical support to withstand the magnetic
force. The hum you often hear around electrical equipment comes from the mechanical
vibration of nearby conductors in transformers and other devices, as they respond to the
changing force associated with 60-Hz alternating current.
The magnetic force between conductors is the basis for the SI definition of the ampere
and, consequently, the coulomb. One ampere is defined as the current in two long, parallel
conductors 1 m apart when they experience a magnetic force of 231027 N per meter of
length. Then 1 C is the amount of charge passing in 1 s through a wire carrying 1 A.

GOT IT? 26.4 A flexible wire is wound into a flat spiral as shown in the I
figure. If a current flows in the direction shown, will the coil (a) tighten or
(b) become looser? Does your answer depend on the current direction?

26.6 Magnetic Dipoles

The current loop of Example 26.4 shows the essential characteristic of all steady-state
currents—namely, a closed loop with current everywhere the same. Equation 26.9 gives
the field on the loop axis: B 5 m0Ia2/21x 2 1 a223/2. For x W a we can ignore a2 com-
pared with x 2 in the denominator, giving B . m0Ia2/2x3. Multiply both sides by 2p to get
 26.6 Magnetic Dipoles 449

B . 2m0IA/4px3, where A is the loop area. Compare this result with the field on the axis r
m
of an electric dipole, Equation 20.6b: Both show the inverse-cube dependence of the di- I
pole field, and both involve fundamental constants from the Coulomb and Biot–Savart
laws that relate fields and their sources. Where the electric-field expression contains the
Direction of I
electric dipole moment p, the product of charge and separation, the magnetic-field expres-
sion contains IA, the product of the loop current and loop area. We identify IA as the mag-
nitude, m, of the current loop’s magnetic dipole moment. Then the on-axis magnetic
dipole field becomes
FIGURE 26.20 Finding the direction of a current
m0 m loop’s magnetic dipole moment.
B5 1on-axis field, magnetic dipole2 (26.12)
2p x3
The magnetic dipole moment is a vector whose direction follows from the right-hand rule
shown in Fig. 26.20. If we describe the loop by a vector of magnitude A whose direction is
perpendicular to !the loop as shown in Fig. 26.20, then we can write the magnetic dipole mo-
!
ment as m 5 IA. Practical current loops often have multiple turns; since each carries the r
E
same current, an N-turn loop has effective current NI, so its dipole moment becomes

! ! magnetic dipole moment,

m 5 NIA a b (26.13)
N-turn current loop 

Although we’ve found the magnetic field for a current loop only on the loop axis, a
more elaborate calculation shows that the magnetic field anywhere far from the loop has
exactly the same configuration as the electric field far from an electric dipole. And al-
though we developed the magnetic dipole moment for a circular loop, Equation 26.13 in Far away, (a) . . . but close in,
fact gives the dipole moment of any closed loop of current. We conclude that any cur- the fields look they’re different.
rent loop constitutes a magnetic dipole, and that far from the loop, its field will be that similar . . .
r
of a dipole. Electric and magnetic dipoles are analogous: Both have the same field con- B
figuration and mathematical form far from their sources (Fig. 26.21), and both are char-
acterized by their respective dipole moments. But they aren’t the same. One is an
electric field, its origin in static electric charge; the other is a magnetic field, its origin
in moving charge—specifically, charge moving in a closed loop. And the similarity in
I
field configurations holds only at large distances; as Fig. 26.21 shows, the fields near
electric and magnetic dipoles are very different, reflecting the different structures that
give rise to each. (b)
Current loops are ubiquitous, and so are dipole magnetic fields. Multiple turns of cur-
rent-carrying wire produce the strong magnetic fields of electromagnets, and supercon- FIGURE 26.21 (a) The electric field of an electric
dipole and (b) the magnetic field of a current
ducting loops provide the fields in MRI scanners. At the atomic level, orbiting and loop. Far from their sources, both have the
spinning electrons constitute miniature magnetic dipoles. Even planets and stars have shape and the 1/r 3 dependence of the dipole
magnetic dipole fields. field.

APPLICATION Magnetic Fields of Earth and Sun

Many astrophysical objects have magnetic fields resulting from the interac- The Sun’s field reverses approximately every 11 years, coinciding with the rise
tion of conducting fluids with the objects’ rotation. Earth’s field arises in its and fall of sunspots—regions of intense magnetic field that are often sources of
liquid-iron outer core, where convective flows work with Earth’s rotation to violent outbursts.
produce electric currents. The figure shows that Earth’s field approximates
that of a dipole; the magnitude of the dipole moment is approximately
Magnetic Rotation axis
m 5 8.031022 A # m2. The direction of the dipole moment vector differs from axis
that of Earth’s rotation axis, which accounts for the difference between mag- 11°
netic and true north. Earth’s field reverses roughly every million years, and N
geologists track seafloor spreading from the resulting magnetization in rocks.
m
Farther out, Earth’s magnetic field traps high-energy particles and thus pro-
tects us from dangerous radiation.
S
The Sun’s gaseous nature makes its magnetic field much more dynamic, and
magnetism is the dominant force in its hot, electrically conducting atmosphere.
450 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field

Dipoles and Monopoles

Atoms, molecules, and radio antennas are among the many structures that behave as electric
dipoles. In all these, separation of positive and negative electric charge gives rise to the di-
pole. Magnetism is different. No one has ever found an isolated magnetic north or south pole
analogous to an electric charge. Electromagnetic theory doesn’t rule out such magnetic
monopoles, and indeed some theories suggest that monopoles might have formed in the Big
Bang. But they’ve never been found. All magnetic fields we’ve ever seen come from moving
electric charge. As we’ll see in Section 26.7, that includes the fields of permanent magnets.
Because steady currents form closed loops, the simplest magnetic entity is the dipole.
Electric field lines generally begin or end on electric charges. But there aren’t any “mag-
netic charges”—magnetic monopoles. Magnetic field lines don’t begin or end, but form
closed loops encircling the moving electric charges that are their sources. In Chapter 21 we
developed Gauss’s law to quantify the statement that the number of electric field lines emerg-
ing from any closed surface depends only on the charge enclosed. Because there’s !no magnetic
!
charge, the net number of magnetic field lines and therefore the magnetic flux $ B # dA emerg-
ing from any closed surface is always zero. Thus Gauss’s law for magnetism is
! !
# 1Gauss’s law for magnetism2
C B dA 5 0 (26.14)

Like Gauss’s law for electricity, Equation 26.14 is one of the four fundamental laws that
govern all electromagnetic phenomena in the universe. We’ll meet the remaining two laws
shortly. Although Gauss’s law for magnetism has zero on its right side, it’s not devoid of
content; rather, it says that all magnetic fields are configured so that their field lines have
r
no beginnings or endings.
Ftop
I
GOT IT? 26.5 The figure
shows two fields. Which could
r
Fside
be a magnetic field?

r
a B
u
r r
2Fside m

I b
Forces on mr points along your (a) (b)
top and bottom r
right thumb when you
cancel. 2Ftop curl your fingers
in the current’s
direction. The Torque on a Magnetic Dipole
(a) ! !
In Section 20.5 we found
! that an electric dipole p in a uniform electric field E experiences
! !
r
a torque t 5 p 3 E; in a nonuniform field there’s a net force as well. The same is true for a
Forces on sides also cancel Fside
to give zero net force, but magnetic dipole in a magnetic field, as we can see by considering the rectangular current loop
produce a net torque. u in a uniform field shown in Fig. 26.22a. Current flowing along the top and bottom of the loop
results in upward and downward forces of equal magnitude, and neither a net force nor a net
Iup
b torque is associated with these forces. Currents flowing along the vertical sides also result in
2 equal but opposite forces. However, as Fig. 26.22b shows, these forces result in a net torque
r
B about a vertical axis through the center of the loop. The vertical sides have length a and the
I u
mr currents are perpendicular to the horizontal magnetic field, so the force on each has magni-
tude Fside 5 IaB. The vertical sides are half the loop width b from the axis, so the torque due
Idown
1

to each is tside 5 12 bFside sin u 5 12 bIaB sin u. Torques on the two sides are in the same di-
u rection (out of the page in Fig. 26.22b), so the net torque is t 5 IabB sin u 5 IAB sin u,
r with A the loop area. We’ve already identified IA as the magnitude of the loop’s magnetic di-
2Fside ! !
(b) pole moment m and, given the direction of m as shown in Figs. 26.20 and 26.22b, we can in-
corporate the directionality and the factor sin u into a cross product:
FIGURE 26.22 (a) A rectangular current loop in a
! ! !
uniform magnetic field. (b) Top view of the t5m3B 1torque on a magnetic dipole2 (26.15)
loop, showing that magnetic forces on the
vertical sides result in a net torque. analogous to the torque on an electric dipole.
 26.6 Magnetic Dipoles 451

The magnetic torque of Equation 26.15 causes magnetic dipoles—current loops—to

align with their dipole moment vectors along the magnetic field. It takes work to rotate a
dipole out of alignment with the field, and in analogy with Equation 20.11 the associated
potential energy is
! !
U 5 2m # B (26.16)
In a nonuniform field, a dipole also experiences a net force. That’s why the nonuniform
field near the poles of a bar magnet attracts magnetic materials that, as we’ll see in the
next section, contain magnetic dipoles.
The torque on a magnetic dipole is important in many technologies, including electric
motors and MRI imaging. Some satellites use the torque produced by Earth’s magnetic
field to orient themselves in space; with electricity generated from solar panels powering
current loops, there’s no fuel to run out.

APPLICATION Electric Motors

Rotating Electric motors are so much a part of our lives that we hardly think of them.
loop Yet refrigerators, disk drives, subway trains, vacuum cleaners, power tools,
N
food processors, fans, washing machines, water pumps, hybrid cars, and most
industrial machinery would be impossible without electric motors.
At the heart of every electric motor is a current loop in a magnetic field.
S But instead of a steady current, the loop carries a current that reverses to keep
the loop always spinning. In direct-current (DC) motors, this is achieved
Commutator through the electrical contacts that provide current to the loop. The figure
shows how current flows to the loop through a pair of stationary brushes that
contact rotating conductors called the commutator. The current loop rotates to
Brushes
align with the field, but just as it does so, the brushes cross the gaps in the com-
mutator and reverse the loop’s current and therefore its dipole moment vector.
Now the loop swings another 180° to its new “desired” position, but again the
  commutator reverses the current and so the loop rotates continuously. A rigid
Battery shaft spinning with the coils delivers mechanical energy. Thus the motor is a
device that converts electrical energy to mechanical energy; the magnetic field
is an intermediary in this energy conversion.

EXAMPLE 26.5 Torque on a Current Loop: Designing a Hybrid-Car Motor

Toyota’s Prius gas–electric hybrid car uses a 60-kW electric motor that
develops a maximum torque of 207 N # m. Suppose you want to produce
this torque in a motor like the one in the preceding Application, consist-
ing of a 700-turn rectangular coil measuring 30 cm by 20 cm in a uni-
form field of 50 mT. How much current does the motor need?
Magnetic dipole
INTERPRET This problem is about an electric motor, which according
moment is out
to the Application is essentially a current loop in a magnetic field. of page, so
r r
We’re given the torque and asked for the current. m ' B, giving
! ! ! maximum
DEVELOP Equation 26.15, t 5 m 3 B, determines the torque on a torque.
current loop. Figure 26.23 is a sketch of the loop at the point of maxi- 700-turn
mum torque, tmax 5 mB, which occurs when sin u 5 1. To solve for coil
the current, we need the magnetic dipole moment from Equation 26.13,
m 5 NIA. Then tmax 5 NIAB.
FIGURE 26.23 Loop for the motor of Example 26.5, shown in the position
EVALUATE Solving for I using the maximum torque and the loop of maximum torque.
dimensions gives
ASSESS That’s a large current, but propelling a car is a big job. The
tmax 207 N # m actual Prius motor operates at 650 V, so its 60-kW power requires cur-
I5 5 5 99 A
NAB 1700210.30 m210.20 m210.050 T2 rent I 5 P/V 5 92 A, close to our answer. ■
452 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field

26.7 Magnetic Matter

So far, we’ve said remarkably little about magnets. That’s because magnetism is funda-
mentally about moving electric charge. Magnets and magnetic matter are just a minor
manifestation of this universal phenomenon.
mr The magnetism of everyday magnets and of magnetic materials like iron results from
I
atomic-scale current loops. An electron orbiting a nucleus constitutes a simple current
loop and therefore has a magnetic dipole moment (Fig. 26.24). More importantly, an elec-
  tron possesses an intrinsic magnetic dipole moment associated with a quantum-mechanical
v angular momentum called “spin.” Interactions among these magnetic moments determine
the magnetic properties of atoms and of bulk matter. The details necessarily involve quan-
FIGURE 26.24 In the classical model of the atom, tum mechanics; here we give a qualitative overview of magnetism in matter, which mani-
the circling electron constitutes a miniature fests itself in three distinct forms.
current loop. The current is opposite the mo-
tion because the electron is negative. Drawing
is only suggestive; the electron’s intrinsic mag- Ferromagnetism
netic dipole moment is usually more important
than that resulting from its orbital motion. The magnetism you’re familiar with is ferromagnetism, which is limited to a few sub-
stances, including iron, nickel, cobalt, and some alloys and compounds. Strong interac-
tions among atomic magnetic moments result in magnetic domains, regions that contain
1017–1021 atoms whose magnetic moments are all aligned in the same direction. Normally
the magnetic moments of different domains point in random directions, so there’s no net
magnetic moment. But when an external magnetic field is applied, the domains all align
and the material acquires a net magnetic moment. If the field is nonuniform, the material
then experiences a net force, which is why ferromagnetic materials are attracted to magnets.
So-called hard ferromagnetic materials retain their magnetism even after the applied
field is removed; the result is a permanent magnet. A bar magnet, for example, has its in-
ternal magnetic moments aligned along its long dimension. You can think of its field as
arising from currents circulating around the surface of the magnet (Fig. 26.25)—currents
that ultimately result from the superposition of individual atomic current loops. Computer
disks, credit card strips, and audio/video tapes use hard ferromagnetic materials that retain
information as patterns of permanent magnetization. Soft ferromagnetic materials, in con-
trast, don’t hold magnetization. They’re used where magnetization must be turned on and

Atomic current loops are all

counterclockwise, producing
magnetic dipole moments
that point out of the page.

Adjacent loops cancel, so

there's no net current
within the material.

r
B

There's no cancellation at Field lines go into the south . . . and emerge

the edges, giving the net pole of the magnet . . . at the north pole.
current around the magnet.
(a) (b)

FIGURE 26.25 (a) Cross section of a bar magnet, showing atomic current loops all aligned the same
way and making a net current around the magnet. (b) Side view showing the field that results from
this magnetization current.
 26.8 Ampère’s Law 453

r
off rapidly, as in the “heads” that write information to computer disks and tapes. Ferro- Internal field is opposite p.
magnetism disappears at the so-called Curie temperature, as random thermal motions
disrupt the organized alignment of magnetic dipoles; for iron this phase transition occurs
at 1043 K. 

pr
Paramagnetism
r
Many substances that aren’t ferromagnetic nevertheless consist of atoms or molecules that Eapplied 
have permanent magnetic dipole moments. There’s no strong interaction among the indi-
vidual dipoles, so these paramagnetic materials respond only weakly to external mag-
netic fields. Paramagnetic effects are generally significant only at very low temperatures. (a)
Distant dipole
fields are similar.

Diamagnetism Internal field is in

r
same direction as m.
Materials without intrinsic magnetic moments can have moments induced by changes in
an applied magnetic field. Whereas ferromagnetic and paramagnetic materials are at-
tracted to magnets, these diamagnetic materials are repelled. We’ll explore the origins of
diamagnetism in Chapter 27.
mr
Magnetic Permeability and Susceptibility r
Bapplied
I

We found in Chapter 20 that the alignment of molecular electric dipoles reduces the elec-
tric field in a material. In paramagnetic and ferromagnetic materials, alignment of mag-
netic dipoles causes an increase in the field. Figure 26.26 shows that this difference occurs (b)
because the magnetic field within a current loop points in the same direction as the loop’s FIGURE 26.26 Internal fields of electric and mag-
magnetic dipole moment, whereas the internal field of an electric dipole is opposite the di- netic dipoles have opposite directions. (a) Elec-
pole moment. Ferromagnetic behavior is further complicated because it depends on the tric dipoles reduce an applied electric field;
material’s past history, which is what makes permanent magnets possible. Coils for elec- (b) magnetic dipoles increase an applied
tromagnets and computer disk “heads” are wound on ferromagnetic cores to provide a magnetic field.
much stronger magnetic field than the coil current alone could produce.
r
B
drr
26.8 Ampère’s Law
Computing electric fields with Coulomb’s law in Chapter 20 was cumbersome for all but Iout
r2
the simplest charge distributions. In Chapter 21 we saw how Gauss’s law greatly simpli- r1
fied electric-field calculations for symmetric charge distributions. Is there an analogous
approach for magnetic fields? Gauss’s law for magnetism, Equation 26.14, won’t do be-
cause it doesn’t relate a magnetic field to its source—namely, moving charge.
Figure 26.27 shows two of the circular magnetic field lines surrounding a long wire
FIGURE 26.27 Two magnetic field lines surround-
carrying a current I out of the page. Imagine moving around the inner circle, and as you ing a wire carrying current out of the page.
go a little way, take the product of the displacement dr with the magnetic field in the di-
r
rection you’re going. Here you’re moving !in the direction of the field, so that product is B and drr are
!
B dr; more generally, it’s the dot product B # dr . Now
! ! add up all these products around the
perpendicular along
radial segments, so B # drr 5 0 here.
r

circle. Formally, the result is the line integral $ B # dr , where the circle indicates that we’re!
integrating around a closed path. In this case the integral becomes just $ B dr because B
!
and dr are in the same direction. But here the field magnitude is given by Equation 26.10: D C
B 5 m0I/2pr, where we’ve replaced y with the radius r. Since r has the constant value r1
on the inner circle in Fig. 26.27, the integral becomes 1m0I/2pr12$ dr. Now $ dr is the to- B A
! !
tal length of the circular path, or its circumference 2pr1. So the value of $ B # dr is m0I. If Iout
you try the
! same thing for the outer circle in Fig. 26.27, r2 replaces r1, but the result is the
!
same: $ B # dr 5 m0I, independent of the radius. r
We get the same result even if the path doesn’t coincide B
! ! with a field line, as Fig. 26.28
suggests. On the radial segments of the path shown, B # dr 5 0 and there’s no contribution
to the integral. On segment AB, the field is stronger than if we had stayed on CD, but the
FIGURE 26.28 A closed loop that does not !coin-
segment is proportionately shorter and the integral remains unchanged. We could approxi- !
cide with a field line. The line integral $ B # dr
mate any arbitrary
! ! path as a sequence of radial segments and circular arcs, showing that around this loop has the same value m0I that it
the value of $ B # dr is independent of path as long as the path surrounds the current I. The has around a circular loop.
454 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field

value of that integral is simply m0 I. Magnetic fields obey the superposition principle, so
this result must be true
! ! for any current distribution, not just a single line current. That is,
the line integral $ B # dr around any closed path is directly proportional to the current en-
circled by that path. This result is Ampère’s law, a universal statement about current and
magnetic field:
! !
$ B # dr 5 m0 Iencircled 1Ampère’s law, steady currents2 (26.17)

Ampère’s law is another of the four fundamental laws of electromagnetism, although in

the form of Equation 26.17 it’s limited to steady currents; it also provides a decent approx-
imation for slowly varying currents. In Chapter 29 we’ll generalize Ampère’s law to re-
move the restriction to steady currents.
Ampère’s law relates the magnetic field to its source—namely, moving charge in the
form of electric current—as does the Biot–Savart law. In fact, the laws of Ampère and
Biot–Savart are related in the same way as Gauss’s and Coulomb’s laws. Coulomb and
Biot–Savart show! how fields arise from pointlike sources—charge elements dq and cur-
rent elements I dl . Gauss and Ampère are global descriptions, telling how the field must
behave over a geometric structure (a closed surface for Gauss, a closed loop for Ampère)
in relation to the! source
! (charge or current) enclosed or encircled by that structure. In both
cases the field E or B that appears in the integral is the net field arising from all sources,
not just the enclosed charge or encircled currents.
Ampère’s law, like Gauss’s, is a truly universal statement. It holds in the electromag-
netic devices we build, in atomic and
! !molecular systems, and in distant astrophysical ob-
jects. Find a path around which $ B # dr isn’t zero, and you’ve found a region where electric
current must be flowing (Fig. 26.29). Although it’s difficult to show mathematically, the
Biot–Savart law follows from Ampère’s law just as Coulomb’s law follows from Gauss’s.

r
B

Sun

(a) (b)

FIGURE 26.29 (a) Coronal streamers in the Sun’s atmosphere contain oppositely directed
magnetic
! ! fields. (b) A model calculation of the magnetic field in a single streamer. Since
$ B # d r is clearly nonzero around the loop shown, there must be an encircled current.

EXAMPLE 26.6 Ampère’s Law: Solar Currents

The long dimension of the rectangular loop in Fig. 26.29b is 400 Mm, DEVELOP Figure 26.29b ! provides our drawing. Ampère’s law (Equa-
!
and the magnetic field strength near the loop has a constant magnitude tion 26.17) equates $ B # dr to m0Iencircled, so we want to evaluate the in-
of 2 mT. Estimate the total current encircled by the rectangle. tegral around the loop shown and then solve for Iencircled.
! !
INTERPRET This is a problem about currents encircled by a loop, so it EVALUATE On the short segments of the path, B'dr ! , so there’s no
must involve Ampère’s law. contribution to the integral. On both long segments, B is constant and
 26.8 Ampère’s Law 455

! !
lies in the direction we’re traversing the path, so here #B # dr becomes uniform field, one side of the loop would have contributed Bl to the
simply Bl, where l is the! length of the path segments. Each side con- line integral, the other 2Bl. That would make the integral zero and
!
tributes this much, so $ B # dr 5 2Bl. Ampère’s law equates this quan- imply no encircled current. This shows that we can have a uniform
tity to m0Iencircled, so we can solve to get field in a current-free region, but not a field that reverses sign—at least
2Bl 12212 mT21400 Mm2 not abruptly as in this solar example.
Iencircled 5 5 5 1012 A
m0 4p 3 1027 N/A2
✓TIP Ampèrian Loops
ASSESS This is a large current, but we’re dealing with a region much
The loop used with Ampère’s law is truly arbitrary. It needn’t coincide
larger than the Earth, so that shouldn’t be too surprising. We can get
with a field line. In this example, the rectangular loop coincided with
the direction of the current from the right-hand rule: Curl
! your fingers
! the field over its long sides but not along its ends. The loop used with
around the loop in the direction that gives positive $ B # dr , and your
Ampère’s law is called an Ampèrian loop. Don’t confuse Ampèrian
thumb points in the direction of the current. Here that’s into the page.
loops with field lines; they might coincide, but they don’t have to.
In three dimensions this current actually flows around the Sun in ap-
proximately the equatorial plane. Note that our result depends cru-
cially on the field reversing across the equatorial plane. In a truly ■

GOT IT? 26.6 The figure shows three parallel wires car- 1
rying current of the same magnitude I, but in one of them ! ! the
#
! ! of the other two. If $ B dr 2 0
current direction is opposite that
#
around loop 2, (a) what’s $ B dr around loop 1, and B
A
(b) which current is the opposite one?
C 2

Using Ampère’s Law

For charge distributions with sufficient symmetry, we used Gauss’s law to solve for the
electric field in a simple and elegant way. We can do the same with Ampère’s law for suf-
ficiently symmetric current distributions. Here’s the approach:

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 26.1 Ampère’s Law

INTEPRET Interpret the problem to be sure it’s about magnetic field and current. Identify the
symmetry.
DEVELOP Based on the symmetry, sketch ! ! some field lines. Then find an Ampèrian loop over
which you’ll be able to evaluate $ B # dr . That means the field should be constant and parallel
to the loop over all or part of the loop; where they’re not parallel they should be perpendicu-
lar. Like a gaussian surface, the Ampèrian loop is a purely mathematical construct; it need not
correspond to anything physical. Draw your loop.
EVALUATE
! !
● Evaluate $ B # dr for your loop. This should be easy because you’ll be able to! take B outside
the integral over those segments where it’s constant, and segments where B is perpendicular
to the loop won’t contribute to the integral.
● Evaluate the encircled current.
! !
● Equate your result
! for $ B # dr to m0 Iencircled, and solve for B. Symmetry should give you the
direction of B.
ASSESS Does your answer make sense in terms of what you know about the fields of simple
charge and current distributions?
456 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field

EXAMPLE 26.7 Using Ampère’s Law: Outside and Inside a Wire

A long, straight wire of radius R carries a current I distributed uni- Now on to (b):
formly over its cross section. Find the magnetic field (a) outside and ● Inside the wire, a circular Ampèrian loop encloses only some of
(b) inside the wire.
the current. How much? With the current uniformly distributed
INTERPRET We follow our strategy and identify this as a situation
over the wire’s cross section, there’s a uniform current density
with line symmetry. Therefore, the field depends only on the radial J 5 I/A 5 I/pR2. The encircled current is the current density
distance from the wire’s central axis. times the area pr2 within our loop, so Iencircled 5 I1r2/R22.
● Then we have 2prB 5 m0 I1r2/R22, which gives
DEVELOP Magnetic field lines encircle their source, so the only field m0 Ir field inside a uniform current
lines consistent with the symmetry are concentric circles. We sketched B5 a b (26.19)
2pR2 distribution with line symmetry
some in Fig. 26.30. The field is tangent to the field lines and, by sym-
metry, has the same magnitude B everywhere on a field line. So the In both cases application of the right-hand rule shows that the field
field lines themselves make good Ampèrian loops. circles counterclockwise, as shown in Fig. 26.30.

EVALUATE ASSESS Equation 26.18 is identical to our result for the line current
● The field is everywhere parallel to a circular Ampèrian loop, of Example 26.4, and shows that the field outside any current dis-
and its magnitude is constant on the loop, so for a loop of ra- tribution with line symmetry is the same as that of a line current
! !
dius r, $ B # dr becomes just 2prB. This is true both outside at the symmetry axis. We found the same thing for the electric
and inside the wire. fields outside cylindrical charge distributions, including the 1/r de-
crease with distance from the axis. Inside the wire, meanwhile, the
We’ll first answer (a): field increases linearly with distance as we encircle more current in
● For any loop outside the wire, the encircled current is the total proportion to r2, while the field decreases as 1/r. You found a simi-
current I. lar result for a uniformly charged cylinder if you worked Problem 54
! !
● Equating our expression for $ B # dr to m0 times the encircled in Chapter 21. Of course, the electric and !magnetic fields of! cylin-
current gives 2prB 5 m0 I, so drical distributions look very different— E is radial, while B forms
circles—but the dependence on distance is the same in both cases.
m0 I field outside any current
B5 a b (26.18)
2pr distribution with line symmetry
✓TIP Symmetry Is Crucial
I
Our use of Ampère’s law to derive the field of a long wire de-
r
B pends crucially on symmetry. We can’t arbitrarily pull B outside
the integral unless we know—as we do here from symmetry—
that it’s constant in magnitude and in direction relative to our
Ampèrian loop.

FIGURE 26.30 Cross section of a long cylindrical wire. Any field line can serve
as an Ampèrian loop. Inside the wire, the loop’s radius r is less than the
wire’s radius R; outside, r  R.

EXAMPLE 26.8 Ampère’s Law: A Current Sheet

An infinite flat sheet carries current out of this page. The current is B
r
l
distributed uniformly along the sheet, with current per unit width
given by Js. Find the magnetic field of this sheet.

INTERPRET We follow our strategy, identifying the current distribu- Iout

tion as having plane symmetry. Then the only thing the field might de-
pend on is the distance from the current-carrying sheet.

DEVELOP The only field lines consistent with the symmetry are
straight lines parallel to the plane; we’ve drawn the current and some
field lines in Fig. 26.31. The situation is similar to Example 26.6, and a FIGURE 26.31 A current sheet extends infinitely to the left and right,
suitable Ampèrian loop is a rectangle with sides along the field lines as well as in and out of the page. Field lines and a rectangular
Ampèrian loop are shown.
and perpendicular edges; we’ve sketched one such rectangle of width l.
 26.8 Ampère’s Law 457

We drew the field in opposite directions on either side of the sheet;

! ! it Far out, the field
had better be that way if, as we discussed in Example 26.7, $ B # dr is lines become nearly circular.
to be nonzero. And it has to be nonzero because we know that our
Ampèrian loop encircles current.

EVALUATE ! !
● We evaluate $ B # dr just as in Example 26.6, getting 2Bl.
● The sheet carries current Js per unit width, so our rectangle of
width l encircles a current Iencircled
! 5 J l.
! s
● Equating our expression for $ B # dr to m0 Iencircled gives
2Bl 5 m0 Js l, or Iout
B 5 12 m0 Js 1field of an infinite current sheet2 (26.20)
Close in, the
FIGURE 26.32 Field of a finite- field resembles
ASSESS Make sense? Like the electric field of an infinite plane
width current sheet. that of an infinite sheet.
charge, the magnetic field of an infinite current sheet doesn’t depend
on distance from the sheet. Of course, there’s no truly infinite sheet, wrap around the ends to form closed loops, and far from the loop the
so our result is an approximation valid near a finite sheet but not field begins to resemble that of a wire. But close in, Equation 26.20
close to its edges. As Fig. 26.32 shows, the lines of a finite sheet holds. ■

Fields of Simple Current Distributions

We’ve just used Ampère’s law to calculate the fields of two symmetric current distribu-
tions, and we compared them with analogous results for electric fields. Table 26.1 sum-
marizes these and other analogies. Although the magnetic and electric fields may look

Table 26.1 Fields of Some Simple Charge and Current Distributions

Field Dependence Charge Electric Current Magnetic

on Distancea Distribution Field Distribution Field

1 Electric dipole Magnetic dipole

r3

1 Point charge
or spherically Impossible for steady current
r2
symmetric

1 Charge distribution Current distribution

r with line symmetry with line symmetry

Uniform field; Infinite flat sheet Current sheet

no variation of charge

aFor field outside distribution

458 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field

different, they exhibit the same general relationships between geometry and the way
the fields decrease with distance. Real distributions are more complicated, but may of-
ten be approximated by these simple cases. Far from any current loop, for example, its
field approximates that of a dipole. Very near any wire, its field is essentially that of a
long, straight wire. Very near any flat sheet of current, the field is essentially that of
Example 26.8.

Solenoids
We found in Chapter 23 that there’s an essentially uniform electric field inside a parallel-
plate capacitor. Here we explore a current configuration that produces an analogously uni-
form magnetic field.
Figure 26.33a shows a single current loop and its magnetic field. Add a few turns to
form an extended coil, and the field isn’t much different (Fig. 26.33b); more turns
(Fig. 26.33c), and the region of strongest field is increasingly confined within the coil.
With a very long coil (Fig. 26.33d), the field is strong and uniform deep within the coil
and very weak outside. The limit of an infinitely long, tightly wound coil would produce a
uniform field within and no field outside.
A tightly wound coil is a solenoid. For a long solenoid—much longer than its diameter—
we can use Ampère’s law to find the magnetic field inside the solenoid. Figure 26.34
shows a cross section through a solenoid, with a rectangular ! ! Ampèrian loop of width l.
Since the field is zero outside, the only contribution to $ B # dr is from the interior segment
parallel to the field, and with a uniform field that gives Bl. If the solenoid carries current I
and consists of n turns of wire per unit length, then Fig. 26.34 shows that our Ampèrian
loop encircles a total current nlI. So Ampère’s law reads Bl 5 m0nlI, or
B 5 m0nI 1solenoid field2 (26.21)
Since the rectangle’s vertical dimension never entered the calculation, the field has this
same magnitude everywhere inside the solenoid. Although Fig. 26.33 depicts circular
coils, Equation 26.21 holds for a solenoid of any cross section.

(a)

n turns per unit

length . . .
. . . so length l
(b) encircles nl turns . . .
. . . each carries
the current I,
l so encircled
Iout current is nlI.

r
(c) B

(d) Iin

FIGURE 26.33 As the coil gets longer, FIGURE 26.34 Cross section of a long solenoid,
the interior field stays nearly constant showing a rectangular Ampèrian loop strad-
but the exterior field weakens as the dling the region where solenoid coils emerge
field lines spread ever farther apart. from the plane of the page.
 26.8 Ampère’s Law 459

Solenoids produce uniform magnetic fields in a variety of applications, including the

long cylindrical “tunnel” of an MRI scanner. Because the field becomes nonuniform at the
ends of a solenoid, ferromagnetic materials are attracted into the coil. Small solenoids can
thus produce straight-line motion of an iron plunger. One application is the solenoid on a
car starter, which engages the starter motor’s gear with the gasoline engine. Solenoid-
operated valves are widely used in controlling fluid flows; the valves that admit water to
your washing machine and dishwasher are solenoid valves.

EXAMPLE 26.9 A Solenoid: The Current in an MRI Scanner

The solenoid used in an MRI scanner is 2.4 m long and 95 cm in di- Wire diameter is 2 mm 5
1
m...
500
ameter. It’s wound from superconducting wire 2.0 mm in diameter,
with adjacent turns separated by an insulating layer of negligible
thickness. Find the current that will produce a 1.5-T magnetic field in-
side the solenoid.

INTERPRET This is a problem about a solenoid, which involves relat- . . . therefore, 500 wire diameters
ing current and field. occupy 1 m, so n 5 500 turns/meter.

DEVELOP Equation 26.21, B 5 m0 nI, provides the relation we need. FIGURE 26.35 Finding n.
To use it we need n, the number of turns per unit length. Figure 26.35
shows how we find n from the wire diameter. Knowing n, we can use
Equation 26.21 to find the current.
ASSESS That’s a large current, but it’s readily handled by the
EVALUATE Figure 26.35 shows that n 5 500 turns per meter. So now
niobium–titanium superconductor in the MRI scanner. Notice that
we can solve Equation 26.21 to get
more turns per unit length would reduce the current demand; that’s
B 1.5 T because each turn carries the same current I, so more turns increase
I5 5 5 2.4 kA
m0 n 14p31027 N/A221500 m212 the encircled current and thus the field for a given total current. ■

With its current flowing around an essentially cylindrical surface, the solenoid
might remind you of the bar magnet in Fig. 26.25. There, atomic current loops produce
a magnetization current flowing around the cylindrical magnet. Indeed, a solenoid and
a bar magnet are very similar, and they produce similar magnetic fields (Fig. 26.36).
Wrap a solenoid around on itself and you’ve got a toroid—a donut-shaped coil whose
circular field lines close back on themselves. Passage Problems 86–89 explore toroids.
FIGURE 26.36 Iron filings trace the magnetic field
of a loosely wound solenoid. Compare with the
field of a bar magnet shown in Fig. 26.1.
CHAPTER 26 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big new idea here is magnetism—an interaction that fundamentally involves moving electric charge. Moving charge produces magnetic fields,
and moving charges respond to magnetic fields by experiencing a magnetic force.

Key Concepts and Equations

! ! r
The magnetic force on a charge q moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B is F
! ! !
F 5 qv 3 B 1magnetic force2 Force is
r
B
! !
The force acts at right angles to both v and B, and therefore it does no work. perpendicular r
to both vr and B. q vr

The
! Biot–Savart law describes the magnetic field dlris a small rˆ is a unit vector Ampère’s law provides a more global description of how
dB arising from a small element of steady current: piece of the wire. from dlr toward P. magnetic fields arise from currents, relating the line inte-
! !
m0 Idl 3 r^ r
r
dB is into page.
gral around any closed loop to the encircled current:
dB 5 dl e !
r # !
2 P
4p
C B dr 5 m0 Iencircled
rˆ
Here m0 is the permeability constant, with value r
I
4p31027 N/A2. Ampère’s law in this form applies only to steady currents.

Gauss’s law for magnetism expresses the fact that there are no magnetic monopoles—
magnetic analogs of electric charge—and that magnetic field lines therefore do not begin or end:
! !
#
C B dA 5 0
Static electric fields, in contrast, always begin or end on electric charges.

Magnetic field Electric field

Applications
A charged particle moving perpendicular to The magnetic force on a straight wire of A current loop gives rise to a magnetic field
a uniform magnetic field undergoes circular length l carrying! current
! I !in a uniform mag- that, at distances large compared with the
motion with the cyclotron frequency netic field is F 5 Il 3 B. Parallel wires a loop’s size, is a dipole field. The loop’s mag-
f 5 qB/2pm. More generally, charged par- distance d apart experience forces from each netic dipole moment has magnitude m 5 IA,
ticles in magnetic fields follow spiral paths, m0 I1I2 l with A the loop area, and the loop responds to
other’s magnetic field: F 5 . The
“trapped” on the field lines. 2pd an external magnetic field by experiencing
! the
force is attractive for currents in the same di- ! !
torque typical of a dipole: t 5 m 3 B.
rection, repulsive for currents in opposite
directions. r
B

r
F r I
F
I2
I1

Fields of simple current distributions: Magnetism in matter arises from the

m0 I interactions of atomic-scale current
Line current: B 5 Current sheet: B 5 12 m0 Js Solenoid: B 5 m0 nI
2pr loops. Ferromagnetic materials have
strong interactions and exhibit the
r
B l bulk magnetism associated with per-
manent magnets and with magnetic
materials like iron. Paramagnetism
Iout and diamagnetism are weaker mani-
festations of magnetism in matter.
 Exercises and Problems 461

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 18. The magnitude of Earth’s magnetic field is about 0.5 gauss near
Earth’s surface. What’s the maximum possible magnetic force on
1. A charged particle moves through a region containing only a an electron with kinetic energy of 1 keV? Compare with the grav-
magnetic field. Under what condition will it experience no force?! itational force on the electron.
! 19. A velocity selector uses a 60-mT magnetic field perpendicular to
! v through a magnetic! field B
2. An electron moving with velocity
!
experiences a magnetic force F. Which of the vectors F, v , and a 24-kN/C electric field. At what speed will charged particles
!
B must be at right angles? pass through the selector undeflected?
3. A magnetic field points out of this page. Will a positively
Section 26.3 Charged Particles in Magnetic Fields
charged particle moving in the plane of the page circle clockwise
or counterclockwise as viewed from above? 20. Find the radius of the path described by a proton moving at
4. Do particles in a cyclotron gain energy from the electric field, the 15 km/s in a plane perpendicular to a 400-G magnetic field.
magnetic field, or both? Explain. 21. How long does it take an electron to complete a circular orbit
5. An electron and a proton moving at the same speed enter a region perpendicular to a 1.0-G magnetic field?
containing a uniform magnetic field. Which is deflected more 22. Radio astronomers detect electromagnetic radiation at a fre-
from its original path? quency of 42 MHz from an interstellar gas cloud. If the radiation
6. Two identical particles carrying equal charge are moving in op- results from electrons spiraling in a magnetic field, what’s the
posite directions along a magnetic field, when they collide elasti- field strength?
cally head-on. Describe their subsequent motion. 23. Microwaves in a microwave oven are produced by electrons cir-
7. In what two senses does a current loop behave like a magnetic cling in a magnetic field at a frequency of 2.4 GHz. (a) What’s
dipole? the magnetic field strength? (b) The electrons’ motion takes
8. The Biot–Savart law shows that the magnetic field of a current place inside a special tube called a magnetron. If the magnetron
element decreases as 1/r2. Could you put together a complete cir- can accommodate electron orbits with maximum diameter
cuit whose field exhibits this decrease? Why or why not? 2.5 mm, what’s the maximum electron energy?
9. Do currents in the same direction attract or repel? Explain. 24. Two protons, moving in a plane perpendicular to a uniform
10. If a current is passed through an unstretched spring, will the 500-G magnetic field, undergo an elastic head-on collision.
spring contract or expand? Explain. How much time elapses before they collide again?
11. Figure 26.37 shows some magnetic field lines associated with Section 26.4 The Magnetic Force on a Current
two parallel wires carrying equal currents perpendicular to the
25. Find the magnitude of the force on a 50-cm-long wire carrying
page. Are the currents in the same or opposite directions? How
15 A at right angles to a 500-G magnetic field.
can you tell?
26. A wire carrying 15 A makes a 25° angle with a uniform magnetic
field. The magnetic force per unit length of wire is 0.31 N/m.
r
B Find (a) the magnetic field strength and (b) the maximum force
per unit length that could be achieved by reorienting the wire.
27. You’re on a team performing a high-magnetic-field experiment.
A conducting bar carrying 4.1 kA will pass through a 1.3-m-long
region containing a 12-T magnetic field, making a 60° angle with
the field. A colleague proposes resting the bar on wooden blocks.
FIGURE 26.37 For Thought and Discussion 11
You argue that it will have to be clamped in place, and to back up
your argument you claim that the magnetic force will exceed
12. Why is a piece of iron attracted into a solenoid? 10,000 pounds. Are you right?
13. Would there be a magnetic force on a piece of iron deep inside a 28. A wire with mass per unit length 75 g/m runs horizontally at
long solenoid? Explain. right angles to a horizontal magnetic field. A 6.2-A current in the
14. An unmagnetized piece of iron has no net magnetic dipole mo- wire results in its being suspended against gravity. What’s the
ment, yet it’s attracted to either pole of a bar magnet. Why? magnetic field strength?

Exercises and Problems Section 26.5 Origin of the Magnetic Field

29. A wire carries 15 A. You form it into a single-turn circular loop
Exercises with magnetic field 80 mT at the loop center. What’s the loop
Section 26.2 Magnetic Force and Field radius?
30. A single-turn wire loop is 2.0 cm in diameter and carries a
15. Find (a) the minimum magnetic field needed to exert a 5.4-fN
650-mA current. Find the magnetic field strength (a) at the loop
force on an electron moving at 21 Mm/s and (b) the field strength
center and (b) on the loop axis, 20 cm from the center.
required if the field were at 45° to the electron’s velocity.
31. A 2.2-m-long wire carrying 3.5 A is wound into a tight coil
16. An electron moving at right angles to a 0.10-T magnetic field ex-
5.0 cm in diameter. Find the magnetic field at its center.
periences an acceleration of 6.031015 m/s2. (a) What’s its speed?
32. What’s the current in a long wire if the magnetic field strength
(b) By how much does its speed change in 1 ns?
1.2 cm from the wire’s axis is 67 mT?
17. Find the magnitude of the magnetic force on a proton moving at
33. In standard household wiring, parallel wires about 1 cm apart
2.53105 m/s (a) perpendicular; (b) at 30°; (c) parallel to a 0.50-T
carry currents of about 15 A. What’s the force per unit length
magnetic field.
between these wires?
462 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field

Section 26.6 Magnetic Dipoles 47. Show that the orbital radius of a charged particle moving at right
34. Earth’s magnetic dipole moment is 8.031022 A # m2. Find the angles to a magnetic field B can be written r 5 12Km/qB,
magnetic field strength at Earth’s magnetic poles. where K is the kinetic energy in joules, m the particle’s mass, and
35. A single-turn square wire loop 5.0 cm on a side carries a 450-mA q its charge.
current. (a) What’s the loop’s magnetic dipole moment? (b) If the 48. A 90-cm-diameter cyclotron with a 2.0-T magnetic field is used
loop is in a uniform 1.4-T magnetic field with its dipole moment to accelerate deuterium nuclei (one proton plus one neutron).
vector at 40° to the field, what’s the magnitude of the torque it (a) At what frequency should the dee voltage be alternated?
experiences? (b) What’s the maximum kinetic energy of the deuterons? (c) If
36. An electric motor contains a 250-turn circular coil 6.2 cm in di- the magnitude of the potential difference between the dees is
ameter. If it develops a maximum torque of 1.2 N # m at a current 1500 V, how many orbits do the deuterons complete before
of 3.3 A, what’s the magnetic field strength? reaching maximum energy?
49. An electron is moving in a uniform 0.25-T magnetic field; its ve-
Section 26.8 Ampère’s Law locity components parallel and perpendicular to the field are both
37. The line integral of the magnetic field on a closed path surround- 3.1 Mm/s. (a) What’s the radius of the electron’s spiral path?
ing a wire has the value 8.8 mT # m. Find the current in the wire. (b) How far does it move along the field direction in the time it
38. The magnetic field shown in Fig. 26.38 has uniform magnitude takes to complete a full orbit about the field?
75 mT, but its direction reverses abruptly. Find the current encir- 50. A wire of negligible resistance is bent into a rectangle as in
cled by the rectangular loop shown. Fig. 26.39, and a battery and resistor are connected as shown.
The right-hand side of the circuit extends into a region contain-
ing a uniform 38-mT magnetic field pointing into the page.
Find the magnitude and direction of the net force on the circuit.

r
B
r
Bin
15 cm 3.0 V


12 V 10 cm
20 cm 

FIGURE 26.38 Exercise 38

FIGURE 26.39 Problem 50

39. A wire 1.0 mm in diameter carries 5.0 A distributed uniformly

over its cross section. Find the field strength (a) 0.10 mm from 51. You’re designing a prosthetic ankle that includes a miniature
its axis and (b) at the wire’s surface. BIO electric motor containing a 150-turn circular coil 15 mm in diame-
40. Show that Equations 26.18 and 26.19 give the same results when ter. The motor needs to develop a maximum torque of 3.1 mN # m.
evaluated at the wire’s surface. The strongest magnets available that will fit in the prosthesis pro-
41. A superconducting solenoid has 3300 turns per meter and carries duce a 220-mT field. What current do you need in your motor’s
4.1 kA. Find the magnetic field strength in the solenoid. coil?
52. A 20-cm-long conducting rod with mass 18 g is suspended by
Problems wires of negligible mass (Fig. 26.40). A uniform magnetic field
42. A particle carrying a 50-mC charge moves ! with velocity of 0.15 T points horizontally into the page, as shown. An exter-
!
v 5 5.0 ^ı 1 3.2k^ m/s through a magnetic field B 5 9.4 ^ı 1 6.7 ^/ T. nal circuit supplies current between the supports A and B.
(a) Find
! the magnetic
! ! force on the particle. (b) Form the dot prod- (a) What’s the minimum current necessary to move the bar to the
!
ucts F # v and F # B
! to show explicitly that the force is perpendicu- upper position, so it’s supported against gravity? (b) What direc-
!
lar to both v and B. tion should the current flow?
43. Jupiter has the strongest magnetic field in our solar system, about
14 G at its poles. Approximating the field as that of a dipole, find r
Bin
Jupiter’s magnetic dipole moment. (Hint: Consult Appendix E.)
!
44. A proton moving with velocity v 1 5 3.63104 ^/ m/s experiences
a magnetic force of 7.4310216 ^ı N. A second proton moving on A B
the x-axis experiences a magnetic force of 2.8310216 ^/ N. Find
the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field (assumed uni-
form), and the velocity of the second proton. 20 cm

45. A simplified model of Earth’s magnetic field has it originating in

FIGURE 26.40 Problem 52
a single current loop at the outer edge of the planet’s liquid core
(radius 3000 km). What current would give the 62-mT field
measured at the north magnetic pole? 53. A rectangular copper strip measures 1.0 mm in the direction of a
46. A beam of electrons moving in the x-direction at 8.7 Mm/s enters uniform 2.4-T magnetic field. When the strip carries a 6.8-A cur-
a region where a uniform 180-G magnetic field points in the rent perpendicular to the field, a 1.2-mV Hall potential develops
y-direction. The boundary of the field region is perpendicular to across the strip. Find the number density of free electrons in the
the beam. How far into the field region does the beam penetrate? copper.
 Exercises and Problems 463

54. A single-turn wire loop 10 cm in diameter carries a 12-A current. 62. Three parallel wires of length l each carry current I in the same
It experiences a 0.015 N # m torque when the normal to the loop direction. They’re positioned at the vertices of an equilateral tri-
plane makes a 25° angle with a uniform magnetic field. Find the angle of side a, and oriented perpendicular to the triangle. Find
magnetic field strength. an expression for the magnitude of the force on each wire.
55. A simple electric motor consists of a 100-turn coil 3.0 cm in diam- 63. A long, straight wire carries 20 A. A 5.0-cm by 10-cm rectangu-
eter, mounted between the poles of a magnet that produces a 0.12-T lar wire loop carrying 500 mA is 2.0 cm from the wire, as shown
field. When a 5.0-A current flows in the coil, what are (a) its mag- in Fig. 26.44. Find the net magnetic force on the loop.
netic dipole moment and (b) the motor’s maximum torque?
56. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a technique for analyzing I1 5 20 A
BIO chemical structures and also the basis of magnetic resonance im-
2.0 cm
aging used for medical diagnosis. NMR relies on sensitive meas-
urements of the energy needed to flip atomic nuclei by 180° in a
given magnetic field. In an apparatus with a 9.4-T magnetic field, 5.0 cm I2 5

what energy is needed to flip a proton (m 5 1.41310 226 A # m2)

500 mA

from parallel to antiparallel to the field?

10 cm
57. A wire carrying 1.5 A passes through a 48-mT magnetic field.
The wire is perpendicular to the field and makes a quarter-circle FIGURE 26.44 Problem 63
turn of radius 21 cm in the field region, as shown in Fig. 26.41.
Find the magnitude and direction of the magnetic force on the 64. A long conducting rod of radius R carries a nonuniform current
curved section of wire. density J 5 J0 r/R, where J0 is a constant and r is the radial dis-
tance from the rod’s axis. Find expressions for the magnetic field
strength (a) inside and (b) outside the rod.
Bin
65. A long, hollow conducting pipe of radius R carries a uniform cur-
1.5 A
rent I along the pipe, as shown in Fig. 26.45. Use Ampère’s law to
find the magnetic field strength (a) inside and (b) outside the pipe.

21 cm
R I
FIGURE 26.41 Problem 57

58. Your company is developing a device incorporating a 20-cm- FIGURE 26.45 Problem 65
diameter coil carrying 0.50 A that, when properly oriented, will
just cancel Earth’s 50-mT magnetic field at the coil’s center. How
66. The coaxial cable shown in Fig. 26.46 consists of a solid inner
much wire must you requisition for each coil?
conductor of radius a and a hollow outer conductor of inner ra-
59. A single piece of wire carrying current I is bent so it includes a
dius b and thickness c. The two carry equal but opposite currents I,
circular loop of radius a, as shown in Fig. 26.42. Find an expres-
uniformly distributed. Find expressions for the magnetic field
sion for the magnetic field at the loop center.
as a function of radial position r (a) within the inner conductor,
(b) between the inner and outer conductors, and (c) beyond the
I
outer conductor.
a
I I
c

FIGURE 26.42 Problem 59

2a
2b
60. You and a friend get lost while hiking, so your friend pulls out a
magnetic compass to get re-oriented. However, you’re standing
right under a power line carrying 1.5 kA toward magnetic north;
it’s 10 m above the compass. The horizontal component of Earth’s FIGURE 26.46 Problems 66 and 71
magnetic field at your latitude points northward and has magni-
tude 0.24 G. Will the compass help you find your way?
67. A solenoid used in a plasma physics experiment is 10 cm in di-
61. Part of a long wire carrying current I is bent into a semicircle of
ameter, is 1.0 m long, and carries a 35-A current to produce a
radius a, as in Fig. 26.43. Use the Biot–Savart law to find the
100-mT magnetic field. (a) How many turns are in the sole-
magnetic field at P, the center of the semicircle.
noid? (b) If the solenoid resistance is 2.7 V, how much power
does it dissipate?
68. You have 10 m of 0.50-mm-diameter copper wire and a battery
I a capable of passing 15 A through the wire. What magnetic field
P strengths could you obtain (a) inside a 2.0-cm-diameter solenoid
wound with the wire as closely spaced as possible and (b) at the
FIGURE 26.43 Problem 61
center of a single circular loop made from the wire?
464 Chapter 26 Magnetism: Force and Field

69. Derive Equation 26.21 for the solenoid field by considering the slide vertically on the uprights while maintaining electrical con-
solenoid to be made of infinitesimal current loops. Use Equation tact. A battery connected across the insulating gap at the bottom
26.9 for the loop fields, and integrate over all loops. of the left-hand upright drives 66 A through the structure. At
70. The largest lightning strikes have peak currents of around 250 kA, what height h will the upper wire be in equilibrium?
flowing in essentially cylindrical channels of ionized air. How far
from such a flash would the resulting magnetic field be equal to
Earth’s magnetic field strength, about 50 mT?
71. A coaxial cable (see Fig. 26.46) consists of a 1.0-mm-diameter Gap
h
inner conductor and a 0.20-mm-thick outer conductor with inte-
rior diameter 1.0 cm. A 100-mA current flows down the inner l 5 95 cm
 
conductor and back along the outer conductor. Find the magnetic
field strength (a) 0.10 mm, (b) 5.0 mm, and (c) 2.0 cm from the
cable axis. FIGURE 26.49 Problem 78
72. A circular wire loop of radius 15 cm and negligible thickness
carries a 2.0-A current. Use suitable approximations to find the 79. A long, flat conducting ribbon of width w is parallel to a long,
magnetic field of this loop (a) in the loop plane, 1.0 mm outside straight wire; its near edge is a distance a from the wire (Fig. 26.50).
the loop, and (b) on the loop axis, 3.0 m from the loop center. Wire and ribbon carry the same current I; it’s distributed uni-
73. A long, flat conducting bar of width w carries a total current I formly over the ribbon. Use integration to show that the force
distributed uniformly, as shown in Fig. 26.47. Use approxima- m0I 2 a1w
per unit length between the two has magnitude ln a b.
tions to write expressions for the magnetic field strength (a) near 2pw a
the conductor surface 1r V w2 but not near its edges and (b) far
from the conductor 1r W w2.
I

a
w

I
w
I

FIGURE 26.47 Problem 73 FIGURE 26.50 Problem 79

74. A long, hollow conducting pipe of radius R and length l carries a

uniform current I flowing around the pipe (Fig. 26.48). Find ex- 80. Find an expression for the magnetic field at the center of a square
pressions for the magnetic field (a) inside and (b) outside the loop of side a carrying current I.
pipe. (Hint: What configuration does this resemble?) 81. Repeat the calculation in Problem 69 for a solenoid of finite
length l and cross-sectional radius a to find the magnetic field
strength at the center of the solenoid’s axis.
!
82. A magnetic dipole m 5 mı^ is on the axis of a circular current
R I loop of radius a oriented as shown in Fig. 26.16a, a distance x
from the center. Differentiate Equation 26.16 to find the force on
the dipole, and evaluate its magnitude for x 5 a. Is the force at-
FIGURE 26.48 Problem 74
tractive or repulsive?
83. You have a summer job working for an audio equipment manu-
facturer. The loudspeaker engineer asks you to make a calcula-
75. A solid conducting wire of radius R! runs parallel to the z-axis and tion for a prototype speaker. The speaker coil consists of 100
carries a current density given by J 5 J011 2 r/R2k^ , where J0 is turns of wire, 3.5 cm in diameter, suspended in a uniform mag-
a constant and r is the distance from the wire axis. Find expres- netic field. When the coil current is 2.1 A, the force on the coil
sions for (a) the total current in the wire and (b) the magnetic should be 14.8 N. What magnetic field will give this force?
field for r . R and (c) r , R. 84. Derive Equation 26.20 by considering the current sheet to be
76. A disk of radius a carries uniform surface charge density s and made of infinitely many infinitesimal line currents.
rotates with angular speed v about the disk axis. Show that the 85. Your roommate is sold on “magnet therapy,” a sham treatment
magnetic field at the disk’s center is 12 m0 sva. BIO using small bar magnets attached to the body. You skeptically ask
77. You’re developing a system to orient an orbiting telescope. The your roommate how this is supposed to work. He mumbles
system uses three perpendicular coils, with torques developed in something about the Hall effect speeding blood flow. In reply,
Earth’s magnetic field when current passes through them. Weight you estimate the Hall potential associated with typical blood pa-
limitations restrict you to a length l of wire for each coil. A col- rameters in the 100-G field of a bar magnet: red blood cells car-
league argues you’ll get the greatest dipole moment and therefore rying 2-pC charge in a 12-cm/s flow through a 3.0-mm-diameter
the most torque with a multi-turn coil. You say a 1-turn coil is blood vessel containing 5 billion red blood cells per mL. To show
best. Who’s right? that the Hall potential is negligible, you compare your estimate
78. The structure shown in Fig. 26.49 is made from conducting rods. with the tens of mV typical of bioelectric activity. How do the
The upper horizontal rod (mass 22 g, length 95 cm) is free to two values compare?
 Answers to Chapter Questions 465

Passage Problems ITER consortium, an international collaboration, is building a large

A toroid is a solenoid-like coil bent into a circle (Fig. 26.51a). Toroids toroidal fusion experiment in France; it’s expected to be the first fusion
are the configuration of choice in magnetic-confinement nuclear fusion device to produce energy on a large scale. Figure 26.51b shows a cross
experiments, which, if successful, could provide us with an almost un- section of a toroid, with current emerging from the page at the inner edge
limited energy source using deuterium fuel extracted from seawater. The and descending at the outer edge. The black circle is an Ampèrian loop.

+
+

+
+

+
Ampèrian loop

+
+

+
r

+
Rout

+
Rin

+
Iout

+
+

+
+

+
I

+
+
Iin Rin
Rout
(a) (b)

FIGURE 26.51 Diagram of (a) a toroidal coil and (b) a cross section of the coil (Passage Problems 86–89)

86. The magnetic field associated with the toroid is nonzero Answers to Chapter Questions
a. only within the “hole” in the donut-shaped coil.
b. only within the region bounded by the coils.
c. only outside the coils.
Answer to Chapter Opening Question
d. everywhere. Magnetic force shapes the structure of the solar atmosphere. Magne-
tism is fundamentally an interaction involving moving electric charge,
87. In Fig. 26.51b, the magnetic field lines must be
and the hot, ionized gas of the solar atmosphere contains free charge
a. straight, and pointing into the page.
that responds to magnetism. Earth’s cooler atmosphere consists of
b. straight, and pointing out of the page.
neutral molecules that don’t experience a magnetic force.
c. straight, and pointing radially.
d. circular. Answers to GOT IT? Questions
88. Doubling the total number of turns N in the toroid, without 26.1. Greatest for (a), 0 for (c); direction for (a) and (b) is into the
changing its size or the current, will page.
a. double the magnetic field. 26.2. (b); it’s a negative charge.
b. quadruple the magnetic field. 26.3. (a).
c. halve the magnetic field. 26.4. (a), because adjacent currents are in the same direction. Chang-
d. not change the magnetic field. ing the current direction doesn’t matter because the currents are
89. The toroid has inner radius Rin and outer radius Rout, while r is still parallel.
the radial coordinate measured from the center. The toroid is 26.5. (b), because the field lines form closed loops.
made from wire wound into a total of N turns, and carries current 26.6. (a) 0; (b) current A.
I. Which of the following is the correct formula for the magnetic
field within the coils?
a. B 5 m0NI
b. B 5 m0NI/2pRin
c. B 5 m0NI/2pRout
d. B 5 m0NI/2pr
 27 Electromagnetic Induction

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Explain electromagnetic induction
(27.1).
■ Use Faraday’s law to calculate
induced emfs and currents (27.2).
■ Describe how induction is consistent
with energy conservation, and find
the direction of induced emfs and
currents (27.3).
■ Explain inductance, and analyze sim-
ple circuits involving inductors (27.4).
■ Recognize that magnetic fields store
energy, and calculate that energy
for simple magnetic-field configura-
tions (27.5).
■ Recognize the broader meaning of
Faraday’s law as it relates electric and
magnetic fields (27.6).
It takes fourteen 110-car trainloads of coal each week to
fuel this power plant. What feature of the equation
E 5 2dFB/dt demands this prodigious fuel consumption?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter introduces a new phe-
nomenon, but involves fundamental
T he electric and magnetic fields we’ve encountered so far originated in electric charge, either
stationary or moving. We recognized a link between electricity and magnetism that lies in
their common involvement with electric charge. In the remainder of our study, we’ll explore a
ideas introduced previously: the more intimate relation between electricity and magnetism, in which the fields themselves inter-
electric field (20.3), electric current act directly. This relation is the basis for new electromagnetic technologies, reveals the nature of
(24.1), electromotive force (emf ) light, and points toward the theory of relativity.
(25.1), the magnetic field (26.1),
and magnetic force (26.2).
■ We’ll also work extensively with 27.1 Induced Currents
solenoids (26.8). In 1831, the English scientist Michael Faraday and the American Joseph Henry independ-
■ You’ll find the mathematics of ently found that electric currents arose in circuits subjected to changing magnetic fields.
line and flux integrals useful Here are four experiments that illustrate this phenomenon:
(6.2, 26.8, 21.2).
1. (Fig. 27.1) Move a bar magnet in the presence of a circuit consisting of a wire coil
and an ammeter. There’s no battery or other obvious source of emf. As long as you
hold the magnet stationary, there’s no current. But move the magnet, and the amme-
ter registers a current—which we call an induced current. Move the magnet faster,
and the induced current increases. Reverse the direction of motion, and the induced
current reverses.

466
 27.1 Induced Currents 467

Stationary magnet A rightward-moving magnet

results in no current. results in a current.
0 0

2 1 2 1

S N S S N
I

(a) (b)

A faster moving magnet A leftward-moving magnet

results in increased current. results in an opposite current.

0 0

2 1 2 1

S S N S N N
I I

(c) (d)

FIGURE 27.1 When a magnet moves near a closed circuit, current flows in the circuit.

2. (Fig. 27.2) Move a coil near a stationary magnet, and a similar induced current re- 0

sults. So the effect is the same whether it’s the magnet that moves, or the coil. All 2 1

that matters is the relative motion between magnet and coil. S N

3. (Fig. 27.3) Replace the bar magnet with a second coil, this one carrying a steady I
current from a battery. The new coil creates a magnetic field like that of a bar mag-
net and, not surprisingly given the results of experiments 1 and 2, an induced
current arises in the original coil when the two coils move relative to one another. FIGURE 27.2 Moving the coil instead of the
magnet gives the same result, as in Fig. 27.1b.
0

2 1

 
I

FIGURE 27.3 An induced current also results when a

current-carrying circuit replaces the magnet.

4. (Fig. 27.4) Hold both coils stationary, and there’s no induced current. But now open
the switch connecting the battery to the left-hand coil. The current drops quickly to
zero, and during that brief interval the ammeter registers a current in the right-hand
coil. Then the induced current ceases as the current in the left-hand coil remains at
zero. Now close the switch again; as current briefly rises in the left-hand coil, the
ammeter registers an induced current in the right-hand coil—and its direction is
opposite what it was when you opened the switch. Once the current in the left coil
reaches a steady value, the induced current in the right coil again ceases.
0

2 1

 
I

FIGURE 27.4 A current is also induced when the current in

an adjacent circuit changes.

The common feature in these experiments is a changing magnetic field. It doesn’t matter
whether the field changes because a magnet moves, or a circuit moves, or because the cur-
rent giving rise to the field changes. In each case, an induced current appears in a circuit
subjected to a changing magnetic field. Here’s a new phenomenon—electromagnetic
induction—whereby electrical effects arise from changing magnetic fields.
468 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction

27.2 Faraday’s Law

It takes a source of emf, such as a battery, to drive current in a circuit. With induced cur-
rents there’s no battery, but there still must be an emf. This induced emf isn’t usually
localized, as with a battery, but may be spread through the conductors making up the circuit.

Magnetic Flux
Move magnet right, We found in Chapter 26 that the magnetic flux through any closed surface is zero. Here
and more lines pass we’re interested in the flux through open surfaces, which need not be zero (Fig. 27.5).
through the loop. Like the electric flux defined in Chapter 21, magnetic flux is the integral of the magnetic
r field over a surface:
B
S N ! !
FB 5 3 B # dA (magnetic flux) (27.1a)

With electromagnetic induction, we’re interested in the flux through a surface bounded
by a circuit. For a loop like the one in Fig. 27.5, that surface can be the circular disk whose
FIGURE 27.5 A circular wire loop in the magnetic circumference is the loop. More generally, it can be any surface bounded by the loop. For
field of a bar magnet. As the magnet moves a flat surface in a uniform magnetic field, Equation 27.1a reduces to
closer, the flux through the loop increases. ! !
FB 5 B # A 5 BA cos u (magnetic flux, uniform field and flat area) (27.1b)
where u is the angle between the field and the normal to the area. When the field and area
are perpendicular, as in the next example, Equation 27.1b reduces further to FB 5 BA.

EXAMPLE 27.1 Magnetic Flux: A Solenoid

A solenoid of circular cross section has radius R, consists of n turns ASSESS The flux increases with any factor that increases either the
per unit length, and carries current I. Find the magnetic flux through field or the area, so this result makes sense. We’re being a little loose in
each turn of the solenoid. thinking of a single turn of the solenoid as a closed loop, but if the sole-
noid is tightly wound, then this is an excellent approximation. What
INTERPRET The solenoid creates a uniform magnetic field, and we’re we’ve found is the flux through one turn; if the solenoid has N turns,
asked for the flux of this field through an area bounded by one turn of then the flux through the entire solenoid is N times our result. ■
the solenoid.
n turns per unit length Magnetic field is out of
DEVELOP The solenoid field is perpendicular to the turns of wire that page, perpendicular to
make up the solenoid, as we’ve drawn in Fig. 27.6. So we have a uni- circular turn.
form field at right angles to a flat area, and the flux becomes
FB 5 BA. Equation 26.20 gives the solenoid field, B 5 m0 nI, and the
area is that of a circle, pR2.

EVALUATE FB 5 BA 5 m0 nIpR 2

FIGURE 27.6 Sketch for Example 27.1.

EXAMPLE 27.2 Magnetic Flux: A Nonuniform Field

A long, straight wire carries current I. A rectangular wire loop of di- Area element
mensions l by w lies in a plane containing the wire, with its closest for integration
edge a distance a from the wire and its dimension l parallel to the
wire. Find the magnetic flux through the loop.

INTERPRET The long, straight wire gives rise to a magnetic field, and
we’re asked for the flux of this field through an adjacent rectangular area.

DEVELOP Figure 27.7 shows the situation. Field lines encircle the
long wire, and at the rectangular loop they’re
! pointing
! into the page,
perpendicular to the loop area. Thus B # dA in Equation 27.1a
becomes just B dA. Equation 26.17 gives the field strength:
B 5 m0 I/2pr. Since this varies with distance from the wire, we have FIGURE 27.7 A rectangular loop in the
magnetic field of a long wire.
 27.2 Faraday’s Law 469

to integrate. We divide the rectangle into thin strips of width dr and The integral is the natural logarithm, so
area dA 5 l dr. Knowing B and dA, we can integrate over all such a1w
m0 Il m0 Il a1w
strips. FB 5 ln r ` 5 ln a b
2p a 2p a
EVALUATE We have
a1w
m0 I m0 Il a1w dr ASSESS This result is directly proportional to the current, which de-
FB 5 3 B dA 5 3 l dr 5
2p 3a
termines the field strength, and to the loop length l. But it isn’t propor-
a 2pr r
tional to the width w because the field strength falls off, and increasing
w would expand the loop into regions of weaker field, contributing
less to the overall flux. ■

Flux and Induced emf

Having developed the notion of magnetic flux, we can now state Faraday’s law of induc-
tion, another of the four basic laws of electromagnetism:

The induced emf in a circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
through any surface bounded by that circuit.

This statement is a special case of Faraday’s law that describes electromagnetic induction
specifically in circuits; later we’ll present a more general form that applies even when no
circuit is present. The induced emf tends to oppose the change in flux—a crucial point to
which we’ll devote all of Section 27.3—and so in SI the proportionality between emf and
rate of change of flux is 21. Thus Faraday’s law is
dFB
E52 (Faraday’s law) (27.2)
dt
where E is the induced emf in a circuit and FB is the magnetic flux through any surface
bounded by that circuit.
Faraday’s law relates the induced emf to the change in flux. It isn’t magnetic field or
flux that causes an induced emf—it’s
! ! the change in flux. The flux in a uniform field is
given by Equation 27.1b, FB 5 B # A 5 BA cos u, which shows that we can change flux by
changing the field strength B, the area A, or the angle u describing the orientation
between area and field.

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 27.1 Faraday’s Law and Induced emf

INTERPRET Make sure the problem involves a circuit in which current flows because of a chang-
ing magnetic flux. Identify the circuit and the cause of the changing flux. Possibilities include:
● A changing magnetic field, caused either by relative motion between the circuit and a mag-
net or by a changing current in an adjacent circuit. Alternatively, the problem may simply
state that a magnetic field is changing at some specified rate, without giving the cause.
● A changing area, caused by the circuit expanding or contracting in the presence of a
magnetic field.
● A changing orientation of the circuit relative to the field, causing a change in cos u.
DEVELOP Find an appropriate expression for the magnetic flux through your circuit.! If the
! field
#
! !27.1a: FB 5 #B dA; if not,
varies with position, you’ll have to set up the integral in Equation
you can use the simpler expression of Equation 27.1b: FB 5 B # A 5 BA cos u. Since the flux
is changing, your expression for flux should either have an explicit time dependence or contain
a quantity whose rate of change you’re given.
EVALUATE Differentiate the flux with respect to time. Faraday’s law, E 5 2dFB /dt, then gives
the induced emf. If you’re asked about the circuit current, you can find it using Ohm’s law:
I 5 E/R, with R the circuit resistance.
ASSESS Does your answer make sense? Does the induced emf or current increase with an
increased rate of whatever quantity is changing? Do the induced effects vanish if you set the
rate of change to zero?
470 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction

EXAMPLE 27.3 Induced Current: A Changing Magnetic Field

A wire loop of radius 10 cm has resistance 2.0 V. ! The plane of the
loop is perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B that’s increasing
at 0.10 T/s. Find the magnitude of the induced current in the loop.

INTERPRET We apply our problem-solving strategy, noting that this is FIGURE 27.8 A circular conducting
a problem about induction in a circular loop, with the flux change loop in a plane perpendicular to a uni-
caused by a changing magnetic field. form magnetic field.

DEVELOP Figure 27.8 shows the loop with a field pointing into the
page. With the field uniform and perpendicular to the loop area, we We’re given dB/dt 5 0.10 T/s and r 5 10 cm. So with E 5 2dFB /dt,
have FB 5 BA 5 Bpr2. We’re given the rate of change dB/dt, so we the magnitude of the induced emf evaluates to 3.14 mV. Then Ohm’s
can evaluate the derivative dFB /dt. law gives the current: I 5 E/R 5 3.14 mV/2.0 V 5 1.6 mA.
EVALUATE The rate of change of flux is ASSESS Make sense? The induced emf and hence the current scale di-
dFB d rectly with the value dB/dt, confirming that the changing magnetic
5 1Bpr22
dt dt field is indeed
! the cause of the induced effects. Does it bother you that
we took B as uniform even though it’s changing, thus avoiding the in-
Since the radius isn’t changing, this becomes
tegral of Equation 27.1a? The field is indeed changing, but that
dFB dB change is in time, not space, and the integral for the flux is over space.
5 pr2
dt dt So at each instant the field is uniform, and we can dispense with the
integral. ■

EXAMPLE 27.4 Induced Current: A Changing Area

Two parallel conducting rails a distance l apart are connected at one DEVELOP In this case of a uniform field perpendicular to the circuit,
end by a resistance R. A conducting bar completes the circuit, join- the flux is the product FB 5 BA. We can express this flux in terms of
ing the two rails electrically but free to slide along them.
! The whole the changing position x of the sliding bar; since we’re given the bar’s
circuit is perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field B, as shown in speed, we’ll be able to evaluate the rate of change of flux. If we take
Fig. 27.9. Find the current when the bar is pulled to the right with x 5 0 at the left end of the rails, then the circuit area is A 5 lx, so the
constant speed v. flux is FB 5 BA 5 Blx.
r
Bin EVALUATE Differentiating the flux with respect to time gives
dFB dx
5 Bl 5 Blv
vr dt dt
R l
since dx/dt is the bar’s velocity v. Faraday’s law says that Blv is the
magnitude of the induced emf E, so the current in the circuit becomes
E Blv
FIGURE 27.9 Pulling the bar to the right increases the circuit area, increasing I5 5
R R
the magnetic flux and inducing an emf that drives a current.
ASSESS Make sense? Sure: The faster the bar moves, the greater
INTERPRET Here the circuit is formed by the rails, the resistance, and
the rate of change of flux, and so the greater the induced emf and
the conducting bar. The circuit area increases as the bar slides along
current. ■
the rails, so we’ve got a case of induction caused by a changing mag-
netic flux resulting from a changing area.

✓TIP It’s the Change That Matters

You may wonder why, in problems like the preceding two examples, you’re not given
values for the magnetic field itself or for the location of the sliding bar—quantities
that determine the magnetic flux. But the flux itself doesn’t matter, only its rate of
change. And in both cases the rate followed from the given information: in one case
the rate of change of the field and in the other the speed of the bar.

Examples 27.3 and 27.4 take care of two ways to change magnetic flux. The third—
changing orientation—is at the heart of an important electromagnetic technology, and
we’ll do an example in the next section.
 27.3 Induction and Energy 471

27.3 Induction and Energy

Move a bar magnet toward a wire loop, as in Fig. 27.10. An induced current flows, dissi-
pating energy as it heats the loop. Where did that energy come from? It came from work
you did in moving the magnet.

r
Loop acts like a bar magnet
Bloop with N pole to left.

r
v I I
r
Bmagnet
S N N S

r
Bloop Right-hand rule: Fingers in
direction of current point
thumb in direction of N pole.
(a) (b)

FIGURE 27.10 Conservation of energy determines the direction of the induced current. (a) Fields of
bar magnet and loop. (b) The loop acts like a magnet with north pole to the left, making it hard to
move the bar magnet.

Normally it doesn’t take work to move with constant speed. But the induced current
makes the loop a magnetic dipole whose field, as Fig. 27.10 shows, opposes the field of
the approaching magnet. You have to do positive work to overcome the resulting repulsive
force. It had better be this way! Otherwise, you’d get something for nothing, heating the
loop without any source of energy.
You can always find the direction of induced emfs and currents by asking: What direction
of induced current will make it hard to move the magnet? The answer for Fig. 27.10 is a cur-
rent that makes the loop a magnet with its north pole on the left, to repel the approaching bar
magnet. By the right-hand rule, that gives the current direction shown: into the page at the
top of the loop and out at the bottom. If, on the other hand, you move the magnet away from
the loop, then the current flows in the opposite direction, putting the loop’s south pole on the
left and attracting the magnet, making it hard to pull the magnet away (Fig. 27.11).

r
Loop acts like a bar magnet
Bloop with S pole to left.

r
v I I
r
Bmagnet
S N S N

r
Bloop Right-hand rule: Fingers in
direction of current point
thumb in direction of N pole.
(a) (b)

FIGURE 27.11 Now the direction of the induced current puts the loop’s south pole to
the left, making it hard to pull the magnet away.

This discussion is ultimately about energy conservation in the context of electromag-

netic induction. Lenz’s law summarizes what we’ve found:

The direction of an induced emf or current is such that the magnetic field created
by the induced current opposes the change in magnetic flux that created the current.
472 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction

Mathematically, Lenz’s law is contained in the minus sign that appears in Faraday’s law,
but it’s usually easier to use Faraday’s law to find the magnitude of the induced emf and
then reason out the direction using energy conservation.

GOT IT? 27.1 You push a bar magnet toward a loop, with the north pole toward the
loop as in Fig. 27.10. If you keep pushing the magnet straight through the loop, what will
be the direction of the current as you pull it out the other side? Will you need to do work,
or will work be done on you?

Motional emf and Lenz’s Law

When a conductor moves through a magnetic field, we can understand the origin of the in-
duced emf in terms of the magnetic force on charge carriers. In this case of motional emf,
we’ll show explicitly that Lenz’s law requires energy conservation.
r
Bin Consider a square conducting loop ! of side l and resistance R pulled with constant speed v
× × × × × out of a uniform magnetic field B (Fig. 27.12). The magnetic flux through the loop is
× × × × × vr changing, so there’s an induced emf that drives a current. Energy is dissipated as heat and
I so, as we’ve just argued, the agent pulling the loop must do work. We’ll now demonstrate
× × × × × quantitatively that energy is conserved by showing that the rate of heating in the loop is
I
× × × × × exactly equal to the rate at which the agent pulling the loop does work.
Pulling the loop to ! the right moves its free electrons through the magnetic field; ! the
× × × × × ! !
magnetic force qv 3 B on these electrons is downward in Fig. 27.12 (opposite v 3 B since
FIGURE 27.12 A conducting loop being pulled electrons are negative). The resulting motion of the negative electrons in the left-hand side
out of a magnetic field. of the loop constitutes an upward current, which continues clockwise around the loop.
We found ! in Chapter
! ! 26 that the magnetic force on a current-carrying conductor of
r
B × Fr × length l is F 5 Il 3 B. Applying this expression to our ! conducting
! loop shows that
mag
there’s no magnetic force on the right-hand side, where B 5 0, and that the forces on the
× ×
top and bottom cancel (Fig. 27.13). So the magnetic force on the loop is that on the left
I side alone. The magnitude of this force is IlB, and the right-hand rule shows that it points
r
Fmag
I
r
Fapplied to the left. This leftward magnetic force cancels the rightward applied force, giving the
× ×
zero net force that Newton’s law requires for the loop to move with constant velocity.
r We could equally well determine the current direction from magnetic-flux considera-
× Fmag × tions. As the loop leaves the field, the flux decreases. The direction of the induced current
x is such as to oppose this decrease. Therefore, the magnetic field of the induced current
points into the page, as the induced current tries to maintain the flux. By the right-hand rule,
FIGURE 27.13 Forces on the loop. a field within the loop and into the page requires that the induced current flow clockwise.
To calculate the current, we first find the induced emf. With the field perpendicular to
the loop, and uniform in the region where it’s nonzero, the magnetic flux is the product of
the magnetic-field strength and the loop area that lies within the field: FB 5 Blx. Here x
is the distance between the left edge of the loop and the right edge of the magnetic-field
region. The magnetic field remains constant, but as the loop moves, the distance x de-
creases at the rate dx/dt 5 2v, where the minus indicates a decrease. Then the rate of
change of flux is
dFB d1Blx2 dx
5 5 Bl 5 2Blv
dt dt dt
so Faraday’s law gives
dFB
E52 5 Blv
dt
This induced emf drives a current I around the loop, where I 5 E/R 5 Blv/R. The rate of
energy dissipation in the loop is the product of the emf and the current (Equation 24.7):
Blv B2 l2 v2
P 5 IE 5 Blv 5 1electric power dissipated in loop2
R R
 27.3 Induction and Energy 473

We’ve found that the magnetic force on the loop has magnitude F 5 IlB; since the
loop is moving with constant
! ! velocity, this is also the magnitude of! the applied force.
!
Equation 6.19 gives P 5 F # v for the power supplied. Here, with F and v in the same
direction, we have
Blv B2 l2v2
P 5 Fv 5 IlBv 5 lBv 5 1mechanical power supplied to pull loop2
R R
the same as our expression for the power dissipated in the loop. Thus, all the work done
by the agent pulling the loop ends up heating the resistor, showing explicitly that energy is
indeed conserved.

GOT IT? 27.2 What will be the direction of the current when the loop in Fig. 27.12
first enters the field, coming in from the left side?

Electromagnetic induction is the principle behind many important technologies, from

credit cards to electric-power generation. Induction also gives us the flexibility to trans-
form voltage levels in electric-power systems, and to provide wireless charging systems
for devices ranging from electric cars to toothbrushes.

APPLICATION Electric Generators

Rotation of loop changes the such as the one shown here produces an alternating emf that varies sinu-
magnetic flux, inducing soidally with time.
an emf. Any source of mechanical energy can power the generator, but the most
common is steam from burning fossil fuels or from nuclear fission. Electrical
energy is also generated from kinetic energy of water or wind. A small electric
generator, driven by the car’s engine, is used to recharge a car’s battery.
Lenz’s law, the conservation of energy in electromagnetic induction, is very
N much applicable to electric generators. Were it not for Lenz’s law, generators
would turn on their own and happily supply electricity without coal, oil, or ura-
Rotating
S nium! The voluminous quantities of fuel consumed by power plants are dra-
slip rings
matic testimony to the minus sign on the right-hand side of Equation 27.2—as
Stationary suggested in this chapter’s opening photo.
brushes Rotating Turn a hand-cranked or pedal-driven generator, and you can literally feel
conducting Lenz’s law. Without any electrical load, turning the generator is easy. Switch
loop on increasingly heavy loads, and the generator gets harder to turn. Most people
Electric find they can just sustain a 100-W lightbulb with a hand generator. Think about
load this next time you leave a light on!
Probably the most important technological application of induction is the If the diagram here reminds you of the motor in the Application in
electric generator. Humanity uses electrical energy at the phenomenal rate of Chapter 26, that’s no coincidence. Motors and generators are similar devices,
about 2 TW 2 231012 W and roughly equal to the power output of 20 bil- just run in opposite ways. A motor converts electrical energy to mechanical
lion human bodies—and virtually all this power comes from generators. A energy; a generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. Often the
generator is just a system of conducting loops in a magnetic field, as shown same physical device serves both purposes. In a hybrid car, for example, an
in the figure. Mechanical energy rotates the conductors, resulting in a chang- electric motor takes energy from a battery to provide propulsion. When the
ing magnetic flux and therefore an induced emf. Current flows through the car brakes, the wheels turn the motor, which then acts as a generator and puts
generator and on to whatever electrical loads are connected to it. Because the the car’s energy back into the battery instead of dissipating it as heat.
changing flux results from a change in the orientation of the loop relative to Such regenerative braking is one of the hybrid’s several means of achieving
the field—that is, a change in u in the expression FB 5 BA cos u —a generator greater energy efficiency.

GOT IT? 27.3 If you lower the electrical resistance connected across a generator
while turning the generator at a constant speed, will the generator get easier or harder
to turn?
474 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction

EXAMPLE 27.5 Induction: Designing a Generator

An electric generator consists of a 100-turn circular coil 50 cm
in diameter. It’s rotated at f 5 60 rev/s to produce standard 60-Hz
alternating current like that used throughout North America.
Find the magnetic-field strength needed for a peak output voltage
of 170 V (which is the actual peak in standard 120-V household
wiring). Loop
rotation

INTERPRET Here we have a conducting coil rotating in a fixed mag-

netic field, so this is an induction problem where changing flux results
from a changing orientation.
Wires
to load
DEVELOP We sketched the coil and magnetic field in Fig. 27.14.
With a uniform field and flat, circular area, the flux through ! !
one turn of the coil is given by Equation 27.1b, F1 turn 5 B # A 5
BA cos u 5 Bpr2 cos u. The angle u changes as the loop rotates, and FIGURE 27.14 Coil in the generator of Example 27.5; at this instant the normal
with it the flux. We need to express the total flux as a function of time to the coil makes an angle u with the magnetic field.
so we can evaluate its derivative and thus the emf. Because the loop
rotates with constant angular speed v 5 2pf, its angular position is The emf has its peak value when the sine is 1, so Epeak 5 2p2 r2 NBf. We
u 5 2pft. Then the flux through each turn is Bpr2 cos12pft2, and want this value to be 170 V; using r 5 25 cm, N 5 100 turns, and
the total flux through all N 5 100 turns is NBpr2 cos12pft2. f 5 60 rev/s then gives B 5 23 mT.

ASSESS This value is about 200 G, typical of the field strength near the
EVALUATE Faraday’s law equates the induced emf with the rate of
poles of a permanent magnet. Note that you don’t need a value for time t
change of this flux:
to find the peak emf; when a quantity varies sinusoidally, its peak oc-
dFB d curs when the sine or cosine function is 1, so the peak value is the mag-
E 52 5 2NBpr2 3cos12pft24 5 2NBpr2322pf sin12pft24
dt dt nitude of whatever quantity multiplies the sine or cosine. ■

Card Electromagnetic induction is also the basis of magnetic recording, once the dominant
Coil Iron motion means of storing audio, video, and computer information but now more common in credit
cards and similar applications. The magnetic strip on your credit card is a ferromagnetic
material that stores information in regions of differing magnetization. Swiping your card
induces current in a wire coil, which extracts the stored information as an electrical signal
(Fig. 27.15). Early computer disks worked on the same principle, although in today’s disks
the magnetic field of the spinning disk causes changes in electrical resistance in the
Magnetic
strip Information is “head” that reads the disk information.
contained in
magnetization
pattern.
Eddy Currents
Induced currents aren’t limited to conducting loops and circuits. They also occur in solid
conductors subject to changing magnetic flux. The resistance of a solid conductor is low,
FIGURE 27.15 Swiping a credit card. Patterns of which can result in large induced currents and significant power dissipation. That can
magnetization on the strip induce currents in make it hard to move a conducting material into or out of a magnetic field, as it’s subject
the coil.
to a changing flux. The result is a kind of magnetic friction that saps energy. On the other
hand, the effect can be useful in providing an alternative to friction brakes. Rapidly rotat-
ing saw blades or train wheels, for example, can be stopped quickly by turning on a nearby
electromagnet; the resulting eddy currents dissipate the rotational kinetic energy. The
mechanical resistance you feel in exercise machines like elliptical trainers or stationary
cycles results from a magnet positioned near the machine’s rotating parts. And eddy cur-
rents are guardians of our security, as the next Application shows.
 27.3 Induction and Energy 475

APPLICATION Metal Detectors

Alternating Induced Metal detectors used in airports and other security checkpoints rely on eddy
current current currents. In one type of detector, shown in the figure, an alternating current
Current in one coil—the transmitter—produces a changing magnetic field that in-
detector duces a current in a second coil, the receiver. A detector, basically an elec-
Nothing 0
tronic ammeter, monitors the receiver current. Eddy currents are induced in
between I I 2 1
any conducting material that comes between the two coils, and the direction
coils of the induced currents is, as always, such as to reduce the changing flux.
Strong current:
no conductor The superposition of the transmitter’s changing flux with the changing flux
Transmitter Receiver between coils from the eddy currents therefore reduces the changing flux at the receiver,
coil coil dropping the receiver current and triggering an alarm. Other detectors have
a single coil, using a short pulse of current to induce eddy currents and then
“listening” for the currents induced back in the coil. Either way, you can
Metal 0 thank Faraday’s law if you’ve ever been stopped while going through a
between I I 2 1
metal detector!
coils
Weak current
triggers alarm.
Eddy currents in
conductor reduce
changing flux at
receiver.

Field of induced current . . . so right-hand

GOT IT? 27.4 A copper penny falls on a path that takes it between the poles of a points out of page . . . rule gives counter-
magnet. Does it hit the ground going (a) faster than, (b) slower than, or (c) at the same clockwise current.
speed as if the magnet weren’t present? r
I
Bin

Closed and Open Circuits

Figure 27.16 shows a closed, conducting loop in a magnetic field that points into the page.
Suppose the field is increasing in strength; then in order to oppose this change, the induced
current must be in such a direction as to oppose the increase. Here that means the field in
!
the interior of the loop needs to come out of the page, and by the right-hand rule that FIGURE 27.16 The field B is into the page
means the induced current is counterclockwise. It’s not that the induced field always op- and increasing; the induced current is
poses the inducing field—rather, it opposes the change. If the field in Fig. 27.16 had been counterclockwise, so its field opposes
the increase.
decreasing, then the induced current would have “tried” to reinforce it by flowing clock-
wise to make additional field into the page.
What if we have an open circuit, like the conducting loop with a small gap shown in
Fig. 27.17? Then there’s no induced current whose effects can oppose a change in the
field. But we can imagine what would happen if the circuit were completed; as in Fig. 27.16,
current would flow counterclockwise. Open the gap, and that means positive charge accu- r 
mulates at the upper end of the gap and negative charge at the bottom. Charge buildup con- B

tinues until the potential difference at the gap opposes the induced emf’s tendency to move
charge. The result is a steady state in which the gap voltage equals the induced emf.

FIGURE 27.17 In a changing magnetic field,

GOT IT? 27.5 A long wire carries a current I as I the induced emf results in charge buildup at
shown. What’s the direction of the current in the cir- the gap of an open circuit. The polarity
cular conducting loop when I is (a) increasing and shown results when the field is increasing.
(b) decreasing?
476 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction

27.4 Inductance
There are many ways to change magnetic flux and thus induce emfs and currents. We can
move a magnet, or move or rotate the circuit. Or, as in Fig. 27.4 or Fig. 27.18, we can
I1 change the magnetic flux by changing the current in a circuit and therefore the magnetic
E2
field it produces. In that case we speak of the inductance of a circuit or circuits.

FIGURE 27.18 Mutual inductance. A changing Mutual Inductance

current in either coil induces an emf in the
other coil. Figure 27.18 shows two coils in proximity. If we send a changing current through the left-
hand coil, the resulting magnetic field gives rise to a changing magnetic flux in the right-
hand coil. There’s then an induced emf in the right-hand coil and, if it’s connected in a
complete circuit, an induced current as well.
The two coils in Fig. 27.18 have mutual inductance, meaning a changing current in
one coil produces a changing flux at the other coil, thereby inducing an emf. Just how
strong this effect is depends on the construction and orientation of the coils; for maximum
inductance they should be arranged so that most of the flux from each coil goes through
the other. Often coils are wound on iron cores to concentrate the flux and increase the
mutual inductance.
Mutual inductance is the basis of transformers, which change voltage levels in alternat-
ing-current circuits; more on that in Chapter 28. Your car’s ignition coil uses mutual in-
ductance to produce the tens of kilovolts needed to fire the spark plugs and ignite the
gasoline–air mixture in the engine. Current to the coil is interrupted at just the right in-
stant, producing a rapid change in magnetic flux and inducing the emf that drives the
spark. More mundane is an electric toothbrush, whose batteries charge without electrical
connection to a power source. Instead, a small coil in the device is placed in proximity
with a coil in the charging base, and alternating current in the base coil transfers energy
via mutual inductance to provide the charging current.

Self-Inductance
Inductance isn’t limited to two-coil systems. Magnetic flux from current in a single coil or
circuit passes through that circuit itself (Fig. 27.19). If the current changes, so does the
flux—and that induces an emf. As always, the induced emf opposes the change that pro-
duces it. Suppose, for example, that the current in Fig. 27.19 is increasing. Then the in-
duced emf will be in the direction that opposes the current increase—clockwise, or
I opposite the current in Fig. 27.19. The induced emf therefore makes it harder to increase
the current. On the other hand, if the current in Fig. 27.19 is decreasing, then the induced
r
emf will try to drive additional current to counter the decrease; the induced emf is there-
B
fore in the same direction as the current. Either way, the induced emf makes it hard to
FIGURE 27.19 Magnetic flux from a current loop change the current in a circuit.
passes through the loop itself; a change in the This property whereby a circuit’s own magnetic field opposes changes in the circuit
current induces an emf that opposes the current is called self-inductance. All circuits have self-inductance, but it’s most im-
change.
portant in circuits that encircle a great deal of their own magnetic flux, or when cur-
rents change rapidly. A simple piece of wire has little impact on the 60-Hz alternating
current used for electric power. But in TVs and computers, where currents change
billions of times per second, even the slightest self-inductance can have deleterious
effects.
An inductor is designed specifically to exhibit self-inductance. Inductors have many
uses in electric circuits, including establishing the frequencies of radio transmitters and
helping “steer” high- and low-frequency signals to the tweeters and woofers of loud-
speaker systems. We’ll explore some of these uses in the next chapter. A typical inductor
consists of a wire coil, sometimes wound on an iron core to promote flux concentration.
Ideally, the only electrical property of an inductor is its inductance, but real inductors have
resistance as well.
As long as the current in an inductor is steady, the magnetic flux is constant, so there’s
no induced emf and the inductor acts like a wire. But when the current changes, the chang-
ing magnetic flux induces an emf that opposes the change in current. The more rapidly the
 27.4 Inductance 477

current changes, the greater the rate of change of flux and so the greater the emf. The in-
duced emf depends also on how much of its own magnetic flux the inductor encircles;
consequently, we define self-inductance, L, as the ratio of magnetic flux through the in-
ductor to current in the inductor:
FB
L5 (self-inductance) (27.3)
I
Equation 27.3 shows that the units of self-inductance are T # m2/A. This unit is given the
name henry (H) in honor of the American scientist Joseph Henry (1797–1878). Inductances
in common electronic circuits usually range from microhenrys 1mH2 up to several henrys.
Inductance is a constant determined by the physical design of an inductor. In principle
we can calculate the inductance of any inductor, but in practice that’s difficult unless the
geometry is particularly simple.

EXAMPLE 27.6 Calculating Inductance: A Solenoid

A long solenoid of cross-sectional area A and length l has n turns per EVALUATE With n turns per unit length, the solenoid contains a total
unit length. Find its self-inductance. of nl turns, so the flux through all the turns is
FB 5 nlBA 5 1nl21m0 nI2A 5 m0 n2 AlI
INTERPRET We’re asked for self-inductance, which Equation 27.3
shows is the ratio of magnetic flux through the solenoid to current in Equation 27.3 gives the self-inductance as the ratio of flux to current, so
the solenoid. FB
L5 5 m0 n2 Al (inductance of solenoid) (27.4)
I
DEVELOP We’ll assume a current in the solenoid and find the re-
sulting magnetic flux. Then we can take their ratio to get the self- ASSESS Make sense? As the area increases, so does the flux and
inductance. We need the magnetic field of a solenoid, which therefore the inductance. As the length increases, so does the number
follows from Equation 26.20: B 5 m0 nI. The field is uniform and of turns, so again the total flux increases. And as the number of turns
perpendicular to the solenoid coils, as we showed in our drawing per unit length increases, two things happen. First, the magnetic field
for Example 27.1, so the flux through each turn follows from Equa- of Equation 26.20 increases, increasing the flux BA through each turn.
tion 27.1b: F1 turn 5 BA. Second, the total number of turns increases, again increasing the total
flux. That’s why the inductance, L, depends on n squared. ■

The induced emf in an inductor is determined by Faraday’s law, which relates emf to Voltage increasing
the rate of change of magnetic flux: E 5 2dFB /dt. Differentiating Equation 27.3, the def- in direction of
current defines 
inition of inductance, gives positive EL . . .

dFB dI
5L
dt dt EL Current
I direction
Then Faraday’s law becomes
dI 
EL 5 2L (inductor emf) (27.5) . . . EL is positive
dt when current is
decreasing
This equation gives the emf E induced in an inductor L when the inductor current is chang- (dI/dt , 0).
ing at the rate dI/dt. The minus sign again tells us that the emf opposes the change in cur-
FIGURE 27.20 The direction of induced emf in
rent. For this reason the inductor emf is often called a back emf; it works against changes
Equation 27.5 depends on whether the current
brought about by an externally applied emf. Figure 27.20 shows how to interpret the sign is increasing or decreasing. The coil is the cir-
in Equation 27.5. cuit symbol for an inductor.
When the current in an inductor is steady, dI/dt 5 0 and there’s no induced emf. In this
case, the inductor acts like a piece of wire. But when the current changes, the inductor re-
sponds by producing a back emf that opposes the change. Now the inductor acts much like
a battery, with the magnitude of its emf dependent on how fast the current changes. If we
try to start or stop current suddenly, dI/dt is very large and a very large back emf appears.
This isn’t just mathematics! Rapid switching of inductive devices such as solenoids, sole-
noid valves, or motors can destroy delicate electronic devices. And people have been
killed opening switches in circuits containing large inductors. In the next section we’ll
take a closer look at circuits that include inductors.
478 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction

GOT IT? 27.6 Current flows from left to right through the in- I
ductor shown. A voltmeter connected across the inductor gives a con-
stant reading, and shows that the left end of the inductor is positive. Is
the current in the inductor (a) increasing, (b) decreasing, or (c) steady?
EL
Why?

EXAMPLE 27.7 Back emf: A Dangerous Inductor

A 5.0-A current is flowing in a 2.0-H inductor. The current is then re-
duced steadily to zero over 1.0 ms. Find the magnitude and direction 1 at this end
of the inductor emf during this time. helps keep
current
INTERPRET There’s an emf in the inductor because the current is flowing.
changing; we want the magnitude and direction of that emf.

DEVELOP Figure 27.21 shows the situation, complete with an exter-

nal circuit that’s the source of the decreasing current. Equation 27.5,
EL 5 2L1dI/dt2, gives the inductor emf in terms of the rate of FIGURE 27.21 Sketch for Example 27.7.
change of current. Since the current changes steadily, the latter is just
ASSESS That’s a potentially lethal voltage! Our answer is unrelated to
the change in current 125.0 A2 divided by the time involved.
the battery or whatever is supplying the inductor current. One could
EVALUATE have a 6-V battery and still be electrocuted opening a circuit with a
large inductance. Note that the direction we deduced is consistent with
dI 25.0 A
EL 5 2L 5 212.0 H2 a b 5 10,000 V Lenz’s law; here the inductor emf opposes the decrease in current, and
dt 1.0 ms that means it provides an emf in the direction that would keep current
That this answer is positive tells us that the emf increases in the same flowing in the external circuit—just the opposite of the situation in
direction as the current, as we indicated in Fig. 27.21. Got It? 27.6. ■

Inductors in Circuits
In Chapter 25 we found that the voltage across a capacitor can’t change instantaneously.
We can make an analogous statement for inductors. Because the inductor emf depends on
the rate of change of current and because an infinite emf is impossible, the current
through an inductor can’t change instantaneously. Much of our understanding of ca-
pacitors applies to inductors if we interchange the words “voltage” and “current.”
Figure 27.22 shows a circuit with a battery, switch, resistor, and inductor. With the
switch open there’s no current (Fig. 27.22a). Close the switch, and the current at that in-
stant is still zero because the inductor current can’t change instantaneously. With no cur-
rent, there’s no voltage across the resistor, so the inductor must be producing a back emf
equal in magnitude to the battery emf (Fig. 27.22b). Although at this instant there’s zero
current in the inductor, the nonzero emf EL 5 2L1dI/dt2 shows that the rate of change of
current, dI/dt, isn’t zero.

Switch open: Immediately after switch is closed,

still no current flows, but dI isn’t zero. After a long time, the rate of change of
No current flows. dt current and the inductor emf both approach zero.
S R S R S R

  + 
E0 L E0 L EL 5 E0 E0 EL 5 0
  – 
The inductor’s The inductor
back emf is equal then acts like
(a) (b) in magnitude to (c) a wire.
the battery emf E0.

FIGURE 27.22 An RL circuit at three times.

 27.4 Inductance 479

So the inductor current rises from zero, and with it the resistor current and therefore
the resistor voltage IR. The battery emf E0 is constant, so as IR increases, the magnitude
of the inductor emf drops. Equation 27.5 shows that the rate of change of current drops
as well. Eventually the whole circuit reaches a steady state in which dI/dt and therefore
the inductor emf are both zero (Fig. 27.22c). At this point the inductor acts like a wire,
and the resistor determines the current: I 5 E0 /R. Figure 27.23 summarizes this analysis
of the RL circuit.

As current increases, so
Current I increases at an
does resistor voltage IR,
ever-decreasing rate.
at an ever-decreasing rate.

R

I 
E0 L EL
 

Battery emf stays constant. Change in current results in

Resistor and inductor voltages emf in the inductor. Emf
sum to battery voltage. decreases with decreasing
rate of current change.

FIGURE 27.23 Interrelationships among circuit quantities

as current builds up in an RL circuit. Compare with
Fig. 25.19 for a charging capacitor.

We can analyze the circuit quantitatively using the loop law. Going clockwise, we en-
counter a voltage increase E0 at the battery, a decrease 2IR at the resistor, and a change
EL at the inductor. This change is actually a decrease, but we’ll let Equation 27.5 take care
of the signs. Then the loop law reads E0 2 IR 1 EL 5 0. The battery emf is constant, so
if we differentiate this equation, we get
dEL dI
5R
dt dt
But Equation 27.5 gives dI/dt 5 2EL /L, so
dEL EL
5 2R
dt L
This looks like Equation 25.4 for the RC circuit, but with EL in place of current I, L in
place of C, and 1/R in place of R. So the solution is that of Equation 25.4 with the appro-
priate substitutions:
EL 5 2E0 e2Rt/L (27.6)
This shows that the inductor emf decays exponentially from its initial value 2E0 (negative
because the inductor emf opposes the battery) to zero. Using the undifferentiated loop
equation, we can now solve for the current: E0

E0 1 EL E0 E0 /R
Circuit current
Inductor emf

I5 5 11 2 e2Rt/L2 (27.7) I
R R
With a capacitor, we characterized time-changing quantities with the capacitive time EL
constant RC. Here the inductive time constant is L/R. In contrast to the capacitor case,
the inductive time constant depends inversely on resistance. That’s because a lower resist-
ance means a higher steady-state current, which therefore requires a longer time to build 0 L/R 2L/R 3L/R 4L/R 5L/R
Time, t
up. Significant changes in current can’t occur on time scales much shorter than L/R. Wait
many time constants, and the circuit approaches a steady state with EL 5 0. Figure 27.24 FIGURE 27.24 Inductor current and emf as
summarizes the time-dependent behavior of circuit quantities in an RL circuit. functions of time.
480 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction

EXAMPLE 27.8 The Inductive Time Constant: Firing Up an Electromagnet

A large electromagnet used for lifting scrap iron has self-inductance EVALUATE Rearranging, we have e2Rt/L 5 0.25; then taking natural
L 5 56 H. It’s connected to a constant 440-V power source; the total logs of both sides and using ln ex 5 x gives 2Rt/L 5 ln10.252, or
resistance of the circuit is 2.8 V. Find the time it takes for the current L 56 H
to reach 75% of its final value. t52 ln10.252 5 2 ln10.252 5 28 s
R 2.8 V
INTERPRET This is a problem about the buildup of current in an RL ASSESS This is a little more than 1 time constant 1L/R 5 20 s2—not
circuit. surprising because we found with capacitors that we reach approxi-
mately two-thirds of the full charge in 1 time constant. Analogously,
DEVELOP Equation 27.7, I 5 1E0 /R211 2 e 2Rt/L
2, determines the
with inductors, we reach about two-thirds of the final current in 1 time
current; here E0 /R is the final current, and we want to solve for the time t
constant. ■
when I is 75% of this final value. That is, we want 0.75 5 1 2 e2Rt/L.

Figure 27.25 shows a circuit with a two-way switch. Throw the switch to A, and cur-
rent builds up as we just described. Throw it to B, and current continues to flow through
the inductor and resistor because the inductor current can’t change instantaneously. We
won’t go through the math, but it’s straightforward to show that the current decays expo-
nentially with the same time constant L/R:
I 5 I0 e2Rt/L (27.8)
This is analogous to our result for the discharging capacitor.

Switching to B takes the

With switch at A, battery out of the circuit.
current builds up. The current decays
A R exponentially.
B
 
I

E0 EL L
L R V
  

(a) (b)

FIGURE 27.25 Buildup and decay of current in an RL circuit.

As with capacitors, it’s not necessary to use exponential equations to analyze the
short- and long-term behavior of circuits with inductors. All you need to remember is
that for short times inductor current can’t change instantaneously, and for long times
inductors have no emfs and therefore act like wires. The next example explores this
situation.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 27.1 Inductors: Short Times, Long Times

The switch in Fig. 27.26a is initially open. It’s then closed and, a long current was flowing in the inductor continues to flow after the switch
time later, reopened. What’s the direction of the current in R2 after the is reopened. That current was flowing downward in the inductor, so,
switch is reopened? as Fig. 27.26d shows, it’s flowing upward through R2.
EVALUATE To see what’s happening here, we sketch the circuit in ASSESS Does this surprising result make sense? Yes: Current in an in-
three situations, beginning with the switch closing and ending with it re- ductor can’t change instantaneously, and once the switch opens the
opening (Fig. 27.26b–d). There’s no inductor current with the switch current has nowhere to go but upward through R2. The resistor has no
initially open, so there’s no current right after it closes. Then the in- say in the matter; as Making the Connection shows, its current is de-
ductor might as well be an open circuit, so we drew Fig. 27.26b with termined entirely by the battery voltage and R1. If the switch stays
only the two resistors. After a long time the current stops changing, open, the current in Fig. 27.26d decays exponentially as the resistor
and the inductor behaves like a wire (Fig. 27.26c). Finally, whatever dissipates the energy that was stored in the inductor.
 27.5 Magnetic Energy 481

Switch open: Switch closed: (c)

No current flows. Inductor acts like E/R1
open circuit. (b)
R1 E/(R1 1 R2) IL

Switch (d)
 reopens
E0 R2 L (a) IR2

Switch Time
(a) (b) initially Switch
open closes
After a long time: Reopen switch:
Inductor acts Inductor current
like short circuit. keeps flowing. – E/R1

FIGURE 27.27 Currents in R2 and L for Conceptual Example 27.1.

MAKING THE CONNECTION Verify that the current in R2 just

after the switch is reopened has the value indicated in Fig. 27.27.
(c) (d)
EVALUATE Just before the switch is reopened, Fig. 27.26c shows that the
FIGURE 27.26 Conceptual Example 27.1
current through the inductor is IL 5 E0 /R1; R2 is irrelevant here because
Figure 27.27 shows currents in the inductor and R2 as functions it’s short-circuited by the inductor. Just after the switch opens, the cur-
of time. If R2 weren’t in the circuit, the voltage would rise dangerously rent continues flowing, now going upward through R2 as we reasoned
high as the inductor tries to keep the current flowing. Resistors above. So the current in R2 is 2E0 /R1, with the minus sign designating
are often wired in parallel with large inductors to alleviate this danger. the upward direction according to the sign conventions in Fig. 27.27.

27.5 Magnetic Energy

In Figs. 27.25b and 27.26d, current flows in circuits containing only a resistor and an
inductor. Energy is dissipated, heating the resistor. Where does this energy come from?
Because there’s a current in the inductor, there’s also a magnetic field. The change in
that magnetic field is what produces the emf that drives the current. As the current de-
creases, so does the magnetic field. Eventually the circuit reaches a state where there’s no
current, no magnetic field—and a hot resistor. So where did the resistor’s thermal energy
come from? It came from the magnetic field.
Like the electric field, the magnetic field contains stored energy. Our decaying RL cir-
cuit is analogous to a discharging RC circuit, in which the electric field between the ca-
pacitor plates disappears as thermal energy appears in the resistor. As in the electric case,
magnetic energy isn’t limited to circuits: Any magnetic field contains energy. Release of
magnetic energy drives a number of practical devices and also powers violent events
throughout the universe (Fig. 27.28).

Magnetic Energy in an Inductor

We can find the stored energy by reconsidering the buildup of current in the inductor. Ear-
lier we wrote the loop law for the circuit of Fig. 27.22; if we multiply that equation by the
current I, we get IE0 2 I 2 R 1 IEL 5 0 or, using Equation 27.5 for EL, FIGURE 27.28 This eruption of a huge promi-
nence from the Sun’s surface releases energy
dI
IE0 2 I 2 R 2 LI 50 stored in magnetic fields.
dt
The three terms here have the units of voltage times current, or power. The first shows that the
battery supplies energy to the circuit at the rate IE0. The second, 2I 2 R, is the rate of energy
dissipation in the resistor; the negative sign means the resistor takes energy from the circuit.
The current is increasing 1dI/dt . 02, so the third term is also negative; it describes energy
the inductor takes from the circuit. But the inductor doesn’t dissipate this energy; rather, it
stores the energy in its magnetic field. The rate at which the inductor stores energy is thus
dI
P 5 LI
dt
482 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction

Suppose we increase the current in an inductor by some small amount dI over a small
time interval dt. Since the power is the rate of energy storage, the energy dU stored during
this time is dU 5 P dt 5 LI dI. We find the total energy stored in bringing the inductor
current from zero to some final value I by summing—that is, integrating—all the dU values:
I I

U 5 3 dU 5 3 P dt 5 3 LI dI 5 12 LI 2 `
0 0

Evaluating at the two limits then gives the stored energy:

U 5 12 LI 2 1energy stored in inductor2 (27.9)
This much energy is therefore released when the magnetic field decays.

EXAMPLE 27.9 Magnetic Energy: An MRI Disaster

Superconducting electromagnets like the solenoids in MRI scanners change instantaneously in an inductor, this current remains momen-
store a lot of magnetic energy. Loss of coolant can be dangerous be- tarily unchanged. Therefore, we have everything we need to find
cause the current is suddenly left without its zero-resistance path and the power dissipation.
quickly decays. The result is an explosive release of magnetic energy.
A particular MRI solenoid carries 2.4 kA and has a 0.53-H induc- EVALUATE (a) Equation 27.8 gives
tance. When it loses superconductivity, its resistance goes abruptly to U 5 12 LI 2 5 A 12 B 10.53 H212.4 kA22 5 1.5 MJ
31 mV. Find (a) the stored magnetic energy and (b) the rate of energy while for (b) we have
release at the instant superconductivity is lost.
P 5 I 2R 5 12.4 kA22131 mV2 5 0.18 MW
INTERPRET We’re asked first for the total stored energy and then for
the power dissipated in the resistance of the coils at the instant they ASSESS This is substantial power, equivalent to 1800 100-W light-
cease to be superconducting. bulbs burning in the space of this roughly human-size device! You can
show in Problem 55 that it takes some 20 s before 90% of the energy
DEVELOP Equation 27.9, U 5 2 LI 2, determines the stored energy,
1 has dissipated. To prevent explosive energy release, superconducting
while P 5 I R determines the resistor power. Just before the
2 wires generally incorporate copper or silver to carry the current in the
coolant loss, the MRI solenoid carries 2.4 kA; since current can’t event of coolant loss that quenches the superconductivity. ■

Magnetic-Energy Density
In Example 27.6 we found the inductance of a solenoid with length l and cross-
sectional area A: L 5 m0 n2 Al. Equation 27.9 then gives the magnetic energy stored in
the solenoid:
1 B2
U 5 12 LI 2 5 12 m0 n2 AlI 2 5 1m0 nI22 Al 5 Al
2m0 2m0
where we recognized the quantity m0 nI as B, the magnetic field in the solenoid (Equa-
tion 26.20). The quantity Al is the volume containing this field, so the energy per unit
volume—the magnetic-energy density—is

B2
uB 5 (magnetic-energy density) (27.10)
2m0

Although we derived this expression for the field of a solenoid, it is, in fact, a universal
expression for the local magnetic-energy density. Wherever there’s a magnetic field,
there’s stored energy.
Equation 27.10 is similar to Equation 23.7 for the energy density in an electric field:
uE 5 21 P0 E 2. Each energy density is proportional to the square of the field strength, and
each contains the appropriate constant, m0 or P0. That the constant appears in the numera-
tor in one case and in the denominator in the other is merely a consequence of the way
SI units are defined.
 27.6 Induced Electric Fields 483

27.6 Induced Electric Fields

So far we’ve been talking about induction in terms of emfs and circuits. But what, really,
is emf? In the case of a battery, it results from chemical reactions that separate charge.
With motional emf (Section 27.3), magnetic forces on a moving conductor act to separate
charge. But what causes the emf in a conducting loop subject to a changing magnetic
field? There’s no motion, yet there must be a force on the free charges in the conductor.
The only force we know that acts on stationary charges is the electric force, which results
from electric fields. Therefore, there must be an electric field—an induced electric
field—in the conducting loop. This field has the same effect on charges, exerting a force
t
qE , as did the electric fields we considered earlier. But the induced field originates not in
electric charge but in changing magnetic field.
An induced electric field results whenever a magnetic field changes with time—
whether or not an electric circuit is present. If there is a circuit, then the field drives in-
duced currents. But the induced field, not the current, is fundamental. A single, stationary
electron in a changing magnetic field experiences an electric force—clear evidence for the
existence of the induced electric field.
We wrote Faraday’s law as Equation 27.2, giving the relation between induced emf
and changing magnetic flux. But the induced electric field is more fundamental, and emf
simply means the work per unit charge gained as charge ! ! goes around a circuit—or for
that matter any closed loop. Thus we can write E 5 $ E # dr , and Faraday’s law becomes
! dFB
# !
C E d r 5 2 dt (Faraday’s law) (27.11)

In this form, Faraday’s law is a universal statement about electric fields and changing mag-
netic flux. The line integral on the left-hand side is over any closed loop, which need not
coincide with a circuit or conductor. The flux on the right-hand side is the surface integral
of the magnetic field over any open surface bounded by the loop on the left-hand side.
Faraday’s law tells us that there’s another source of electric fields besides electric
charge—namely, changing magnetic field:

A changing magnetic field creates an electric field.

This direct interaction between fields is the basis for many practical devices and, as we’ll
see in Chapter 29, is essential to the existence of light.
Faraday’s law is similar to Ampère’s
! law (Equation
! 26.16). On the left side, both in-
volve the line integral of a field, E for Faraday
! and B for Ampère. On the right is a source!
of that field, changing magnetic field for E and moving electric charge—current—for B.
Both fields encircle their sources. That means the configuration of an induced electric field
is very different from that of an electric field originating in charge. Field lines of an in-
duced electric field have no beginnings or ends; they generally form closed loops encir-
cling regions of changing magnetic field (Fig. 27.29).
When a changing magnetic field has sufficient symmetry, we can evaluate the induced
electric field in the same way we did the magnetic field of a symmetric current distribution.
r
Einduced

r
E
q r
B

Region of
Static electric changing
field begins or Induced electric
field forms magnetic
ends on charge.
closed loops. field
(a) (b)

FIGURE 27.29 (a) Static electric fields originate in charges and look very different from (b) induced fields
that result from changing magnetic fields.
484 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction

EXAMPLE 27.10 Finding the Induced Electric Field: A Solenoid

A long solenoid has circular cross section of radius R. The solenoid cur- of them as a loop for the integration in Faraday’s law. We chose a
rent is increasing, and as a result so is the magnetic field in the solenoid. loop coinciding with a field line because symmetry requires that
The field strength is given by B 5 bt, where b is a constant. Find the in- the field strength E be constant over a circle concentric with the
duced electric field outside the solenoid, a distance r from the axis. symmetry axis.

INTERPRET Here’s a problem about a changing magnetic field produc- EVALUATE The situation on the left-hand
! side of! Faraday’s
! law is just
!
ing an electric field—that is, about Faraday’s law. We’ll follow the steps as in Example 26.8, except with E instead of B. So $ E # dr evaluates
in Chapter 26’s strategy for Ampère’s law, modifying as appropriate to immediately to 2prE. Instead of current on the right-hand side, we
Faraday’s law. We begin by identifying the symmetry, which here is line have changing magnetic flux 2dFB /dt. Here the loop is outside the
symmetry. solenoid, so it encircles the entire flux, which is FB 5 BA 5 btpR2.
The right-hand side of Faraday’s law has the rate of change of flux,
DEVELOP Symmetry requires that encircling electric field lines be which is dFB /dt 5 pR2 b. Equating the left and right sides of Fara-
circular. We’ve drawn some field lines in Fig. 27.30 and marked one day’s law then gives 2prE 5 2pR2 b, or
R2 b
Loop for Faraday's law E52
2r

ASSESS The 1/r dependence here shouldn’t surprise you; we found

the same thing for other fields resulting from distributions with line
symmetry. The minus sign tells about the direction, but as usual it’s
easiest to invoke Lenz’s law to reason out the direction. If a current
were flowing as a result of the induced electric field, its direction
would be such as to oppose the increase in the solenoid’s magnetic
field. So it would have to produce a field out of the page in Fig. 27.30,
and that means a counterclockwise current. So the induced electric
FIGURE 27.30 Cross section of a solenoid whose magnetic field points field goes counterclockwise. Calculating the field inside the solenoid
into the page and is increasing. Field lines of the induced electric field would be similar, but a given field line would encircle only part of the
are circles concentric with the solenoid axis. magnetic flux; Exercise 31 covers this situation. ■

Move charge this way

from A to B, and you do
Conservative and Nonconservative Electric Fields
work against the field. Static electric fields—those beginning and ending on stationary charge distributions—are
conservative, meaning that the work required to move a charge between two points is path
B independent. A consequence is that it takes no work to move around a closed path in an
electrostatic field; mathematically, we express this by writing
r
E ! !
#
C E dr 5 0 (electrostatic field)

In contrast, induced electric fields generally form closed loops, and here Faraday’s law
shows that the line integral of the electric field around a closed path is decidedly not zero.
A
That means the induced electric field does work on a charge moved around a closed path
and that the work done in moving between two points cannot be independent of the path
Go this wayrfrom taken (Fig. 27.31). The induced electric field is therefore not conservative.
A to B and E does
work on the charge.
GOT IT? 27.7 The figure shows three resistors in series A 0

FIGURE 27.31 The work done to move charge in 2 1

an induced electric field isn’t path independ-

surrounding an infinitely long solenoid with a changing mag-
netic field; the resulting induced electric field drives a current R R
ent, so the induced field isn’t conservative.
counterclockwise, as shown. Two identical voltmeters are 2
0
1

shown connected to the same points A and B. What does each

read? Explain any apparent contradiction. Hint: This is a chal- C B
lenging question! I
R
 27.6 Induced Electric Fields 485

Diamagnetism
We introduced diamagnetism in Chapter 26 but couldn’t explain it there because it
involves induced electric fields. Figure 27.32 shows a highly simplified model represent-
ing two atomic electrons with equal but opposite magnetic moments. Although a proper
treatment of diamagnetism requires quantum mechanics, this model shows qualitatively I
r
how diamagnetism arises. B
I
No net magnetic moment
mrin mrout

2e 2e

(a) FIGURE 27.33 Induced currents in a super-

r r conductor completely cancel an applied
Increasing B induces E that
changes electrons' motions. magnetic field.
This electron slows down . . . and this one speeds up.
r
B

2e 2e

(b)
Result: nonzero net magnetic moment

FIGURE 27.32 A simple model for diamagnetism.

The dipole moments in Fig. 27.32a cancel, so the associated atom has no magnetic
dipole moment. But what happens when a magnetic field is applied, pointing into the
page (Fig. 27.32b), perhaps by moving the north pole of a bar magnet toward the page?
The changing magnetic field results in an electric field that alters the electrons’ speeds.
In order to oppose the imposition of the magnetic field, the electron on the right speeds
up. Its dipole moment, which points out of the page, increases and opposes the bar
magnet’s field. Meanwhile the left-hand electron’s dipole moment decreases. Now the
atom has a net dipole moment pointing out of the page, opposing the incoming magnet
and resulting in the repulsive force that characterizes diamagnetism.
A superconductor is perfectly diamagnetic, meaning that the magnetic field resulting from
induced currents completely cancels any applied field. Since these induced currents persist in
the zero-resistance superconductor, the material completely excludes magnetic fields from its
interior, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect (Fig. 27.33). The repulsive force associ- FIGURE 27.34 A small magnet levitates
ated with the magnetic moments of a permanent magnet and a nearby superconductor results above a wafer of high-temperature super-
in the widely publicized phenomenon of magnetic levitation (Fig. 27.34). conductor in a bath of liquid nitrogen.
CHAPTER 27 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is electromagnetic induction, a phenomenon in which a changing magnetic field produces an electric field. Applied to
circuits, induction results in induced emfs that drive induced currents.
0 0

2 1 2 1

 
S S N
I I

Here a moving magnet produces the changing magnetic field. Here a change in current produces the changing magnetic field.

Key Concepts and Equations

Faraday’s law describes induction quantitatively, relating the line inte- Lenz’s law shows that electromagnetic induction is consistent with
gral of the induced electric field to changing magnetic flux: conservation of energy, which requires that induced effects act to op-
! !
$ E # dr 5 2dFB /dt pose the changes that give rise to them.

Region of
r Induced Counterclockwise
increasing B electric current makes loop
field magnetic moment
I
r out of page, opposing
B r
Increasing r
E r increase in B.
B into page

In conductors, Faraday’s law gives the induced emf: E 5 2dFB /dt.

Magnetic fields contain stored energy, as do electric fields. The magnetic-energy density is
B2
uB 5
2m0

Applications
Electric generators convert mechanical to electrical energy by Inductors are wire coils that encircle their own magnetic flux, giving self-
moving conductors in magnetic fields to induce emfs that drive inductance L 5 FB /I. An inductor opposes changes in current, producing
currents. an emf given by E 5 2L1dI/dt2. Circuit quantities in a simple RL circuit
change with inductive time constant L/R.
Rotation of loop changes the
magnetic flux, inducing I E0 /R
an emf.
R
 I
E0 L

N

Rotating L/R
slip rings S
Time
Stationary
brushes Rotating E0
I5 11 2 e2Rt/L2
conducting R
loop
Electric
load

Diamagnetism occurs when electromagnetic induction results in atoms acquiring net magnetic moments; the result is a repulsive interaction.
 Exercises and Problems 487

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 11. It takes work to push two bar magnets together with like poles
facing. Where does this energy go?
1. In Fig. 27.35, a bar magnet moves toward a conducting ring.
What’s the direction of the induced current in the ring? Exercises and Problems
Exercises
vr
Sections 27.2 Faraday’s Law and 27.3 Induction and Energy
N S
12. Show that the volt is the SI unit for the rate of change of mag-
netic flux, making Faraday’s law dimensionally correct.
13. Find the magnetic flux through a 5.0-cm-diameter circular loop
oriented with the loop normal at 30° to a uniform 80-mT mag-
netic field.
FIGURE 27.35 For Thought and Discussion 1 14. A circular wire loop 40 cm in diameter has resistance 100 V
and lies in a horizontal plane. A uniform magnetic field points
2. Figure 27.36 shows two concentric conducting loops, the outer
vertically downward, and in 25 ms it increases linearly from
connected to a battery and a switch. The switch is initially
5.0 mT to 55 mT. Find the magnetic flux through the loop
open. It’s then closed, left closed for a while, and then re-
at (a) the beginning and (b) the end of the 25-ms period.
opened. Describe the currents in the inner loop during the en-
(c) What’s the loop current during this time? (d) Which way
tire procedure.
does this current flow?
15. A conducting loop of area 240 cm2 and resistance 12 V is per-
pendicular to a spatially uniform magnetic field and carries a
320-mA induced current. At what rate is the magnetic field

changing?
 16. The magnetic field inside a 20-cm-diameter solenoid is increas-
ing at 2.4 T/s. How many turns should a coil wrapped around the
outside of the solenoid have so that the emf induced in the coil
is 15 V?
FIGURE 27.36 For Thought and Discussion 2
Section 27.4 Inductance
3. Fluctuations in Earth’s magnetic field due to changing solar ac- 17. Find the self-inductance of a 1000-turn solenoid 50 cm long and
tivity can wreak havoc with communications, even those using 4.0 cm in diameter.
underground cables. How is this possible? 18. The current in an inductor is changing at 100 A/s and the induc-
4. Chapter 26 claimed that a static magnetic field cannot change the tor emf is 40 V. What’s the self-inductance?
energy of a charged particle. Is this true of a changing magnetic 19. A 2.0-A current is flowing in a 20-H inductor. A switch opens,
field? Discuss. interrupting the current in 1.0 ms. Find the induced emf in the
5. Can an induced electric field exist in the absence of a conductor? inductor.
6. A car battery has a 12-V emf, yet energy from the battery pro- 20. Your little sister is building a radio from scratch. Plans call for a
vides the 30,000-V spark that ignites the gasoline. How is this 450-mH inductor wound on a cardboard tube. She brings you the
possible? tube from a toilet-paper roll (12 cm long, 4.0 cm diameter), and
7. You have a fixed length of wire to wind into an inductor. Will asks how many turns she should wind on the full length of the
you get more inductance if you wind a short coil with large tube. Your answer?
diameter, or a long coil with small diameter? 21. What inductance should you put in series with a 100-V resistor
8. In a popular demonstration of induced emf, a lightbulb is connected to give a time constant of 2.2 ms?
across a large inductor in an RL circuit, as shown in Fig. 27.37. 22. The current in a series RL circuit increases to 20% of its final
When the switch is opened, the bulb flashes brightly and burns out. value in 3.1 ms. If L 5 1.8 mH, what’s the resistance?
Why?
Section 27.5 Magnetic Energy
S 23. How much energy is stored in a 5.0-H inductor carrying 35 A?
R 24. What’s the current in a 10-mH inductor storing 50 mJ of energy?
 25. A 220-mH inductor carries 350 mA. How much energy must be
E Lightbulb L
 supplied to the inductor in raising the current to 800 mA?
26. A 500-turn solenoid 23 cm long and 1.5 cm in diameter carries
65 mA. How much magnetic energy does it contain?
FIGURE 27.37 For Thought and Discussion 8 27. Show that the quantity B2/2m0 has the units of energy density.
28. The world’s strongest magnet that can produce a sustained field
9. List some similarities and differences between inductors and is a 45-T device at the National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
capacitors. in Florida. What’s the corresponding magnetic-energy density?
10. A 1-H inductor carries 10 A, and a 10-H inductor carries 1 A. 29. Find the magnetic-field strength in a region where the magnetic-
Which contains more stored energy? energy density is 7.8 J/cm3.
488 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction

Section 27.6 Induced Electric Fields 40. A stent is a cylindrical tube, often made of metal mesh, that’s in-
30. The induced electric field 12 cm from the axis of a 10-cm-radius BIO serted into a blood vessel to overcome a constriction. It’s some-
solenoid is 45 V/m. Find the rate of change of the solenoid’s times necessary to heat the stent after insertion to prevent cell
magnetic field. growth that could cause the constriction to recur. One method is
31. Find an expression for the electric-field strength inside the sole- to place the patient in a changing magnetic field, so that induced
noid of Example 27.10, a distance r from the axis. currents heat the stent. Consider a stainless-steel stent 12 mm long
by 4.5 mm diameter, with total resistance 41 mV. Treating the
Problems stent as a wire loop in the optimum orientation, find the rate of
32. A conducting loop of area A and resistance R lies at right angles change of magnetic field needed for a heating ! power of 250 mW.
to a spatially uniform magnetic field. At time t 5 0, the magnetic 41. A uniform magnetic field is given by B 5 bt k^ , where b 5
field and loop current are both zero. Subsequently, the current in- 0.35 T/s. Find the induced current in a conducting loop with area
creases according to I 5 bt2, where b is a constant with units 240 cm2 and resistance 0.20 V that lies in the x-y plane. In what
A/s2. Find an expression for the magnetic-field strength as a direction is the current, as viewed from the positive z-axis?
function of time. 42. You’re an electrical engineer designing an alternator (the genera-
33. A conducting loop with area 0.15 m2 and resistance 6.0 V lies in tor that charges a car’s battery). Mechanical engineers specify a
the x-y plane. A spatially uniform magnetic field points in the 10-cm-diameter rotating coil, and you determine that you can fit
z-direction. The field varies with time according to Bz 5 at2 2 b, 250 turns in this coil. To charge a 12-V battery, you need a peak
where a 5 2.0 T/s2 and b 5 8.0 T. Find the loop current (a) at output of 14 V when the alternator is rotating at 1200 rpm. What
t 5 3.0 s and (b) when Bz 5 0. do you specify for the alternator’s magnetic field?
34. A square wire loop of side l and resistance R is pulled with con- 43. A generator consists of a rectangular coil 75 cm by 1.3 m, spin-
stant speed v from a region of no magnetic field until ning in a 0.14-T magnetic field. If it’s to produce a 60-Hz alter-
! it’s fully in- nating emf with peak value 6.7 kV, how many turns must it have?
side a region of constant, uniform magnetic field B perpendicular
to the loop plane. The boundary of the field region is parallel to 44. Figure 27.39 shows a pair of parallel !conducting rails a distance l
one side of the loop. Find an expression for the total work done apart in a uniform magnetic field B . A resistor R is connected
across the rails, and a conducting bar of negligible resistance is
by whatever is pulling the loop. !
35. A 5-turn coil 1.0 cm in diameter is rotated at 10 rev/s about an being pulled along the rails with velocity v to the right. (a) What
axis perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field. A voltmeter con- direction is the current in the resistor? (b) At what rate does the
nected to the coil through rotating contacts reads a peak value agent pulling the bar do work?
360 mV. What’s the magnetic-field
! strength?
A magnetic field is given by B 5 B0(x/x0)2k^ , where B0 and x0 are
r
36. B
constants. Find an expression for the magnetic flux through a
square of side 2x0 that lies in the x-y plane with one corner at the R
r
v l
origin and sides coinciding with the positive x- and y-axes.
37. A square wire loop 3.0 m on a side is perpendicular to a uniform
2.0-T magnetic field. A 6-V lightbulb is in series with the loop,
as shown in Fig. 27.38. The magnetic field is reduced steadily to FIGURE 27.39 Problems 44–47 and 71
zero over time Dt. (a) Find Dt such that the bulb will shine at full
brightness. (b) Which way will the loop current flow? 45. The resistor in Problem 44 is replaced by an ideal voltmeter.
(a) To which rail should the positive meter terminal be connected
if it’s to indicate a positive voltage? (b) At what rate does the
agent pulling the bar do work?
46. A battery of emf E is inserted in series with the resistor in
r
B Fig. 27.39, with its positive terminal toward the top rail. The bar
is initially at rest, and now nothing’s pulling it. (a) Describe the
bar’s subsequent motion. (b) The bar eventually reaches a con-
stant speed. Why? (c) What is that constant speed, in terms of the
magnetic field, the battery emf, and the rail spacing l? Does the
resistance R affect the final speed? If not, what role does it play?
FIGURE 27.38 Problem 37 47. In Fig. 27.39, l 5 10 cm, B 5 0.50 T, R 5 4.0 V, and v 5
2.0 m/s. Find (a) the current in the resistor, (b) the magnetic force
on the bar, (c) the power dissipation in the resistor, and (d) the
38. In Example 27.2 take a 5 1.0 cm, w 5 3.5 cm, and l 5 6.0 cm.
mechanical power supplied by the agent pulling the bar. Com-
Suppose the rectangular loop is a conductor with resistance
pare your answers to (c) and (d).
50 mV, and the current I in the long wire is increasing at 25 A/s.
48. The magnetic ! field inside a solenoid of circular cross section is
Find the induced current in the loop. What’s its direction?
given by B 5 bt k^ , where b 5 2.1 T/ms. At time t 5 0.40 ms, a
39. A 2000-turn solenoid is 2.0 m long and 15 cm in diameter. The
proton is inside the solenoid at x 5 5.0 cm, y 5 z 5 0, and is
solenoid current is increasing at 1.0 kA/s. (a) Find the current in !
moving with velocity v 5 4.8/ ^ Mm/s. Find the electromagnetic
a 10-cm-diameter wire loop with resistance 5.0 V lying inside
force on the proton.
the solenoid and perpendicular to the solenoid axis. (b) Repeat
49. An electron is inside a solenoid, 28 cm from the axis. It experi-
for a similarly oriented 25-cm-diameter loop with the same
ences a 1.3-fN electric force. At what rate is the solenoid’s mag-
resistance, lying entirely outside the solenoid.
netic field changing?
 Exercises and Problems 489

50. During lab, you’re given a circular wire loop of resistance R and coils to carry the current in the event of a quench (see Example
radius a with its plane perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field. 27.9). As safety officer, you’re to specify (a) the maximum resist-
You’re supposed to increase the field strength from B1 to B2 and ance that will limit power dissipation to 100 kW immediately
measure the total charge that moves around the loop. Your lab after a loss of superconductivity and (b) the time it will take the
partner claims that the details of how you vary the field will make power to drop to 50 kW. What specs do you give?
a difference in the total charge; your hunch is that it won’t. By in- 63. A neutron star’s magnetic field is about 108 T. Consult Appendix C
tegrating the loop current over time, determine who’s right. to compare the energy density in this field with that of (a) gaso-
51. A flip coil is used to measure magnetic fields. It’s a small coil line and (b) pure uranium-235 (mass density 193103 kg/m3).
placed with its plane perpendicular to a magnetic field, and then 64. A single-turn loop of radius R carries current I. How does the
flipped through 180°. The coil is connected to an instrument that magnetic-energy density at the loop center compare with that of
measures the total charge Q that flows during this process. If the a long solenoid of the same radius, carrying the same current,
coil has N turns, area A, and resistance R, show that the field and consisting of n turns per unit length?
strength is B 5 QR/2NA. 65. A wire of radius R carries current I distributed uniformly over its
52. The current in a series RL circuit rises to half its final value in 7.6 s. cross section. Find an expression for the total magnetic energy
What’s the time constant? per unit length within the wire.
53. In a series RL circuit like Fig. 27.22a, E0 5 45 V, R 5 3.3 V, 66. (a) Use Equation 27.8 to write an expression for the resistor’s
and L 5 2.1 H. If the current is 9.5 A, how long has the switch power dissipation as a function of time, and (b) integrate from
been closed? t 5 0 to t 5 ` to show that the total energy dissipated is equal to
54. In Fig. 27.22a, take R 5 2.5 kV and E0 5 50 V. When the the energy initially stored in the inductor.
switch is closed, the current through the inductor rises to 10 mA 67. An electric field and a magnetic field have the same energy den-
in 30 ms. Find (a) the inductance and (b) the current in the circuit sity. Find an expression for the ratio E/B and evaluate this ratio
after many time constants. numerically. What are its units? Is your answer close to any of
55. How long does it take to dissipate 90% of the magnetic energy in the fundamental constants listed inside the front cover?
Example 27.9? 68. A rectangular conducting loop of resistance R, mass m, and
56. A series RL circuit like Fig. 27.22a has E0 5 60 V, R 5 22 V, width w falls into a uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig.
and L 5 1.5 H. Find the rate of change of the current (a) imme- 27.41. (a) Explain why the loop eventually reaches a terminal
diately after the switch is closed and (b) 100 ms later. speed. (b) Find an expression for the terminal speed.
57. You’re a safety engineer reviewing plans for a university’s new
high-rise dorm. The elevator motors draw 20 A and behave elec-
trically like 2.5-H inductors. You’re concerned about dangerous w

voltages developing across the switch when a motor is turned off,

and you recommend that a resistor be wired in parallel with each
motor. (a) What should be the resistance in order to limit the emf ¥
vr
to 100 V? (b) How much energy will the resistor dissipate? r
B
58. In Fig. 27.25, take E0 5 12 V, R 5 2.7 V, and L 5 20 H. Ini-
tially the switch is in position B and there’s no current anywhere.
At t 5 0 the switch is thrown to position A, and at t 5 10 s it’s
returned to B. Find the inductor current at (a) t 5 5.0 s and FIGURE 27.41 Problem 68
(b) t 5 15 s.
59. In Fig. 27.40, E0 5 12 V, R1 5 4.0 V, R2 5 8.0 V, and 69. A conducting disk with radius a, thickness h, and resistivity r is
R3 5 2.0 V. Find current I2 (a) immediately after the switch is inside a solenoid of circular cross section, its axis coinciding
first closed and (b) a long time later. (c) After a long time, the with the solenoid axis. The magnetic field in the solenoid is
switch is reopened. Now what’s I2? given by B 5 bt , where b is a constant. Find expressions for
(a) the current density in the disk as a function of the distance r
R1 R3 from the disk center and (b) the power dissipation in the entire
disk. (Hint: Consider the disk as consisting of infinitesimal con-
I1 I3 ducting loops.)

E0 I2 R2 L 70. A small bar magnet is moved steadily from left to right along the
 axis of a wire loop, as in Fig. 27.5. Sketch qualitatively the cur-
rent and power dissipation in the loop as functions of time. Take
the current to be positive when it’s counterclockwise as viewed
FIGURE 27.40 Problem 59 from the right.
71. The bar in Problem
! 44 has mass m and is initially at rest. A con-
60. A battery, switch, resistor, and inductor are connected in series. stant force F to the right is applied to the bar. Formulate Newton’s
When the switch is closed, the current rises to half its steady- second law for the bar, and find its velocity as a function of time.
state value in 1.0 ms. How long does it take for the magnetic en- 72. Use the node and loop laws to determine the current in R2
ergy in the inductor to rise to half its steady-state value? as a function of time after the switch is closed in Conceptual
61. When a nonideal 1.0-H inductor is short-circuited, its magnetic Example 27.1.
energy drops to one-fourth of its original value in 3.6 s. What is 73. A long, straight coaxial cable consists of two thin tubular con-
its resistance? ductors, the inner of radius a and the outer of radius b. Current I
62. Your hospital is installing a new MRI scanner using a 3.5-H super- flows out along one conductor and back along the other. Find the
BIO conducting solenoid carrying 1.8 kA. Copper is embedded in the cable’s self-inductance per unit length.
490 Chapter 27 Electromagnetic Induction

74. You and your roommate are headed to Cancún for spring break. 77. If the loop’s vertical dimension were doubled by extending it to-
Your roommate, who has had only high school physics, has read ward the power line (dashed line in Fig. 27.42), the induced emf
that an emf can be induced in the wings of an airplane and won- would
ders whether this would give enough voltage to power a portable a. double.
music player. What’s your answer? (Assume that the wingspan b. quadruple.
of your 747 is 60 m, the plane is flying at 600 mph, and Earth’s c. more than double but not quadruple.
magnetic field is 0.3 G.) d. increase but not quite double.
75. One way to measure blood flow when blood vessels are exposed 78. Suppose the same crime were committed in Europe, where the
BIO during surgery is to use an electromagnetic flowmeter. This de- standard frequency is 50 Hz. Assuming everything else about the
vice surrounds the blood vessel with an electromagnet, creating a situation were the same, the induced emf would
magnetic field perpendicular to the blood flow. Since blood is a a. be greater.
modest conductor, a motional emf develops across the blood ves- b. be less.
sel. Given vessel diameter d, magnetic field B, and voltage V c. be unchanged.
measured across the vessel, show that the volume blood flow is d. depend on the nature of the energy source.
given by pd2V/4Bd.
79. When this crime occurs,
a. more fuel must be consumed at the power plant supplying
Passage Problems the line.
Clever farmers with power lines crossing their land have been known
b. the power company does not suffer any economic damage.
to steal power by stringing wire near the power line and making use
c. the power company can’t determine that it’s being robbed
of the induced current. At least one such crime went to court and re-
without an on-site inspection.
sulted in a conviction—despite the defense’s claim that the defendant
d. there’s no power left for customers further down the line.
didn’t touch the lines. Figure 27.42 shows a possible crime scene,
with a rectangular wire loop mounted in a vertical plane beneath a
power line. The power line carries a current of 104 A, alternating sinu- Answers to Chapter Questions
soidally at 60 Hz.
Answer to Chapter Opening Question
The minus sign, which expresses conservation of energy in electro-
I 5 104 A magnetic induction.

Answers to GOT IT? Questions

27.1. Opposite the direction shown in Fig. 27.10, but you’ll still have
to do work.
27.2. Counterclockwise.
27.3. It gets harder to turn. Constant rate implies a fixed peak emf, so
lowering the resistance increases the current and therefore the
power.
27.4. (b), because eddy currents dissipate some of its kinetic energy.
To farmer’s equipment 27.5. Changing current in the long wire produces an increasing mag-
netic field that points into the page at the loop. (a) The loop cur-
FIGURE 27.42 Crime scene for Passage Problems 76–79
rent opposes the increase in this field by producing a field in its
interior that’s out of the page. Therefore, the loop current is
counterclockwise. (b) The loop current opposes the decrease in
76. If the loop were mounted in a horizontal rather than vertical the into-the-page field, so it’s clockwise.
plane at the same distance from the power line, the induced emf 27.6. (a), because the inductor emf is in such a direction as to oppose
would the current supplied by the external circuit.
a. increase slightly. 27.7. Left-hand meter reads 2IR, right-hand meter reads IR—even
b. decrease slightly. though they’re electrically connected to the same points.
c. remain the same. There’s no contradiction because the field isn’t conservative,
d. become essentially zero. and electric potential therefore can’t be defined unambiguously.
 Alternating-Current
28 Circuits

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Characterize AC circuit quantities in
terms of amplitude, frequency, and
phase (28.1).
■ Explain the relations between
current and voltage in resistors, ca-
pacitors, and inductors, and describe
these relations using equations and
phasor diagrams (28.2).
■ Describe the oscillatory behavior of
LC circuits (28.3).
■ Explain damped oscillations and
resonance (28.3, 28.4).
■ Calculate power in AC circuits (28.5).
■ Describe the operation of transform-
ers and power supplies (28.6).
Why does alternating current facilitate the
transmission and distribution of electric
power?

S o far we’ve considered electric circuits energized by steady sources like batteries. But many
circuits—from household power to audio and video signals to the “clock” that orchestrates
events inside your computer—involve time-varying electrical quantities. Here we consider such
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ This chapter builds on your know-
ledge of electric circuits (Chapter 25)
alternating-current (AC) circuits. and individual circuit elements: resis-
tors, capacitors, and inductors (24.3,
23.2, 23.3, 27.4).
28.1 Alternating Current ■ We’ll use ideas from Chapter 13,
We saw in Chapter 27 how rotational motion in electric generators naturally leads to volt- especially frequency and angular
age and current that vary sinusoidally with time. Audio, video, and computer signals have frequency, simple harmonic motion,
more complicated time dependence, but, as we showed in Fig. 14.17, those signals can be and damped harmonic motion
analyzed as sums of sinusoidal terms. Studying circuits with sinusoidally varying electri- (13.1, 13.2, 13.6).
cal quantities therefore provides insights into all AC circuits.
A sinusoidal AC voltage or current is characterized by its amplitude, frequency, and
phase constant—the same quantities we developed in Chapter 13 to describe simple har-
monic motion. Amplitude is specified by the peak value 1Vp, Ip2 or the root-mean-square
value 1Vrms, Irms2. The rms is an average obtained by squaring the signal, taking the time
average, and then taking the square root. For a sine wave, rms and peak values are related by
Vp Ip
Vrms 5 and Irms 5 (28.1)
12 12
The 120 V of household wiring, for example, is the rms value (see Fig. 28.1, next page).
491
492 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits

Here Voltage completes In practical situations we usually describe frequency f in cycles per second, or
vt 1 f 5 0. a full cycle when
vt advances by 2p.
hertz (Hz). In mathematical analysis it’s more convenient to use the angular frequency
Vp v in radians per second or, equivalently, inverse seconds 1s212. The relation between
Vrms the two,
v 5 2pf (28.2)
vt
2f p
_ p 3_p 2p is the same as for rotational and simple harmonic motion, and for the same reason: A full
2 2
cycle contains 2p radians.
Here
vt 1 f 5 2p. The phase constant f of an AC signal tells when the sine curve crosses zero with posi-
2Vp tive slope (Fig. 28.1). A full mathematical description of an AC voltage or current then in-
Sine curve starts at cludes its amplitude 1Vp, Ip2, frequency 1v2, and phase constant 1f2:
/
vt 5 2p 6, or 30°
V 5 Vp sin1vt 1 fV2 and I 5 Ip sin1vt 1 fI2 (28.3)
/
before t 5 0, so f 5 p 6.

FIGURE 28.1 A sinusoidally varying AC voltage, Here we’ve labeled the phase constants with subscripts V and I to indicate that voltage and
showing peak and rms amplitudes and phase f. current—even in the same circuit element—need not have the same phase.

EXAMPLE 28.1 AC: Characterizing Household Voltage

Standard household wiring in North America supplies 120 V rms at EVALUATE Equation 28.1 gives Vp 5 12Vrms 5 1 1221120 V2 5
60 Hz. Express this mathematically in the form of Equation 28.3, assum- 170 V, and Equation 28.2 gives v 5 2pf 5 12p2160 Hz25 377 s21.
ing the voltage is rising through zero at time t 5 0. We don’t have an equation for phase, but the fact that the sine curve
rises through zero at t 5 0 tells us that f 5 0. So Equation 28.3’s de-
INTERPRET We’re given an AC voltage in “practical” units, and scription of this AC voltage becomes V 5 170 sin1377t2 V.
we’re asked to express it in the more mathematical form of Equa-
tion 28.3. We identify 120 V as the amplitude Vrms, 60 Hz as the ASSESS Make sense? Both the peak voltage and the angular frequency
frequency f, and the information about timing as describing the are numerically greater than their more familiar counterparts. That’s be-
phase. cause the rms voltage is a kind of average, lower than the peak, and be-
cause the angular frequency measures radians per second rather than
DEVELOP Equation 28.3, V 5 Vp sin1vt 1 fV2, contains the peak full cycles. Incidentally, wires entering your house actually carry 240 V
amplitude Vp and angular frequency v. Equations 28.1, Vrms 5 Vp /12, rms, which is split into separate 120-V circuits except for major appli-
and 28.2, v 5 2pf, determine these quantities from the values we’re ances like stoves, dryers, and water heaters; these operate at the full
given. 240 V rms. In Europe, standard household voltage is 230 V rms at
50 Hz, and much of the rest of the world uses 220-V, 50-Hz power. ■

28.2 Circuit Elements in AC Circuits

Here we examine separately the AC behavior of resistors, capacitors, and inductors
so we can subsequently understand what happens when we combine these elements in
AC circuits.

Resistors
An ideal resistor is a device whose current and voltage are proportional: I 5 V/R.
Figure 28.2 shows a resistor R connected across an AC generator, making the voltage
Vp sinv t R
across the resistor equal to the generator voltage. The generator voltage is described by
Equation 28.3, where we take fV 5 0. Then the current is

V Vp sin vt Vp
I5 5 5 sin vt
R R R
FIGURE 28.2 A resistor connected across
an AC generator (symbol ). The current has the same frequency as the voltage, and, since its phase constant is also
zero, voltage and current are in phase—they peak at the same time. The peak current is
the peak voltage divided by the resistance: Ip 5 Vp /R. Both voltage and current are sinu-
soidal, so their rms values are in the same ratio as their peak values; thus Irms 5 Vrms /R.
 28.2 Circuit Elements in AC Circuits 493

Capacitors
Figure 28.3 shows a capacitor connected across an AC generator. In Chapter 23, we saw
that voltage and charge are directly proportional in a capacitor: q 5 CV. Differentiating Vp sint t C
this relation gives
dq dV
5C
dt dt FIGURE 28.3 A capacitor connected across
an AC generator.
But dq/dt is the current flowing to the capacitor plates (which we’ll call the “capacitor
current” even though charge doesn’t actually flow through the space between the plates).
So we have I 5 C1dV/dt2. The generator voltage Vp sin vt appears directly across the
capacitor, so
d
I5C 1V sin vt2
dt p
p
5 vCVp cos vt 5 vCVp sin a vt 1 b (28.4)
2
Because the cosine curve is just a sine curve shifted to the left by p/2 or 90°, Equation Current peaks
1/4 cycle before
28.4 tells us that in a capacitor, current leads voltage by 90° (Fig. 28.4). voltage.
The term vCVp multiplying the cosine in Equation 28.4 is the peak current, so
Ip 5 vCVp or, in a form resembling Ohm’s law, Vp V
Ip 5 vCVp
Vp Vp
Ip 5 5 (28.5) Time
1/vC XC I
where we’ve defined XC 5 1/vC.
Equation 28.5 shows that the capacitor acts somewhat like a resistance XC 5 1/vC. But
not quite! This “resistance” gives the relation between peak voltage and current, but it FIGURE 28.4 The current in a capacitor leads
doesn’t tell the whole story. The capacitor also introduces a phase difference between volt- the voltage by one-fourth of a cycle, p/2
radians or 90°.
age and current. This phase difference reflects a fundamental physical difference between
resistors and capacitors. A resistor dissipates electric energy as heat. A capacitor stores and
releases electric energy. Over a complete cycle, the agent turning the generator in Fig. 28.3
does no net work, while the agent turning the generator with the resistive load of Fig. 28.2
continuously does work that gets dissipated as heat in the resistor. We give the quantity XC
in Equation 28.5 the name capacitive reactance. Like resistance, reactance is measured
in ohms 1V2.
Does it make sense that XC depends on frequency? Yes. As frequency goes to zero,
XC goes to infinity. At zero frequency nothing is changing; there’s no charge moving
on or off the plates, and the capacitor might as well be an open circuit. As frequency
increases, larger currents flow to move charge on and off the plates in ever-shorter
times, so the capacitor looks increasingly like a short circuit. To summarize, a capaci-
tor at low frequencies acts like an open circuit, while at high frequencies it acts like a
short circuit.
Why does the capacitor current lead the voltage? Because the capacitor voltage is pro-
portional to its charge, and it takes current to move charge onto the capacitor plates.
Therefore, current flows before the voltage changes significantly.

Inductors
Figure 28.5 shows an inductor connected across an AC generator. The loop law for this Vp sin vt L
circuit is Vp sin vt 1 EL 5 0. From Chapter 27 we know that the inductor emf is
EL 5 2L1dI/dt2, so the loop law becomes
dI
Vp sin vt 5 L FIGURE 28.5 An inductor connected across
dt an AC generator.
494 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits

To obtain a relation involving the current I rather than its derivative, we integrate:
dI
3 Vp sin vt dt 5 3 L dt dt 5 3 L dI
The integral of sine is the negative cosine, so
Vp
2 cos vt 5 LI
v
Here we’ve set the integration constants to zero because nonzero values would represent a
DC emf and current that aren’t in this circuit. Solving for I gives
Vp Vp p
I52 cos vt 5 sin a vt 2 b (28.6)
vL vL 2
where the last step follows because sin1a 2 p/22 5 2cos a for any a.
Voltage peaks Equation 28.6 shows that current in the inductor lags the voltage by p/2 or 90°. Equiv-
1/4 cycle before alently, the voltage across an inductor leads the inductor current by 90° (Fig. 28.6).
current.
Equation 28.6 also shows that the peak current is
Vp
/
Ip 5 Vp v L Vp Vp
I Ip 5 5 (28.7)
vL XL
Time

V Again, this equation resembles Ohm’s law, with inductive reactance XL 5 vL. As with
the capacitor, no power is dissipated; instead, energy is alternately stored and released as
the inductor’s magnetic field builds and decays.
FIGURE 28.6 The voltage across an inductor Does it make sense that inductive reactance increases with v and L? Through its in-
leads the current by p/2 or 90°. duced back emf, an inductor opposes changes in current. The greater the inductance, the
greater the opposition. And the more rapidly the current is changing, the more vigorously
the inductor opposes the change, so inductive reactance increases at high frequencies. At
very high frequencies, an inductor looks like an open circuit. But at very low frequencies,
it looks more and more like a short circuit, until with direct current (zero frequency), an
inductor exhibits zero reactance because current isn’t changing.
Why does the inductor voltage lead the current? Because a changing current in an in-
ductor induces an emf. Before the current can build up significantly, there must first, there-
fore, be voltage across the inductor.
Table 28.1 summarizes amplitude and phase relations in resistors, capacitors, and
inductors.

Table 28.1 Amplitude and Phase Relations in Circuit Elements

Circuit Element Peak Current versus Voltage Phase Relation

Vp
Resistor Ip 5 V and I in phase
R
Vp Vp
Capacitor Ip 5 5 I leads V by 90°
XC 1/vC
Vp Vp
Inductor Ip 5 5 V leads I by 90°
XL vL

GOT IT? 28.1 A capacitor and inductor are connected across separate but identical
electric generators, and the same current flows in each. If the frequency of the generators
is doubled, which component will carry more current?
 28.2 Circuit Elements in AC Circuits 495

EXAMPLE 28.2 Inductors and Capacitors: Equal Currents?

A capacitor is connected across a 60-Hz, 120-V rms power line, and ICrms 5 0.20 A and v 5 2pf 5 377 s21 as we found in Example 28.1
an rms current of 200 mA flows. (a) Find the capacitance. (b) What for 60-Hz AC power. (b) For an inductor to pass the same current, it
inductance, connected across the same power line, would result in the must have the same reactance; comparing Equations 28.5 and 28.7
same current? (c) How would the phases of the inductor and capacitor shows that vL 5 1/vC, or
currents compare? 1 1
L5 5 5 1.6 H
INTERPRET We’re being asked about the relation between AC voltage v2C 1377 s212214.42 mF2
and current in capacitors and inductors. The idea here is that the (c) Table 28.1 shows that the capacitor current leads the voltage
voltage–current relation depends not only on the component values by 90°, while the inductor current lags by 90°; therefore, the
but also on frequency, and it involves phase as well as amplitude. capacitor and inductor currents must be out of phase by 180° or
p radians.
DEVELOP Equations 28.5, ICp 5 VCpvC, and 28.7, ILp 5 VLp /vL, re-
late the peak current and voltage in the two devices. Since rms and ASSESS Our expression for L shows that a larger capacitor would re-
peak values are proportional, similar equations also relate rms current quire a smaller inductor for the same current. That’s because a larger
and voltage. The equations and associated phase relations also appear capacitor has lower reactance and so passes more current at a given
in Table 28.1. frequency. But an inductor is the opposite: A larger inductor has
higher reactance. So at a fixed frequency, the inductance required for
EVALUATE (a) For the capacitor, we know the voltage and current. a given current scales inversely with the capacitance required for the
Equation 28.5 then gives C 5 ICrms /vVCrms 5 4.42 mF, where we used same current. ■

Phasor Diagrams
Phasor diagrams summarize phase and amplitude relations in AC circuits. A phasor is
an arrow whose length represents the amplitude of an AC voltage or current, rotating
counterclockwise with the angular frequency v of the AC quantity. The phasor’s compo-
nent on either axis represents the sinusoidally varying AC quantity. We’ll use the vertical
axis; others, especially electrical engineers, may use the horizontal.
Figure 28.7a shows phasors for current and voltage in a resistor. Since they’re in phase,
the two phasors point in the same direction. For capacitors and inductors, current and volt-
age phasors are at right angles, indicating 90° phase differences (Fig. 28.7b, c). The pha-
sor magnitudes are related by Vp 5 IpX, with X being the appropriate reactance. As they
rotate, the phasors’ vertical components trace out current and voltage graphs like those of
Figs. 28.4 and 28.6. You should convince yourself that the relations of Table 28.1 are cor-
rectly described by the phasor diagrams of Fig. 28.7.

In inductors, voltage
In resistors, In capacitors, phasor leads current by
Phasor projections current phasor 90°. Their magnitudes
onto vertical axis peak voltage
V(t) leads voltage by 90°. V(t) are related by Vp 5 Ip XL.
give instantaneous Vp and current
Peak values Vp V(t)
values. are related
I(t) by Vp 5 Ip R. are related by I(t)
Ip I(t) Vp Ip
Vp 5 Ip XC. Ip
vt vt vt
Current and voltage
phasors point in same Both phasors rotate
direction, showing counterclockwise with
they're in phase. angular frequency v.
Resistor Capacitor Inductor
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 28.7 Phasor diagrams showing voltage and current in (a) a resistor, (b) a capacitor, and (c) an inductor.

Capacitors and Inductors: A Comparison

Capacitors and inductors are complementary. A capacitor opposes instantaneous changes
in voltage; an inductor opposes instantaneous changes in current. In an RC circuit, voltage
builds up across the capacitor. In an RL circuit, current builds up in the inductor. Similar
496 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits

curves describe capacitor voltage and inductor current over time. A capacitor stores elec-
tric energy 12 CV2. An inductor stores magnetic energy 12 LI 2. A capacitor acts like an open
circuit at low frequencies; an inductor like a short circuit at low frequencies. Each exhibits
the opposite behavior at high frequencies. These comparisons reflect a deeper comple-
mentarity between electric and magnetic fields. Any verbal description of a capacitor ap-
plies to an inductor if we replace the words “capacitor” with “inductor,” “electric” with
“magnetic,” and “voltage” with “current.” Table 28.2 summarizes the complementary
aspects of capacitors and inductors.

Table 28.2 Capacitors and Inductors

Capacitor Inductor
q FB
Defining relation C5 L5
V I
dV dI
Defining relation; differential form I5C E 5 2L
dt dt
Opposes changes in Voltage Current
Energy storage In electric field In magnetic field
U 5 12 CV2 U 5 12 LI 2
Behavior in low-frequency limit Open circuit Short circuit
Behavior in high-frequency limit Short circuit Open circuit
Reactance XC 5 1/vC XL 5 vL
Phase Current leads Voltage leads
voltage by 90° current by 90°

APPLICATION Loudspeaker Systems

Capacitor passes Loudspeakers convert electrical energy to sound, using the magnetic force on a
Coil Flexible high frequencies. coil that fits loosely around a permanent magnet. Part (a) of the figure shows
cone that the coil is attached to a flexible cone. Cone and coil move back and forth
S
C as AC current corresponding to the audio signal flows in the coil. The moving
From
Tweeter cone disturbs the air, producing sound waves.
N amplifier
Good loudspeaker systems include at least two separate units. A small
tweeter produces high-frequency sound, while a larger, more massive woofer
S handles the low frequencies. A crossover network uses inductors and capaci-
L tors to “steer” the high- and low-frequency signals to the appropriate speakers.
Magnet Inductor passes Woofer As the circuit diagram in part (b) shows, an inductor in series with the woofer
low frequencies. blocks high frequencies but lets low frequencies pass unimpeded; a capacitor
in series with the tweeter does the opposite. This circuit is an example of a
(a) (b)
filter, used in electronic systems to pass preferentially a range of frequencies.

28.3 LC Circuits
Suppose we charge a capacitor to some voltage Vp and corresponding charge qp, and then
connect it across an inductor, as shown in Fig. 28.8. The capacitor contains stored electric
C L energy, but initially there’s no current in the inductor and so no stored magnetic energy
(Fig. 28.9a). The capacitor begins to discharge through the inductor, but slowly at first be-
cause the inductor opposes changes in current. Gradually the current rises, and with it the
magnetic energy in the inductor. The capacitor voltage, charge, and stored energy decrease.
FIGURE 28.8 An LC circuit. At some time the initial energy is divided equally between capacitor and inductor (Fig.
28.9b). But the capacitor keeps discharging, eventually reaching zero charge (Fig. 28.9c).
Now all the energy that was originally in the electric field of the capacitor is in the mag-
netic field of the inductor.
Does everything stop at this point? No, because there’s current in the inductor, and
inductor current can’t change instantaneously. So the current keeps flowing and be-
gins piling positive charge on the bottom plate of the capacitor (Fig. 28.9d). Stored
electric energy increases, and current and magnetic energy both decrease. Eventually
 28.3 LC Circuits 497

Energy all electric,

in capacitor


V I

 
V V
 
(a)
I Energy all
(h) (b) magnetic,
in inductor
I

(g) (c)

I
Energy all (f) (d)
magnetic, I
in inductor
(e)
 
V V
 

I V


Energy all electric,

in capacitor

FIGURE 28.9 LC oscillations transfer energy between electric and magnetic fields.

the capacitor is fully charged but opposite its initial state (Fig. 28.9e). Again all the
energy is in the capacitor. Now the capacitor begins to discharge, and the process re-
peats, with a counterclockwise current (Fig. 28.9f ). All the energy is transferred to the
inductor (Fig. 28.9g), and then back to the capacitor (Fig. 28.9a again). The circuit
is now back to its initial state. Provided there’s no energy loss, the oscillation repeats I
indefinitely.
This LC oscillation should remind you of the mass–spring system of Chapter 13. There,
energy went back and forth between kinetic energy of the mass and potential energy of the
C L
spring. Here, energy goes between magnetic energy of the inductor and electric energy of
the capacitor. The mass–spring system oscillates with frequency determined by the mass m
Capacitor C
and spring constant k. The LC circuit oscillates with frequency determined by the corresponds Inductor L
inductance L and capacitance C, as we’ll show next. Figure 28.10 illustrates this analogy to spring k. Current I corresponds
corresponds to mass m.
between the mass–spring system and the LC circuit. to velocity v. v
k
m
Analyzing the LC Circuit
The total energy in the LC circuit is the sum of magnetic and electric energy:
FIGURE 28.10 An LC circuit is the electrical
U 5 UB 1 UE 5 12 LI 2 1 12 CV2 analog of a mass–spring system.
498 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits

In an ideal LC circuit this quantity doesn’t change, so its derivative is zero:

dU d 1 2 1 2
5 A LI 1 2 CV B 5 0
dt dt 2
Carrying out the differentiation, we have
dI dV
LI 1 CV 50
dt dt
We substitute V 5 q/C, dV/dt 5 11/C2dq/dt, I 5 dq/dt, and dI/dt 5 d2q/dt2 and then
divide by I to get
d2q 1
L 1 q50 (28.8)
dt2 C
This is a differential equation describing capacitor charge q as a function of time. We encoun-
tered a similar equation in Chapter 13 for the mass–spring system: m1d2x/dt221 kx 5 0.
The solution there was a sinusoidal oscillation with angular frequency v 5 1k/m. In Equa-
tion 28.8, L replaces m and 1/C replaces k; therefore, the solution to Equation 28.8 is a sinu-
soidal oscillation:
q 5 qp cos vt (28.9)
with angular frequency
1
v5 (28.10)
1LC
Equation 28.9 readily provides other electrical quantities in the LC circuit. Using
q 5 CV gives the voltage, and differentiating gives I 5 dq/dt. From there you can get the
Utotal electric and magnetic energies, UE 5 12 CV2 and UB 5 12 LI 2. Sum them to verify that the
UE
total energy remains constant (Fig. 28.11; see Problem 64 for details).

UB

tt GOT IT? 28.2 You have an LC circuit that oscillates at a typical AM radio frequency
p 2p of 1 MHz. You want to change the capacitor so it oscillates at a typical FM frequency,
FIGURE 28.11 Electric and magnetic energies in
100 MHz. Should you make the capacitor (a) larger or (b) smaller? By what factor?
an LC circuit sum to a constant total energy.

EXAMPLE 28.3 An LC Circuit: Tuning a Piano

You wish to make an LC circuit oscillate at 440 Hz (A above middle C) EVALUATE (a) Equation 28.10 gives C 5 1/v2L 5 1/4p2f2L 5 6.5 mF,
to use in tuning pianos. You have a 20-mH inductor. (a) What value of where f 5 440 Hz and L 5 20 mH. (b) Now that we know C, we
capacitance should you use? (b) If you charge the capacitor to 5.0 V, equate the peak magnetic energy with the peak electric energy to get
what will be the peak current in the circuit? 1
2
LI 2 5 12 CV2. Solving gives
C 6.54 mF
INTERPRET This problem is about designing an LC circuit for a given I5 V5 15.0 V2 5 90 mA
frequency; in (b) we want the peak current—that is, the current when A L A 20 mH
all the energy is in the inductor.
ASSESS Our expression shows that the higher the initial voltage, the
DEVELOP Equation 28.10, v 5 1/1LC, relates frequency, capaci- greater the current. Obviously, the higher the voltage, the greater the
tance, and inductance; we’re given L and f. With v 5 2pf, we can energy, so the greater the current needed when this energy becomes all
solve for C. We’ve recognized that the peak current comes when all magnetic. A larger capacitance also raises the electric energy 12 CV2,
the energy is the magnetic energy 21 LI 2 of the inductor. Given the ini- while a larger inductance lowers the current needed to achieve the
tial capacitor voltage, we can equate this with the initial electric same magnetic energy 12 LI 2. ■
energy 12 CV2 and solve for I.
 28.4 Driven RLC Circuits and Resonance 499

Resistance in LC Circuits—Damping R

Real inductors, capacitors, and wires have resistance (Fig. 28.12). If the resistance is low
enough that only a small fraction of the energy is lost in each cycle, then the analysis in
the preceding discussion applies. The circuit oscillates at a frequency given very nearly by C L
Equation 28.10, but the oscillation amplitude slowly declines as energy is dissipated in the
resistance.
We can analyze an RLC circuit by evaluating dU/dt as before, this time setting the re-
sult not to zero but to the rate of energy dissipation, 2I 2R, where the minus sign indicates FIGURE 28.12 An RLC circuit.
energy loss from the circuit:
dU d 1 2 1 2
5 A LI 1 2 CV B 5 2I 2R
dt dt 2
Making the same substitutions as before leads to
d2q dq q
L 1R 1 50
dt2 dt C
This is mathematically identical to Equation 13.16 for damped harmonic motion, with
L again replacing m, 1/C replacing k, and now R replacing the damping constant b.
The solution follows by analogy with Equation 13.17, which is the solution to Equa-
tion 13.16:
q1t2 5 qpe2Rt/2L cos vt (28.11)
Voltage and current behave similarly, with oscillation amplitude decaying exponentially
with time constant 2L/R (Fig. 28.13).
As the resistance increases, oscillations decay more rapidly and the frequency of oscil-
lation decreases. Eventually, when the time constant 2L/R equals the inverse of the fre-
quency given in Equation 28.10, we have critical damping. Then all circuit quantities
decay to zero without oscillation, just as we found for mechanical systems. In circuits de-
signed to oscillate, like radio transmitters or TV tuners, engineers obviously want to mini-
mize damping. But in situations where oscillations would be a nuisance, it’s important that
circuits have enough resistance to suppress oscillation.
FIGURE 28.13 An oscilloscope displays the
capacitor voltage in an RLC circuit.

28.4 Driven RLC Circuits and Resonance

Figure 28.14 shows an RLC circuit connected across an AC generator. Adding the R
generator is like adding the external driving force on the mechanical oscillator that we
considered in Section 13.7. We’ll call the generator frequency vd, the driving fre-
quency, just as we did in Chapter 13. Pursuing the mechanical analogy, we expect the V 5 Vp sin vdt L
driven RLC circuit to exhibit resonant behavior as we discussed in Section 13.7. Such
electrical resonance is crucial to the operation of radio, TV, and other frequency- C
specific devices.

FIGURE 28.14 A series RLC circuit driven by an

Resonance in the RLC Circuit AC generator.

Suppose we vary the generator frequency vd in Fig. 28.14 while keeping the generator’s
peak voltage constant. At low frequencies the capacitor acts almost like an open circuit
(its reactance XC 5 1/vC is large), so little current flows. At high frequencies the inductor
acts almost like an open circuit (its reactance XL 5 vL is large), so little current flows. At
some intermediate frequency the current must be a maximum. We now show that this
resonant frequency is the undamped natural frequency v0 5 1/1LC.
500 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits

Capacitor dominates Figure 28.14 is a series circuit, so the same current flows through all components. The
at low frequencies, vd , v0. voltage in a capacitor lags the current by 90°, while the voltage in an inductor leads by
90°. Since the same current flows in both components, the inductor and capacitor voltages
are therefore 180° out of phase and thus they tend to cancel (Fig. 28.15). But that cancel-
lation is complete only when the two voltages have the same peak value. Since the current
Voltage

VL
Time is the same in both components, comparison of Equations 28.5 for the capacitor,
Ip 5 Vp /XC, and 28.7 for the inductor, Ip 5 Vp /XL, shows that the peak voltages are the
VL 1 VC same when the capacitive reactance XC 5 1/vC equals the inductive reactance XL 5 vL.
VC Equating the reactances gives
(a) 1
v0 5 1resonant frequency2
1LC
Inductor dominates
at high frequencies, vd . v0.
This is precisely the undamped natural frequency of Equation 28.10.
At resonance the capacitor and inductor voltages completely cancel. The voltage
VL
across the pair together is zero and—at the resonant frequency only—the pair might just
VL 1 VC
as well be a wire. At resonance the resistance alone determines the circuit current.
Voltage

At any other frequency the capacitor and inductor voltages don’t cancel, and the current
Time
is lower.
VC

GOT IT? 28.3 You measure the capacitor and inductor voltages in a driven RLC
circuit, and find 10 V for the rms capacitor voltage and 15 V for the rms inductor voltage.
(b) Is the driving frequency (a) above or (b) below resonance?

Capacitor and inductor

voltages cancel at resonance frequency,
vd 5 v0. Frequency Response of the RLC Circuit
VL Here we’ll use a phasor diagram (recall Section 28.2) to find the current in an RLC cir-
cuit as a function of the driving frequency (Fig. 28.16). Since the same current flows
through all elements of this series circuit, a single phasor of length Ip represents the cur-
Voltage

VL + VC
Time rent. The resistor voltage is in phase with the current, so its phasor, VRp, is in the same di-
50 rection as Ip. But the inductor voltage leads the current and the capacitor voltage lags,
each by 90°, so their phasors, VLp and VCp, are perpendicular to the current phasor. At each
VC instant the three voltages sum to give the generator voltage; Fig. 28.16 shows that this
sum has magnitude Vp 5 2VRp 2
1 1VLp 2 VCp22. Expressing this in terms of the common
(c) current Ip and the resistance and reactances gives Vp 5 2I p2R2 1 1IpXL 2 IpXC22. Solv-
FIGURE 28.15 Capacitor and inductor voltages ing for Ip gives
are 180° out of phase, but their relative magni-
Vp Vp
tudes vary with frequency. Ip 5 5 (28.12)
2R2 1 1XL 2 XC22 Z
2 VCp)2
Vp 5 VRp 1 (VLp 2
VLp where we’ve defined the impedance, Z, as Z 5 2R2 1 1XL 2 XC22. Impedance is a
Ip
generalization of resistance to include frequency-dependent effects of capacitance and in-
ductance. Equation 28.12 is the corresponding generalization of Ohm’s law. Impedance is
VLp 2 VCp f VRp lowest when XL 5 XC or v 5 1/1LC; then it’s equal to the resistance alone. But Z be-
comes large at high frequencies, where XL 5 vL becomes large, and at low frequencies,
f is the phase where XC 5 1/vC is large.
difference between Figure 28.17 plots resonance curves from Equation 28.12, showing peak current
VCp voltage and current.
versus frequency for three resistance values. At low resistance, the curve peaks
sharply. Such a high-Q (for high-quality) circuit does a good job distinguishing its
FIGURE 28.16 Phasor diagram for the driven resonance frequency from nearby frequencies. High-Q circuits are important in appli-
RLC circuit, for the case v . v0. cations such as radio, TV, and cell phones, where many signals occupy nearby
 28.4 Driven RLC Circuits and Resonance 501

frequencies. With higher resistance, the resonance curve broadens and the circuit re-
sponds to a range of frequencies; such a circuit has low Q. Problem 73 gives a rigor- 1
ous definition of Q. 2R

Peak current, Ip
Equation 28.12 relates peak current and voltage in the RLC circuit, but it doesn’t tell
the whole story. As Fig. 28.16 shows, current and voltage are out of phase by the angle f.
Trigonometry gives tan f 5 1VLp 2 VCp2/VRp or, since voltages are proportional to reac- R
tances and resistance,
2R
XL 2 XC vL 2 1/vC
tan f 5 5 (28.13)
R R v0
Frequency, v
where f 5 fV 2 fI is the phase difference between voltage and current. Positive f
means voltage leads current; negative f means current leads voltage. FIGURE 28.17 Resonance curves for an RLC
circuit with three different resistances.
At resonance, XL 5 XC and f 5 0. Here capacitor and inductor voltages cancel, and
the circuit behaves like a pure resistance. At low frequencies, capacitive reactance domi-
nates; here f is negative and the current leads the voltage. This is just what we expect in a
capacitive circuit. The opposite is true at high frequencies, where the inductive reactance
dominates. Figure 28.18 shows the phase difference as a function of frequency for three 1
90 2R R
resistance values. Voltage
leads 2R
✓TIP Phase Matters

Phase, f
0
v0 Frequency, v
You can’t analyze AC circuits by treating resistors, capacitors, and inductors all as Current
“resistors” with resistances R, XC, and XL. That’s because each component has a dif- leads
ferent phase relation between current and voltage. Phasor diagrams correctly account
for these relations, which show up in the minus sign joining capacitive and inductive 290
reactance, and in the Pythagorean addition of resistance and reactance in Fig. 28.16
and Equation 28.12. FIGURE 28.18 Phase relations for the RLC circuits
whose resonance curves are shown in Fig. 28.17.

EXAMPLE 28.4 An RLC Circuit: Designing a Loudspeaker System

Current flows to the midrange speaker in a loudspeaker system where we used XL 5 vL and XC 5 1/vC for the reactances. For (c),
through a 2.2-mH inductor in series with a capacitor. (a) What should note that the impedance at the 1-kHz resonant frequency is just R, so
the capacitance be so that a given voltage produces the greatest current the peak current is Ip 5 Vp /R. Then Equation 28.5 gives the peak ca-
at 1 kHz? (b) If the same voltage produces half this current at 618 Hz, pacitor voltage:
what is the speaker’s resistance? (c) If the peak output voltage of the Vp 1
amplifier is 20 V, what will the peak capacitor voltage be at 1 kHz? VCp 5 Ip XC 5 a ba b 5 35 V
R vC
INTERPRET This is a problem about the peak current and voltage in a where Vp is the 20-V peak voltage applied to the circuit and v 5 2pf
series RLC circuit, where we identify the speaker as R and the ampli- with f 5 1 kHz. (This answer is for the 1-kHz resonant frequency;
fier as the generator in Fig. 28.14. Problem 76 shows that VCp is actually somewhat higher than 35 V at
frequencies just below resonance.)
DEVELOP The peak current is at the resonant frequency of Equation
28.10, v 5 1/1LC, so in (a) we can solve this equation for C. Equa- ASSESS Our 35-V answer for (c) is greater than the 20-V peak output
tion 28.12 relates peak voltage and current to the component values of the amplifier, so how can it be right? Remember that there’s another
and the frequency, so in (b) we can solve for R. In (c) we’ll need to source of emf in the circuit—the inductor, whose emf depends on the
find the current at 1 kHz, and then use Equation 28.5, Ip 5 Vp /XC, rate of change of current. Although the capacitor and inductor volt-
which relates peak voltage and current in a capacitor, to find VCp. ages cancel at resonance, individually both can be higher than the ap-
plied voltage. In this low-Q circuit, the peak capacitor voltage isn’t too
EVALUATE (a) We solve Equation 28.10 for C, using v 5 2pf: much higher than the applied voltage, but in high-Q circuits like radio
C 5 1/312pf22L4; with f 5 1000 Hz and L 5 2.2 mH, this gives transmitters, capacitors may have to withstand voltages hundreds of
C 5 11.5 mF. (b) Equation 28.12 shows that we’ll have half the peak times the applied voltage. Incidentally, that 8-V answer in (b) is typi-
current when Z is twice its value Z 5 R at resonance. So we want cal of loudspeakers. ■
Z 5 2R2 1 1XL 2 XC22 5 2R. Squaring and solving for R give
1 1
R5 ` vL 2 ` 5 8.0 V
13 vC
502 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits

In a capacitor, I leads V by 90°.

28.5 Power in AC Circuits
V
I P = IV Capacitors and inductors don’t dissipate energy; rather, in an AC circuit they alternately
store and release it. Therefore, the average power consumption over one cycle is zero in a
Time purely reactive circuit—one containing only capacitance and/or inductance. You can see
this mathematically in Fig. 28.19a, which shows current, voltage, and power—the product
IV—over one cycle for a capacitor. Although the capacitor absorbs energy during part of
Positive and negative areas sum to the cycle—when the power is positive—it returns the same amount later (negative power),
zero, so energy consumption over giving zero net power over the cycle. That’s because current and voltage are out of phase,
one cycle is zero.
so their product can be negative or positive at different times. In contrast, a resistor’s V
(a)
and I are in phase (Fig. 28.19b), so power is always positive and the resistor takes energy
from the circuit. In a circuit containing resistance, capacitance, and inductance, the phase
In a resistor, I and V are in phase . . . relation between current and voltage depends on the circuit details. Figure 28.19c shows a
P 5 IV case where I and V are only slightly out of phase; the result is a net power consumption,
V but less than with a pure resistance.
I We can develop a general expression for power in AC circuits by considering the time-
average product of voltage and current with arbitrary phase difference f:
Time
8P9 5 83Ip sin1vt 2 f243Vp sin vt49
where 89 indicates a time average over one cycle. Expanding the current term using a trig
. . . and energy consumption is positive. identity (see Appendix A) gives
(b)
8P9 5 Ip Vp81sin2 vt21cos f2 2 1sin vt21cos vt21sin f29
The average of 1sin vt21cos vt2 is zero, as we’ve just shown for two signals 90° out of
As I and V go out of phase . . .
phase. The quantity sin2 vt swings symmetrically from 0 to 1, so its average is 12. Then we
P 5 IV
have 8P9 5 12 Ip Vp cos f. Writing the peak values as 12 times the rms values gives
V
8P9 5 12 12 Irms 12 Vrms cos f 5 Irms Vrms cos f (28.14)
Time
This confirms our earlier graphical arguments. When the voltage and current are in phase,
I the average power is the product Irms Vrms. But with current and voltage out of phase, the
average power is lower; at 90° phase difference it’s zero.
. . . energy consumption drops.
The factor cos f is the power factor. A purely resistive circuit has power factor 1,
(c) while a circuit with only inductance and capacitance has power factor 0. In general, the
FIGURE 28.19 Energy consumption over one power factor depends on frequency; in the series RLC circuit, for example, it’s 1 at reso-
cycle is the area under the curve P 5 IV, with nance but lower at other frequencies.
areas below the axis counted as negative.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 28.1 Managing the Power Factor

You’re chief engineer for a power company. Should you strive for a overloaded line that drooped from excessive heating, short-circuited to
high or a low power factor on your lines? a tree, and triggered chain-reaction failures throughout the power grid.
EVALUATE For a given power, Equation 28.14 shows that the product
IrmsVrms will need to be higher as the power factor drops below 1. Since MAKING THE CONNECTION Transmission losses on a well-man-
your equipment operates at fixed voltage, that means more current aged electric grid average about 8% of the total power delivered. How
when cos f , 1. Power lost in the lines is I 2R, so you’ll have greater does this figure change if the power factor drops from 1 to 0.71?
transmission loss with a low power factor. Furthermore, you’ll risk
overloading your lines. So you’re best served by keeping the power EVALUATE To get the same power down the line, Equation 28.14
factor close to 1. shows that the current must increase by 1/ cos f 5 1/0.71 5 1.4. The
transmission loss is I 2R, so the loss increases by a factor 1.4 2 5 2.
ASSESS Our answer helps explain some real-life power failures: The That will more than double the original 8% loss rate, because the line
August 2003 blackout that affected 50 million people in the U.S. and will need to carry still more power to overcome the loss, and the line
Canada resulted in part from too low a power factor, resulting in an will heat more, increasing its resistance.
 28.6 Transformers and Power Supplies 503

28.6 Transformers and Power Supplies Primary Secondary

A transformer is a pair of wire coils, often wound on an iron core to concentrate mag-
netic flux (Fig. 28.20). A changing current in the primary coil results in a changing mag-
netic flux through the secondary, and this induces an emf in the secondary. The induced
emf, in turn, drives current in any circuit connected across the secondary. Thus the device
(a) (b)
transfers electric power between two circuits without direct electrical contact.
The transformer in Fig. 28.20 is a step-up transformer because it has more turns in its FIGURE 28.20 (a) A transformer consisting of two
secondary. Since each turn encircles the same changing magnetic flux, each gets the same coils wound on an iron core. (b) Transformer
circuit symbol.
induced emf and therefore the emf across the secondary is greater than across the primary.
Interchanging primary and secondary in Fig. 28.20 would give a step-down transformer.
In general, the ratio of the peak (or rms) secondary voltage V2 to the peak (or rms) primary
voltage V1 is the same as the ratio of turns in the two coils:
N2
V2 5 V (28.15)
N1 1
Aren’t we getting something for nothing with a step-up transformer? No. A step-up
transformer increases voltage, but not power. An ideal transformer passes all the power
supplied to its primary on to the secondary, so I1V1 5 I2V2. If voltage goes up, current goes
down, and vice versa. Real transformers have losses, but good engineering holds these to
a few percent of the total power.
Transformers work only with AC because they use electromagnetic induction and
therefore require changing current. One reason for the near-universal use of AC power is
the ease of changing voltage levels (Fig. 28.21). Relatively low voltages are safer for the
end user. But since power P 5 IV, using a higher voltage in long-distance transmission
means lower current. Power dissipated in the conductors themselves is I 2R, so that in
turn means less power lost in transmission. Transformers readily handle the voltage con-
versions in AC power systems. Changing the voltage from a DC source, in contrast, re-
quires first interrupting the DC to produce a changing current; a car’s ignition system is
one example.

20 kV 365 kV 4 kV 240 V

Transmission Distribution
line line in city

FIGURE 28.21 Transformers change voltage levels throughout the power distribution network.
504 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits

Direct-Current Power Supplies

I Lightbulbs and heaters work equally well on AC or DC, but electronic equipment requires
DC. In Chapter 24 we found that a junction between P- and N-type semiconductors passes
current in one direction but not the other. A diode is a PN junction that serves as a “one-
way valve” for electric current. An ideal diode acts like a short circuit in the preferred di-
FIGURE 28.22 Circuit symbol for a diode, with rection, and like an open circuit in the opposite direction (Fig. 28.22).
preferred current direction indicated. Figure 28.23a shows a DC power supply using a transformer, diode, and capacitor,
and delivering power to a load symbolized by the resistor R. The transformer steps the
voltage to the desired level, while the diode passes current only in its preferred direc-
tion, “chopping off” the negative half of the AC cycle. The capacitor smoothes, or
filters, the remaining half to produce nearly steady DC. Figure 28.23b shows how this
works: As the AC voltage rises, the capacitor charges rapidly through the low resist-
ance of the diode in its “on” state. But the diode “turns off” when the AC voltage drops,
leaving only the resistor as a discharge path for the capacitor. If the RC time constant
is long enough—much longer than the typical 1/60-s AC cycle—then the capacitor
voltage hardly drops before the next cycle again sends in a surge of charge. Large ca-
pacitors are expensive, so practical power supplies often use additional filtering and
voltage regulation involving semiconductor devices.

Voltage across R

Voltage
C R Time

AC voltage from transformer

(a) (b)

FIGURE 28.23 (a) A simple DC power supply using a diode and capacitive filter. (b) Voltage
across R exhibits a variation called ripple as the capacitor discharges slightly between
cycles. A practical power supply would use a larger capacitor, resulting in less ripple.
CHAPTER 28 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is alternating current (AC), which in its simplest form exhibits sinusoidal variation in current and voltage. Resistors respond to
AC as to DC, with current directly proportional to voltage. In capacitors and inductors, the current–voltage relation depends on frequency, and the
current and voltage are out of phase.

Key Concepts and Equations

An AC voltage or current is characterized Reactance, X, characterizes the rela- Phasors are arrows used to describe time-varying
by its amplitude (rms or peak value), its tion between peak (or rms) current and AC quantities. They rotate with angular velocity equal
frequency, and phase: voltage in capacitors and inductors: to the angular frequency v.
V 5 Vp sin1vt 1 f2 Vp
Ip 5 V(t)
Voltage completes X Vp V(t)
Here
vt 1 f 5 0. a full cycle when I(t) I(t)
Capacitor: Inductor: Vp Ip
vt advances by 2p. Ip
Vp vt vt
Vrms
XC = 1/vC XL = vL

vt where v 5 2pf is the angular fre-

2f p
_ p 3_p 2p
2 2 quency of the AC voltage and current. Capacitor: Current Inductor: Current lags
Here
vt 1 f 5 2p. leads voltage by 90°. voltage by 90°.
2Vp
Sine curve starts at
/
vt 5 2p 6, or 30°
/
before t 5 0, so f 5 p 6 .

Applications
In an LC circuit, energy oscillates between In a series RLC circuit, capacitor and inductor voltages cancel at the resonant frequency, v0.
electric and magnetic forms with frequency Here the circuit exhibits the minimum impedance, Z 5 2R2 1 1XL 2 XC22, and passes the
1 maximum current. The phase difference between voltage and current is tan f 5 1XL 2 XC2/R.
v0 5
1LC

R
Current, Ip

C L

v0
Frequency

The average power in an AC circuit depends Transformers use electromagnetic induction to change N1 N2
on the cosine of the phase difference, also voltage levels, transferring electric power between two turns turns
called the power factor: circuits. Diodes and capacitive filters change AC to DC. N2
8P9 5 IrmsVrms cos f V1 V2 5 V
N1 1
506 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 19. A 470-V resistor, 10-mF capacitor, and 750-mH inductor are
each connected across 6.3-V rms, 60-Hz AC power. Find the rms
1. Two AC signals have the same amplitude but different frequen- current in each.
cies. Are their rms amplitudes the same? 20. Find the reactance of a 3.3-mF capacitor at (a) 60 Hz, (b) 1.0 kHz,
2. What’s meant by the statement, “A capacitor acts like a DC open and (c) 20 kHz.
circuit”? 21. A 15-mF capacitor carries 1.4 A rms. What’s its minimum safe
3. There’s an insulating gap between capacitor plates, so how can voltage rating if the frequency is (a) 60 Hz and (b) 1.0 kHz?
current flow in an AC circuit containing a capacitor? 22. A capacitor and a 1.8-kV resistor pass the same current when
4. Why does it make sense that inductive reactance increases with connected across 60-Hz power. Find the capacitance.
frequency? 23. A 50-mH inductor is connected across a 10-V rms AC generator,
5. The same AC voltage appears across a capacitor and a resistor, and a 2.0-mA rms current flows. What’s the generator frequency?
and the same rms current flows in each. Is the power dissipation Section 28.3 LC Circuits
the same in each?
24. Find the resonant frequency of an LC circuit consisting of a
6. When a particular inductor and capacitor are connected across
0.22-mF capacitor and a 1.7-mH inductor.
the same AC voltage, the current in the inductor is higher than in
25. An LC circuit with C 5 18 mF undergoes oscillations with
the capacitor. Is this true at all frequencies?
period 2.4 s. Find the inductance.
7. An inductor and capacitor are connected in series across an AC
26. Your sister who’s building the radio (Chapter 27 Problem 20)
generator, and the voltage across the inductor is higher than across
wants to use a variable capacitor with her toilet-paper-tube in-
the capacitor. Is the generator frequency above or below resonance?
ductor to span the AM radio band (550–1600 kHz). What capac-
8. When the capacitor voltage in an undriven LC circuit reaches
itance range do you suggest?
zero, why don’t the oscillations stop?
27. An LC circuit with a 20-mF capacitor oscillates with period
9. Why is Equation 28.5 not a full description of the relation be-
5.0 ms. The peak current is 25 mA. Find (a) the inductance
tween voltage and current in a capacitor?
and (b) the peak voltage.
10. The applied voltage in a series RLC circuit lags the current. Is the
28. Your university’s FM station broadcasts at 89.5 MHz. The LC
frequency above or below resonance?
circuit that establishes this frequency has a 47-pF capacitor.
11. The voltage across two components in series is zero. Is it possi-
What’s the corresponding inductance?
ble that the voltages across the individual components aren’t
zero? Give an example. Section 28.4 Driven RLC Circuits and Resonance
12. If you measure the rms voltages across the resistor, capacitor, and 29. A series RLC circuit has R 5 18 kV, L 5 20 mH, and resonates
inductor in a series RLC circuit, will they add to the rms genera- at 4.0 kHz. (a) What’s the capacitance? (b) Find the circuit’s im-
tor voltage? pedance at resonance and (c) at 3.0 kHz.
13. A step-up transformer increases voltage, or energy per unit 30. Find the impedance at 10 kHz of a circuit consisting of a 1.5-kV
charge. Why doesn’t this violate energy conservation? resistor, 5.0-mF capacitor, and 50-mH inductor in series.
31. A series RLC circuit has R 5 18 kV, C 5 14 mF, and L 5 0.20 H.
Exercises and Problems (a) At what frequency is its impedance lowest? (b) What’s the im-
pedance at this frequency?
Exercises 32. If the peak voltage applied to produce the curves in Fig. 28.17 is
100 V, and if R 5 10 kV, what are the peak currents at resonance
Section 28.1 Alternating Current
for the three curves shown?
14. Much of Europe uses AC power at 230 V rms and 50 Hz. Express
this AC voltage in the form of Equation 28.3, taking fV 5 0. Section 28.5 Power in AC Circuits
15. An industrial electric motor runs at 208 V rms and 400 Hz. What Section 28.6 Transformers and Power Supplies
are (a) the peak voltage and (b) the angular frequency? 33. An electric drill draws 4.6 A rms at 120 V rms. If the current lags
16. An AC current is given by I 5 495 sin(9.43t), with I in mA and t the voltage by 25°, what’s the drill’s power consumption?
in ms. Find (a) the rms current and (b) the frequency in Hz. 34. A 40-W fluorescent lamp has power factor 0.85 and operates from
17. What are the phase constants for the signals in Fig. 28.24? the 120-V rms AC power line. How much current does it draw?
35. An electric water heater draws 20 A rms at 240 V rms and is
(a)
purely resistive. An AC motor has the same current and voltage,
(b)
but inductance causes the voltage to lead the current by 20°. Find
(c)
the power consumption in each device.
Voltage

0 vt 36. For safety, medical equipment connected to patients is often

p p 3p 2p
2
2 BIO powered by an isolation transformer, whose primary is con-
(e) (d) nected to 120-V AC power and whose secondary delivers 120-V
power. What’s the turns ratio of such a transformer?
37. You’re planning to study in Europe, and you want a transformer de-
FIGURE 28.24 Exercise 17 signed to step 230-V European power down to 120 V needed to op-
erate your stereo. (a) If the transformer’s primary has 460 turns,
Section 28.2 Circuit Elements in AC Circuits how many should the secondary have? (b) You can save money
18. Find the rms current in a 1.0-mF capacitor connected across with a transformer whose maximum primary current is 1.5 A. If
120-V rms, 60-Hz AC power. your stereo draws a maximum of 3.3 A, will this transformer work?
 Exercises and Problems 507

Problems (b) What will be the voltage across the 500-mF capacitor once
38. (a) A 2.2-H inductor is connected across 120-V rms, 60-Hz power. you’ve finished?
Find the rms inductor current. (b) Repeat if the same inductor
A B
is connected across the 230-V rms, 50-Hz power commonly used
in Europe.
39. A 2.0-mF capacitor has 1.0-kV reactance. (a) What’s the fre- 500 mF 100 H 2000 mF
quency of the applied voltage? (b) What inductance would give
the same reactance at this frequency? (c) How would the reac-
tances compare if the frequency were doubled?
40. Show that the unit of both capacitive and inductive reactance is FIGURE 28.25 Problem 50
the ohm.
51. A damped LC circuit consists of a 0.15-mF capacitor and a
41. Electrical activity in the human brain results in AC signals at var-
20-mH inductor with resistance 1.6 V. How many oscillation
BIO ious frequencies. Electroencephalography (EEG) analyzes these
cycles will occur before the peak capacitor voltage drops to half
signals to provide information on brain functions and to detect
its initial value?
abnormalities such as epilepsy. One pattern is the alpha wave,
52. A damped RLC circuit includes a 5.0-V resistor and a 100-mH
with frequency in the range of 8–10 Hz. A particular alpha wave
inductor. If half the initial energy is lost after 15 cycles, what’s
has frequency 10 Hz and amplitude 32 mV rms measured at the
the capacitance?
scalp. Express this signal in the form of Equation 28.3, assuming
53. An RLC circuit includes a 1.5-H inductor and a 250-mF capaci-
zero phase constant.
tor rated at 400 V. The circuit is connected across a sine-wave
42. A 1.2-mF capacitor is connected across a generator whose output
generator with Vp 5 32 V. What minimum resistance will ensure
is V 5 Vp sin2pft, with Vp 5 22 V, f 5 60 Hz, and t in seconds.
that the capacitor voltage does not exceed its rated value when
Find (a) the peak current and the magnitudes of (b) the voltage
the circuit is at resonance?
and (c) the current at t 5 6.5 ms.
54. You’re asked to experiment with a series RLC circuit consisting
43. At 10 kHz an inductor has 10 times the reactance of a capacitor.
of a 10-V resistor, 50-mH inductor, and 1.5-mF capacitor rated at
At what frequency will their reactances be equal?
1200 V. You’re to apply a sinusoidal AC voltage peaking at
44. A 0.75-H inductor is in series with a fluorescent lamp, and the
100 V. But you’re worried there might be a chance you’ll exceed
combination is across 120-V rms, 60-Hz power. If the rms induc-
the capacitor’s rated voltage. Your lab partner claims this can’t
tor voltage is 90 V, what’s the rms lamp current?
happen, since the capacitor rating is 12 times the peak voltage of
45. A 2.2-nF capacitor and one of unknown capacitance are in par-
the AC source. Who’s right? To find out, plot the peak capacitor
allel across a 10-V rms sine-wave generator. At 1.0 kHz, the
voltage as a function of frequency. Is there a frequency range
generator supplies a total current of 3.4 mA rms. The genera-
you should avoid?
tor frequency is then decreased until the rms current drops to
55. Figure 28.26 shows the phasor diagram for an RLC circuit. (a) Is
1.2 mA. Find (a) the unknown capacitance and (b) the lower
the driving frequency above or below resonance? (b) Complete
frequency.
the diagram by adding the applied voltage phasor, and from your
46. Connections to the body for electrocardiography (ECG) and
diagram determine the phase difference between applied voltage
BIO electroencephalography (EEG) are normally made with metal
and current.
electrodes and conductive gels to ensure good electrical contact.
An alternative is the capacitively coupled noncontact electrode,
which uses a conductor near but not contacting the skin, to form
a capacitor. Clothing can serve as the capacitor’s insulation, VLp

eliminating skin contact. A particular EEG instrument calls for

capacitive electrodes with maximum reactance 10 MV at a typi-
cal EEG beta wave frequency of 25 Hz. What’s the minimum
electrode capacitance? VCp
47. The FM radio band covers the frequency range 88–108 MHz. If VRp
the variable capacitor in an FM receiver ranges from 10.9 pF to
16.4 pF, what inductor should be used to make an LC circuit
whose resonant frequency spans the FM band? FIGURE 28.26 Problem 55
48. An LC circuit includes a 0.025-mF capacitor and a 340-mH
inductor. (a) If the peak capacitor voltage is 190 V, what’s the 56. An AC voltage of fixed amplitude is applied across a series RLC
peak inductor current? (b) How long after the voltage peak does circuit. The components are such that the current at half the reso-
the current peak occur? nant frequency is half the current at resonance. Show that the
49. One-eighth of a cycle after the capacitor in an LC circuit is fully current at twice the resonant frequency is also half the current at
charged, what are the following as fractions of their peak values: resonance.
(a) capacitor charge, (b) energy in the capacitor, (c) inductor cur- 57. A series RLC circuit has resistance 100 V and impedance 300 V.
rent, (d) energy in the inductor? (a) What’s the power factor? (b) If the rms current is 200 mA,
50. The 2000-mF capacitor in Fig. 28.25 is initially charged to 200 V. what’s the power dissipation?
(a) Describe how you would manipulate switches A and B to 58. A series RLC circuit has power factor 0.80 and impedance 100 V
transfer all the energy from the 2000-mF capacitor to the 500-mF at 60 Hz. (a) What’s the resistance? (b) If the inductance is
capacitor. Include the times you would throw the switches. 0.10 H, what’s the resonant frequency?
508 Chapter 28 Alternating-Current Circuits

59. You’re Chief Financial Officer for a power company, and you 72. Use phasor analysis to show that the parallel RLC circuit of
consult your engineering department in an effort to minimize Fig. 28.27 has impedance
power-line losses. Your power plant produces 60-Hz power at 1 1 1 2 21/2
365 kV rms and 200 A rms, and delivers it via transmission lines Z5 c 1a 2 b d
R 2
XL XC
with total resistance 100 V. You ask the engineers for the per-
centage of power that’s lost. They reply that it depends on the
power factor. What’s the percentage loss for power factors of
(a) 1.0 and (b) 0.60? V = Vp sinvt R L C
60. A car-battery charger runs off the 120-V rms AC power line and
supplies 10-A DC at 14 V. (a) If the charger is 80% efficient in
converting the line power to the DC power it supplies to the bat-
tery, how much current does it draw from the AC line? (b) If FIGURE 28.27 Problem 72
electricity costs 9.5¢/kWh, how much does it cost to run the 73. For RLC circuits in which the resistance isn’t too high, the Q fac-
charger for 10 hours if the power factor is 1? tor may be defined as the ratio of the resonant frequency to the
61. A power supply like that of Fig. 28.23 is supposed to deliver difference between the two frequencies where the power dissi-
22-V DC at a maximum current of 150 mA. The transformer’s pated in the circuit is half the power dissipated at resonance.
peak output voltage can charge the capacitor to a full 22 V, and Using suitable approximations, show that this definition leads
the primary is supplied with 60-Hz AC. What capacitance will to Q 5 v0L/R, with v0 the resonant frequency.
ensure that the output voltage stays within 3% of the rated 22 V? 74. A triangle wave swings linearly between voltages 2Vp and 1Vp.
62. An RLC circuit includes a 3.3-mF capacitor and a 27-mH induc- Show that the rms voltage of a triangle wave is Vp/13.
tor. The capacitor is charged to 35 V, and the circuit begins oscil- 75. Substitute the expression for q1t2 in Equation 28.11 into the dif-
lating. Ten full cycles later the capacitor voltage peaks at 28 V. ferential equation for an LC circuit with resistance, and find an
Find the resistance. expression for the angular frequency of the damped oscillations
63. A series RLC circuit with R 5 1.3 V, L 5 27 mH, and C 5 in terms of R, L, and C.
0.33 mF is connected across a sine-wave generator. If the capaci- 76. Although the maximum current flows in the speaker circuit of
tor’s peak voltage rating is 600 V, what’s the maximum safe Example 28.4 at the 1-kHz resonant frequency, the peak voltage
value for the generator’s peak output voltage when it’s tuned to across the capacitor is a maximum at a somewhat lower fre-
resonance? quency. Find that frequency and the corresponding peak voltage.
64. Differentiate Equation 28.9 to find the current in the LC circuit, 77. You’re concerned about a circuit that will be used in a remote
and use q 5 CV to find the voltage. From these, obtain the elec- communications installation. The series RLC circuit with
tric energy in the capacitor and the magnetic energy in the induc- R 5 5.5 V, L 5 180 mH, and C 5 0.12 mF is connected across
tor, and sum to show that the total energy remains constant. a sine-wave generator. The inductor can safely handle 1.5 A of
(Hint: You’ll need Equation 28.10 and a familiar trig identity.) current. The peak generator output when it’s tuned to resonance
65. Find a second frequency where the speaker current in Example will be 8.0 V. Will the inductor current stay within a safe limit?
28.4 has half its maximum value. 78. Your professor tells you about the days before digital computers
66. A sine-wave generator delivers a signal whose peak voltage is in- when engineers used electric circuits to model mechanical sys-
dependent of frequency. Two identical capacitors are connected tems. Suppose a 5.0-kg mass is connected to a spring with
in parallel across the generator, and the generator supplies a peak k 5 1.44 kN/m. This is then modeled by an LC circuit with
current Ip at frequency f1. The capacitors are then connected in L 5 2.5 H. What should C be in order for the LC circuit to have
series across the generator. What generator frequency will bring the same resonant frequency as the mass–spring system?
the current back to Ip?
67. Two capacitors are connected in parallel across a 10-V rms, Passage Problems
10-kHz sine-wave generator, and the generator supplies a total BIO A filter is a circuit designed to pass AC signals in some frequency range
rms current of 30 mA. With capacitors rewired in series, the rms and to attenuate others. Common filters include low-pass filters, which
generator current drops to 5.5 mA. Find the two capacitances. allow low-frequency signals to pass but attenuate high frequencies;
68. An LC circuit starts at t 5 0 with its 2.0-mF capacitor at its high-pass filters, which do the opposite; and band-pass filters, which
peak voltage of 14 V. At t 5 35 ms the voltage drops to 8.5 V. pass a range of frequencies while attenuating signals with frequencies
(a) What’s the peak current? (b) When will the peak current outside the band. Filters are widely used in electronics. Applications in-
occur? clude tone and equalizer controls in audio equipment; filters to separate
69. A “black box” has two input connections and two output connec- nearby frequencies at cell phone towers; and filters to eliminate un-
tions. With a 12-V rms, 60-Hz sine wave across the inputs, the wanted electrical noise in biomedical instruments such as electrocardio-
output is a 6.0-V, 60-Hz sine wave leading the input voltage by graphs. A simple design for an RC filter is shown in Fig. 28.28.
45°. Design a circuit that could be in the “black box.”
70. A series RLC circuit with R 5 47 V, L 5 250 mH, and C 5 R
4.0 mF is connected across a sine-wave generator whose peak
output voltage is independent of frequency. Find the frequency
range over which the peak current will exceed half its value at
Vin C Vout
resonance.
71. A sine-wave generator with 20-V peak output is applied across
a series RLC circuit. At the resonant frequency of 2.0 kHz,
the peak current is 50 mA; at 1.0 kHz, it’s 15 mA. Find R, L,
and C. FIGURE 28.28 An RC filter (Passage Problems 79–82)
 Answers to Chapter Questions 509

79. The circuit shown in Fig. 28.28 is 82. If you replace the capacitor in Fig. 28.28 with an inductor, the circuit
a. a low-pass filter. a. continues to function as before.
b. a high-pass filter. b. becomes the opposite kind of filter.
c. a band-pass filter. c. produces zero output voltage because the inductor is a short
d. impossible to tell without knowing the component circuit.
values. d. produces an output voltage that exceeds the input voltage.
80. When the angular frequency v of the input voltage Vin is such
that the capacitor’s reactance is equal to the resistance, the out- Answers to Chapter Questions
put voltage is
a. Vin /4. Answer to Chapter Opening Question
b. Vin /2.
Electromagnetic induction lets us change the voltage levels in circuits,
c. Vin /12.
making for efficient power transmission but safe end-use voltages.
d. 2Vin.
81. The circuit of Fig. 28.28 Answers to GOT IT? Questions
a. exhibits resonance at frequency v 5 1/RC. 28.1. The capacitor will carry twice as much current because its re-
b. exhibits resonance at frequency v 5 1/1RC. actance goes down; the inductor will carry only half as much
c. produces an output voltage whose frequency differs from that because its reactance doubles.
of the input. 28.2. (b), by a factor of 1024.
d. produces an output voltage whose phase differs from that of 28.3. (a), because the inductor’s reactance must be greater.
the input.
 Maxwell’s Equations and
29 Electromagnetic Waves

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ State both mathematically and
in words the four fundamental equa-
tions that govern all electromagnetic
phenomena (29.1, 29.3).
■ Describe electromagnetic waves in
terms of frequency, wavelength,
amplitude, speed, and polarization
(29.4, 29.5).
■ Recognize the wide range of
frequencies and wavelengths that
make up the electromagnetic
spectrum (29.6).
■ Explain how electromagnetic waves
are produced (29.7).
■ Calculate energy and momentum in
electromagnetic waves (29.8).
How does a conversation travel between cell phones?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter builds on the four
fundamental laws of electromagnet-
A t this point we’ve introduced the four fundamental laws of electromagnetism—Gauss’s law
for electricity, Gauss’s law for magnetism, Ampère’s law, and Faraday’s law—that govern the
behavior of electric and magnetic fields throughout the universe. We’ve seen how these laws de-
ism as we’ve introduced them scribe the electric and magnetic interactions that make matter act as it does, and we’ve explored
throughout Part 4: practical electromagnetic devices. Here we extend the fundamental laws to their most general
■ Gauss’s law for electricity (21.3) form and show how they predict the existence of electromagnetic waves. These include the visi-
■ Gauss’s law for magnetism (26.5) ble light, radio, microwaves, X rays, ultraviolet, and infrared with which we see, communicate,
■ Ampère’s law (26.8, so far for cook our food, diagnose diseases, learn about the universe, and perform myriad other tasks from
steady currents only) mundane to profound.
■ Faraday’s law for the induced
electric field (27.6)
■ We’ll use the mathematical descrip-
tion of waves (14.2); you may also
want to brush up on differentiating
sines and cosines.

510
 29.2 Ambiguity in Ampère’s Law 511

29.1 The Four Laws of Electromagnetism

Table 29.1 summarizes the four laws as we introduced them in earlier chapters. Look at
these laws and you’ll notice some similarities. On the left-hand sides
! of !the equations, the
two laws of Gauss are identical except for the interchanging of E and B; the same is true
for Ampère’s and Faraday’s laws.
The right-hand sides are more different. Gauss’s law for electricity involves charge,
while Gauss’s law for magnetism has zero on the right-hand side. Actually, though, these
laws are similar. Since we have no experimental evidence for the existence of isolated
magnetic charge, the magnetic charge on the right-hand side of Gauss’s law for magnet-
ism is zero. If and when magnetic monopoles are discovered, then the right-hand side of
Gauss’s law for magnetism would be nonzero for any surface enclosing net magnetic
charge.
The right-hand sides of Ampère’s and Faraday’s laws are distinctly different. Ampère’s
law has current—the flow of electric charge—as a source of magnetic field. We can un-
derstand the absence of a similar term in Faraday’s law because we’ve never observed a
flow of magnetic monopoles. If we had such a flow, then we would expect this magnetic
current to produce an electric field.
Two of the differences among the laws of electromagnetism would be resolved if we
knew for sure that magnetic monopoles exist. That current theories of elementary particles
suggest the existence of monopoles is a tantalizing hint that there may be a fuller symme-
try between electric and magnetic phenomena.

Table 29.1 Four Laws of Electromagnetism (still incomplete)

Law Mathematical Statement What It Says

! ! ! q
Gauss for E #
C E dA 5 P How charges produce electric field;
0 field lines begin and end on charges.
! ! !
#
Gauss for B C B dA 5 0 No magnetic charge; magnetic field
lines don’t begin or end.
! ! dFB
#
Faraday C E dr 5 2 dt Changing magnetic flux produces
electric field.
! !
#
Ampère (steady C B dr 5 m0 I Electric current produces magnetic
currents only) field.

29.2 Ambiguity in Ampère’s Law

There’s one difference that magnetic monopoles won’t resolve. On the right-hand side
of Faraday’s law is the term dFB /dt that describes changing magnetic flux as a source
of electric field. There’s no comparable term in Ampère’s law. Are we missing some-
thing? Is it possible that a changing electric flux produces a magnetic field? So far,
we’ve given no experimental evidence for such a conjecture. It’s suggested only by our
sense that the near-symmetry between electricity and magnetism is not a coincidence. If r
a changing electric flux did produce a magnetic field, just as a changing magnetic flux B
R C
produces an electric field, then we would expect a term dFE /dt on the right-hand side I
of Ampère’s law. 
When we first stated Ampère’s law in Chapter 26, we emphasized that it applied only E
to steady currents. Why that restriction? Figure 29.1 shows a situation in which current is 
not steady—namely, an RC circuit. Current in this circuit carries charge onto the capacitor
plates. The current gradually decreases to zero as the capacitor charges. While it’s flow- FIGURE 29.1 A charging RC circuit, showing
ing, the current should produce a magnetic field. Let’s try to use Ampère’s law to calcu- some magnetic field lines surrounding
late that field. current-carrying wire.
512 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

Ampère’s law says that the line integral of the magnetic field around any closed loop is
proportional to the encircled current:
!
# !
C B dr 5 m0 I
Current I flows The encircled current is the current through any open surface bounded by the loop.
through surfaces 1, 2, and 4.
Figure 29.2 shows four such surfaces. The same current flows through surfaces 1, 2, and 4
Ampèrian because a current-carrying wire pierces each surface. But no current pierces surface 3 be-
loop 4 cause it’s in the gap between the capacitor plates. Charge flows onto the plates of the ca-
3 pacitor, but it doesn’t flow through that gap. So for surfaces 1, 2, and 4 the right-hand side
1 2 of Ampère’s law is m0 I, but for surface 3 it’s zero. Thus Ampère’s law is ambiguous in
I I
this case of a changing current.
This ambiguity doesn’t arise with steady currents. In an RC circuit the steady-state cur-
rent is zero, and thus the right-hand side of Ampère’s law is zero for any surface. It’s only
when currents are changing with time that Ampère’s law becomes ambiguous. That’s why
the form of Ampère’s law we’ve used until now is strictly valid only for steady currents.
There's no current
through surface 3. Can we extend Ampère’s law to cover unsteady currents without affecting its validity
in the steady case? Symmetry between Ampère’s and Faraday’s laws suggests that a
FIGURE 29.2 Four surfaces bounded by the same changing electric flux might produce a magnetic field. Between the plates of a charging
circular Ampèrian loop. Surface 1 is a flat,
capacitor is an electric field whose magnitude is increasing. That means there’s a chang-
circular disk. The others are like soap bubbles
in the process of being blown; they’re open at ing electric flux through surface 3 of Fig. 29.2.
the left end, so if current does pass through It was the Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell who, in about 1860, suggested that
a surface, it does so at the right end only. a changing electric flux should give rise to a magnetic field. Since that time many experi-
ments, including direct measurement of the magnetic field inside a charging capacitor,
have confirmed Maxwell’s remarkable insight. Maxwell quantified his idea by introduc-
ing a new term into Ampère’s law:
! dFE
# !
C B dr 5 m0 I 1 m0P0 dt (Ampère’s law with Maxwell’s modification) (29.1)

Now there’s no ambiguity. The integral is taken around any loop, I is the current through
any surface bounded by the loop, and FE is the electric flux through that surface. With our
charging capacitor, Equation 29.1 gives the same magnetic field no matter which surface
we choose. For surfaces 1, 2, and 4 of Fig. 29.2, the current I makes all the contribution to
the right-hand side of the equation. For surface 3, the right-hand side of Equation 29.1
comes entirely from the changing electric flux.
Although changing electric flux isn’t the same thing as electric current, it has the same
effect in producing a magnetic field. For this reason Maxwell called the term P01dFE /dt2
the displacement current. The word “displacement” has historical roots that don’t pro-
vide much physical insight. But “current” is meaningful because displacement current is
indistinguishable from real current in producing magnetic fields. Although we developed
the idea of displacement current using the specific example of a charging capacitor, we
emphasize that Ampère’s law in its now complete form (Equation 29.1) is truly universal:
Any changing electric flux results in a magnetic field. That fact will prove crucial in estab-
lishing the existence of electromagnetic waves.

EXAMPLE 29.1 Displacement Current: A Capacitor

A parallel-plate capacitor with plate area A and spacing d is charging charge buildup—and that’s equal to the current I delivering charge to
at the rate dV/dt. Show that the displacement current is equal to the the capacitor. Equation 29.1 shows that the displacement current is
current in the wires feeding the capacitor. P01dFE /dt2, so we’ll need the rate of change of electric flux. A parallel-
plate capacitor produces an essentially uniform field E 5 V/d. Since
INTERPRET This is about a comparison between a familiar quantity— the field is uniform, the electric flux through a surface within the ca-
current—and a new quantity, namely, displacement current. pacitor is simply the field strength times the plate area.

DEVELOP We’re given the rate at which the capacitor voltage in- EVALUATE For the current, we differentiate the capacitor relation
creases. Given that q 5 CV for a capacitor, we can find the rate of q 5 CV to get dq/dt 5 I 5 C dV/dt. For the flux, we multiply the
 29.3 Maxwell’s Equations 513

electric field by the plate area: FE 5 EA 5 VA/d. The rate of change ASSESS Make sense? It had better be this way, or Ampère’s law
of flux is then dFE /dt 5 1A/d21dV/dt2, so the displacement current would still be ambiguous. For any surface pierced by the wire in Fig.
becomes 29.2, the only contribution to the right-hand side of Ampère’s law is
dFE P0 A dV from the current I. For any surface between the capacitor plates, the
Id 5 P0 5 only contribution is from the displacement current Id 5 P01dFE /dt2.
dt d dt
For Ampère’s law to give the same magnetic field whichever surface
But P0A/d is the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor (Equation we choose, I and Id had better be the same. ■
23.3), so the displacement current is Id 5 C dV/dt, the same as the
actual current I.

29.3 Maxwell’s Equations

It was Maxwell’s genius to recognize that Ampère’s law needed modifying to reflect the
symmetry suggested by Faraday’s law. To honor Maxwell, the four complete laws of
electromagnetism are called Maxwell’s equations. The complete set of equations, first
published in 1864, governs the behavior of electric and magnetic fields everywhere.
Table 29.2 summarizes Maxwell’s equations.

Table 29.2 Maxwell’s Equations

Law Mathematical Statement What It Says Equation Number

! ! ! q How charges produce electric

Gauss for E #
C E dA 5 P field; field lines begin and (29.2)
0
end on charges.
! ! ! No magnetic charge; magnetic
Gauss for B #
C B dA 5 0 field lines don’t begin or end.
(29.3)

! ! dFB Changing magnetic flux

#
Faraday C E dr 5 2 dt produces electric field. (29.4)

! ! dFE Electric current and changing

#
Ampère C B dr 5 m0 I 1 m0 P0 dt electric flux produce magnetic (29.5)
field.

These four compact statements are all it takes to describe classical electromagnetic
phenomena. Everything electric or magnetic that we’ve considered and will consider—
from polar molecules to electric current; resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transistors;
solar flares and cell membranes; electric generators and thunderstorms; computers, iPods,
and the northern lights—can be described using Maxwell’s equations. And despite this
wealth of phenomena, we have yet to discuss a most important manifestation of electro-
magnetism—namely, electromagnetic waves. We’ve put off waves until now because they
depend crucially on Maxwell’s extension of Ampère’s law. It’s easiest to understand elec-
tromagnetic waves when they propagate through empty space, so we’ll first simplify
Maxwell’s equations for the case of a vacuum.

Maxwell’s Equations in Vacuum

To express Maxwell’s equations in vacuum, we simply remove all reference to matter—
that is, to electric charge and current:
! ! ! ! ! !
# #
C E dA 5 0 1Gauss, E2 (29.6) C B dA 5 0 1Gauss, B2 (29.7)

! ! dFB ! ! dFE
# 1Faraday2 (29.8) # 1Ampère2 (29.9)
C E dr 5 2 dt C B dr 5 m0 P0 dt
In vacuum the symmetry is complete, with electric and magnetic fields appearing on an
equal footing. With charge and current absent, the only source of either field is a change
in the other field—as shown by the time derivatives on the right-hand sides of Faraday’s
and Ampère’s laws.
514 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

29.4 Electromagnetic Waves

Faraday’s law shows that a changing magnetic field induces an electric field. Ampère’s
law shows that a changing electric field induces a magnetic field. Together, the two sug-
gest the possibility of electromagnetic waves, in which each type of field continuously
induces the other, resulting in an electromagnetic disturbance that propagates through
space as a wave. We’ll now confirm this suggestion with a rigorous demonstration, di-
rectly from Maxwell’s equations, that electromagnetic waves are indeed possible. In the
process we’ll discover the properties of electromagnetic waves and come to a deep under-
standing of the nature of light.

A Plane Electromagnetic Wave

Here we describe the simplest type of electromagnetic wave—a plane wave in vacuum.
A plane wave’s properties don’t vary in directions perpendicular to the wave propagation,
so its wavefronts are infinite planes. A plane wave is an approximation to the more realis-
tic case of a spherical wave expanding from a localized source, and it’s a good approxima-
tion at distances from the wave source that are large compared with the wavelength. Light
waves from the Sun, for example, or radio waves miles from the transmitter are essentially
plane waves.
In vacuum, it turns out that the electric and magnetic fields of an electromagnetic
wave are perpendicular. They’re both also perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation—making the electromagnetic wave a transverse wave, as defined in
Chapter 14. To be concrete, we’ll take the x-direction to be the direction of propaga-
tion, the y-direction that of the electric field, and the z-direction that of the magnetic
field (Fig. 29.3). We won’t prove that a configuration like this is the only one possible
for an electromagnetic wave (although in vacuum it is; see Problem 44). What we will
do is prove that this configuration satisfies Maxwell’s equations—thus showing that
such electromagnetic waves are indeed possible. But first we need a mathematical de-
scription of our plane electromagnetic wave.

Field vectors would

y look the same along
r any line parallel to Er r r
E E and B are in phase;
the x-axis.
their peaks coincide.
r
B

x
r r
z B B c
r Direction
Fields vary sinusoidally E
in space. of wave
(a)
propagation
y
Field lines continue
indefinitely in both
directions.

x
Fields are identical
r r over a plane perpendicular
z E, B
to the x-axis.
(b)

FIGURE 29.3 Fields of a plane electromagnetic wave, shown at a fixed instant of

time. (a) Field vectors for points on the x-axis show sinusoidal variation in the
fields. (b) A partial representation of the field lines in a rectangular slab. Lines on
the facing surfaces of the slab are shown as arrows; lines going through the slab
appear as dots or crosses. Spacing of the field lines reflects the sinusoidal varia-
tion shown in part (a).
 29.4 Electromagnetic Waves 515

In Chapter 14 we described a sinusoidal wave propagating in the x-direction by a func-

tion of the form A sin1kx 2 vt2, where A is the wave amplitude, k the wave number, and
v the angular frequency. For mechanical waves, A sin1kx 2 vt2 described some physical
quantity such as the height of a water wave or the pressure variation in a sound wave. In
an electromagnetic wave, the corresponding physical quantities are the electric and mag-
netic fields. It turns out that these two wave fields, though perpendicular, are in phase—
meaning that their peaks and troughs coincide, as shown in Fig. 29.3a. Having chosen the
y-direction for the electric field and z for the magnetic field, we can write the fields of our
plane electromagnetic wave as
!
E1x, t2 5 Ep sin1kx 2 vt2^/ (29.10)
and
!
B1x, t2 5 Bp sin1kx 2 vt2k^ (29.11)
where the amplitudes Ep and Bp are constants and where ^/ and k^ are unit vectors in the
y- and z-directions. Figure 29.3a is a “snapshot” of some field ! vectors
! of this wave at
points on the x-axis, shown at a fixed instant of time. That E and B are perpendicular is
obvious from the figure, as is the fact that they’re perpendicular to the propagation direc-
tion x. You can also see the sinusoidal variation, as the field vectors get! alternately
! longer,
then shorter, then reverse direction, and so on. And you can see that E and B are in phase
because their peaks coincide. We emphasize that Fig. 29.3a shows field vectors for points
on the x-axis only; the fields extend forever throughout space, and because this is a plane
wave, a picture of field vectors along any line parallel to the x-axis would look the same.
We can also draw field lines for our wave, in contrast to the field vectors of Fig. 29.3a.
We can’t draw complete field lines because they extend forever in both directions. So in
Fig. 29.3b we’ve shown the field lines only in a rectangular slab; that’s enough to give a
picture of what the fields look like everywhere. You should convince yourself that Figs. 29.3a
and b show exactly the same thing—namely, a plane electromagnetic wave described by
Equations 29.10 and 29.11. In one case we use field vectors, whose lengths are proportional
to the field magnitudes, and in the other we use field lines, which extend forever and whose
spacing indicates the field magnitudes.
We’ll now show that the electric and magnetic fields pictured in Fig. 29.3 and described
by Equations 29.10 and 29.11 satisfy Maxwell’s equations. We’ve chosen a sinusoidal
waveform for our wave fields because of its mathematical simplicity. But the superposi-
tion principle holds for electric and magnetic fields, and we know from Section 14.5 that
we can represent any waveform by superposing sinusoids. So our proof that electromag-
netic waves can exist holds for any wave shape. That means we can use electromagnetic
waves to communicate the complex waveforms of music, TV images, and computer data.

Gauss’s Laws
In vacuum, Gauss’s laws for electric and magnetic fields both have zero on the right-hand The electric field is parallel to
the plane of the page, and its
side, reflecting the absence of charge. That means the electric and magnetic flux through strength and direction vary
any closed surface must be zero, and therefore the field lines can’t begin or end. With our sinusoidally with position x.
plane wave, the field lines shown partially in Fig. 29.3b extend straight forever in both y r r
E, B
directions. So they don’t begin or end, and therefore the fields satisfy Gauss’s laws.

h
Faraday’s Law B
To see that Faraday’s law is satisfied, look directly toward the x-y plane in Fig. 29.3b. You E E 1 dE x
dx
see electric field lines going up and down and magnetic field lines coming straight in and
The magnetic field is perpendicular
out, as shown in Fig. 29.4. Consider the small rectangular loop of height h and infinitesi-
! to the page, and its strength and
mal width dx shown in the figure. Evaluating the line integral of the electric field E around direction vary sinusoidally with
this loop, we get no contribution from the short ends at right angles to the field. Going position x.
around counterclockwise, we get a contribution 2Eh as we go down the left side against FIGURE 29.4 View of Fig. 29.3b in the x-y plane,
the field direction. Then we get a positive contribution going up the right side. Because with a rectangular loop for evaluating the line
the field varies with position, the field on the right side of the loop is different from that integral in Faraday’s law.
516 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

on the left. Let the change be dE, so the field on the right side is !E 1 dE, giving a contri-
bution 1E 1 dE2h to the line integral. Then the line integral of E around the loop is
!
# !
C E dr 5 2Eh 1 1E 1 dE2h 5 h dE
This nonzero line integral implies an induced electric field. Induced by what? By a chang-
ing magnetic flux through the loop. The electric field of the wave arises because of the
changing
! magnetic field of the wave. The area of the loop is h dx, and the magnetic field
B is at right angles to this area, so the magnetic flux through the loop is FB 5 Bh dx. The
rate of change of flux through the loop is then
dFB dB
5 h dx
dt dt
Faraday’s law relates the line integral of the electric field to the rate of change of flux:
! dFB
# !
C E dr 5 2 dt
or, using our expressions for the line integral and the rate of change of flux, h dE 5
2h dx1dB/dt2. Dividing through by h dx gives dE/dx 5 2dB/dt. In deriving this equa-
tion, we considered changes in E with position at a fixed instant of time. Similarly, the
change in B with respect to time is taken at a fixed position. That is, the derivatives are
partial derivatives—rates of change with respect to one variable while another is held
fixed. If you’ve studied partial derivatives in calculus, you know that the symbol ' desig-
nates a partial derivative. So our equation dE/dx 5 2dB/dt should be written with partial
derivatives:
'E 'B
52 (29.12)
'x 't
This equation—which is Faraday’s law applied to our electromagnetic wave—says that
the rate at which the electric field changes with position depends on the rate at which the
magnetic field changes with time.

Ampère’s Law
The magnetic field is parallel to the plane Now look at Fig. 29.3b from above. You see the magnetic field lines in the x-z plane and
of the page, and its strength and direction electric field lines emerging perpendicular to the x-z plane (Fig. 29.5). Apply Ampère’s
vary sinusoidally with position x.
law (Equation 29.9) to the rectangle shown. In the line integral there’s no contribution
dx
B B 1 dB
x from the short sides because they’re perpendicular to the field. Going down the left side
gives Bh. Going up the right, against the field, gives 21B 1 dB2h, where dB is the change
h in B across the rectangle. So the line integral in Ampère’s law is
E !
# !
r r
C B dr 5 Bh 2 1B 1 dB2h 5 2h dB
z E, B
The electric field is perpendicular to the The electric flux through the rectangle is Eh dx, so the rate of change of electric flux is
page, and its strength and direction vary
sinusoidally with position x. dFE dE
5 h dx a b
FIGURE 29.5 View of Fig. 29.3b in the x-z plane,
dt dt
with a rectangular loop for evaluating the line Ampère’s law relates the line integral of the magnetic field to this time derivative of the
integral in Ampère’s law.
electric flux, giving 2h dB 5 P0 m0 h dx1dE/dt2. Dividing by h dx and again using partial
derivatives, we have
'B 'E
5 2P0 m0 (29.13)
'x 't
Equations 29.12 and 29.13—derived from Faraday’s and Ampère’s laws—express fully
the requirements that Maxwell’s universal laws of electromagnetism pose on the field
 29.5 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves 517

structure of Fig. 29.3. Each describes an induced field that arises from the changing of the
other field. That other field, in turn, arises from the changing of the first field. Thus we
have a self-perpetuating electromagnetic structure, whose fields exist and change without
the need for charged matter. If Equations 29.10 and 29.11, which describe the fields in Fig.
29.3, can be made consistent with Equations 29.12 and 29.13, then we’ll have shown that
our electromagnetic wave satisfies Maxwell’s equations and is thus a possible configura-
tion of electric and magnetic fields. An alternative approach, which doesn’t require the si-
nusoidal fields of Equations 29.10 and 29.11, is to show that Equations 29.12 and 29.13
lead to the wave equation that we introduced in Chapter 14. You can explore this approach
in Problem 63.

Conditions on the Wave Fields

To see that Equation 29.12 is satisfied, we differentiate the electric field of Equation 29.10
with respect to x and the magnetic field of Equation 29.11 with respect to t:
'E '
5 3E sin1kx 2 vt24 5 kEp cos1kx 2 vt2
'x 'x p
and
'B '
5 3Bp sin1kx 2 vt24 5 2vBp cos1kx 2 vt2
't 't
Putting these expressions in for the derivatives in Equation 29.12 gives
kEp cos1kx 2 vt2 5 232vBp cos1kx 2 vt24
The cosine cancels, showing that the equation holds if
kEp 5 vBp (29.14)
To see that Equation 29.13 is also satisfied, we differentiate the magnetic field of Equa-
tion 29.11 with respect to x and the electric field of Equation 29.10 with respect to t:
'B 'E
5 kBp cos1kx 2 vt2 and 5 2vEp cos1kx 2 vt2
'x 't
Using these expressions in Equation 29.13 then gives
kBp cos1kx 2 vt2 5 2P0 m032vEp cos1kx 2 vt24
Again, the cosine cancels, so this equation is satisfied if
kBp 5 P0m0vEp (29.15)
Our analysis has shown that electromagnetic waves whose form is given by Fig. 29.3
and Equations 29.10 and 29.11 can exist, provided that the amplitudes Ep and Bp, and the
frequency v and wave number k, are related by Equations 29.14 and 29.15. Physically, the
existence of these waves is possible because a change in either field—electric or mag-
netic—induces the other field, giving rise to a self-perpetuating electromagnetic-field
structure. Maxwell’s theory thus leads to the prediction of an entirely new phenomenon—
electromagnetic waves. We’ll now explore some properties of these waves.

29.5 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves

Wave Speed
In Chapter 14 we found that the speed of a sinusoidal wave is the ratio of the angular frequency
to the wave number: speed 5 v/k. To determine the speed of our electromagnetic wave, we
use Equation 29.14 to get Ep 5 vBp /k, and then use this expression in Equation 29.15:
P0m0v2Bp
kBp 5 P0m0vEp 5
k
518 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

The amplitude Bp cancels, and we solve for the wave speed v/k to get
v 1
wave speed 5 5 1EM wave speed in vacuum2 (29.16a)
k 1P0m0

This result shows that the speed of an electromagnetic wave in vacuum depends only on
the electric and magnetic constants P0 and m0. All electromagnetic waves in vacuum, re-
gardless of frequency or amplitude, share this speed. Although we derived this result for
sinusoidal waves, the superposition principle ensures that it holds for any wave shape.
We can easily evaluate the speed given in Equation 29.16a:
1 1
5 5 3.003108 m/s
1P0m0 218.85310 C /N # m2214p31027 N/A22
212 2

But this is the speed of light! During the two centuries before Maxwell, scientists had
measured light’s speed with increasing accuracy. They had also recognized, thanks to
Thomas Young’s 1801 interference experiment, that light consists of waves. Then, in the
1860s, came Maxwell. Using a theory developed from laboratory experiments on electric-
ity and magnetism, with no reference to optics or light, Maxwell showed how the inter-
play of electric and magnetic fields results in electromagnetic waves. The wave
speed—calculated from the constants P0 and m0—was the known speed of light.
Maxwell’s conclusion was inescapable: Light is an electromagnetic wave.
Maxwell’s identification of light as an electromagnetic phenomenon is a classic exam-
ple of the unification of knowledge in science. With one simple calculation, Maxwell
brought the entire science of optics under the umbrella of electromagnetism. Maxwell’s
work stands as a crowning intellectual triumph, one whose implications are still expand-
ing our view of the universe.
Maxwell’s discovery lets us recast Equation 29.16a in the form
v
5c 1EM wave speed in vacuum: the speed of light, c!2 (29.16b)
k

where c 5 1/1P0 m0 is the speed of light. Because v 5 2pf and k 5 2p/l, we can
rewrite Equation 29.16b in terms of the more familiar frequency f and wavelength l as

fl 5 c 1frequency, wavelength, and the speed of light2 (29.16c)

As we saw in Chapter 1, the 1983 definition of the meter gives c the exact value
299,792,458 m/s.

Wave Amplitude
The amplitudes Ep and Bp dropped out of our analysis, showing that an electromagnetic
wave’s speed is independent of amplitude. But the field strengths E and B aren’t independ-
ent. Using v/k 5 c, we can recast Equation 29.14 to show that
v
E5 B 5 cB 1E, B relation in vacuum EM wave2 (29.17)
k
Here we dropped the “peak” subscript because Ep and Bp multiply identical cosine terms
in our wave description, so Equation 29.14 applies whether or not we’re at the peak field.

Phase, Orientation, and Waves in Matter

! !
The wave of Fig. 29.3 and Equations 29.10 and 29.11 has E and B in phase in time—peaking
at the same time—while they’re perpendicular in space and also perpendicular to the prop-
agation direction. Our derivation of the wave speed used these properties, so we’ve
! con-!
firmed that electromagnetic waves in vacuum are transverse waves with E and B
perpendicular
! and
! in phase. Specifically, the direction of propagation is that of the cross
product E 3 B. These geometrical properties also apply to electromagnetic waves in
 29.5 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves 519

common materials like air and glass. The wave speed in these materials is lower than in
vacuum, although for air the difference is minuscule. Electromagnetic waves in more com-
plex materials can have very different properties and propagation speeds.

GOT IT? 29.1 At a particular point the electric field of an electromagnetic wave
points in the 1y-direction, while the magnetic field points in the 2z-direction. Is the prop-
agation direction (a) x; (b) 2x; (c) either 1x or 2x but you can’t tell which; (d) 2y;
(e) 1z; or (f) not along any of the coordinate axes?

EXAMPLE 29.2 Electromagnetic-Wave Properties: Laser Light

A laser beam with wavelength 633 nm is propagating through air in
the 1z-direction. Its electric field is parallel to the x-axis and has
amplitude 6.0 kV/m. (a) Find the wave frequency, (b) the amplitude
of the magnetic field, and (c) the direction of the magnetic field.

INTERPRET Light is an electromagnetic wave, so the laser beam

shares the wave properties we’ve just discussed. As we noted, its
speed in air is nearly the same as in vacuum. Here we’re given the
wavelength and peak electric field, Ep .
FIGURE 29.6 Reoriented version of Fig. 29.3a for Example 29.2. It’s important
DEVELOP Equation 29.16c, fl 5 c, relates wavelength and fre- that we still have a right-handed coordinate system, with the x-, y-, and ! !
quency, so we’ll use that for (a). Equation 29.17, E 5 cB, relates E z-axes in the same relation as in Fig. 29.3. Equivalently, the direction of E 3 B
and B, so we can get (b) from the given value of Ep. For (c), we’ll! draw is the propagation direction.
a reoriented version of Fig. 29.3a to help infer the direction of B.
ASSESS That 1014-Hz frequency sounds huge, but light has such a short
EVALUATE (a) Solving for the frequency gives
wavelength that its frequency is indeed high; more on this shortly. No-
f 5 c/l 5 13.03108 m/s2/1633 nm2 5 4.731014 Hz tice both !in Fig.! 29.3 and in our reoriented wave of Fig. 29.6 that the
(b) Solving for the magnetic-field amplitude gives Bp 5 Ep /c 5 20 mT.! vectors E and B and the propagation direction form a right-handed co-
(c) Figure 29.6 shows
! that with propagation in the z-direction and E ordinate system, so any two of those vectors determine the direction
along the x-axis, B must be parallel to the y-axis. of the third. ■

Polarization
! !
Although E and B are necessarily perpendicular, their orientation is still arbitrary within a
plane perpendicular to the propagation direction. Polarization specifies the direction of the
electric field and thus determines the perpendicular magnetic-field direction as well (Fig. 29.7).
Electromagnetic waves used in radio and TV originate from antennas that give the
waves a definite polarization. Most laser light is also polarized. In contrast, light from hot
sources like the Sun or a lightbulb is unpolarized, consisting of a mix of waves with ran-
dom field orientations. Unpolarized light becomes polarized when it reflects off surfaces

Electromagnetic waves are

polarized in the direction of
their electric field.
Here polarization is vertical,
y in the y-direction. y Here polarization
r c r
E B is horizontal,
in the z-direction.
c

x x
r
r The magnetic E
z B z field is perpendicular
to the polarization.
(a) (b)

FIGURE 29.7 The polarization direction is the direction of the wave’s electric field.
520 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

or passes through substances whose structure has a preferred direction. Many crystals and
synthetic materials such as Polaroid exhibit such a transmission axis. Light reflecting off a
car’s hood becomes partially polarized in the horizontal direction, and Polaroid sun-
glasses, with their transmission axis vertical, block the resulting glare. !
A polarizing material passes unattenuated only the component of the wave field E
along the transmission axis—namely, E cosu, where u is the angle between the field
and the transmission axis. We’ll show shortly that the intensity of an electromagnetic
wave is proportional to the square of the field strength. As a result, a wave of intensity
S0 emerges from a polarizer with intensity given by the Law of Malus:
S 5 S0 cos2 u (29.18)
Thus electromagnetic waves are blocked completely by a polarizer with its transmission
axis oriented perpendicular to the waves’ polarization (Fig. 29.8).
Measuring polarization tells us about sources of electromagnetic waves and about ma-
terials through which they propagate. Many astrophysical processes produce polarized
waves; their polarization gives clues to mechanisms operating in the cosmos. Geologists
pass polarized light through thin sections of rock to reveal the rocks’ composition, and en-
FIGURE 29.8 Two pieces of polarizing material gineers use polarization to locate stresses in mechanical structures. Polarization is essen-
with their transmission axes at right angles. tial in many technologies, including the ubiquitous liquid crystal displays (LCDs) in our
Where they overlap, no light gets through. cell phones, cameras, computers, and TVs (Fig. 29.9).

Vertical polarizer Horizontal polarizer

passes only light passes the now
with its electric horizontally polarized
field vertical. light.

Light

  Horizontal polarizer
now blocks the still
Liquid crystal vertically polarized
molecules align with Applying a voltage
Electric field of incident aligns the liquid light.
light points in all striated plates and
rotate the light’s crystals. They no
directions perpendicular longer rotate the
to the light’s propagation. polarization.
light’s polarization.

FIGURE 29.9 Polarization plays a central role in the operation of a liquid crystal display. Multiple units like the one
shown—millions in a TV or computer screen—produce the individual pixels on an LCD.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 29.1 Crossed Polarizers

Unpolarized light shines on a pair of polarizers with their transmission
axes perpendicular, so no light gets through the combination. What MAKING THE CONNECTION How does the intensity of light
happens when a third polarizer is sandwiched in between, with its emerging from this polarizer “sandwich” compare with the intensity
transmission axis at 45° to the others? of the incident unpolarized light?

EVALUATE The middle polarizer’s transmission axis isn’t perpendicu- EVALUATE Unpolarized light is a random mix of polarization direc-
lar to the first one’s, so some of the light coming through the first po- tions, so cos2 u in Equation 29.18 ranges from 0 to 1 for the first polar-
larizer gets through the middle one. That light’s polarization isn’t izer. Its average is 12 , so the intensity emerging from the first polarizer
perpendicular to the last polarizer’s transmission axis, so some light is half the incident intensity. This light is now polarized in the direc-
gets all the way through the combination. tion of the first polarizer; it then passes through the middle polarizer,
oriented at 45°. Since cos 45° 5 1/12, Equation 29.18 shows that its
ASSESS This result may seem surprising: If the two outer polarizers
intensity is cut in half again. Light emerging from the middle polar-
are perpendicular, how can a third polarizer change the situation? But
izer then passes through the last one, oriented at 45° to the light’s new
it does. No pair of adjacent polarizers is perpendicular, so each pair
polarization, so its intensity is halved yet again. The effect of three re-
transmits some light. Inserting the third polarizer lets light through
ductions by one-half each is that light emerges from the “sandwich”
where none came through before.
with one-eighth its incident intensity.
 29.6 The Electromagnetic Spectrum 521

29.6 The Electromagnetic Spectrum

Although Equations 29.16 relate an electromagnetic wave’s frequency and wavelength,
one of these quantities remains arbitrary. That means electromagnetic waves can have any
frequency or, equivalently, any wavelength. Visible light occupies a wavelength range
from about 400 nm to 700 nm, corresponding to frequencies of 7.531014 Hz to
4.331014 Hz. The different wavelengths or frequencies correspond to different colors,
with red at the long-wavelength, low-frequency end of the visible region and violet at the
short-wavelength, high-frequency end (see the enlargement in Fig. 29.10).

Wavelength (m)
106 103 1 1023 1026 1029 10212

Radio Micro- Infrared Ultra- X rays Gamma rays

wave violet

1 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1021

Frequency (Hz)
Visible light

Wavelength Red Violet

700 nm 650 600 550 500 450 400 nm

FIGURE 29.10 The electromagnetic spectrum ranges from radio waves to gamma rays, with visible
light occupying only a narrow range of wavelengths and frequencies on a logarithmic scale.

Figure 29.10 shows the electromagnetic spectrum, including frequencies and wave-
lengths that differ by many orders of magnitude from those of visible light. The invisible
electromagnetic waves beyond the narrow visible range were unknown in Maxwell’s
time. A brilliant confirmation of Maxwell’s theory came in 1888, when the German
physicist Heinrich Hertz succeeded in generating and detecting electromagnetic waves
of much lower frequency than visible light. Hertz intended his work only to verify
Maxwell’s modification of Ampère’s law, but the practical consequences have proven
enormous. In 1901, the Italian scientist Guglielmo Marconi transmitted electromagnetic
waves across the Atlantic Ocean, creating a public sensation. From the pioneering work
of Hertz and Marconi, spurred by the theoretical efforts of Maxwell, came the entire tech-
nology of radio, television, and microwaves that so dominates modern society. We now
consider all electromagnetic waves in the frequency range from a few Hz to about
331011 Hz as radio waves, with AM radio at about 1 MHz, FM at 100 MHz, television
in patches of the spectrum from about 50 MHz to 1 GHz, and microwaves for WiFi,
radar, cooking, cell phones, and satellite communications at 1 GHz and above.
Between radio waves and visible light lies the infrared frequency range. Electromag-
netic waves in this region are emitted by warm objects, even when they’re not hot enough
to glow visibly. For this reason, infrared cameras are used to determine subtle body-
temperature differences in medical diagnosis, to examine buildings for heat loss, and to
study the birth of stars in clouds of interstellar gas and dust.
Beyond visible light are the ultraviolet rays responsible for sunburn, then the highly pen-
etrating X rays, and finally the gamma rays whose primary terrestrial source is radioactive
decay. All these phenomena, from radio to gamma rays, are fundamentally the same: All
are electromagnetic waves, differing only in frequency and wavelength. All travel with
speed c in vacuum, and all consist of electric and magnetic fields produced from each other
through the induction processes described by Faraday’s and Ampère’s laws. Naming the
different types of electromagnetic waves is just a convenience; there are no gaps in the con-
tinuous range of frequencies and wavelengths. Practical differences arise because waves of
different wavelengths interact differently with matter; in particular, shorter wavelengths
tend to be generated and absorbed most efficiently by smaller systems.
Earth’s atmosphere is transparent to visible light and to most radio frequencies. But
it’s opaque to most infrared, the higher-frequency ultraviolet, X rays, and all but the
522 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

highest-frequency gamma rays. Earth’s surface would be hazardous to life if ultraviolet

weren’t absorbed by ozone gas high in the atmosphere, and our planet would be a lot
cooler if water vapor, carbon dioxide, and other gases didn’t absorb outgoing infrared. But
that same infrared absorption is at the heart of our worries about global climate change,
because we humans are increasing the levels of infrared-trapping gases. Until the space
age, our view of the universe beyond Earth was limited to visible light and some weak ra-
dio signals. Today, spacecraft observe the cosmos in all wavelengths from radio through
gamma rays. Our picture of the universe is far richer than it would be if the only electro-
magnetic waves we could receive were those that made it through Earth’s atmosphere.

29.7 Producing Electromagnetic Waves

All it takes to produce an electromagnetic wave is a changing electric or magnetic field.
Once there’s a change in one field, induction provides the other field, and together the
changing fields continuously regenerate one another. The wave is on its way! Ultimately,
changing fields of both types result when we alter the motion of electric charge. There-
fore, accelerated charge is the source of electromagnetic waves.
In a radio transmitter, the accelerated charges are electrons moving back and forth in
an antenna, driven by alternating voltage from an LC circuit (Fig. 29.11). In an X-ray tube,
high-energy electrons decelerate rapidly as they slam into a target; their deceleration is the
source of the electromagnetic waves, now in the X-ray region of the spectrum. In the mag-
netron tube of a microwave oven, electrons circle in a magnetic field; their centripetal
acceleration is the source of the microwaves that cook your food. And the altered move-
ment of electrons in atoms—although described accurately only by quantum mechanics—
is the source of most visible light. If the motion of the accelerated charges is periodic, then
the wave frequency is that of the motion; more generally, systems are most efficient at pro-
ducing (and receiving) electromagnetic waves whose wavelength is comparable to the size
of the system. That’s why TV antennas are on the order of 1 m in size, while nuclei—some
10215 m in diameter—produce gamma rays.
Calculation of electromagnetic waves from accelerated charges presents challenging but
important problems for physicists and engineers. Figure 29.12 shows the field of an oscillat-
ing dipole—a configuration approximated by many systems from antennas to atoms and mol-
ecules. Note that the waves are strongest in the direction at right angles to the acceleration of
the charge distribution and that there’s no radiation in the direction of the acceleration. This
accounts for, among other phenomena, the directionality of radio and TV antennas, which
transmit and receive most effectively perpendicular to the long direction of the antenna.
The field shown in Fig. 29.12 seems to bear little resemblance to the plane-wave fields
of Fig. 29.3 that we used to demonstrate the possibility of electromagnetic waves. We could
produce true plane waves only with an infinite sheet of accelerated charge—an obvious

Outgoing EM waves

I
I

c + c
–

Antenna
Energy
LC oscillations
source drive alternating
current in the antenna.

Source replenishes Dipole

energy radiated axis
LC circuit
as EM waves.
FIGURE 29.12 “Snapshot” showing the electric field of an
FIGURE 29.11 Simplified diagram of a radio transmitter. oscillating electric dipole at an instant in time.
 29.8 Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic Waves 523

impossibility. But far from the source, the curved field lines in Fig. 29.12 would appear
straight, and the wave would approximate a plane wave. So our plane-wave analysis is a
valid approximation at great distances—typically many wavelengths—from a localized
wave source. Closer to the source more complicated expressions for the wave fields
apply, but these, too, satisfy Maxwell’s equations.

29.8 Energy and Momentum in

Electromagnetic Waves
We showed in earlier chapters that electric and magnetic fields contain energy. Electro-
magnetic waves are combinations of electric and magnetic fields; as they propagate, they
transport the energy contained in those fields.

Wave Intensity
In Chapter 14 we defined wave intensity as the rate at which a wave transports energy Electromagnetic
across a unit area; its units are W/m2. We can calculate the intensity S of a plane electro- energy moves through
the box with
magnetic wave by considering a rectangular box of thickness dx and cross-sectional area speed c.
A with its face! perpendicular
! to the wave propagation (Fig. 29.13). Within this box are
wave fields E and B whose energy densities are given by Equations 23.7 and 26.9:
uE 5 12 P0E 2 and uB 5 B2/2m0. If dx is small enough that E and B don’t vary significantly, A c
the total energy in the box is the sum of the electric and magnetic energy densities multi-
dx
plied by the box volume A dx:
FIGURE 29.13 A box of length dx and cross-
1 B2
dU 5 1uE 1 uB2A dx 5 a P0 E 2 1 b A dx sectional area A at right angles to the
2 m0 propagation of an electromagnetic wave.

This energy moves with speed c, so all the energy moves out of the box in a time dt 5
dx/c. The rate at which energy moves through the cross-sectional area A is then
dU 1 B2 A dx c B2
5 a P0E 2 1 b 5 a P0E 2 1 b A
dt 2 m0 dx/c 2 m0
So the intensity S, or rate of energy flow per unit area, is
c B2
S 5 a P0E 2 1 b
2 m0
We can recast this equation in simpler form using E 5 cB and B 5 E/c for an electromag-
netic wave. Replacing one of the E’s in E 2 with cB and one of the B’s in B2 with E/c, we have
c EB 1
S 5 a P0 cEB 1 b5 1P m c2 1 12EB
2 m0c 2m0 0 0
But c 5 1/1P0m0, so P0m0c2 5 1, giving
EB
S5 (29.19a)
m0
Although we derived Equation 29.19a for an electromagnetic wave, it is in fact a special
case of the more general result that nonparallel electric and magnetic fields entail a flow of
electromagnetic energy. In general, the rate of energy flow per unit area is given by
! !
! E3B
S5 1Poynting vector2 (29.19b)
m0
!
Here the vector S gives the direction of the
! energy
! flow as well as its magnitude. For an
electromagnetic wave in vacuum, with E and B at right angles, Equation 29.19b reduces
to Equation 29.19a, with the !direction of energy flow the same as the direction of wave
travel. The vector intensity S is called the Poynting vector after the English physicist
J. H. Poynting, who suggested it in 1884. Problem 60 explores an important application of
the Poynting vector to fields that don’t constitute an electromagnetic wave.
524 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

In an electromagnetic wave the fields oscillate, and so does the intensity. We’re usually
not interested in this rapid oscillation. For example, an engineer designing a solar collec-
tor doesn’t care that sunlight intensity oscillates at about 1014 Hz. What she really wants is
the average intensity, S. Because the instantaneous intensity of Equation 29.19a contains
a product of sinusoidally varying terms, which are in phase, the average intensity is just
half the peak intensity:
EB EpBp
S5 5 1average intensity2 (29.20a)
m0 2m0
Typical values for S in visible light range from a few W/m2 in the faint light of a candle to
many MW/m2 in the most intense laser beams.
We wrote Equation 29.20a in terms of both the electric and magnetic fields, but we can
use the wave condition E 5 cB to eliminate either field in terms of the other:
E p2 cBp2
S5 and S5 (29.20b, c)
2m0c 2m0

GOT IT? 29.2 Lasers 1 and 2 emit light of the same color, and the electric field in the
beam from laser 1 is twice as strong as the field in laser 2’s beam. How do their (a) mag-
netic fields, (b) intensities, and (c) wavelengths compare?

EXAMPLE 29.3 Fields and Power: Solar Energy

The average intensity of noontime sunlight on a clear day is about EVALUATE (a) We solve Equation 29.20c for Bp: Bp 5 22m0S/c 5
1 kW/m2. (a) What are the peak electric and magnetic fields in sun- 2.9 mT. Then Equation 29.17 gives E 5 cB 5 0.87 kV/m. (b) At 40%
light? (b) At this intensity, what area of 40% efficient solar collectors efficiency, each square meter of solar collector in 1-kW/m2 sunlight pro-
would you need to replace a 4.8-kW water heater? duces 0.40 kW. So to get 4.8 kW, we need 14.8 kW2/10.40 kW/m22 5
12 m2 of collector area.
INTERPRET In (a) we’re asked for the peak electric and magnetic fields,
and we identify 1 kW/m2 as the average intensity, S. In (b) we want ASSESS The fields we’ve calculated are relatively modest, showing
solar collectors to replace an electric heater whose power we’re given. that even bright sunlight doesn’t entail large electric and magnetic
fields. That 12-m2 collector area is also modest—much smaller than
DEVELOP For (a), Equations 29.20b, S 5 Ep2/2m0c, and 29.20c, the 100 m2 of a typical house roof—showing that water heating is a
S 5 cBp2/2m0, relate peak fields and average intensity. We could solve practical use of solar technology. Indeed, your author’s house, in
both of these or, more easily, solve one of them and then use Equation cloudy Vermont, gets 95% of its summertime hot water from just 9 m2
29.17, E 5 cB, to get the other field. In (b) we’ll need to use the 40% of solar collectors. ■
efficiency to get the effective power per square meter of solar collec-
tor, and then find the area needed to replace the 4.8-kW power of the
electric heater.

Waves from Localized Sources

When a wave originates in a localized source such as an atom, a radio transmitting antenna,
a lightbulb, or a star, its wavefronts aren’t planes but expanding spheres (recall Fig. 14.13).
As it expands, the wave’s energy is spread over the area of an ever-larger sphere—whose
area increases as the square of the distance from the source. Therefore the power per unit
area—the intensity—decreases as the inverse square of the distance:
P
S5 (29.21)
4pr2
Here S and P can be either peak or average intensity and power, and r is the distance from
the source. The intensity decreases not because electromagnetic waves “weaken” and lose
energy but because their energy gets spread ever more thinly.
Because the intensity of an electromagnetic wave is proportional to the square of the
field strengths (Equations 29.20), Equation 29.21 shows that the fields of a spherical wave
 29.8 Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic Waves 525

decrease as 1/r. Contrast that with the 1/r2 decrease in the electric field of a stationary
point charge, and you can see why the wave fields associated with an accelerated charge
dominate in all but the immediate vicinity of the charge.

EXAMPLE 29.4 Electromagnetic-Wave Intensity: Cell-Phone Reception

A cell phone’s typical average radiated power is about 0.6 W. If the re- phone. (Here the bars indicate we’re dealing with average quantities.)
ceiver at a cell tower can handle signals with peak electric fields as Using this value for S in Equation 29.20b gives P/4pr2 5 E p2/2m0c.
weak as 1.2 mV/m, what’s the maximum distance from phone to tower? Our plan is to solve for the distance r that gives Ep 5 1.2 mV/m.

INTERPRET We’re asked to find the distance from the 0.6-W cell EVALUATE Solving for r gives r 5 22m0cP/4pE p2 5 5 km, using
phone to a cell tower on the condition that the electric field of the cell P 5 0.6 W and Ep 5 1.2 mV/m.
phone’s electromagnetic wave is no weaker than 1.2 mV/m when
measured at the tower. ASSESS This answer is about 3 miles, a bit more than the cell radius
discussed in the Application below. That’s enough to provide a mar-
DEVELOP Assuming the 0.6-W signal spreads in all directions, Equation gin of safety, ensuring reliable communications for all phones within
29.21, S 5 P/4pr2, gives the average intensity at a distance r from the the cell. ■

APPLICATION Cell Phones

A  25 km2 Your cell phone contains a tiny, low-power radio transmitter whose signal in-
tensity decreases as the inverse square of the distance from the phone. The cell-
phone network consists of antennas and associated circuits that receive and
transmit signals from and to individual phones. Because of the phones’ low
power, antennas need to be closely spaced so a phone is rarely out of range.
The figure shows a typical urban cell-phone network consisting of multiple
cells—hence the term “cell” phone—each with an antenna mounted on a tower
or building. Cells are typically hexagonal regions about 25 km2 in area; ap-
proximating them as circles gives a radius of about 2.8 km—roughly the maxi-
mum distance between a phone and an antenna. As you move through an urban
area, the network automatically “hands off” your phone to the nearest cell
tower. Cell phones transmit on one frequency and receive on another, allowing
two-way communications with both parties able to talk at once. The system
uses hundreds to thousands of frequency channels, and thus a single cell tower
can handle many simultaneous calls. Cell towers are more widely spaced in ru-
ral regions, and phones automatically boost their power to compensate.

Momentum and Radiation Pressure

Moving objects carry not only energy but also momentum. So do electromagnetic
waves. Maxwell showed that wave energy U and momentum p are related by p 5 U/c.
The wave intensity S is the average rate at which the wave carries energy per unit area,
and therefore the wave carries momentum per unit area at the rate S/c. An object that
absorbs the wave energy (like a black object exposed to sunlight) absorbs this momen-
tum as well. Newton’s law in its general form F 5 dp/dt shows that the object then ex-
periences a force. Since S/c is the rate of momentum absorption per unit area, the result
is a radiation pressure:
S
Prad 5 1radiation pressure2 (29.22)
c
Radiation pressure doubles if an object reflects electromagnetic waves, just as bouncing a
basketball off the backboard changes the ball’s momentum by 2mv and therefore delivers
momentum 2mv to the backboard.
The pressure of ordinary light is tiny and difficult to measure, but high-power lasers
can actually levitate small particles. Light pressure has even been suggested for spacecraft
propulsion (see Passage Problems 69–72). Finally, the idea that electromagnetic waves
carry momentum played a crucial role in Einstein’s development of his famous equation
E 5 mc2.
CHAPTER 29 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here—and one of the biggest ideas in physics—is that electric and mag- y
netic fields together form self-regenerating structures that propagate through space as r
E
r
E
electromagnetic waves. What makes these waves possible is that changing magnetic
fields induce electric fields (Faraday’s law), and changing electric fields induce mag- r
B
netic fields (Ampère’s law, with Maxwell’s modification). Electromagnetic (EM) waves
in vacuum consist of electric and magnetic fields perpendicular to each other and to the x
direction of wave propagation, and in phase. r r
z B B c
r Direction
E
of wave
propagation

Key Concepts and Equations

Maxwell’s equations describe completely the behavior of electric and magnetic Maxwell’s equations show that electromagnetic waves
fields in classical physics: are possible and that their speed in vacuum, the speed
of light c, is related to the electric and magnetic
Law Mathematical Statement What It Says constants P0 and m0:
1
! ! ! q How charges produce electric c5
Gauss for E $ E # dA 5 fields; field lines begin and end 1P0m0
P0 on charges. The value of c is very nearly 3.003108 m/s. Its exact
! ! ! No magnetic charge; magnetic value, used in defining the meter, is 299,792,458 m/s.
Gauss for B $ B # dA 5 0
field lines don’t begin or end.
! ! dFB Changing magnetic flux produces
Faraday $ E # dr 5 2 electric fields.
dt
! ! dFE Electric current and changing elec-
Ampère $ B # dr 5 m0 I 1 m0 P0 tric flux produce magnetic fields.
dt

In vacuum, the electric and magnetic fields of EM waves can have any wavelength; the whole range constitutes the electromagnetic
a wave are related by spectrum.
E 5 cB Wavelength (m)
The wave’s frequency and wavelength are re- 106 103 1 1023 1026 1029 10212
lated by
Radio Micro- Infrared Ultra- X rays Gamma rays
fl 5 c wave violet

1 103 106 109 1012 1015 1018 1021

Frequency (Hz)
Visible light

Wavelength Red Violet

700 nm 650 600 550 500 450 400 nm

Applications
Polarization describes the direction of an EM wave’s electric field and EM waves carry both energy and momentum. The Poynting vector
! !
is a property widely used in scientific research and in technological de- ! E3B
vices including the ubiquitous liquid crystal displays. When polarized S5
m0
light of intensity S0 is incident on a polarizer with its transmission axis
at angle u to the polarization, the light emerges with intensity describes the rate of energy flow per unit area, while the momentum
flow results in a radiation pressure:
S 5 S0 cos2 u
S
Prad 5
c
 Exercises and Problems 527

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 20. Roughly how long does it take light to travel 1 foot?
21. If you speak via radio from Earth to an astronaut on the Moon,
1. Why is Maxwell’s modification of Ampère’s law essential to the how long is it before you can get a reply?
existence of electromagnetic waves? 22. What are the wavelengths of (a) a 100-MHz FM radio wave,
2. The presence of magnetic monopoles would require a modifica- (b) a 5.0-GHz WiFi signal, (c) a 600-THz light wave, and (d) a
tion of Gauss’s law for magnetism. Which other Maxwell equa- 1.0-EHz X ray?
tion would need modification? 23. A 60-Hz power line emits electromagnetic radiation. What’s the
3. Is there displacement current in an electromagnetic wave? Is wavelength?
there ordinary conduction current? 24. A microwave oven operates at 2.4 GHz. What’s the distance be-
4. List some similarities and differences between electromagnetic tween wave crests in the oven?
waves and sound waves. 25. An electromagnetic wave is propagating in the z-direction. What’s
5. The speed of an electromagnetic wave is given by c 5 lf. How its polarization direction if its magnetic field is in the y-direction?
does the speed depend on frequency? On wavelength? 26. Polarized light is incident on a sheet of polarizing material, and
6. When astronomers observe a supernova explosion in a distant only 20% of the light gets through. Find the angle between the
galaxy, they see a sudden, simultaneous rise in visible light and electric field and the material’s transmission axis.
other forms of electromagnetic radiation. How is this evidence 27. Vertically polarized light passes through a polarizer with its axis
that the speed of light is independent of frequency? at 70° to the vertical. What fraction of the incident intensity
7. Turning a TV antenna so its rods point vertically may change the emerges from the polarizer?
quality of your TV reception. Why? Section 29.8 Energy and Momentum in Electromagnetic
8. The Sun emits about half of its electromagnetic-wave energy in Waves
the visible region of the spectrum. Where do you think it emits
28. A typical laboratory electric field is 1000 V/m. Find the average in-
most of the remainder?
tensity of an electromagnetic wave with this value for its peak field.
9. An LC circuit is made entirely from superconducting materials,
29. What would be the average intensity of a laser beam so strong
yet its oscillations eventually damp out. Why?
that its electric field produced dielectric breakdown of air (which
10. If you double the field strength in an electromagnetic wave, what
requires Ep 5 3 MV/m)?
happens to the intensity?
30. Estimate the peak electric field inside a 1.1-kW microwave oven
11. The intensity of light drops as the inverse square of the distance
under the simplifying approximation that the microwaves propagate
from the source. Does this mean that electromagnetic energy is
as a plane wave through the oven’s 750-cm2 cross-sectional area.
lost? Explain.
31. Your new radio says it can pick up signals with peak electric
12. Electromagnetic waves don’t readily penetrate metals. Why not?
fields as weak as 450 mV/m. Will it work if you take it to your re-
mote cabin, where the intensity of your favorite radio station is
Exercises and Problems 0.35 nW/m2?
32. A laser pointer delivers 0.10-mW average power in a beam
Exercises 0.90 mm in diameter. Find (a) the average intensity, (b) the peak
Section 29.2 Ambiguity in Ampère’s Law electric field, and (c) the peak magnetic field.
13. A uniform electric field is increasing at 1.5 1V/m2/ms. Find the dis- 33. Your university radio station has a 5.0-kW radio transmitter that
placement current through a 1-cm2 area perpendicular to the field. broadcasts uniformly in all directions; listeners within 15 km
14. A parallel-plate capacitor has square plates 10 cm on a side and have reliable reception. You want to increase the power to double
0.50 cm apart. The voltage across the plates is increasing at that range. What should be the new power?
220 V/ms. What’s the displacement current in the capacitor?
Problems
Section 29.4 Electromagnetic Waves 34. A parallel-plate capacitor has circular plates with radius 50 cm
! and spacing 1.0 mm. A uniform electric field between the plates
15. The fields
! of an electromagnetic wave are E 5 Ep sin1kz 1 vt2/^
and B 5 Bp sin1kz 1 vt2ı^. Give a unit vector in the wave’s prop- is changing at the rate of 1.0 MV/m # s. Find the magnetic field be-
agation direction. tween the plates (a) on the symmetry axis, (b) 15 cm from the
! axis, and (c) 150 cm from the axis.
16. A radio wave’s electric field is given by E 5 E sin1kz 2 vt2 3
35. An electric field points into the page and occupies a circular re-
1ı^ 1 ^/2. (a) Find the peak electric field. (b) Give a unit vector in
the direction of the magnetic field at a place and time where gion of radius 1.0 m, as shown in Fig. 29.14. There are no electric
sin1kz 2 vt2 is positive.
Section 29.5 Properties of Electromagnetic Waves
17. A light-minute is the distance light travels in 1 minute. Show that r
E
the Sun is about 8 light-minutes from Earth.
18. Your intercontinental telephone call is carried by electromagnetic
r
waves routed via a satellite in geosynchronous orbit at 36,000 km B
altitude. Approximately how long does it take before your voice
is heard at the other end?
19. An airplane’s radar altimeter works by bouncing radio waves off 1m
the ground and measuring the round-trip travel time. If that time
is 50 ms, what’s the altitude? FIGURE 29.14 Problem 35
528 Chapter 29 Maxwell’s Equations and Electromagnetic Waves

charges in the region, but there is a magnetic field forming closed 49. At 1.5 km from a radio transmitter, the peak electric field is
loops pointing clockwise, as shown. The magnetic-field strength 350 mV/m. Assuming the transmitter broadcasts equally in all
50 cm from the center of the region is 2.0 mT. (a) What’s the rate directions, find (a) the transmitted power and (b) the peak
of change of the electric field? (b) Is the electric field increasing electric field 10 km from the transmitter.
or decreasing? 50. Find the peak electric and magnetic fields 1.5 m from a 60-W
36. You’re engineering a new cell phone, and you’d like to incorpo- lightbulb that radiates equally in all directions.
rate the antenna entirely within the phone, which is 9 cm long 51. A typical fluorescent lamp is a little more than 1 m long and a
when closed. The antenna is to be a quarter-wavelength long—a few cm in diameter. How do you expect the light intensity to vary
common design for vertically oriented antennas. If the cell-phone with distance (a) near the lamp but not near either end and (b) far
frequency is 2.4 GHz, will the antenna fit? from the lamp?
37. The medical profession divides the ultraviolet region of the elec- 52. A camera flash delivers 2.5 kW of light power for 1.0 ms. Find
BIO tromagnetic spectrum into three bands: UVA (320–420 nm), (a) the total energy and (b) the total momentum carried by the
UVB (290–320 nm), and UVC (100–290 nm). UVA and UVB flash.
promote skin cancer and premature skin aging; UVB also causes 53. A laser produces an average power of 7.0 W in a 1.0-mm-diameter
sunburn, but helpfully fosters production of vitamin D. Ozone in beam. Find (a) the average intensity and (b) the peak electric
Earth’s atmosphere blocks most of the more dangerous UVC. field of the laser light.
Find the frequency range associated with UVB radiation. 54. A 180-W/cm2 laser beam shines on a light-absorbing surface.
38. Dielectric breakdown in air occurs when the electric field is ap- What’s the radiation pressure on the surface?
proximately 3 MV/m. What would be the peak magnetic field in 55. A 65-kg astronaut is floating in empty space. If she shines a
an electromagnetic wave with this peak electric field? 1.0-W flashlight in a fixed direction, how long will it take her to
39. A radio receiver can detect signals with electric fields as weak as accelerate to 10 m/s?
320 mV/m. Find the corresponding magnetic field. 56. A photon rocket emits a beam of light instead of hot gas. How
40. A polarizer blocks 75% of a polarized light beam. What’s the an- powerful a beam would be needed for a thrust equal to that of a
gle between the beam’s polarization and the polarizer’s axis? space shuttle (35 MN)? Compare your answer with humanity’s
41. An electro-optic modulator is a device that switches a laser beam total electric power-generating capability, about 1 TW.
rapidly from off to on by switching the polarization direction 57. A white dwarf star is approximately the size of Earth but radiates
through 90° when a voltage is applied. But a brownout results in about as much power as the Sun. Estimate the radiation pressure
only enough voltage for a 72° rotation. What fraction of the light on a light-absorbing object at the white dwarf’s surface.
is transmitted during the brownout when the beam is supposed to 58. Use appropriate data from Appendix E to calculate the radiation
be fully on? pressure on a light-absorbing object at the Sun’s surface.
42. Unpolarized light of intensity S0 passes first through a polarizer 59. A radar system produces pulses consisting of 100 full cycles of a
with its axis vertical and then through one with its axis at 35° to sinusoidal 70-GHz electromagnetic wave. The average power
the vertical. Find the intensity after the second polarizer. while the transmitter is on is 45 MW, and the waves are confined
43. Vertically polarized light passes through two polarizers, the first to a beam 20 cm in diameter. Find (a) the peak electric field,
at 60° to the vertical and the second at 90° to the vertical. What (b) the wavelength, (c) the total energy in a pulse, and (d) the to-
fraction of the light gets through? tal momentum in a pulse. (e) If the transmitter produces 1000
44. Show that it’s impossible for an electromagnetic wave in vacuum pulses per second, what’s its average power output?
to have a time-varying component of its electric ! field in the di- 60. A cylindrical resistor of length L, radius a, and resistance R carries
rection of its magnetic field. (Hint: Assume E does have such a current I. Calculate the electric and magnetic fields at the surface
component, and show that you can’t satisfy both Gauss’s and of the resistor, assuming the electric field is uniform over the sur-
Faraday’s laws.) face. Calculate the Poynting vector and show that it points into! the!
45. High microwave intensities can cause biological damage through resistor. Calculate the flux of the Poynting vector (that is, #S # dA)
BIO heating of tissue; a particular concern is cataract formation. The over the resistor’s surface to get the rate of electromagnetic energy
U.S. Food and Drug Administration limits microwave radiation flow into the resistor, and show that the result is I 2R. Your result
near the door of a microwave oven to 5.0 mW/m2. The window in a shows that the energy heating the resistor comes from the fields
particular oven door measures 40 cm by 17 cm and is covered with surrounding it. These fields are sustained by the source of electric
a metal screen to block microwaves. Assuming power leaks uni- energy that drives the current.
formly through the window area, what percent of the oven’s 900-W 61. In a stack of polarizing sheets, each sheet has its transmission
microwave power can leak without exceeding the FDA standards? axis rotated 14° with respect to the preceding sheet. If the stack
46. Use the fact that sunlight intensity at Earth’s orbit is 1368 W/m2 passes 37% of the incident unpolarized light, how many sheets
to calculate the Sun’s total power output. does it contain?
47. A quasar 10 billion light-years from Earth appears the same 62. You’re an astronomer studying the origin of the solar system, and
brightness as a star 50,000 light-years away. How do the power you’re evaluating a hypothesis that sufficiently small particles
outputs of quasar and star compare? were blown out of the solar system by the force of sunlight. To
48. Lasers are classified according to the eye-damage danger they see how small such particles must be, compare the force of sun-
BIO pose. Class 2 lasers, including many laser pointers, produce light with the force of solar gravity, and solve for the particle ra-
visible light with no greater than 1 mW total power. They’re dius at which the two are equal. Assume spherical particles with
relatively safe because the eye’s blink reflex limits exposure density 2 g/cm3. (Note: Distance from the Sun doesn’t matter.
time to 250 ms. Find (a) the intensity of a 1-mW class 2 laser Why not?)
with beam diameter 1.0 mm, (b) the total energy delivered be- 63. Differentiate Equation 29.12 with respect to x and Equation 29.13
fore the blink reflex shuts the eye, and (c) the peak electric field with respect to t. Then, using the fact that mixed derivatives
in the laser beam. ' 'B ' 'B
are equal (e.g., a b 5 a b ), combine the resulting
't dx 'x dt
 Answers to Chapter Questions 529

equations and show that the result is the wave equation (Equa- 69. If a sunlight-powered sailing spacecraft accelerated at 1 m/s2 in
tion 14.5) for waves with speed c 5 1/ 2P0m0. the vicinity of Earth’s orbit, what would be its acceleration at
64. Maxwell’s equations in a dielectric resemble those in vacuum Mars, about 1.5 times as far from the Sun as Earth?
(Equations 29.6–29.9) but with P0 replaced by kP0, where k is the a. about 0.25 m/s2
dielectric constant introduced in Chapter 23. Show that the speed b. a little less than 0.5 m/s2
of electromagnetic waves in a dielectric is c/1k. c. a little more than 0.5 m/s2
65. A friend buys a used pickup truck that comes with a CB radio. d. about 0.66 m/s2
However, the antenna is broken off, and your friend asks you to 70. One spacecraft has a sail that absorbs all light incident on it; the
help make one out of a steel rod that he will affix to the rear other has a perfectly reflective sail. How do their accelerations
bumper. You know that the CB channel frequency is 27.3 MHz compare in light with the same intensity?
and that the antenna must be a quarter-wavelength long. How a. The absorptive sail gives twice the acceleration.
long should you make the rod? b. The reflective sail gives twice the acceleration.
66. Your roommate’s father is CEO of a coal company, so your room- c. The absorptive sail gives greater acceleration, but not twice as
mate is understandably skeptical of alternative energy proposals. much.
He claims that there’s no future for solar energy, because the power d. The reflective sail gives greater acceleration, but not twice as
in sunlight is insufficient to meet humankind’s energy demand. Is much.
he right? To find out, compare the solar power incident on Earth
71. A sail capable of propelling a spacecraft to the outer solar system
with our human energy consumption rate of about 15 TW.
must be able to overcome the Sun’s gravity. Suppose a spacecraft
67. The Voyager 1 spacecraft is now beyond the outer reaches of our
is designed so the force of sunlight on its sail is 20 times that of
solar system, but earthbound scientists still receive data from the
solar gravity in the vicinity of Earth’s orbit. If the spacecraft
spacecraft’s 20-W radio transmitter. Voyager is expected to con-
reaches Jupiter, some 5 times as far from the Sun as Earth,
tinue transmitting until about 2025, when it will be some 25 bil-
a. the sail force will still exceed solar gravity, now by a factor of 4.
lion km from Earth. What’s the diameter of a dish antenna that
b. the sail force will be slightly less than solar gravity.
will receive 10220 W of power from Voyager at this time?
c. the sail force will now be 25 times solar gravity.
68. Your friend who works for the college radio station must make
d. the sail force will still be 20 times solar gravity.
electric-field measurements for a report to be filed with the sta-
tion’s application for license renewal. The measurement is made 72. The intensity of sunlight at Earth’s orbit is about 1.4 kW/m2. A
4.6 km from the antenna, where your friend measures the electric 100-kg sailing spacecraft with 1-km2 sail area would experience
field at 380 V/m. The station is allowed to broadcast at no more an acceleration of about
than 55-kW power. Assuming power spreads equally in all direc- a. 5 mm/s2.
tions, is the station in compliance with its license? b. 5 cm/s2.
c. 5 m/s2.
Passage Problems d. 5 km/s2.
Proposals have been made to “sail” spacecraft to the outer solar sys-
tem using the pressure of sunlight, or even to propel interstellar space- Answers to Chapter Questions
craft with high-powered, Earth-based lasers. Sailing spacecraft would
need no fuel—a great advantage because fuel constitutes much of the Answer to Chapter Opening Question
initial weight of any space mission. The first successful test of sunlight-
Electromagnetic waves, comprising changing electric and magnetic
powered sailing is the Japanese spacecraft IKAROS, launched in 2010
fields, carry not only cell-phone conversations but also TV shows, the
(Fig. 29.15).
energy of sunlight, and signals from physical processes in the farthest
reaches of the universe.

Answers to GOT IT? Questions

29.1. (b).
29.2. (a) B1 5 2B2; (b) S1 5 4S2; (c) l1 5 l2.

FIGURE 29.15 Launched in 2010, the Japanese IKAROS mission is the first suc-
cessful test of a sunlight-powered sailing spacecraft. IKAROS’s sail is 200 m2
in area but only 0.0075 mm thick (Passage Problems 69–72).
PART FOUR SUMMARY

Electromagnetism
Electromagnetism is a fundamental force of nature. The strong at- Moving electric charges create magnetic fields, and moving electric
traction between positive and negative charge makes most bulk matter charges respond to magnetic fields. Both electric and magnetic fields
electrically neutral, and hides from us the essential role electricity and store energy.
magnetism play in the structure of matter. A changing magnetic field creates an electric field, and vice versa.
Electromagnetic interactions are best described in terms of Together, changing fields combine to make electromagnetic waves—
electric fields and magnetic fields. Electric charges create electric self-replicating structures that propagate through empty space at the
fields, and electric charges respond to the fields of other charges. speed of light, c. Light itself is an electromagnetic wave.

Maxwell’s equations are the four fundamental laws of electromagnetism: Coulomb’s law and the Biot–Savart law provide alternatives
to Gauss’s and Ampère’s laws for determining electric and
Law Mathematical Statement What It Says magnetic fields of pointlike elements of charge and moving
charge, respectively:
! ! ! q How charges produce electric
#
Gauss for E C E dA 5 P field; field lines begin and end ! kq
0
on charges. E 5 2 r^ rˆ
r
r E
! ! ! No magnetic charge; magnetic r
Gauss for B #
C B dA 5 0 field lines don’t begin or end.
r
! ! ! dl is a small rˆ is a unit vector
dFB Changing magnetic flux pro- ! m0 I dl 3 r^ r
#
C E dr 5 2 dt
Faraday piece of the wire. from dl toward P.
duces electric field. dB 5
4p r2 r
r
dB is into page.
! ! dFE Electric current and changing dl e
#
Ampère C B dr 5 m0 I 1 m0P0 dt electric flux produce magnetic I rˆ P
field. r

The electromagnetic force on a charged particle consists of the The electric potential difference describes the work per unit charge
electric force and the magnetic force. Both are proportional to needed to move charge between two points in an electric field; its units are
the charge and to the appropriate field; the magnetic force de- N/C or volts (V):
!
pends also on the particle’s velocity v :
! ! ! ! !
B
! !
! VAB 5 2 3 E # dr
FEM 5 FE 1 FB 5 qE 1 qv 3 B A

Electric current is a flow of electric charge: Electric circuits are inter-

connections of electric R1
DQ vrd 1 1 1
I5 5 nAqvd n charges/unit volume, components, including bat- R1 1 R2 R1 R2
R
5
R1
1
R2
Dt R2
each charge q teries, resistors, and others.
A They can often be analyzed Series Parallel
by considering series and
L parallel combinations.
In ohmic materials, Ohm’s law relates voltage, current,
and resistance: I 5 V/R.

Electromagnetic induction, described A rightward-moving magnet Electromagnetic waves result from y r r

E r
E
by Faraday’s law, is the basis of elec- results in a positive current. changing electric and magnetic B
tric generators and a host of other elec- 2
0

1 fields. EM waves include light, and x

tromagnetic technologies and natural all EM waves propagate in vacuum z r r c
S S N B r
B Direction
phenomena. I at the speed of light, c 5 1/1m0P0. E of wave
propagation

Part Four Challenge Problem

r
A wire of length L and resistance R forms a rectangular loop twice as long as it is wide. It’s mounted on a B
a
nonconducting! horizontal axle parallel to its longer dimension, as shown in the figure. A uniform mag-
netic field B points into the page. A long string of negligible mass is wrapped many times around a drum
of radius a attached to the axle, and a mass m is attached to the string. When the mass is released, it falls
and eventually reaches a speed that, averaged over one cycle of the loop’s rotation, is constant. Find an vr m
expression for that average speed.
PART FIVE OVERVIEW

Optics

I magine a world without light. We see because light reflects off objects, and our eyes Drops of dew act as miniature optical
form images because light refracts in our corneas and lenses. When our built-in optical systems, with light refracting through
the drops to form myriad images of the
systems aren’t perfect, we correct them with additional lenses or we use lasers to reshape
background flowers.
the cornea. Microscopes and telescopes extend the range of our vision. The phenomenon
of interference makes possible some of the most precise measurements and is behind the
operation of everyday technologies like CDs and DVDs. Light signals carry e-mail, web
pages, telephone conversations, and computer data through the optical fibers that form
the world’s communications networks. Although the behavior of light is ultimately
grounded in Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism, we can learn much about light from
the simpler perspective of optics. The next three chapters explore the behavior of light,
images and optical instruments, and phenomena associated with the wave nature of light.

531
 30 Reflection and Refraction

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Describe the reflection of light from
plane surfaces (30.1).
■ Describe quantitatively the refraction
of light at the interface between two
transparent materials (30.2).
■ Understand total internal reflection,
and determine quantitatively the cir-
cumstances when it occurs (30.3).
■ Explain how the wavelength
dependence of refraction leads to
dispersion (30.4).
Why does the bee’s image appear at left,
and what does this have to do with
e-mail and the Internet?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter is, in principle, based on
the electromagnetic nature of light
M axwell’s brilliant work shows that the phenomena of optics—the behavior of light—are
manifestations of electromagnetism. Except in the atomic realm, where quantum physics
reigns, all optical phenomena are understandable in terms of electromagnetic-wave fields de-
as described by Maxwell’s equations, scribed by Maxwell’s equations. But when objects with which light or any other wave interacts are
but here we’ll develop a simpler ap- much larger than the wavelength, light generally travels in straight lines called rays. Geometrical
proach that applies when light inter- optics describes the behavior of light in this approximation. Here we’ll use geometrical optics to
acts with objects much larger than explore the behavior of light at interfaces between different materials. In Chapter 31 we’ll see how
its wavelength. geometrical optics explains lenses, the human eye, and many optical instruments.

30.1 Reflection
Some materials, notably metals, reflect nearly all the light incident on them. It’s no coin-
cidence that these materials are also good electrical conductors. The oscillating electric
field of a light wave drives a metal’s free electrons into oscillatory motion, which, in turn,
produces electromagnetic waves. The net effect is to reradiate the wave back into the
original medium. Other materials reflect only part of the incident light. Either way, re-
flection satisfies the same geometrical conditions: The incident ray, the reflected ray, and
the normal to the interface between two materials all lie in the same plane. The angle
of reflection u19 that the reflected ray makes with the normal is the same as the angle of
incidence u1 made by the incident ray (Fig. 30.1a):
u91 5 u1 (30.1)

532 where the subscript 1 denotes the first medium.

 30.1 Reflection 533

Incident ray Reflected

ray
u1 u'1
θ 1 u'1 u1 u'1

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 30.1 (a) Angles of reflection and incidence are equal. (b) In specular reflection, a smooth surface
reflects a light beam undistorted. (c) A rough surface results in diffuse reflection.

In specular reflection, parallel rays reflect off a smooth surface and the entire beam is
reflected without distortion (Fig. 30.1b). In contrast, a rough surface reflects individual
rays in different directions (Fig. 30.1c)—even though each ray still obeys Equation 30.1.
This is diffuse reflection. White paper is a diffuse reflector, while the aluminum coating
of a mirror is an excellent specular reflector.

EXAMPLE 30.1 Reflection: The Corner Reflector

Two mirrors join at right angles. Show that any light ray incident in DEVELOP The outgoing ray will be antiparallel to the incident ray if
the plane of the page will return antiparallel to its incident direction. the light turns through a total of 180°. Applying Equation 30.1 to each
of the two reflections shows that the angles u are the same, and so are
INTERPRET We’ve sketched the situation in Fig. 30.2. We’re asked to the angles f. Figure 30.2 shows that the first reflection turns the inci-
show that the lines representing incident and outgoing rays in the dent ray through an angle 180° 2 2u. Similarly, the second turns it
figure are parallel. through 180° 2 2f.

EVALUATE The pair of mirrors thus turns the ray through a total
angle of
1180° 2 2u2 1 1180° 2 2f2 5 360° 2 21u 1 f2
Second reflection But Fig. 30.2 shows that u 1 f 5 90°, so the total angle is
First reflection turns the ray through 360° 2 180° 5 180°—which is what we set out to prove.
turns the ray this angle.
through this
ASSESS Here we’ve explored a remarkable device, a pair of per-
angle.
pendicular mirrors that returns a light ray in exactly the direction
from which it came—provided the light is in the plane perpendicu-
lar to both mirrors. Add a third mirror at right angles to the other
two, and you have a corner reflector—a device that returns a light
ray in the direction from which it came, period. Corner reflectors,
This right
triangle shows often made with prisms rather than mirrors, are widely used in
that u 1 f 5 90°. optics. A corner reflector left on the Moon allows laser-based
measurements of the Moon’s distance with an accuracy of a few
centimeters. (See Problem 58.) ■

FIGURE 30.2 A two-dimensional corner reflector.

Partial Reflection
Some light is reflected even at the interface with a transparent material. The detailed de-
scription of such partial reflection follows from Maxwell’s equations, and is akin to the
partial reflection of waves on strings described in Chapter 14. The least reflection occurs
with normal incidence; for glass, about 4% of normally incident light is reflected. Reflec-
tion increases with larger incidence angles. Camera lenses, solar photovoltaic cells, and
other devices often have special antireflection coatings to reduce light loss.
534 Chapter 30 Reflection and Refraction

Medium 1 Medium 2
30.2 Refraction
vr1 vr2
We saw in Chapter 14 that wave speeds differ in different media. With light, the speed in
l1 transparent media is lower than in vacuum. We characterize a transparent medium by its
index of refraction, defined as the ratio of the speed of light c in vacuum to the speed of
light v in the medium:
l2
A B c
Observers at A and B . . . therefore, the
n5 1index of refraction2 (30.2)
v
see the same number wavelength must be
of wave crests pass in shorter where the wave Although the wave speed changes when light enters a new medium, Fig. 30.3 shows that
a given time, so they moves more slowly.
both measure the its frequency f can’t change and therefore, since the wave speed is v 5 fl, the wave-
same frequency f . . . length must change. Equation 30.2 shows that the wavelength in a medium with refractive
index n is l 5 v/f 5 c/nf; since c and f don’t change, the wavelength is inversely pro-
FIGURE 30.3 Wave frequency doesn’t change as
a wave goes from one medium to another, but portional to n. Table 30.1 lists some refractive indices.
wavelength does change. When light is incident at an angle on a transparent material, the light transmitted into
the material undergoes refraction—a change in its propagation direction (Fig. 30.4).
Table 30.1 Indices of Refraction* Figure 30.5 shows how refraction results from the change in wave speed and therefore
wavelength. Here we assume the refractive index is higher in medium 2; our result
Substance Index of Refraction, n l 5 c/nf then shows that the wavelength is shorter in medium 2. We’ve shaded two
Gases right triangles with a common hypotenuse and one side equal to the appropriate wave-
Air 1.000293 length. The angles opposite these sides are the angles of incidence and refraction. In
Carbon dioxide 1.00045 each case the hypotenuse is given by l/sin u. Equating expressions for this common hy-
Liquids potenuse gives l1 /sin u1 5 l2 /sin u2. Since l 5 c/nf with f the same in both media, we
Water 1.333 get Snell’s law:
Ethyl alcohol 1.361 1Snell’s law2
n1 sin u1 5 n2 sin u2 (30.3)
Glycerine 1.473
Benzene 1.501 First developed geometrically in 1621 by van Roijen Snell of the Netherlands, and de-
Diiodomethane 1.738 scribed analytically in the 1630s by René Descartes in France, Snell’s law lets us predict
Solids what will happen at an interface given the refractive indices of the two media.
Ice 1H 2O2 1.309 Snell’s law applies whether light goes from a medium of lower to higher refractive
Polystyrene 1.49 index or vice versa. When going from lower to higher index, the beam bends toward the
Glass 1.5–1.9 normal; when going from higher to lower index, it bends away from the normal.
Sodium chloride In some situations, including the human eye and Earth’s atmosphere, the refractive in-
(NaCl) 1.544 dex varies continuously with position, so light refracts continuously, following a curved
Diamond (C) 2.419 path. You can explore two examples in Passage Problems 62–65.
Rutile 1TiO22 2.62

*At 1 atm pressure and temperatures Wave crests

ranging from 0°C to 20°C, measured at
a wavelength of 589 nm (the yellow line
of sodium). v1

Medium 1
u1
Angle of l1
incidence u1
Incident ray Reflected ray Interface l2 u2
u1 u'1
Medium 2
Medium 1
u2
v2
u2
These triangles share
Medium 2 Refracted ray a common hypotenuse.
Their short sides are
Angle of the wavelengths
refraction in the two media.

FIGURE 30.4 Refraction and reflection at an FIGURE 30.5 Refraction occurs because
interface, here when medium 2 has the wave speed and wavelength differ in the
higher refractive index. two media.
 30.2 Refraction 535

EXAMPLE 30.2 Refraction: A Plane Slab

A light ray propagating in air strikes a glass slab of thickness d and re-
fractive index n at incidence angle u1. Show that it emerges from the
slab propagating parallel to its original direction.

INTERPRET This is a problem about refraction, which in this case

occurs twice. We identify the two interfaces as first the air–glass
interface where the light enters the glass and then the glass–air
interface where the light exits the glass.

DEVELOP Figure 30.6 is a sketch showing the path of the light

through the glass. There are two pairs of incidence and refractive
angles, which we labeled u1, u2 and u3, u4. Our plan is to apply
Snell’s law at each interface and thus prove that u4 5 u1. At the air– FIGURE 30.6 Light passing
glass interface, we have n1 sin u1 5 n2 sin u2, and at the glass–air inter- through a transparent slab.
face, n3 sin u3 5 n4 sin u4. Note that u1 and u4 are in the same medium
(air), so we set n4 5 n1. Similarly, n3 5 n2 for u2 and u3 in glass. Then from the first interface then gives
our equations become n1 sin u1 5 n2 sin u2 and n2 sin u3 5 n1 sin u4. sin u1
sin u4 5 n a b 5 sin u1
n
EVALUATE Taking n1 5 1 for air and n2 5 n for glass at the air–glass
interface, we have sin u2 5 sin u1 /n. But at the glass–air interface, showing that the incident and outgoing rays are indeed parallel.
n1 5 n and n2 5 1, so here sin u4 5 n sin u3. But the slab faces are
ASSESS This result shows that light isn’t deflected when it passes
parallel, so u3 5 u2. So sin u4 5 n sin u2. Using our expression for u2
through a parallel-faced slab of transparent material. It is, however,
displaced by the distance x shown in Fig. 30.6. You can find that dis-
placement in Problem 54. ■

EXAMPLE 30.3 Refraction: CD Music

The laser beam that “reads” information from a compact disc is 0.737 x d x
mm wide when it strikes the disc, and it forms a cone with half-angle
u1 5 27.0° as shown in Fig. 30.7. It then passes through a 1.20-mm- Information
n = 1.55 layer
thick layer of plastic with refractive index 1.55 before reaching the re-
flective information layer near the disc’s top surface. What’s the beam
diameter d at the information layer? t = 1.2 mm u
2 u2
INTERPRET Rays defining the beam refract toward the normal, making
a smaller convergence angle within the disc. We’re asked how much
this converging beam narrows when it reaches the information layer. FIGURE 30.7 Section
through a compact
DEVELOP Snell’s law will give us the angles u2 in the figure: disc, showing conver- D = 0.737 mm
n1 sin u1 5 n2 sin u2. Given u2, we can use trigonometry to find the dis- gence of the laser
tance x marked in the drawing: x 5 t tan u2, with t the 1.2-mm thick- beam to a narrow spot
ness. The beam diameter d then follows from d 5 D 2 2x, where D at the information
u1 = 27 Incident
is the 0.737-mm beam diameter at the disc surface. layer. laser beam

EVALUATE With n1 5 1 and n2 5 1.55, Snell’s law gives u2 5 beam plays a crucial role in keeping CDs noise free. The tiniest dust
sin211sin u1 /n22 5 17.03°, so d 5 D 2 2x 5 D 2 2t tan u2 5 1.80 m. speck would blot out information at the m-scale information layer,
but at the point where the beam enters the disc, it would take mm-size
ASSESS This answer makes sense because d is just a bit larger than dust to cause problems. We’ll explore CD and DVD technology fur-
the “pits” cut into the CD to store information. Narrowing of the laser ther in Chapter 32. ■

GOT IT? 30.1 The figure shows the path of a light ray
n1
through three different media. Rank the media according to their
refractive indices in decreasing order.
n2

n3
536 Chapter 30 Reflection and Refraction

Refraction, Reflection, and Polarization

r
Incident E Both reflection and refraction ultimately involve interactions between the incident light
up 5 56°
wave’s electric field and charges in a material. The oscillation of molecular dipoles in re-
up
sponse to the field gives rise to both refracted and reflected light. It’s not surprising, there-
These angles
sum to 90°. fore, that details depend on the direction of the electric field—that is, on polarization.
Air u2
When the field lies in the plane defined by the incident and reflected rays, there’s a special
Glass up
u2 5 34° angle of incidence at which no reflection occurs. This is the Brewster angle, or
r
E polarizing angle, and it occurs when the reflected ray would be perpendicular to the trans-
mitted ray (Fig. 30.8). Then the molecular dipoles are oscillating along the direction a re-
flected ray would take, and, as we saw in Section 29.7, there’s no electromagnetic
radiation from an oscillating dipole along the oscillation direction.
Refracted Figure 30.8 shows that the polarizing incidence angle up occurs when up and the angle u2
of the reflected ray sum to 90°; equivalently, u2 5 90° 2 up. Since sin u 5 cos190° 2 u2,
FIGURE 30.8 The polarizing incidence angle up
that means sin u2 5 cos up. Now, Snell’s law gives sin u2 5 1n1 /n22 sin up; substituting
occurs when the angles of incidence and
refraction sum to 90°. cos up for sin u2, this becomes cos up 5 1n1 /n22 sin up. Multiplying both sides by 1n2 /n12 and
dividing by cos up then gives
n2
tan up 5 1polarizing angle2 (30.4)
n1
For the air–glass interface shown in Fig. 30.8, up is about 56°.
When unpolarized light is incident at the polarizing angle, only the component of the
light’s electric field that’s perpendicular to the plane of Fig. 30.8 gets reflected, and the re-
sult is polarized light. Polarization using this effect is important in a number of technolo-
gies, including lasers. The window through which light emerges from a laser is usually cut
at the polarizing angle, and as a result most laser light is intrinsically polarized. A similar
polarizing phenomenon occurs for reflection from metals and other opaque surfaces, and
it results in a glare that polarizing sunglasses can eliminate.

30.3 Total Internal Reflection

Light propagating from a medium with a higher refractive index into one with a lower in-
dex is bent away from the normal, as shown for a glass–air interface in Fig. 30.9. In other
words, the angle of refraction in this case is larger than the angle of incidence. So at some
incidence angle, the angle of refraction becomes 90°. Then what?
As Fig. 30.9 shows, light incident at this critical angle or larger cannot escape from
the glass. Instead, total internal reflection occurs, returning all the light to the medium
with the larger refractive index. We can find the critical angle by setting u2 5 90° in
Snell’s law (Equation 30.3). The critical angle is then u1, and we have
n2
sin uc 5 1critical angle2 (30.5)
n1

Air

uc
FIGURE 30.9 Light propagating in glass is refrac-
ted away from the normal at the glass–air inter- 1 2 3 4
face. Ray 3, incident at the critical angle uc , just
skims along the interface. At larger incidence
angles (ray 4), the light undergoes total internal Glass
reflection. The rightmost beam in the photo
(incident from above) undergoes two total inter- Source
nal reflections.
 30.3 Total Internal Reflection 537

Total internal reflection makes uncoated glass an excellent reflector when it’s oriented
appropriately (Fig. 30.10). Binoculars owe their compact size to glass prisms that reflect
light internally to provide a longer light path. For an underwater observer, the existence of
the critical angle affects the view of the outside world, as the next example shows. Finally,
total internal reflection is the basis of the optical fibers that carry signals over the global
Internet, as the Application below describes.

GOT IT? 30.2 The glass prism in Fig. 30.10 has n 5 1.5 and is surrounded by air
1n 5 12. What would happen to the incident light ray shown if the prism were immersed
FIGURE 30.10 Light undergoes total internal
in water 1n 5 1.3332? reflection in a glass prism.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 30.1 Total Internal Reflection: A Watching Whale

Planeloads of whale watchers fly over the ocean. What does a whale EVALUATE The whale is underwater, so it’s in a medium with a higher
see when it looks up at them? refractive index than air. Some of the light reaching the whale is from
objects above the water surface, like the planes in Fig. 30.11. But the
whale also sees objects below the surface, like the squid in Fig. 30.11,
light from which is totally reflected at the water–air interface.
ASSESS The whale sees the entire above-surface world within a cone,
as Fig. 30.11 shows. If you’ve ever looked upward from underwater,
you’ve experienced the same phenomenon.
uc uc

uc MAKING THE CONNECTION What’s the half-angle of the cone

in which the whale sees objects above the water surface?

ANSWER The cone’s half-angle is the critical angle uc, as shown

in Fig. 30.11. For water, Table 30.1 gives n 5 1.333, so, by Equa-
tion 30.5, uc 5 sin2111/1.3332 5 48.6°.
FIGURE 30.11 The whale sees the entire world above the surface in a cone of
half-angle uc ; beyond that, it sees reflections of objects below the surface.

APPLICATION Optical Fibers

digital data—requires a range of frequencies, and the greater the rate of informa-
tion transfer, the wider that range. With its frequency of around 1014 Hz, light can
accommodate a much wider frequency range within a channel than can radio-
frequency communication systems at 1010 Hz. A single optical fiber, for example,
can carry tens of thousands of simultaneous telephone conversations. Fibers are
also lighter and more
rugged than copper cables,
and they’re less vulnerable
Refraction and total internal reflection are the basis for optical fibers, which carry
than copper or open-air
much of the world’s communications. Optical fibers provide the physical connec-
transmission to illicit tap-
tivity of the global Internet and handle information ranging from telephone and tel-
ping. And because they’re
evision to light signals within medical, astronomical, and industrial instruments.
made from insulators, opti-
A typical fiber consists of a glass core only 8 mm in diameter, surrounded by a
cal fibers are less suscepti-
so-called cladding consisting of glass with a lower refractive index. Total internal
ble to electrical noise. The
reflection at the core–cladding interface guides light along the fiber, as shown in
photo shows two cables
the figure. The glass used in optical fibers is so clear that a 1-km-thick slab would
that can carry information
be as transparent as an ordinary window pane. Today’s fibers carry light produced
at the same rate. One con-
by semiconductor lasers at infrared wavelengths of 850, 1350, or 1550 nm.
sists of a few optical fibers
An optical fiber’s main advantage over copper wire is its huge rate of infor-
while the other is a thick
mation flow, called bandwidth. Communicating information—audio, video, or
bundle of copper wires.
538 Chapter 30 Reflection and Refraction

30.4 Dispersion
Red
Refraction ultimately involves the interaction of electromagnetic-wave fields with atomic
White electrons. It’s not surprising that the electrons’ behavior and therefore also the refractive
light index depend on frequency. That means different frequencies—different colors of visible
light—refract through different angles. The classic example of this dispersion is New-
Violet ton’s demonstration that white light is a mixture of all colors in the visible spectrum (Fig.
30.12). The rainbow is a beautiful natural manifestation of dispersion combined with in-
FIGURE 30.12 Dispersion separates the colors
ternal reflection, as the Application below describes.
in white light, with shorter-wavelength violet
experiencing the greatest refraction.

APPLICATION The Rainbow

Rainbows occur when sunlight strikes rain or other airborne water droplets. angles. That’s why the rainbow appears as a broad arc at an angle of about 42° to
An observer standing between the Sun and the rain then sees a circular arc the direction of the Sun’s rays. Problems 55 and 56 detail how to find fmax.
of colored bands. Part (a) of the figure shows that the center of that arc lies The “bunching” of light rays near fmax shows why a bright band appears,
on the line joining the Sun to the observer’s head. That means each observer but why the different colors? The refractive index varies with wavelength, and
sees a different rainbow! Furthermore, the rainbow’s arc always subtends an so, therefore, does fmax. Thus each color appears at a slightly different angle.
angle of about 42°. For water, the refractive index ranges from nred 5 1.330 to nviolet 5 1.342. Us-
Isaac Newton provided the first full explanation of the rainbow, invoking ing these values with the results of Problems 55 and 56 yields fred 5 42.53°
both internal reflection and dispersion. Part (b) of the figure shows light pass- and fviolet 5 40.78°. Thus the rainbow appears as a band of colors subtending
ing through a spherical raindrop. Parallel rays striking the curved drop experi- an angle of about 1.75°, with red at the top.
ence a range of incidence angles, giving a range of angles f between incident You’ll occasionally see a fainter secondary rainbow above the primary arc.
and outgoing rays. As the figure shows, however, there’s a maximum angle This results from two internal reflections, which causes the order of colors to
fmax of about 42°, and more light returns at angles close to fmax than at other be reversed. Problem 57 explores the secondary rainbow.

fmax . 42°
42° Rain
From Sun

Arc of
Observer
42° rainbow
More outgoing rays
concentrate at
Center around 42° deflection.
of arc

(a) (b)

(a) The rainbow is a circular arc at 42° from the line connecting the Sun, the observer, and the center of the arc.
(b) The rainbow results from total internal reflection in raindrops, concentrating light at about 42° deflection.
Dispersion separates wavelengths slightly, resulting in the rainbow’s colors.
 30.4 Dispersion 539

Dispersion is the basis of spectroscopy, the analysis of light and other electromagnetic
radiation in terms of its constituent wavelengths. Hot, dense objects emit a continuous
range of wavelengths, while diffuse gases emit and absorb radiation at only a few specific
wavelengths (Fig. 30.13). Such discrete spectra provide some of the strongest evidence for
the nature of atoms, and today spectroscopy is a powerful tool throughout the sciences.
Spectroscopy helps astronomers to determine the composition and motions of distant as-
trophysical objects, geologists to identify minerals, and chemists to study molecules.
Although early spectroscopy used prisms, most modern instruments use instead diffrac-
tion gratings, which we’ll describe in Chapter 32.

Violet Increasing wavelength Red

FIGURE 30.13 The emission spectrum of a hot, diffuse gas—here hydrogen—consists

of light at discrete wavelengths.

Dispersion can be a nuisance in optical systems. Glass lenses, for example, focus
different colors at different points, resulting in distortion known as chromatic aberra-
tion. Dispersion in optical fibers—based not on wavelength but on different paths taken
by rays reflecting at different angles—can degrade digital information. So-called
single-mode fibers reduce this effect by passing only those rays that have a single spe-
cific reflection angle. On the other hand, dispersion of radio waves provides a crucial
correction to the global positioning system (GPS). Ionization in the upper atmosphere
introduces an uncertain but frequency-dependent variation in the travel time for radio
waves from GPS satellites. It’s this travel time that provides GPS location information.
Sending waves at two different frequencies and comparing their travel times reveals the
atmospheric conditions, and makes dual-frequency GPS receivers accurate to within a
few centimeters.
CHAPTER 30 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is that light can be considered to travel in straight rays when the objects with which it interacts are much larger than the wave-
length. Under these conditions, light rays reflect and refract at interfaces between different materials.

Key Concepts and Equations

The angle of incidence and angle of reflection are equal: Snell’s law relates the angle of incidence and angle of refraction:
u91 5 u1 n1 sin u1 5 n2 sin u2

Incident ray Reflected ray Incident ray Reflected ray

u1 u'1 Some
θ 1 u'1 reflection
n1 occurs.

u2
n2 Refracted ray

Angle of
refraction

Applications
Total internal reflection results when light is incident at greater than the critical angle, uc, on
an interface with a medium with lower refractive index n2:
n2
sin uc 5
n1
ui , uc ui . uc

Light polarized in the plane of the incident and refracted rays undergoes no reflection at an
interface; this special polarizing angle, up, is given by r
Incident E
n2 up 5 56°
tan up 5
n1
These
For an air–glass interface, up . 56°. up angles
Air u2 sum to 90.
Glass up
u2 5 34° r
E

Refracted

Dispersion results from the wavelength dependence of the refractive index and causes different colors to refract at different angles.

A combination of total internal reflection and dispersion in raindrops Total internal reflection guides signals in optical fibers.
accounts for the rainbow.
fmax . 42°

More outgoing rays

concentrate at
around 42° deflection.
 Exercises and Problems 541

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 13. To what angular accuracy must two ostensibly perpendicular
mirrors be aligned so that an incident ray returns within 1° of its
1. Why is it usually inappropriate to consider low-frequency sound incident direction?
waves as traveling in rays? Why is the ray approximation more 14. If a light ray enters the mirror system of Fig. 30.16 propagating
appropriate for high-frequency sound and for light? in the plane of the page and parallel to one mirror, through what
2. Why does a spoon appear bent when it’s in a glass of water? angle will it be turned?
3. Why do a diamond and an identically shaped piece of glass Section 30.2 Refraction
sparkle differently?
15. In which substance in Table 30.1 does the speed of light have the
4. White light goes from air through a glass slab with parallel sur-
value 2.2923108 m/s?
faces. Will its colors be dispersed when it emerges from the glass?
16. Information in a compact disc is stored in “pits” whose depth is es-
5. You send white light through two identical glass prisms, oriented
sentially one-fourth the wavelength of the laser light used to “read”
as shown in Fig. 30.14. Describe the beam that emerges from the
the information. That wavelength is 780 nm in air, but the wave-
right-hand prism.
length on which the pit depth is based is measured in the n 5 1.55
plastic that makes up most of the disc. Find the pit depth.
White light
17. Light is incident on an air–glass interface, and the refracted light
in the glass makes a 40° angle with the normal to the interface.
The glass has refractive index 1.52. Find the incidence angle.
18. A light ray propagates in a transparent material at 15° to the nor-
FIGURE 30.14 For Thought and Discussion 5 mal to the surface. It emerges into the surrounding air at 24° to
the normal. Find the material’s refractive index.
6. In glass, which end of the visible spectrum has the smallest criti-
19. Light propagating in the glass 1n 5 1.522 wall of an aquarium
cal angle for total internal reflection?
tank strikes the wall’s interior surface with incidence angle 12.4°.
7. Why can’t you walk to the end of the rainbow?
What’s the angle of refraction in the water?
8. What’s wrong with Fig. 30.15, which shows rainbows over Nia-
20. Find the polarizing angle for diamond when light is incident
gara Falls? (Hint: The rainbow subtends a half-angle of 42°.)
from air.
21. Find the refractive index of a material for which the polarizing
angle in air is 62°.
Section 30.3 Total Internal Reflection
22. Find the critical angle for total internal reflection in (a) ice,
(b) polystyrene, and (c) rutile, when the surrounding medium is air.
23. A drop of water is trapped in a block of ice. What’s the critical
angle for total internal reflection at the water–ice interface?
24. What is the critical angle for light propagating in glass with
n 5 1.52 when the glass is immersed in (a) water, (b) benzene,
and (c) diiodomethane?
FIGURE 30.15 For Thought and Discussion 8. The painting is Harry
Fenn’s Niagara. 25. Total internal reflection occurs at an interface between plastic
and air at incidence angles greater than 37°. Find the plastic’s
9. Why are polarizing sunglasses better than glasses that simply re- refractive index.
duce the total amount of light? Section 30.4 Dispersion
10. Under what conditions will the polarizing angle be smaller 26. Blue and red laser beams strike an air–glass interface with inci-
than 45°? dence angle 50°. If the glass has refractive indices of 1.680
for the blue light and 1.621 for the red, what will be the angle
Exercises and Problems between the two beams in the glass?
27. White light propagating in air is incident at 45° on the equilateral
Exercises prism of Fig. 30.17. Find the angular dispersion g of the outgo-
Section 30.1 Reflection ing beam if the prism has refractive indices nred 5 1.582 and
11. Through what angle should you rotate a mirror so that a reflected nviolet 5 1.633.
ray rotates through 30°?
12. The mirrors in Fig. 30.16 make a 60° angle. A light ray enters
parallel to the symmetry axis, as shown. (a) How many reflec- 45° Red

tions does it make? (b) Where and in what direction does it exit g

the mirror system?

Violet
Exercise 12
FIGURE 30.17 Exercise 27 (angles of dispersed rays aren’t accurate)
Problems
60° 28. Suppose the 60° angle in Fig. 30.16 is changed to 75°. A ray en-
Exercise 14
ters the mirror system parallel to the axis. (a) How many reflec-
FIGURE 30.16 Exercises 12 and 14 tions does it make? (b) Through what angle is it turned when it
and Problem 28 exits the system?
542 Chapter 30 Reflection and Refraction

29. The refractive index of a human cornea is 1.40. If 550-nm light 37. Laser eye surgery uses ultraviolet light with wavelength 193 nm.
BIO strikes a cornea at incidence angle 25°, find (a) the angle of re- BIO What’s the UV light’s wavelength within the eye’s lens, where
fraction and (b) the wavelength in the cornea. n 5 1.39?
30. Two plane mirrors make an angle f. A light ray enters the sys- 38. The prism in Fig. 30.20 has n 5 1.52 and a 5 60° and is sur-
tem and is reflected once off each mirror. Show that the ray is rounded by air. A light beam is incident at u1 5 37°. Find the an-
turned through an angle 360° 2 2f. gle d through which the beam is deflected.
31. An unlabeled bottle of liquid has spilled, and you’re trying to
find out whether it’s relatively harmless ethyl alcohol or toxic
benzene. You submerge a glass block with n 5 1.52 in the liq- a
u1
uid, and shine a laser beam so it strikes the submerged glass with d
incidence angle 31.5°. You measure the angle of refraction in the
glass at 27.9°. Which liquid is it? (See Table 30.1.)
32. A meter stick lies on the bottom of the rectangular tank in Fig.
30.18, with its zero mark at the tank’s left edge. You look into the
FIGURE 30.20 Problems 38 and 39
long dimension of the tank at a 45° angle, with your line of sight
just grazing the top edge, as shown. What mark on the meter
39. Repeat Problem 38 for the case n 5 1.75, a 5 40°, and u1 5 25°.
stick do you see when the tank is (a) empty, (b) half full of water,
40. Find the minimum refractive index for the prism in Fig. 30.10 if
and (c) full of water?
total internal reflection occurs as shown when the prism is sur-
rounded by air.
45° 41. Where and in what direction would the main beam emerge if the
prism in Fig. 30.10 were made of ice, surrounded by air?
40 cm 42. Find the speed of light in a material for which the critical angle
at an interface with air is 61°.
43. The prism of Fig. 30.10 has n 5 1.52. When it’s immersed in a
100 cm
liquid, a beam incident as shown in the figure ceases to undergo
FIGURE 30.18 Problem 32
total reflection. What’s the minimum value for the liquid’s re-
fractive index?
33. You look at the center of one face of a solid glass cube of glass, 44. For the interface between air (refractive index 1) and a material
on a line of sight making a 55° angle with the normal to the cube with refractive index n, show that the critical angle and the polar-
face. What minimum refractive index of the glass will let you see izing angle are related by sin uc 5 cot up.
through the cube’s opposite face? 45. A scuba diver sets off a camera flash at depth h in water with
34. At the aquarium where you work, a fish has gone missing in a refractive index n. Show that light emerges from the water’s
10-m-deep, 11-m-diameter cylindrical tank. You shine a flashlight surface through a circle of diameter 2h/ 2n2 2 1.
in from the top edge of the tank, hoping to see if the missing fish 46. Suppose the red and blue beams of Exercise 26 are now propa-
is on the bottom. What’s the smallest angle your flashlight beam gating in the same direction inside the glass. For what range of
can make with the horizontal if it’s to illuminate the bottom? incidence angles on the glass–air interface will one beam be to-
35. You’re standing 2.3 m horizontally from the edge of a 4.5-m-deep tally reflected and the other not?
lake, with your eyes 1.7 m above the water’s surface. A diver hold- 47. A compound lens is made from crown glass 1n 5 1.522 bonded
ing a flashlight at the lake bottom shines the light so you can see it. to flint glass 1n 5 1.892. What’s the critical angle for light inci-
If the light in the water makes a 42° angle with the vertical, at what dent on the flint–crown interface?
horizontal distance is the diver from the edge of the lake? 48. Find a simple expression for the speed of light in a material in
36. You’ve dropped your car keys at night off the end of a dock into terms of c and the critical angle at an interface between the mate-
water 1.6 m deep. A flashlight held directly above the dock edge rial and vacuum.
and 0.50 m above the water illuminates the keys when it’s aimed 49. Find the polarizing angle for light incident from below on the
at 40° to the vertical, as shown in Fig. 30.19. What’s the horizon- surface of a pond.
tal distance x from the edge of the dock to the keys? 50. A cylindrical tank 2.4 m deep is full to the brim with water. Sun-
light first hits part of the tank bottom when the rising Sun makes
a 22° angle with the horizon. Find the tank’s diameter.
51. For what diameter tank in Problem 50 will sunlight strike some
u1 5 40° part of the tank bottom whenever the Sun is above the horizon?
h1 5 0.50 m 52. Light is incident from air on the flat wall of a polystyrene water
tank. If the incidence angle is 40°, what is the angle of refraction
x1 in the water?
53. You’re an optometrist, mounting a projector at the back of your
u2 BIO 4.2-m-long exam room, 2.6 m above the floor. It shines an eye-
h2 5 1.6 m test pattern on the opposite wall. Patients will sit with their eyes
3.3 m from the wall and 1.4 m above the floor to view the pattern.
At what height should you center the pattern on the wall?
54. Find an expression for the displacement x in Fig. 30.6, in terms
x2 of u1 d, and n.
x
55. Figure 30.21 shows light passing through a spherical raindrop,
FIGURE 30.19 Problem 36 undergoing two refractions and total internal reflection, resulting
 Answers to Chapter Questions 543

in an angle f between the incident and outgoing rays. Show that upper atmosphere, where the refractive index for radio waves
f 5 4 sin 211 sin u/n2 2 2u, where u is the incidence angle. varies with altitude.
Incident ray
u A Light path C

B
f A D
B
180° 2 f (a)
C
Exiting ray

FIGURE 30.21 Problem 55

Ionosphere
56. (a) Differentiate the result of Problem 55 to show that the maxi-
mum value of f occurs when the incidence angle u is given by
cos2 u 5 131n2 2 12. (b) Use this result and that of Problem 55 to θ Radio-wave
paths FIGURE 30.23 Passage Problems 62–65.
find the maximum f in a raindrop with n 5 1.333. This is the (a) Light path in a mirage. (b) Long-
angle at which the rainbow appears, as shown in the Application A Earth B
distance radio communication via
on page 538. (b) ionospheric refraction (not to scale).
57. Figure 30.22 shows the approximate path of a light ray that un-
dergoes internal reflection twice in a spherical water drop. Re- 62. Figure 30.23a depicts light’s path over a hot road, producing a
peat Problems 55 and 56 for this case to find the angle at which mirage. From the path shown, you can conclude that the air’s
the secondary rainbow occurs. refractive index
a. increases from left to right.
b. increases from right to left.
c. increases upward.
d. increases downward.
f 63. The observer in Fig. 30.23a sees a shimmering mirage that looks
like water but actually results from sky light following the curved
path. To the observer, the mirage appears to be at
a. point A. b. point B.
FIGURE 30.22 Problem 57
c. point C. d. point D.
58. Show that a three-dimensional corner reflector (three mutually 64. Figure 30.23b shows how continuous refraction in the ionosphere
perpendicular mirrors, or a solid cube in which total internal re- enables long-distance radio communication. Waves launched at
flection occurs) turns an incident light ray through 180°. (Hint: angles steeper than u don’t refract enough to return to Earth, so
!
Let q 5 qx ı^ 1 qy ^/ 1 qzk^ be a vector in the propagation direc- they propagate through the ionosphere and on to space. You can
tion. How does this vector get changed on reflection by a mirror therefore conclude that
in a plane defined by two of the coordinate axes?) a. all points between A and B receive stronger signals from
59. Fermat’s principle states that a light ray’s path is such that the A than point B receives.
time to traverse that path is an extremum (a minimum or a maxi- b. points between A and B can’t receive signals from A via the
mum) when compared with times for nearby paths. Show that ionosphere.
Fermat’s principle implies Snell’s law by proving that a light ray c. the refractive index must become infinite at the maximum
going from point A in one medium to point B in a second altitude of the radio signal.
medium will take the least time if it obeys Snell’s law. 65. The refractive index in the ionosphere is strongly dependent on
60. You’re an automotive engineer charged with evaluating safety radio-wave frequency, approaching 1 for high frequencies.
glass, which is made by bonding a layer of flexible plastic between Therefore,
two layers of glass, thus eliminating dangerous glass fragments a. long-distance communication via the ionosphere is more
during accidents. A new product uses glass with refractive index likely at higher frequencies.
n 5 1.55 and plastic with n 5 1.48. You’re asked to determine b. higher frequencies won’t penetrate as far into the ionosphere.
whether total internal reflection at the glass–plastic interface could c. higher frequencies are more appropriate for satellite-based
cause problems with visibility. What do you conclude, and why? communication.
61. A slab of transparent material has thickness d and refractive index
n that varies across the material: n1x2 5 n1 1 1n2 2 n121x/d22, Answers to Chapter Questions
where x is measured from one face of the slab. A light ray is inci-
dent normally on the slab. Find an expression for the time it takes Answer to Chapter Opening Question
to traverse the slab. Light from the bee propagates along the solid, curved plastic “light
pipe” via total internal reflection. This same process carries e-mail
Passage Problems and other computer data on the fiber-optic cables that constitute the
Mirages occur when air’s refractive index varies with position as a physical structure of the Internet.
result of uneven heating. Under such conditions, light undergoes
refraction continually and thus follows a curved path. Other exam- Answers to GOT IT? Questions
ples where a varying refractive index is important include the eye’s 30.1. n3 . n1 . n2.
lens and Earth’s ionossphere, an electrically conductive layer in the 30.2. Most would emerge into the water from the diagonal interface;
some would still be reflected as shown.
 Images and Optical
31 Instruments

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Describe graphically how plane and
curved mirrors form images (31.1).
■ Explain both graphically and
quantitatively how lenses form
images (31.2).
■ Describe the difference between
real and virtual images (31.1, 31.2).
■ Give the details of refraction at
curved surfaces, and be able to
calculate the focal lengths of thin
lenses (31.3).
■ Explain the operation of common op-
tical instruments and the human eye,
including vision correction (31.4).
How does laser surgery provide permanent
vision correction?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter is based on the optical
phenomena of reflection and refrac-
R eflection and refraction alter the direction of light propagation, according to the laws devel-
oped in Chapter 30. Microscopes, telescopes, cameras, contact lenses, scanners, and your
own eyes use reflection or refraction to form images that provide visual representations of reality.
tion introduced in Chapter 30 Here we study image formation using geometrical optics—a valid approximation provided the
(30.1, 30.2). objects we’re imaging are much larger than the wavelength of light.
■ We’ll be working extensively with When we view an object through an optical system, light reflects or refracts, so it doesn’t
geometrical constructions, especially propagate in straight paths from the object. As a result we see an image that may differ in size,
similar triangles. orientation, or apparent position from the actual object. In some cases light actually comes from
the image to our eyes; the image is then a real image. In other cases light only appears to come
from the image location; then the image is a virtual image.

544
 31.1 Images with Mirrors 545

31.1 Images with Mirrors Object Image

Plane Mirrors
In Fig. 31.1a we show three light rays that leave the tip of an arrowhead and reflect off a
plane mirror to reach the observer’s eye. The light looks to the observer like it’s coming
from a point behind the mirror, so that’s the location of the arrowhead’s image. The image Dashed lines
show apparent
is virtual because no light actually comes from behind the mirror—even though that’s light paths.
where the image is.
Since two lines define a point, we need only two rays to locate the arrowhead in
Fig. 31.1a. We’ve repeated the image-location procedure in Fig. 31.1b, now using as Solid lines show Mirror
one of the rays the ray that reflects normally. The same procedure locates the bottom actual light paths.
(a)
of the arrow, and we could easily fill in to get the entire arrow; the resulting image is
shown in Fig. 31.1b. These two rays’ apparent intersection
Because the angles of incidence and reflection are equal, angles OQP and O9QP in locates the arrowhead’s image.
Fig. 31.1b are equal. The right triangles OPQ and O9PQ share a common side as well,
so they’re congruent. Thus the distances OP and O9P are equal, so the image is located Object Image
O P O
behind the mirror as far as the object is in front of it. Furthermore, rays from the top and
bottom of the arrow and normal to the mirror are parallel, so the image is the same
height as the actual arrow.
Images in plane mirrors preserve an object’s length and upright orientation, but they re-
verse the object. When you look in the mirror, you face the mirror. So does your image—
meaning the reversal is front to back, not left to right as you might think. This
front-to-back reversal makes the image of your right hand look like a left hand (Fig. 31.2). Use these rays to
locate the image
Mathematically, the mirror reverses the coordinate axis perpendicular to the mirror plane. of the arrow’s Q
This alters handedness, rotation, and all other phenomena connected with the right-handed tail.
coordinate systems we’ve been using. Mirror
(b)

FIGURE 31.1 Image formation in a plane

mirror.

FIGURE 31.2 The palm of a right hand faces the mirror.

So does the image’s palm. That makes the image look
like a left hand, but it’s still the image of a right hand.

GOT IT? 31.1 You stand in front of a plane mirror whose top is at the same height as
Normal These angles
the top of your head. Approximately how far down must the mirror extend for you to see are equal.
your full image?

Curved Mirrors
In contrast to plane mirrors, curved mirrors form images that may be upright or inverted, Axis
Focal point
virtual or real, large or small. The best curved mirrors are parabolic. That’s because any F
line parallel to the parabola’s axis makes the same angle to the normal of the parabola as
does a second line drawn to a special point called the focus or focal point (Fig. 31.3). Be-
cause the angles of incidence and reflection are equal, this means a parabolic mirror re-
flects rays parallel to the mirror axis so they converge at the focus. This effect is used to
concentrate light to high intensities or, conversely, to create a parallel beam from a point
source of light at the focus.
Near the apex of the parabolic mirror in Fig. 31.3, you can’t tell whether the shape is par- FIGURE 31.3 A parabolic mirror reflects rays
abolic or spherical; a sphere closely approximates the parabola. Because a spherical surface parallel to its axis to a common focus.
546 Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments

is easier to form, many focusing mirrors are, in fact, spherical. The slight distortion this
causes is called spherical aberration; a notable case is the Hubble Space Telescope
mirror, which was ground to the wrong curve and had substantial aberration (Fig. 31.4).
Normally spherical aberration is minimized by making the mirror only a tiny fraction of
the entire sphere. In that case the focal length—the distance from the mirror’s apex to its
focal point—is much larger than the mirror, so most rays striking the mirror are nearly par-
allel to the mirror axis. It’s only for such paraxial rays that the approximation of a parabola
by a sphere results in accurate focusing. But for clarity our diagrams will often show mirrors
with exaggerated curvature, and consequently not all rays will seem paraxial.
We can see how spherical mirrors form images by tracing two rays from each of sev-
eral points on the object, as we did for plane mirrors. Some special rays simplify this
process; their properties all follow from the law of reflection and the properties of a spher-
ical mirror in the paraxial approximation.

TACTICS 31.1 Ray Tracing with Mirrors

Figure 31.5 shows four special rays, any two of which suffice to locate an image:
1. Any ray parallel to the mirror axis reflects through the focal point F.
2. Conversely, any ray that passes through F reflects parallel to the axis.
3. Any ray that strikes the center of the mirror reflects symmetrically about the mirror axis.
4. Any ray through the center of curvature, C, strikes the mirror normal to the mirror surface and thus
returns on itself.

1
2
FIGURE 31.4 Incorrect curvature gave the 3
Hubble Space Telescope mirror substantial C
spherical aberration. Astronauts later installed F
corrective optics. Images are of the same
galaxy before and after the repair.

FIGURE 31.5 Four special rays for locating

images in curved mirrors. Any two suf-
fice to locate the image.

Figure 31.6 shows ray tracings, using our special rays 1 and 2 that go through the focal
point, to find the image location in three cases. In each case symmetry ensures that the
bottom of the image arrow is on the axis, so we haven’t bothered to trace it. In

O O

C F C F C
F O I

I
Real, inverted, reduced image Real, inverted, enlarged image Virtual, upright, enlarged image
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 31.6 Image formation with a concave spherical mirror, using rays 1 and 2 described in Tactics 31.1.
O denotes the object and I its image.
 31.1 Images with Mirrors 547

Fig. 31.6a we see that an object beyond the mirror’s center of curvature, C, forms a
smaller, inverted image. Light actually emerges from this image, so it’s a real image. If
you looked from the left toward the mirror in Fig. 31.6a you would actually see the image
in space in front of the mirror (Fig. 31.7).
As the object moves closer to the mirror, the real image grows; with the object be-
tween the center of curvature and the focus, the image is larger than the object and far-
ther from the mirror (Fig. 31.6b). As the object moves toward the focus, the image
grows larger and moves rapidly away from the mirror. With the object right at the focus,
the rays emerge in a parallel beam and there’s no image. Finally, rays from an object
closer to the mirror than the focus diverge after reflection. To an observer they appear to
come from a point behind the mirror. Thus there is a virtual image, in this case upright FIGURE 31.7 A bear meets its real image, formed
and enlarged (Fig. 31.6c). by the concave mirror at the rear. Bear and
image are both in front of the mirror.

GOT IT? 31.2 Where would you place an object so that its real image is the same
size as the object, as in Fig. 31.7?

Convex Mirrors
A convex mirror reflects on the outside of its spherical curvature, causing light to di-
verge and therefore to form only virtual images (Fig. 31.8). Although the focus has less
obvious physical significance in this case, its location still controls the geometry of re-
flected rays. As Fig. 31.8 shows, we can still draw a ray parallel to the axis and another
ray that would go through the focus if the mirror weren’t in its way. The reflected rays I
appear to diverge from a common point behind the mirror, showing a virtual image
that’s upright and reduced in size. By considering different object positions, you can O F
convince yourself that the image in a convex mirror always has these characteristics.
Convex mirrors are widely used where an image of a broad region needs to be captured
in a small space (Fig. 31.9).

FIGURE 31.8 Image formation with a convex

mirror. The image is always virtual, upright,
and reduced in size.

s
O
h C F
FIGURE 31.9 A convex mirror gives a wide-
angle view. 2h
I
s
The Mirror Equation (a)
Drawing ray diagrams gives an intuitive feel for image formation. More precise image Similar triangles, so h/h 5 2s/s
locations and sizes follow from the mirror equation, which we now derive. This time we’ll
find the image using our special rays parallel to the axis and striking the mirror’s center, as Similar triangles, so 2h/h 5 (s2f ) /f
shown in Fig. 31.10a. The ray that strikes the center of the mirror reflects symmetrically O
about the axis; therefore, the two shaded triangles are similar. Then the magnification s 2 f h
h
M—the ratio of image height h9 to object height h—is the same as the ratio of image and C F
2h
object distances from the mirror. We’ll consider the image height negative if the image is I
f
inverted; then from Fig. 31.10a we have s
(b)
h9 s9
M5 52 1magnification2 (31.1)
h s FIGURE 31.10 Finding the image I using rays 1
and 3 of Tactics 31.1. For an inverted image the
Here object and image are both in front of the mirror, so we take object and image dis- height h’ is negative, so we’ve marked the
tances s and s9 as positive quantities; the negative sign in Equation 31.1 then shows that in arrow length—a positive quantity—as 2h’.
548 Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments

this case the image is inverted. Also, for the object location of Fig. 31.10a, it’s clear that
ƒMƒ , 1, meaning the image is reduced rather than enlarged.
Figure 31.10b is the same as Fig. 31.10a except that now we show only reflects through
the focus. We’ve also labeled the focal length f and shaded a different pair of similar
triangles. From these you can see that 2h9/h 5 1s9 2 f2/f. Here we put the minus sign
on h9 because we’ve defined h9 as negative for the inverted image, but comparing similar
triangles requires a ratio of positive quantities. Equation 31.1 shows that the ratio h9/h is
the magnification M 5 2s9/s. So we have s9/s 5 1s9 2 f2/f or, dividing both sides by s9
and doing a little algebra,
1 1 1
1 5 1mirror equation2 (31.2)
s s9 f

Although we derived the mirror equation using a real image, the equation applies to
virtual images with the convention that a negative image distance s9 means the image is
behind the mirror. And we can handle convex mirrors as well by taking the focal length to
be a negative quantity. Table 31.1 summarizes image formation with mirrors, including
these sign conventions.

Table 31.1 Image Formation with Mirrors: Sign Conventions

Focal Length, f Object Distance, s Image Distance, s9 Type of Image Ray Diagram

1 1 1 Real,
O
(concave) (in front of mirror) (in front of mirror) inverted,
s . 2f s9 , 2f reduced C F

1 1 1 Real,
O
(concave) (in front of mirror) (in front of mirror) inverted,
2f . s . f s9 . 2f enlarged C F

1 1 2 Virtual,
(concave) (in front of mirror) (behind mirror) upright,
s,f enlarged C
F O I

2 1 2 Virtual,
(convex) (in front of mirror) (behind mirror) upright,
reduced I

O F

A diagram similar to Fig. 31.10 but using the ray through the center of curvature
gives another useful fact about curved mirrors: The magnitude of the focal length is half
the radius:
R
ƒfƒ 5 (31.3)
2
You can prove this in Problem 77.
 31.1 Images with Mirrors 549

EXAMPLE 31.1 A Concave Mirror: The Hubble Space Telescope

During assembly of the Hubble Space Telescope, a technician stood The rays seem to meet
3.85 m in front of the telescope’s concave mirror (Fig. 31.11). Given This ray reflects through here, so this is the
the focus. virtual image.
the telescope’s 5.52-m focal length, find (a) the location and (b) the
magnification of the technician’s image.

This ray reflects

symmetrically.

FIGURE 31.12 Sketch for Example 31.1, showing two rays that locate
the virtual image of the technician’s head.

equation 31.2 for the image distance s9 to get the image location. Then for
(b), we can find the magnification from Equation 31.1, M 5 2s9/s.

EVALUATE (a) Solving Equation 31.2 for s9 gives

fs 15.52 m213.85 m2
s9 5 5 5 212.7 m
s2f 3.85 m 2 5.52 m
(b) Using this result in Equation 31.1 gives the magnification:
FIGURE 31.11 A technician standing in front of the Hubble Space Telescope mirror.
s9 212.7 m
M52 52 5 3.30
INTERPRET This problem is about image formation in a concave mir- s 3.85 m
ror. We identify the technician as the object, the 5.52-m focal length
as f, and the 3.85-m distance as the object distance s. ASSESS The negative image distance confirms what our sketch antici-
pated: This is a virtual image, located behind the mirror. The negative
DEVELOP We’ve sketched the situation in Fig. 31.12. With the object distance cancels the minus sign in Equation 31.1, giving a positive
closer than the focal length, our sketch resembles Fig. 31.6c, so we antici- threefold magnification. Thus the image is upright and enlarged, just
pate an enlarged, virtual image, as shown. For (a), we’ll solve the mirror as Fig. 31.11 shows. ■

EXAMPLE 31.2 A Convex Mirror: Jurassic Park

In the film Jurassic Park, horrified passengers watch in a car’s convex
The image is behind
side-view mirror as a Tyrannosaurus rex pursues them. Printed on the the mirror.
mirror is the warning “OBJECTS IN MIRROR ARE CLOSER THAN
THEY SEEM.” If the mirror’s curvature radius is 12 m and the T. rex
is actually 9.0 m from the mirror, by what factor does the dinosaur ap-
pear reduced in size?

INTERPRET This is about a convex mirror, governed by the same ba-

sic equations as the concave mirror in Example 31.1. We identify the No light actually comes from it,
12-m length as the curvature radius R and the 9.0-m distance as the so it’s a virtual image.
object distance s.
FIGURE 31.13 Sketch for Example 31.2, showing two rays that locate the
image of T. rex. Mirror is not to scale.
DEVELOP We’ve sketched the situation in Fig. 31.13. Since this resem-
bles Fig. 31.8, we see that the image will indeed be reduced in size. convex mirror, Table 31.1 shows that the focal length is negative, so
Equation 31.1, M 5 2s9/s, gives the magnification we want, but to f 5 26.0 m.
use it we need the image distance s9. In Example 31.1 we solved Equa-
tion 31.2 to get s9 5 fs/1s 2 f2. Although that mirror was concave EVALUATE Using our expression for M gives
and this one is convex, Equation 31.2 applies to both mirrors. So we f 126.0 m2
can use s9 5 fs/1s 2 f2 in Equation 31.1 to get the magnification: M52 52 5 0.40
s2f 9.0 m 2 126.0 m2
s9 fs/1s 2 f2 f where the answer comes out positive because f is negative.
M52 52 52
s s s2f
ASSESS Our result shows that T. rex appears in the mirror at only
We aren’t given the focal length, but Equation 31.3, ƒfƒ 5 R/2, 40% of its actual size; in other words, it looks farther away than it
shows that its magnitude is half the 12-m radius. Since this is a really is. ■
550 Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments

31.2 Images with Lenses

A lens is a piece of transparent material that uses refraction to form images. Like mir-
F rors, lenses can be either concave or convex. But light goes through a lens while it re-
flects off a mirror, so the roles of the two are reversed. A convex lens focuses parallel
rays to a focal point and is therefore a converging lens (Fig. 31.14). As we’ll see, a
convex lens can form real and virtual images, depending on the object location. A con-
f cave lens, in contrast, is a diverging lens; it refracts parallel rays so they appear to di-
verge from a common focus. Like a convex mirror, a concave lens forms only virtual
FIGURE 31.14 A convex lens brings parallel light images (Fig. 31.15).
rays to a focus at F. We first explore a thin lens—one whose thickness is small compared with the curva-
ture radii of its two surfaces. Although light refracts as it enters a lens and again as it ex-
These rays look like its, in the thin-lens approximation the two surfaces are so close that it suffices to consider
they're coming from F. that the light bends just once, as it crosses the center plane of the lens. Unlike a mirror,
light can go either way through a lens; that means the lens has two focal points, one on
either side. For a thin lens, the focal length proves to be the same in either direction, so it
doesn’t matter which way we orient the lens. We’ll consider all lenses to be thin unless
F
otherwise stated, and later we’ll justify the thin-lens approximation mathematically.

Lens Images by Ray Tracing

2f As with mirrors, two rays serve to locate the image formed by a lens. For lenses, two spe-
cial rays simplify ray tracing.
FIGURE 31.15 Parallel light passing through a
concave lens diverges so it looks as though it’s
coming from a common focus.
TACTICS 31.2 Ray Tracing with Lenses
Figure 31.16 shows two special rays:
1. Any ray parallel to the lens axis refracts through the focal point.
2. Any ray through the center of the lens passes undeflected.

. . . passes
Parallel ray . . . through
1
the focus.
F F

Ray through . . . is undeflected.

lens center . . .

FIGURE 31.16 Two special rays for locating

images formed with lenses.

Figure 31.17 shows ray tracings for different object placements in relation to a converg-
ing lens. In Fig. 31.17a we see that an object farther out than two focal lengths produces a
smaller, inverted, real image on the other side of the lens. Since light really emanates from
this image, you could see it without looking through the lens. As the object moves toward
the lens, the image moves away and grows. When the object is between one and two focal
lengths from the lens, the image has moved beyond 2f and is enlarged (Fig. 31.17b). The
image on a movie screen is formed in this way. Moving the object closer than the focal
point produces an enlarged, virtual image that can be seen only by an observer looking
through the lens (Fig. 31.17c).
Figure 31.18 shows ray tracings for a diverging lens. Like a convex mirror, this lens
produces only virtual images that are upright and reduced in size; they’re visible only
through the lens. The basic geometry of Fig. 31.18 doesn’t change even if the object
moves within the focal length.
 31.2 Images with Lenses 551

Inverted,
reduced,
f real image
Object 2f f 2f
s . 2f

(a)

2f . s . f
Inverted,
enlarged,
f real image
2f Object f 2f

(b)

Upright, enlarged, f Object f

virtual image s,f

(c)

FIGURE 31.17 Image formation with a converging lens, shown for three object locations.

Getting Quantitative: The Lens Equation

F
Study Fig. 31.19 and you’ll see that triangles OAB and IDB are similar. Therefore, as for F
mirrors, the image magnification is Object Virtual
image
h9 s9
M5 52 (31.4) FIGURE 31.18 A diverging lens always forms a
h s reduced, upright, virtual image, visible only
where again a negative height means an inverted image. The shaded triangles in Fig. 31.19 through the lens.
are also similar, so 2h9/1s9 2 f2 5 h/f. Combining this result with Equation 31.4 and
doing some algebra then give
1 1 1
1 5 1lens equation2 (31.5)
s s9 f

which is identical to the mirror equation 31.2. Although we derived Equation 31.5 for the
case of a real image, it holds for virtual images if we consider the image distance nega-
tive; in that case the image is on the same side of the lens as is the object. And it holds for
diverging lenses if we consider the focal length negative. Table 31.2 summarizes image
formation with lenses, including these sign conventions. Figure 31.20 (next page)
describes graphically the sizes and types of images formed at different object distances.

O s

h
F D
A F B
2h
s f
I

FIGURE 31.19 Ray diagram for deriving the lens equation. Triangles OAB and IDB are similar,
as are the shaded triangles.
552 Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments

4f Table 31.2 Image Formation with Lenses: Sign Conventions

3f Focal Length, f Object Distance, s Image Distance, s9 Type of Image Ray Diagram

Con
1 1 1 Real,

ve
rg
2f in g f I
(f . (convex) s . 2f (opposite side of lens) inverted, O 2f f 2f
0)
2f . s9 . f reduced s . 2f
Image distance, s

f
Real images
1 1 1 Real,
2f . s . f f I
0 (convex) 2f . s . f (opposite side of lens) inverted, 2f O f 2f
s9 . 2f enlarged
Co

2f Diverging
( f , 0)
nver
ging ( f

22f 1 1 2 Virtual,
Virtual images (convex) s,f (same side of lens) upright, s,f
. 0)

23f enlarged

24f I f O f
0 f 2f 3f 4f
Object distance, s
2 1 2 Virtual,
FIGURE 31.20 Image distance versus object (concave) (same side of lens) upright, F F
distance for lenses. O I
reduced

GOT IT? 31.3 You look through a lens at this page and see the words enlarged and
right-side up. Is the image you observe real or virtual? Is the lens concave or convex?

EXAMPLE 31.3 Using the Lens Equation: Fine Print

You’re using a magnifying glass (a converging lens) with 30-cm focal converging (i.e., convex) lens, the focal length is positive: f 5 130 cm.
length to read a telephone book (Fig. 31.21). How far from the page The factor-of-3 magnification we want is the quantity M.
should you hold the lens in order to see the print enlarged three times?
DEVELOP The situation is like Fig. 31.17c, with an enlarged, upright,
virtual image. We’re given the focal length and magnification, but we
don’t know either the object distance s, which we’re looking for, or
the image distance s9. Equation 31.4, M 5 2s9/s, relates the two, so
we can first use that equation to eliminate s9 in terms of s and then
solve the lens equation 31.5, 1/s 1 1/s9 5 1/f, for s.

EVALUATE With M 5 3, Equation 31.4 gives s9 5 23s. Then Equa-

tion 31.5 becomes
1 1 2 1 1
2 5 5 5
s 3s 3s f 30 cm
so s 5 122130 cm2/3 5 20 cm.

ASSESS Our answer is less than the focal length, as Fig. 31.17c shows
FIGURE 31.21 Using a converging lens as a magnifying glass (Example 31.3).
is required for a virtual image. Figure 31.21 confirms that the image is
INTERPRET This is a problem involving image formation with a con- enlarged, upright, and virtual, and it appears farther away than the ob-
verging lens. The object is the phone book, so we identify the book-to- ject. It’s also on the same side of the lens as the object, which explains
lens distance we’re asked for as the object distance s. Since this is a the negative image distance s95 260 cm. ■

31.3 Refraction in Lenses: The Details

So far we’ve treated lenses as being arbitrarily thin and neglected details of the refraction
process. Here we develop a more general description of refraction in lenses, of which our
thin-lens approximation is a special case.

Refraction at a Curved Surface

Figure 31.22 shows a transparent material with refractive index n2 and a curved surface of
radius R. Outside the material is a medium with refractive index n1. We’ll now prove what
 31.3 Refraction in Lenses: The Details 553

u1 B
n1 n2
u2
O I O a A b C g I
s R
s

(a) (b)

FIGURE 31.22 Refraction at an interface with a curved surface. All labeled angles are considered
small, even though the drawing doesn’t show them as such.

Fig. 31.22a shows: that rays from a point object O are refracted to a common image point I.
Our proof is valid only in the paraxial approximation that all rays make small angles with
the optic axis; as with mirrors, our drawings won’t always show these angles as being small.
Figure 31.22b shows a single ray. With all the labeled angles small, we can approxi-
mate sin x . tan x . x, with x in radians. Then Snell’s law, n1 sin u1 5 n2 sin u2, becomes
n1u1 5 n2u2. Triangles BCI and OBC give u2 5 b 2 g and u1 5 a 1 b, so Snell’s law
becomes n11a 1 b2 5 n21b 2 g2. Furthermore, in the small-angle approximation the arc
BA is so close to a straight line that we can write a . tan a . BA/s, with s 5 OA the
object’s distance from the refracting surface. Similarly, b . BA/R and g . BA/s9. Thus
our expression of Snell’s law becomes
BA BA BA BA
n1 a 1 b 5 n2 a 2 b
s R R s9
or, on canceling BA and rearranging,
n1 n2 n2 2 n1
1 5 (31.6)
s s9 R
The angle a doesn’t appear here, showing that this relation between object and image dis-
tances holds for all rays that satisfy the small-angle approximation. So Fig. 31.22a is cor-
rect: All such rays do indeed come to a common focus at I.
We derived Equation 31.6 for the case of a real image, but as usual it applies to virtual
images if we take the image distance as negative. And it applies to concave surfaces if we
take R to be negative. It even works for flat surfaces, with R 5 `.

EXAMPLE 31.4 Refraction at a Curved Surface: A Cylindrical Aquarium

An aquarium consists of a thin-walled plastic tube 70 cm in diameter.
For a cat looking directly into the aquarium, what’s the apparent dis-
tance to a fish 15 cm from the aquarium wall?
12.6 cm
INTERPRET We interpret the cylindrical aquarium as a two-dimensional Fish
Center
version of the spherical surface we analyzed with Fig. 31.22 and Equa- Virtual
tion 31.6. The plastic tube is thin, so we can neglect refraction within image
the plastic and consider that we have just a cylinder of water. The object 15 cm
is the fish, and since it’s inside the water, the cylindrical edge of the
aquarium is concave toward the object. Then the curvature radius is 35 cm
negative; we’re given the diameter as 70 cm, so R 5 235 cm. With the (a) (b)
object in the water, n1 5 1.333 from Table 30.1 and n2 5 1 for air. The
FIGURE 31.23 (a) A cylindrical aquarium. (b) Top view, showing the formation
15-cm distance from the edge to the fish is the object distance s.
of a virtual image of a fish that’s actually 15 cm from the edge.
DEVELOP Figure 31.23 shows the physical situation and a ray dia-
gram viewed from above. Our plan is to solve Equation 31.6, ASSESS Make sense? The fish is actually 15 cm from the edge, but re-
n1 /s 1 n2 /s9 5 1n2 2 n12/R, for s9 and evaluate using R 5 235 cm, fraction makes the image distance s9 shorter. The same effect occurs
n1 5 1.333, n2 5 1, and s 5 15 cm. when you look down into a swimming pool or lake: Objects on the
bottom look closer, and you can find out how much by applying Equa-
EVALUATE Solving, we have tion 31.6 with R 5 ` (see Exercise 30). ■
n2 2 n1 n1 21
s9 5 n2 a 2 b 5 212.6 cm
R s
554 Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments

Lenses, Thick and Thin

Figure 31.24 shows a lens of thickness t with refractive index n, surrounded by air with
n 5 1. Object O1 lies a distance s1 from the left-hand surface. This surface forms an
image I1, which we’ll also call O2 because it acts as an object for the right-hand surface.
Refraction at that surface forms a second image I2. We want to relate the original image
O1 and the final image I2.

The object

n51 n
Final image
C2 s2
I1, O2 O1 |R2| C1 I2
t
s1 R1 R2 , 0 since it's
Image formed by concave toward O2.
left surface is the |s1|
object imaged by
s2 5 | s1| 1 t 5 t 2 s1
right surface.

FIGURE 31.24 Analysis of a thick lens with different curvature radii. C1 and C2 are the centers
of curvature of the left and right sides, respectively; t is the lens thickness.

At the left-hand surface, the quantities in Equation 31.6 become

1 n n21
1 5 1left-hand surface2
s1 s19 R1
We’ve placed O1 so close that I1 is a virtual image, so s91 is negative. Now we set up an-
other instance of Equation 31.6, this time for the right-hand surface. Here I1 is the object,
whose distance s2 is t 2 s91 because s91 is negative. Also at the right-hand surface,
s9 5 s 92, n1 5 n, and R 5 R2, where, for the case shown, R2 is negative because the right-
hand surface is concave toward the object 1I1, O22 that’s being imaged. So at the right-
hand surface, Equation 31.6 reads
n 1 12n
1 5 1right-hand surface2
t 2 s91 s92 R2
Now we’ll let the lens become arbitrarily thin, so t S 0. Then we add the two equa-
tions; the intermediate-image term n/s19 cancels, leaving only the first object distance and
final image distance. So we drop the subscripts 1 and 2, and the result is
1 1 1 1
1 5 1n 2 12 a 2 b
s s9 R1 R2
The left-hand side here is identical to the left-hand side of Equation 31.5, and Equation
31.5’s right-hand side is 1/f. Equating the two right-hand sides results in the lensmaker’s
formula, which gives the focal length:
Plano- Double Convex
1 1 1
convex convex meniscus
5 1n 2 12 a 2 b 1lensmaker’s formula2 (31.7)
f R1 R2
Again, the radii here can be positive or negative; in Fig. 31.24 R1 is positive because the
left-hand surface is convex toward the object, while R2 is negative because the right-hand
surface is concave toward its object, the intermediate image I1. Although we derived Equa-
tion 31.7 for the case of a virtual intermediate image, the lensmaker’s formula is a general
result for the focal length of a thin lens.
Lenses come in a variety of shapes (Fig. 31.25). Those that are thicker in the center are
Plano- Double Concave converging lenses, for which Equation 31.7 gives a positive focal length. Those that are
concave concave meniscus
thinner in the center are diverging lenses, with negative f. These behaviors reverse if the
FIGURE 31.25 Common lens types. medium surrounding the lens has a higher refractive index (see Problem 76).
 31.4 Optical Instruments 555

EXAMPLE 31.5 The Lensmaker’s Formula: A Plano-Convex Lens

Find an expression for the focal length of the plano-convex lens in EVALUATE With R1 5 R and R2 5 `, Equation 31.7 gives
Fig. 31.25, given refractive index n and radius R for the one curved 1 1 21 R
surface. f 5 c 1n 2 12 a 2 bd 5
R ` n21
INTERPRET This is a thin lens, such as we just analyzed in deriving
the lensmaker’s formula. With an object at the left of the lens, we ASSESS Make sense? The smaller R, the more curved the lens and the
identify R1 5 R and R2 5 ` for the flat surface. more it bends light; the result is a shorter focal length. The higher n,
the greater the refraction, and with n in the denominator, the result is
DEVELOP The lensmaker’s formula, Equation 31.7, relates the focal again a shorter focal length. We asserted earlier that a thin lens works
length, the lens surface radii, and the refractive index. Our plan is to the same either way. You can see that explicitly here by putting the
solve for f. object beyond the flat side; then R1 5 ` and R2 5 2R, but the
result for f is unchanged. ■

Lens Aberrations
Lenses exhibit several optical defects. We described spherical aberration in mirrors; Rays don't meet at
a common point,
this same defect occurs with spherical lenses (Fig. 31.26a). Our lens analysis required blurring the image.
that all rays make small angles with the lens axis; if not, then they don’t share a com-
mon focus, causing spherical aberration. Small angles occur naturally with distant ob-
jects, but not with objects close to the lens. Using only the central portion of the lens O
I
can eliminate those rays with larger angles (Fig. 31.26b), leading to sharper focus.
That’s why a camera focuses over a wider range when it’s “stopped down,” with an (a)
opaque iris covering the outer part of the lens. The trade-off is that less light is
available.
We mentioned chromatic aberration in Chapter 30; it occurs because the refractive Covering the outer
index varies with wavelength, causing different colors to focus at different points. High- part of the lens . . .
quality optical systems minimize this effect by using composite lenses of materials with . . . improves the focus.
different refractive indices. Astigmatism occurs when a lens has different curvature radii
O I
in different directions. This is a common defect in the human eye, corrected with glasses
or contact lenses that have compensating asymmetric curvature.
(b)

FIGURE 31.26 (a) Spherical aberration. (b) Using

31.4 Optical Instruments only the central portion of the lens minimizes
Numerous optical instruments use lenses, mirrors, or both to form images. All but the sim- aberration, but at the expense of a dimmer
plest have more than one optical element, but the principles we’ve developed here still image.
apply. We analyze such instruments by tracing light through the sequence of optical ele-
ments, using the image formed by one element as the object for the next.

The Eye
Our eyes are complex optical systems with several refracting surfaces and mecha-
nisms to vary the focal length and amount of light admitted (Fig. 31.27). Light enters
through the cornea and traverses a liquid called the aqueous humor before passing
through the lens. It then traverses the vitreous humor, a liquid in the main body of the
Retina
roughly 2.3-cm-diameter eyeball. Finally it strikes the retina, where special cells Iris
called rods and cones produce electrochemical signals that carry visual information to Cornea

the brain.
A properly functioning eye produces well-focused real images on the retina, with the Lens
cornea providing most of the refractive focusing. Muscles adjust the lens, changing its Aqueous Vitreous humor
focal length to compensate for different object distances. Other muscles adjust the iris, humor
resizing the pupil opening to adjust for different light levels.
In nearsighted (myopic) people, the image forms in front of the retina, causing distant Optic
nerve
objects to appear blurred (Fig. 31.28a, next page). Diverging corrective lenses produce
closer intermediate images that the myopic eye can then focus (Fig. 31.28b, next page). In FIGURE 31.27 The human eye.
556 Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments

(a) (a)

I
I

(b) (b)

FIGURE 31.28 (a) A nearsighted eye focuses FIGURE 31.29 (a) A farsighted eye can’t fo-
light from distant objects in front of the cus light from nearby objects. (b) A con-
retina. (b) A diverging lens corrects the verging lens produces a more distant
problem, creating a closer virtual image image that the eye can focus.
that the eye can focus.

farsighted (hyperopic) people, the image of nearby objects would form behind the retina,
and converging corrective lenses are used (Fig. 31.29). Even normal eyes can’t focus much
closer than the so-called near point at about 25 cm. This distance greatly increases with
age, a condition called “presbyopia.”
Prescriptions for corrective lenses specify the corrective power, P, in diopters, which
is the inverse of the focal length in meters. Thus a 1-diopter lens has f 5 1 m, while a
2-diopter lens has f 5 0.5 m and is more powerful in that it refracts light more sharply.
Like f itself, the sign of a lens’s corrective power is positive or negative depending on
whether the lens is converging or diverging.
It doesn’t matter whether a corrective lens is several centimeters from the eye, as with
glasses, or right on the cornea, as with contact lenses. Contact lenses can be thin because,
as Equation 31.7 shows, it’s the curvature radii and not the thickness that determine the
focal length. A more radical approach to vision correction is laser surgery, described in
the Application.

APPLICATION Laser Vision Correction

breaks molecular bonds in the corneal tissue, vaporizing the material and re-
shaping the cornea according to a prescription customized for the individual
eye. With a nearsighted eye, the laser thins the central cornea, making it less
sharply curved and thus reducing its refractive power. This has the same effect
as the corrective lens in Fig. 31.28b. It’s harder, but still possible, to correct far-
sightedness with LASIK. This involves thinning a ring-shaped region around
the central cornea, making the cornea more steeply curved and thus increasing
its refractive power. The corrective lens in Fig. 31.29b accomplishes the same
thing. The corneal reshaping doesn’t have to be symmetric, so LASIK can also
correct an asymmetric cornea that causes astigmatism. What it can’t do is re-
store the ability to focus both near and far, since that’s handled by the lens,
which stiffens with age. So older LASIK patients still need reading glasses. It’s
possible to correct one eye for near vision and another for distance, but then the
patient loses some of the depth perception that comes with binocular vision.
The laser used in vision correction is a precisely controllable excimer
laser, which produces intense bursts of ultraviolet light. Each pulse removes
only 0.25 m of tissue—one four-thousandth of a millimeter. The laser is so
The cornea provides most of the eye’s refractive power, with the adjustable lens precise that it can cut notches in a human hair! The surgeon determines the
compensating for different object distances. The popular LASIK procedure cor- necessary corneal adjustments and feeds the information to a computer that
rects vision by reshaping the cornea. In LASIK, the surgeon begins by mechan- controls the laser. Thanks to the laser’s precision, most patients achieve nearly
ically cutting a flap of the outermost corneal layer. Then a precision laser beam complete vision correction.
 31.4 Optical Instruments 557

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 31.1 Contact Lens Mix-Up

You and your roommate have gotten your boxes of disposable contact ASSESS Your lenses don’t actually look like the lens in Fig. 31.29b.
lenses mixed up. One box is marked “21.75 diopter,” the other “12.5 Since your cornea is curved, they’re more like the convex meniscus
diopter.” You’re farsighted and your roommate is nearsighted. Which lens of Fig. 31.25. The important point is that they’re thicker in the
lenses are yours? middle, which makes them converging lenses.
EVALUATE Figure 31.29 shows that you need a converging lens to cor-
rect your farsightedness. From Table 31.2’s sign conventions, that MAKING THE CONNECTION What’s the focal length of your
means a positive focal length and therefore a positive corrective power contact lenses?
P 5 1/f. So yours are the 12.5-diopter lenses.
EVALUATE The diopter measure is the inverse of the focal length in
meters, so, conversely, f 5 1/P 5 11/2.52 m 5 40 cm.

EXAMPLE 31.6 The Power of Lenses: Lost Your Glasses!

You’re on vacation and have lost your reading glasses; without them, DEVELOP Equation 31.5, 1/s 1 1/s9 5 1/f, relates the inverse of the
your eyes can’t focus closer than 70 cm. Fortunately, you can buy focal length to the object and image distances. But with the focal
nonprescription reading glasses at the pharmacy, where they come in length in meters, 1/f is just the power, P, in diopters. So we can get
0.25-diopter increments. Which glasses should you buy so you can the required power directly from Equation 31.5.
focus at the standard 25-cm near point?
EVALUATE Applying Equation 31.5 gives
INTERPRET Your eyes can’t focus closer than 70 cm, so this problem 1 1 1 1 1
is asking for the power of a lens that will make an object at 25 cm ap- P5 5 1 5 1 5 2.57 diopters
f s s9 0.25 m 20.70 m
pear as if it’s at 70 cm. In other words, when the object distance s is
25 cm, the image distance s9 should be 270 cm. We put the minus
ASSESS The closest available power is 2.5 diopters, so that’s what you
sign here because, as Fig. 31.29b shows, the image is on the same side
should buy. ■
of the lens as the object, so this is a virtual image.

Cameras
A camera is much like the eye, except that an electronic detector or film replaces the light-
sensitive retina. Where the eye changes the lens shape to accommodate different object
distances, a camera moves its rigid lens to change the image distance. Simple “point and
shoot” cameras use infrared beams to determine the object distance, and then automati-
cally adjust the lens position for optimum focus. The camera also adjusts the lens aperture
and exposure time for ambient light conditions. Zoom lenses have moveable elements that
alter the focal length for wide-angle to telephoto views.

Magnifiers and Microscopes a is small,

so a . h /25 cm.
Examining very small objects requires bringing them closer than the 25-cm near point be-
low which the human eye can’t focus. We therefore use lenses to put enlarged images at h a
greater distances, where we can focus. What matters is not the actual image size, but how
25 cm
much bigger an object looks to us—and that depends on how much of our field of view it
occupies. Angular magnification, m, is the ratio of the angle an object subtends when (a)
seen through a lens to the angle subtended when it’s at the 25-cm near point and viewed
with the naked eye. Figure 31.30a shows that the latter angle, measured in radians, is ap- b . h/f
proximately a 5 h/25 cm, where h is the object height. We get the most comfortable
viewing with the eye close to the lens and the object just inside the focal length, forming a h b
large and distant virtual image. With this geometry, Fig. 31.30b shows that the image an- I O
gle is very nearly h/f. Then the angular magnification is s~f

b h/f 25 cm s .. f
m5 5 5 1simple magnifier2 (31.8) R2 , 0 since it's
a h/25 cm f (b) concave toward O2.
Single lenses produce angular magnifications up to about 4 before aberrations com- FIGURE 31.30 Calculating the angular magnifica-
promise image quality. Greater magnification requires more than one lens. In a tion m 5 b/a.
558 Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments

Viewed
Image from image
Eyepiece objective
Objective
Object
I1 I2
fe fo

FIGURE 31.31 Image formation in a compound microscope. Figure is not to scale;

L should be much greater than either focal length, and image I1 should be very
near the eyepiece’s focus, resulting in greater magnification.

compound microscope, an objective lens of short focal length forms a magnified real
image. This image is viewed through a second lens, the eyepiece, used as a simple
magnifier (Fig. 31.31). The object being viewed is positioned just beyond the focus of
the objective lens, and its image falls just inside the focal length of the eyepiece. If both
focal lengths are small compared with the distance between the lenses, then the object
distance for the objective lens is approximately the objective focal length fo, and the
resulting image distance is approximately the lens spacing L. The real image formed
by the objective lens is larger than the object by the ratio of the image and object dis-
tances, or Mo 5 2L/fo. The eyepiece makes the real image look larger still, by a factor
of its angular magnification m 5 25 cm/fe. So the overall magnification of the micro-
scope is
L 25 cm
M 5 Mome 5 2 a b (compound microscope) (31.9)
fo fe
where, as usual, the minus sign signifies an inverted image.
Optical microscopes work well as long as the approximation of geometrical optics
holds—that is, when the object is much larger than the wavelength of light. Viewing
smaller objects requires shorter wavelengths than those of visible light. In the electron mi-
croscope, those “waves” are electrons, whose wavelike nature we’ll examine in Chapter 34.

Telescopes
A telescope collects light from distant objects, either forming an image or supplying light
to instruments for analysis. Modern astronomical instruments are invariably reflectors,
whose main light-gathering element is a mirror. Small handheld telescopes, binoculars,
and telephoto lenses are refractors, which use lenses to gather light.
A simple refractor consists of an objective lens that images distant objects at essen-
tially its focal point, followed by an eyepiece to view this image (Fig. 31.32). The focal
points of objective and eyepiece are nearly coincident, so the real image at the objective’s
focus is then seen through the eyepiece as a greatly enlarged, virtual image. The angular

To distant object Image formed

Objective by objective Eyepiece
fo fe fe

a I1 b
a h1

h2
Viewed image

I2

FIGURE 31.32 Image formation in a refracting telescope. A distant object is imaged first at the
focus of the objective lens (image I1). An eyepiece with its focus at nearly the same point then
gives an enlarged virtual image 1I22. The angles a and b are given by a . h1 /fo and b . h1 /fe ,
leading to Equation 31.10.
 31.4 Optical Instruments 559

magnification is the ratio of the angle b subtended by the final image to the angle a sub-
tended by the actual object; Fig. 31.32 shows that this ratio is
Detector
b fo
m5 5 1refracting telescope2 (31.10)
a fe
Since a real image is inverted and a virtual image is upright, a two-lens refracting tele- Primary mirror
scope gives an inverted image. This is fine for astronomical work, but telescopes designed (a)
for terrestrial use have an extra lens, a diverging eyepiece, or a set of reflecting prisms to
produce an upright image.
Hole
Reflecting telescopes offer many advantages over refractors. Mirrors have reflective
Secondary
coatings on their front surfaces, eliminating chromatic aberration because light doesn’t mirror
pass through glass. Reflectors can be much larger since mirrors are supported across their
entire back surfaces—unlike lenses, which must be supported at the edges. Whereas the
largest refracting telescope ever built has a 1-m-diameter lens, large reflectors boast diam-
Spectrograph
eters of 10 m or greater. These designs incorporate segmented and/or flexible mirrors or other
whose shape can be adjusted under computer control for optimum focusing. With so- instrument
called adaptive optics, such systems may adjust rapidly enough to compensate for the at- (b)
mospheric turbulence that has traditionally limited the resolution of ground-based
telescopes.
The simplest reflecting telescope is a curved mirror with a detector at its focus. Superb
Secondary
image quality results, in principle limited only by wave effects we’ll discuss in the next mirror
chapter. More often the telescope is used as a “light bucket,” collecting light from distant
sources too small to image even with today’s large optical telescopes. Then a secondary
mirror sends light to a focus at a point that’s convenient for telescope-mounted instrumen-
Eyepiece lens
tation. Optical fibers may also be used to bring light collected by the primary mirror to
(c)
fixed instruments. Figure 31.33 shows three common designs for reflecting telescopes.
Magnification is not a particularly important quantity in astronomical telescopes, FIGURE 31.33 Reflecting telescopes. (a) A detec-
which are used more for spectral and other analysis than for direct imaging. More impor- tor at the prime focus gives the best image
tant is the light-gathering power of the instrument, which is determined simply by the quality. (b) The Cassegrain design is widely
used in large telescopes. (c) The Newtonian
area of its objective lens or primary mirror. Each of the two 10-m Keck Telescopes, for
design is used primarily in small telescopes.
instance, has 100 times the light-gathering power of the 1-m Yerkes refractor and more
than 17 times the power of the 2.4-m Hubble Space Telescope. The Giant Magellan Tele-
scope, scheduled for operation in 2016, boasts seven mirrors equivalent to a single 21-m
mirror, with more than four times the light-gathering power of the 10-m Keck instru-
ments (Fig. 31.34).

FIGURE 31.34 A painting of the Giant Magellan Telescope

as it will look when completed in 2016.
CHAPTER 31 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is how reflection and refraction form images. Images are real or virtual depending on whether or not light actually comes from
the image location.

Key Concepts and Equations

A curved mirror or lens has a focal point, F, at which parallel light rays converge:

F
F

The same equation describes image formation with mirrors and lenses:
1 1 1
1 5
s s9 f
The table summarizes the sign conventions for each term.

Value Symbol Condition Sign

Object distance s Object on same side as incoming light rays 1
Object on opposite side from incoming light rays 2
Image distance s9 Image on same side as outgoing light rays 1
Image on opposite side from outgoing light rays 2
Focal length f Focus on same side as outgoing light rays 1
Focus on opposite side from outgoing light rays 2

Image formation with mirrors and lenses:

s O s
O
h F
h C F F
2h  2h
I s f
I
s

The lensmaker’s formula is

1 1 1 Curvature Curvature
5 1n 2 12 a 2 b radius R1 n radius R2
f R1 R2 (1 or 2) (1 or 2)

Applications
Compound microscope Refracting telescope
Viewed To distant object Image formed
Image from image
Eyepiece by objective Eyepiece
objective Objective
Objective fo fe fe
Object a a I1 b
I1 I2 h1
fe fo Viewed
h2 image
L
L 25 cm I2
Magnification: M 5 2 a b
fo fe fo
Angular magnification: m 5
fe
 Exercises and Problems 561

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion Section 31.2 Images with Lenses

22. A lightbulb is 56 cm from a convex lens. Its image appears on a
1. How can you see a virtual image, when it’s not “really there”? screen 31 cm from the lens, on the other side. Find (a) the lens’s
2. You lay a magnifying glass (a converging lens) on a printed page. focal length and (b) how much the image is enlarged or reduced.
Looking toward the lens, you move it toward you, away from the 23. By what factor is the image magnified for an object 1.5 focal
page, eventually going well beyond its focal length. Explain the lengths from a converging lens? Is the image upright or inverted?
changes in what you see. 24. A lens with 50-cm focal length produces a real image the same
3. Under what circumstances will the image in a concave mirror be size as the object. How far from the lens are image and object?
the same size as the object? 25. By holding a magnifying glass 25 cm from your desk lamp, you
4. If you’re handed a converging lens, what can you do to estimate can focus an image of the lamp’s bulb on a wall 1.6 m from the
its focal length quickly? lamp. What’s the focal length of your magnifying glass?
5. What’s the meaning of a negative object distance? A negative 26. A real image is four times as far from a lens as is the object.
focal length? What’s the object distance, measured in focal lengths?
6. A diverging lens always makes a reduced image. Could you use 27. A magnifying glass enlarges print by 50% when it’s 9.0 cm from
such a lens to start a fire by focusing sunlight? Explain. a page. What’s its focal length?
7. Is there any limit to the temperature you can achieve by focusing
sunlight? (Hint: Think about the second law of thermodynamics.)
Section 31.3 Refraction in Lenses: The Details
8. Can a concave mirror make a reduced real image? A reduced vir- 28. You’re writing specifications for a new line of magnifying
tual image? An enlarged real image? An enlarged virtual image? glasses that have double-convex lenses with equal 32-cm curva-
Specify conditions for each possible image. ture radii, made from glass with n 5 1.52. What do you list for
9. If you placed a screen at the location of a virtual image, would the focal length?
the image appear on the screen? Why or why not? 29. You’re standing in a wading pool and your feet appear to be 30
10. If you look into the bowl of a metal spoon, you see yourself up- cm below the surface. How deep is the pool?
side down. Flip the spoon and you’re right-side up. Explain why. 30. The bottom of a swimming pool looks to be 1.5 m below the sur-
11. Is the image on a movie screen real or virtual? How do you face. Find the pool’s actual depth.
know? 31. A tiny insect is trapped 1.0 mm from the center of a spherical
12. Does a fish in a spherical bowl appear larger or smaller than it dewdrop 4.0 mm in diameter. As you look straight into the
actually is? drop, what’s the insect’s apparent distance from the drop’s
13. A block of ice contains a hollow, air-filled space in the shape of surface?
a double-convex lens. Describe the optical behavior of this 32. You’re underwater, looking through a spherical air bubble (Fig.
space. 31.35). What’s its actual diameter if it appears, along your line of
14. The refractive index of the human cornea is about 1.4. If you can sight, to be 1.5 cm in diameter?
see clearly in air, why can’t you see clearly underwater? Why do
goggles help?
15. Do you want a long or short focal length for a telescope’s objec-
tive lens? What about a microscope’s?
16. Give at least three reasons why reflecting telescopes are superior
to refractors. 1.5 cm

Exercises and Problems

Exercises FIGURE 31.35 Exercise 32

Section 31.1 Images with Mirrors

17. A shoe store uses small floor-level mirrors to let customers view Section 31.4 Optical Instruments
prospective purchases. At what angle should such a mirror be in- 33. You have to hold a book 55 cm from your eyes for the print to be
clined so that a person standing 50 cm from the mirror with eyes BIO in focus. What power lens would correct your farsightedness?
140 cm off the floor can see her feet? 34. What focal length is needed for a simple magnifier with angular
18. A candle is on the axis of a 15-cm-focal-length concave mirror, magnification 3?
36 cm from the mirror. (a) Where is its image? (b) How do the 35. You’re an optometrist helping a nearsighted patient who claims
image and object sizes compare? (c) Is the image real or virtual? BIO he can’t see clearly beyond 80 cm. Prescribe a lens that will put
19. An object is five focal lengths from a concave mirror. (a) How do the images of distant objects at 80 cm, giving your patient clear
the object and image heights compare? (b) Is the image upright vision at all distances beyond the normal near point.
or inverted? 36. A particular eye has a focal length of 2.0 cm instead of the
20. A virtual image is located 40 cm behind a concave mirror with BIO 2.2 cm that would put a sharply focused image on the retina.
focal length 18 cm. (a) Where is the object? (b) By how much is (a) Is this eye nearsighted or farsighted? (b) What corrective lens
the image magnified? is needed?
21. (a) Where on the axis of a concave mirror would you place an ob- 37. A compound microscope has objective and eyepiece focal
ject in order to produce a full-size image? (b) Will the image be lengths of 6.1 mm and 1.7 cm, respectively. If the lenses are 8.3 cm
real or virtual? apart, what is the instrument’s magnification?
562 Chapter 31 Images and Optical Instruments

Problems 58. Consider the inverse of Example 31.4: You’re inside a 70-cm-
38. (a) Find the focal length of a concave mirror if an object placed diameter hollow tube containing air, and the tip of your nose is
50 cm in front of the mirror has a real image 75 cm from the mir- 15 cm from the tube’s wall. The tube is immersed in water, and a
ror. (b) Where and what type will the image be if the object is fish looks in. To the fish, what’s the apparent distance from your
moved to a point 20 cm from the mirror? nose to the tube wall?
39. A 12-mm-high object is 10 cm from a concave mirror with focal 59. Two specks of dirt are trapped in a crystal ball, one at the center
length 17 cm. (a) Where is the image, (b) how high is it, and and the other halfway to the surface. If you peer into the ball on a
(c) what type is it? line joining the two specks, the outer one appears to be only one-
40. Repeat Problem 39 for a convex mirror, assuming all numbers third of the way to the other. Find the refractive index of the ball.
stay the same. 60. A contact lens is in the shape of a convex meniscus (see Fig.
41. An object’s image in a 27-cm-focal-length concave mirror is up- BIO 31.25). The inner surface is curved to fit the eye, with curvature
right and magnified by a factor of 3. Where is the object? radius 7.80 mm. The lens is made from plastic with refractive in-
42. You’re asked to design a concave mirror that will produce a virtual dex n 5 1.56. If it has a 44.4-cm focal length, what’s the curva-
image, enlarged 1.8 times, of an object 22 cm from the mirror. ture radius of its outer surface?
What do you specify for the mirror’s curvature radius? 61. For what refractive index would the focal length of a plano-
43. Viewed from Earth, the Moon subtends an angle of 0.5° in the convex lens be equal to the curvature radius of its one curved
sky. How large an image of the Moon will be formed by the 3.6-m- surface?
diameter, 8.5-m-focal-length mirror of the Canada–France– 62. An object is 28 cm from a double-convex lens with n 5 1.5 and
Hawaii Telescope? curvature radii 35 cm and 55 cm. Where is the image, and what
44. At what two distances could you place an object from a 45-cm- type is it?
focal-length concave mirror to get an image 1.5 times the 63. You’re an optician who’s been asked to design a new replacement
object’s size? BIO lens for cataract patients. The lens must be 5.5 mm in diameter,
45. LCD projectors commonly used for computer and video projec- with focal length 17 mm, and it can’t be thicker than 0.8 mm. For
tion create an image on a small LCD display (see Application on the lens material, you have a choice of plastic with refractive in-
page 345). The display is mounted before a lens and illuminated dex 1.49 or more expensive silicone with n 5 1.58. Which mate-
from behind. In a projector using a 7.50-cm-focal-length convex rial do you choose, and why?
lens, where should the LCD display be located so the projected 64. A double-convex lens with equal 38-cm curvature radii is made
image is focused on a screen 6.30 m from the lens? from glass with refractive indices nred 5 1.51 and nviolet 5 1.54.
46. An object 15 cm from a concave mirror has a virtual image mag- If a point source of white light is on the lens axis 95 cm from the
nified 2.5 times. What’s the mirror’s focal length? lens, over what range will its visible image be smeared?
47. How far from a page should you hold a lens with 32-cm focal 65. An object placed 15 cm from a plano-convex lens of crown glass
length in order to see the print magnified 1.6 times? focuses to a virtual image twice the object’s size. If the lens is re-
48. A converging lens has focal length 4.0 cm. A 1.0-cm-high arrow placed with an identically shaped one made from diamond, what
is located 7.0 cm from the lens with its lowest point 5.0 mm type of image will appear and what will be its magnification?
above the lens axis. Make a full-scale ray-tracing diagram to lo- (See Table 30.1.)
cate both ends of the image. Confirm using the lens equation. 66. You’re taking a photography class, working with a camera whose
49. A lens has focal length f 5 35 cm. Find the type and height of zoom lens covers the focal-length range 38–110 mm. Your instruc-
the image produced when a 2.2-cm-high object is placed at dis- tor asks you to compare the sizes of the images of a distant object
tances (a) f 1 10 cm and (b) f 2 10 cm. when photographed at the two zoom extremes. Your answer?
50. How far apart are the object and image produced by a converging 67. A camera can normally focus as close as 60 cm, but it has provi-
lens with 35-cm focal length when the object is (a) 40 cm and sions for mounting additional lenses just in front of the main lens
(b) 30 cm from the lens? to provide close-up capability. What type and power of auxiliary
51. A candle and a screen are 70 cm apart. Find two points be- lens will allow the camera to focus as close as 20 cm?
tween candle and screen where you could put a convex lens 68. A 300-power compound microscope has a 4.5-mm-focal-length
with 17-cm focal length to give a sharp image of the candle on objective lens. If the distance from objective to eyepiece is
the screen. 10 cm, what should be the focal length of the eyepiece?
52. An object is placed two focal lengths from a diverging lens. 69. To the unaided eye, Jupiter has an angular diameter of 50 arcsec-
(a) What type of image forms, (b) what’s the magnification, and onds. What will its angular size be when viewed through a 1-m-
(c) where is the image? focal-length refracting telescope with a 40-mm-focal-length
53. How far from a 25-cm-focal-length lens should you place an ob- eyepiece?
ject to get an upright image magnified 1.8 times? 70. A Cassegrain telescope like that shown in Fig. 31.33b has 1.0-m
54. An object and its lens-produced real image are 2.4 m apart. If the focal length, and the convex secondary mirror is located 0.85 m
lens has 55-cm focal length, what are the possible values for the from the primary. What should be the focal length of the second-
object distance and magnification? ary in order to put the final image 0.12 m behind the front surface
55. An object is 68 cm from a plano-convex lens whose curved side of the primary mirror?
has curvature radius 26 cm. The refractive index of the lens is 71. You stand with your nose 6.0 cm from the surface of a reflecting
1.62. Where is the image, and what type is it? ball, and your nose’s image appears three-quarters full size.
56. Use Equation 31.6 to show that an object at the center of a glass What’s the ball’s diameter?
sphere will appear to be its actual distance—one radius—from 72. A contact lens prescription calls for 12.25-diopter lenses with
the edge. Draw a ray diagram showing why this makes sense. BIO inner curvature radius 8.6 mm to fit the patient’s cornea. (a) If the
57. Rework Example 31.4 for a fish 15 cm from the far wall of the lenses are plastic with n 5 1.56, what should be the outer curva-
tank. ture radius? (b) With these lenses, the patient comfortably reads
 Answers to Chapter Questions 563

a newspaper 30 cm from her eyes. Where’s the image as viewed to A/f2. Most cameras have an adjustable iris that obscures part of the
through the lenses? lens to change the f-ratio in response to available light. Point-and-
73. Show that placing a 1-diopter lens in front of a 2-diopter lens shoot cameras adjust the f-ratio automatically, but serious photogra-
gives the equivalent of a single 3-diopter lens (i.e., the powers of phers use their camera’s manual f-ratio adjustment (Fig. 31.37).
closely spaced lenses add). “Stopping down” is the photographer’s term for reducing the lens area
74. Derive an expression for the thickness t of a plano-convex lens using the adjustable iris.
with diameter d, focal length f, and refractive index n.
75. Show that identical objects placed equal distances on either side
of the focal point of a concave mirror or converging lens produce
images of equal size. Are the images of the same type?
76. Generalize the derivation of the lensmaker’s formula (Equation
31.7) to show that a lens of refractive index nlens in an external
medium with index next has focal length given by
1 nlens 1 1
5a 2 1b a 2 b
f next R1 R2
77. Draw a diagram like Fig. 31.10, but showing a ray from the ar-
rowhead through the center of curvature. Using the fact that this
ray reflects back on itself, draw similar triangles with object and FIGURE 31.37 A 35-mm camera lens (Passage Problems 82–85). The numbers
image as their vertical sides, and show that the center of curva- from 22 to 2.8 at the bottom are values for the f-ratio, f/d. Turning the ring
ture is twice as far from the mirror as the focal point—that is, with these numbers adjusts the iris that covers the outer part of the lens,
R 5 2f, with R the curvature radius. thus changing the f-ratio.
78. Galileo’s first telescope used the arrangement shown in
Fig. 31.36, with a double-concave eyepiece slightly before the 82. Zooming your camera’s lens for telephoto shots increases the
focus of the objective lens. Use ray tracing to show that this de- focal length. With no change in the lens area, this will
sign gives an upright image, which makes the Galilean telescope a. increase the f-ratio and increase the lens speed.
useful in terrestrial observing. b. decrease the f-ratio and decrease the lens speed.
c. increase the f-ratio and decrease the lens speed.
d. not change the f-ratio or the lens speed.
83. Increasing the f-ratio from 2.8 to 5.6
a. decreases the light admitted by a factor of 2.
b. decreases the light admitted by a factor of 4.
c. increases the light admitted by a factor of 2.
d. increases the light admitted by a factor of 4.
84. You’re given two lenses with different diameters. Knowing noth-
fo ing else, you can conclude that
a. the larger lens is faster.
FIGURE 31.36 A Galilean telescope (Problem 78) b. the smaller lens has the shorter focal length.
c. the smaller lens suffers less spherical aberration.
79. The maximum magnification of a simple magnifier occurs with
d. none of the above
the image at the 25-cm near point. Show that the angular magni-
fication is m 5 1 1 125 cm/f2, where f is the focal length. 85. If a lens suffers from spherical aberration, stopping down will
80. Chromatic aberration results from variation of the refractive in- a. worsen the focus.
dex with wavelength. Starting with the lensmaker’s formula, find b. improve the focus.
an expression for the fractional change df/f in the focal length c. not affect the focus.
of a thin lens in terms of the change dn in refractive index.
81. For visible wavelengths, the refractive index of a thin glass lens Answers to Chapter Questions
is n 5 n0 2 bl, where n0 5 1.546 and b 5 4.4731025 nm21. If
its focal length is 30 cm at 550 nm, how much does the focal length Answer to Chapter Opening Question
vary over a wavelength spread of 10 nm centered on 550 nm?
High-intensity laser light reshapes the cornea, so that refracted light
(Hint: See Problem 80.)
converges to produce sharp images.
Passage Problems
Answers to GOT IT? Questions
The speed of a camera lens measures its ability to photograph in dim
31.1. About half your height.
light. Speed is characterized by f-ratio, also called the f-number, de-
31.2. At the mirror’s center of curvature, which is at twice the focal
fined as the ratio of focal length f to lens diameter d. Thus an f/2.8
length.
lens, for example, has diameter d 5 f/2.8. The actual amount of light
31.3. Virtual image; convex lens.
a lens admits depends on its area A, but the inverse-square law shows
that the light intensity at the camera’s imaging sensor is proportional
 Interference
32 and Diffraction

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Explain how interference occurs with
light waves and why coherent light
is essential in forming stable
interference patterns (32.1).
■ Describe double-slit interference
quantitatively (32.2).
■ Extend the description of double-slit
interference to multiple slits and
diffraction gratings (32.3).
■ Explain the principles involved in
grating spectroscopy and X-ray
diffraction (32.3).
■ Describe how interferometry
provides a powerful technique
for making sensitive distance
measurements (32.4).
■ Explain diffraction, and describe
quantitatively the limitations it puts
on our ability to form perfect optical
images (32.5, 32.6).
How do optical principles ultimately govern
the amount of information that can be
stored on a DVD or Blu-ray disc?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter builds on your
understanding of wave phenomena
T he preceding chapters described the behavior of light using geometrical optics—an approx-
imation that’s valid when we’re dealing with length scales much larger than the wavelength
of light, so we can ignore light’s wave nature. We now turn to physical optics, which treats opti-
from Chapter 14, particularly wave cal phenomena for which the wave nature of light plays an essential role. Two related phenom-
interference and phase changes ena, interference and diffraction, are central in physical optics.
involved in reflection (14.5, 14.6).
■ We’ll draw on the electromagnetic
nature of light waves as described in
32.1 Coherence and Interference
Chapter 29 (29.4, 29.8). In Chapter 14 we showed how wave displacements add to produce constructive interfer-
ence or destructive interference. Electromagnetic waves, including light, are no excep-
tion: Since electric and magnetic fields obey the superposition principle, the net fields at
any point are the vector sums of individual wave fields. That sum may increase (construc-
tive interference) or reduce (destructive interference) the net field.

564
 32.1 Coherence and Interference 565

Coherence The phase difference

among all these waves
Steady interference patterns occur only when waves are coherent, meaning they maintain isn't constant, so the
light is incoherent.
a constant phase relation. Ordinary light sources like lightbulbs or the Sun produce short
wavetrains with random phases, so their light doesn’t stay coherent for long (Fig. 32.1a).
Lasers, in contrast, produce long wavetrains that maintain coherence over many wave-
lengths (Fig. 32.1b). The typical length of a wavetrain is the coherence length for a given
light source.
It takes at least two waves to interfere, and even with lasers it’s virtually impossible
for two different sources to maintain coherence. Therefore, interference usually occurs
when light from a single source is split, travels different paths, and is then recombined. (a)
Even light from an ordinary lightbulb will produce interference provided light in the re-
combining beams originated at very nearly the same place and time. Coherent laser light These waves remain in
relaxes this restriction considerably. Coherence also requires that interfering light beams phase, and the light is
coherent.
have exactly the same frequency and therefore wavelength or color. Again, lasers make
things easier: Their light is very nearly monochromatic, consisting of a narrow band of Laser
wavelengths.
( b)

Destructive and Constructive Interference FIGURE 32.1 (a) Lightbulbs emit incoherent
light consisting of short wavetrains with
Consider light waves that originate together at a single source, travel two different paths, random phases. (b) Lasers produce coherent
and then rejoin. Suppose one wave’s path is exactly half a wavelength longer than the light, which facilitates stable interference.
other. Then, when the waves recombine, they’ll be out of phase by half a wavelength
(Fig. 32.2a) and thus their superposition has smaller amplitude (zero, if the two interfer-
ing waves have exactly the same amplitude). If, on the other hand, the path lengths don’t
differ, or they differ by a full wavelength, then the two waves recombine in phase (Fig.
32.2b) and their superposition has larger amplitude. These two cases correspond, respec-
tively, to destructive interference and constructive interference. It doesn’t matter whether
path lengths for the waves in Fig. 32.2a differ by half a wavelength, or 112 wavelengths, or
212 wavelengths; as long as the difference is an odd multiple of a half-wavelength, the
waves recombine out of phase and destructive interference results. Thus destructive
interference results when light paths differ by an odd-integer multiple of a half-
wavelength. Similarly, it doesn’t matter whether the path lengths in Fig. 32.2b are
the same, or differ by 1, 2, 3, or any other integer number of wavelengths. Thus
constructive interference results when light paths differ by an integer multiple of
the wavelength.

Crest meets trough: Crest meets crest:

waves cancel. waves reinforce.

l
2 l
A half-wavelength path difference A full-wavelength path difference
results in destructive interference. results in constructive interference.
(a) (b)

FIGURE 32.2 Two waves that start out in phase but travel different paths before rejoining.

There’s one caveat to our statements: The path difference can’t be greater than the co-
herence length; otherwise, the waves won’t be coherent when they recombine. Once again,
laser light has the advantage here because of its greater coherence length.
Of course, light paths don’t have to differ by half or full multiples of the wavelength. In
intermediate cases interfering waves superpose to make a composite wave whose ampli-
tude may be enhanced or diminished, depending on the relative phase.
566 Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction

APPLICATION More CD Music

1.6-mm spacing used to read the disc. From the transparent underside of the disc, each pit ap-
pears as an elevated bump. Since the bumps stick down one-quarter wave-
length, light reflecting off a bump follows a round-trip path that’s shorter by
half a wavelength than that of light reflecting off the undisturbed information
layer (see the figure below). The laser beam is wider than the pit, so the re-
flected beam includes light both from the undisturbed disc and from the bump.
The two interfere destructively, making the reflected beam less intense when a
bump is present. As the disc spins, the result is a pattern of fluctuating light in-
tensity conveying the information associated with the pattern of pits. A pho-
0.83-mm
minimum todetector then converts that pattern to electrical signals that ultimately drive
loudspeakers, headphones, or a video display.

Protective coating Metal information layer

Pit Pit
1–
Example 30.3, “Refraction: CD Music,” showed how refraction helps focus the 4l
Transparent
laser beam that reads information from a compact disc. Interference, too, plays plastic 1.2 mm
a crucial role in reading a CD. 1–
2l
Information on a CD, DVD, or Blu-ray disc is stored digitally in a sequence
of pits stamped into a reflective metallic information layer, as shown in the Laser light
photo. The pits’ depth is very nearly one-quarter wavelength of the laser light

32.2 Double-Slit Interference

In Chapter 14 we looked briefly at interference patterns produced by a pair of coherent
sources. Such a pair can be made by passing light through two narrow slits. In 1801
Thomas Young used this approach in a historic experiment that confirmed the wave nature
of light. Young first admitted sunlight to his laboratory through a hole small enough to en-
sure coherence of the incoming light. The light then passed through a pair of narrow,
closely spaced slits, after which it illuminated a screen. Each slit acts as a source of cylin-
drical wavefronts that interfere in the region between slits and screen (Fig. 32.3a). Con-
structive and destructive interference produce interference fringes—alternating bright
and dark bands (Fig. 32.3b).

Plane waves impinge Cylindrical wavefronts

on barrier with two slits. spread from each slit.

Dark

Bright
Photo of an
Dark actual interference
pattern shows
alternating bright
Bright
and dark fringes.

Dark

Bright

Along these lines crests meet crests Where lines of constructive

and troughs meet troughs. Thus the interference intersect the
waves interfere constructively. screen, bright fringes appear.
(a) (b)

FIGURE 32.3 Double-slit interference results when light from a single source passes through
closely spaced slits.
 32.2 Double-Slit Interference 567

Bright fringes represent constructive interference, and therefore they occur where the
difference in the path length for light traveling from the two slits is a multiple of the wave-
To P
length. When the distance L from slits to screen is much greater than the slit spacing d,
Fig. 32.4 shows that the path difference to a point on the screen is d sin u, where u is the
angular position of a point on the screen measured from an axis perpendicular to slits and u
d
screen. So our criterion for constructive interference—that this difference be an integer
u in u
number of wavelengths—becomes ds

d sin u 5 ml 1bright fringes, m 5 0, 1, 2, c2 (32.1a)

The integer m is the order of the fringe, with the central bright fringe being the zeroth-order
fringe and with higher-order fringes on either side.
Waves interfere destructively when their path lengths differ by an odd-integer multiple
of a half-wavelength:
P
d sin u 5 A m 1 1
2 Bl 1dark fringes, m 5 0, 1, 2, c2 (32.1b) r1
r2 y
where m is any integer.
In a typical double-slit experiment, L may be on the order of 1 m, d a fraction of
1 mm, and l the sub-m wavelength of visible light. Then we have the additional condi- d
tion that l V d. This makes the fringes very closely spaced on the screen, so the angle u
in Fig. 32.4 is small even for large orders m. Then sin u . tan u 5 y/L, and a fringe’s po- L
sition y on the screen, measured from the central maximum, becomes
lL lL fringe position,
ybright 5 m and ydark 5 A m 1 12 B a b (32.2a, b)
d d lVd Slits Screen

FIGURE 32.4 Geometry for finding locations of

the interference fringes. In the blowup you can
GOT IT? 32.1 If you increase the slit separation in a two-slit system, do the interfer- see that for L W d, the paths to P are nearly
ence fringes become closer together or farther apart? parallel and differ by d sin u.

EXAMPLE 32.1 Measuring Wavelength: Laser Light

Two slits 0.075 mm apart are located 1.5 m from a screen. Laser light EVALUATE Solving, we have
shining through the slits produces an interference pattern whose third- ybright d 10.038 m210.07531023 m2
order bright fringe is 3.8 cm from the screen center. Find the light’s l5 5 5 633 nm
mL 13211.5 m2
wavelength.

INTERPRET The concept behind this problem is two-slit interference. ASSESS This is indeed much less than the slit spacing of 0.075 mm or
The phrase “third order” tells us we’re dealing with the m 5 3 bright 75,000 nm. Our 633-nm result is in fact the wavelength of the red light
fringe located at ybright 5 3.8 cm. from widely used helium–neon lasers. ■

DEVELOP Our plan is to use Equation 32.2a, ybright 5 m1lL/d2, and

solve for l. Since that equation requires l V d, we’ll then check to
see whether our answer is consistent with this condition.

Intensity in the Interference Pattern

We located the maxima and minima in two-slit interference using geometrical arguments
alone. To find the actual intensity we need to superpose the interfering waves, which means
adding the wave fields. So consider again a point P in the interference pattern (Fig. 32.5,
next page). In the approximation d V L, the difference in path lengths is so small that we
can neglect any difference in the amplitudes of the two waves. However, the difference in
phase is crucial; it’s what causes the interference. So we consider waves whose electric fields
at P vary sinusoidally in time, with equal amplitude Ep but an explicit phase difference f:
E1 5 Ep sin vt and E2 5 Ep sin1vt 1 f2
568 Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction

We aren’t bothering with vectors because the two waves are polarized in the same direc-
P tion and therefore their fields add algebraically. Then the net electric field at P is
E 5 E1 1 E2 5 Ep3sin vt 1 sin1vt 1 f24
y
Appendix A gives the trig identity sin a 1 sin b 5 2 sin31a 1 b2/24 cos31a 2 b2/24,
which, with a 5 vt and b 5 vt 1 f, gives
d
nu
u d si f f
E 5 2Ep sin a vt 1 b cos a b
2 2
L
where we also used cos12x2 5 cos x. Thus, the electric field at P oscillates with the wave
frequency v, and its amplitude is 2Ep cos1f/22. Since the phase difference f depends on
FIGURE 32.5 Waves from the slits arrive at the difference in path lengths from the two slits, this amplitude varies across the screen,
P displaced by the path-length difference
giving the interference pattern.
d sin u. For L W d, sin u . tan u 5 y/L.
We’ve seen that the path-length difference is d sin u, with d the slit spacing and u the
angle to P; under our approximation d V L, u is small and sin u . tan u 5 y/L, where
y is the position of P as shown in Fig. 32.5. Then the path difference becomes yd/L.
Now, that all-important phase difference f is whatever fraction of a full cycle
12p radians2 this path difference is of the wavelength l; that is, f 5 2p1yd/lL2. Then
the amplitude 2Ep cos1f/22 becomes 2Ep cos1pyd/lL2. The average intensity follows
from Equation 29.20b:
32Ep cos1pyd/lL242 pd
S5 5 4S0 cos2 a yb (32.3)
2m0c lL
where S0 5 E p2 /2m0c is the average intensity of either wave alone. Now, cos2 has its max-
imum value, 1, when its argument is a multiple of p. Thus Equation 32.3 gives maximum
intensity when yd/lL is an integer m, or when y 5 mlL/d. This is just the condition
32.2a, showing that our intensity calculation is fully consistent with the simpler geometri-
cal analysis. But the intensity calculation tells more: It gives not only the fringe positions,
but also the intensity variation in between.

32.3 Multiple-Slit Interference

and Diffraction Gratings
Systems with multiple slits play a crucial role in optical instrumentation and in the analy-
sis of materials. As we’ll see, gratings with several thousand slits per centimeter make
possible high-resolution spectroscopic analysis. At a much smaller scale the regularly
Slits Screen spaced rows of atoms in a crystal act much like a multiple-slit system for X rays, and the
FIGURE 32.6 Waves from three evenly spaced resulting X-ray patterns reveal the crystal structure.
slits interfere constructively when they reach Figure 32.6 shows waves from three evenly spaced slits interfering at a screen. Maxi-
the screen in phase. mum intensity requires that all three waves be in phase or, equivalently, travel paths differ-
ing by an integer number of wavelengths. Our criterion for the maximum in a two-slit
pattern, d sin u 5 ml, ensures that waves from two adjacent slits will add constructively.
Since the slits are evenly spaced with distance d between each pair, waves coming through
a third slit will be in phase with the other two if this criterion is met. So the criterion for a
Sum 5 0 maximum in an N-slit system is still Equation 32.1a:

d sin u 5 ml 1maxima in multiple-slit interference, m 5 0, 1, 2, c2 (32.1a)

1 cycle With more than two waves, however, the criterion for destructive interference is more
2p radians complicated. Somehow all the waves need to sum to zero. Figure 32.7 shows that this hap-
FIGURE 32.7 Waves from three slits must be
pens for three waves when each is out of phase with the others by one-third of a cycle.
out of phase by one-third of a cycle in order Thus, the path-length difference d sin u must be either A m 1 13 B l or A m 1 23 B l, where m is
to interfere destructively. an integer. The case A m 1 33 B l is excluded because then the path lengths differ by a full
 32.3 Multiple-Slit Interference and Diffraction Gratings 569

wavelength, giving constructive interference and thus a maximum in the interference pat-
tern. More generally we can write
2 slit
m
d sin u 5 l (32.4)
N
for destructive interference in an N-slit system, where m is an integer but not an integer
multiple of N. Primary Secondary
Figure 32.8 shows interference patterns and intensity plots from some multiple-slit maximum maximum
systems. Note that the bright, or primary, maxima are separated by several minima and
fainter, or secondary, maxima. Why this complex pattern? Our analysis of the three-slit
system shows two minima between every pair of primary maxima; for example, we con- 3 slit
sidered the minima at d sin u equal to A m 1 13 B l or A m 1 23 B l, which lie between the
maxima at d sin u equal to ml and 1m 1 12l. More generally, Equation 32.4 shows that
there are N 2 1 minima between each pair of primary maxima given by Equation 32.1a.
The secondary maxima that lie between these minima result from interference that is nei-
ther fully destructive nor fully constructive. The figure shows that the primary maxima be-
come brighter and narrower as the number of slits increases, while the secondary maxima
4 slit
become relatively less bright. With a large number N of slits, then, we should expect a pat-
tern of bright but narrow primary maxima, with broad, essentially dark regions in between.

Diffraction Gratings
A set of many closely spaced slits is called a diffraction grating and proves very useful
in the spectroscopic analysis of light. Diffraction gratings are commonly several centime-
5 slit
ters across and have several thousand slits—usually called lines—per cm. Gratings are
made by photoreducing images of parallel lines or by ruling with a diamond stylus on
aluminum-plated glass. Gratings like the slit systems we’ve been discussing are
transmission gratings, since light passes through the slits. Reflection gratings produce
similar interference effects by reflecting incident light. FIGURE 32.8 Interference patterns for multiple-
slit systems with the same slit spacing. The
We’ve seen that the maxima of the multiple-slit interference pattern are given by the
bright fringes stay in the same place but
same criterion, d sin u 5 ml, that applies to a two-slit system. For m 5 0 this equation im- become narrower and brighter as the number
plies that all wavelengths peak together at the central maximum, but for larger values of m of slits increases. Intensity plots don’t have the
the angular position of the maximum depends on wavelength. Thus, a diffraction grating same vertical scale; peak intensity scales as
can be used in place of a prism to disperse light into its component wavelengths, and the in- the square of the number of slits.
teger m is therefore called the order of the dispersion. Figure 32.9 shows a spectrometer
that works on this principle. Because the maxima in N-slit interference are very sharp for
large N (recall Fig. 32.8), a grating with many slits diffracts individual wavelengths to very
precise locations.

Second-order First-order
spectrum spectrum

Screen

Grating

Entrance FIGURE 32.9 Essential elements of a grating

Light slit spectrometer. An electronic detector normally
source replaces the screen.
570 Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction

EXAMPLE 32.2 Finding the Separation: A Grating Spectrometer

Light from glowing hydrogen contains many discrete spectral lines, of gular positions for the two wavelengths, and finally take their differ-
which two are Ha (hydrogen-alpha) and Hb (hydrogen-beta), with ence to get the angular separation.
wavelengths of 656.3 nm and 486.1 nm, respectively. Find the first-or-
der angular separation between these wavelengths in a spectrometer EVALUATE With 6000 slits/cm, the spacing is d 5 1/6000 cm 5
that uses a grating with 6000 slits per cm. 1.667 m. Applying Equation 32.1a with m 5 1 gives
l 0.6563 μm
INTERPRET The concept behind the grating spectrometer is multiple- ua 5 sin21 a b 5 sin21 a b 5 23.2°
d 1.667 μm
slit interference, so our job is to find the angles to which the grating
sends the given wavelengths. “First-order” means we have m 5 1. A similar calculation gives ub 5 17.0°. Thus the angular separation
is 6.2°.
DEVELOP Equation 32.1a, d sin u 5 ml, gives the location of the in-
terference maxima as a function of wavelength l, order m, and slit ASSESS Our 6.2° result is certainly adequate to distinguish clearly
spacing d. We’re given m and two values for l, but we don’t know d. these two wavelengths. For greater angular separation, or to separate
However, we’re told that there are 6000 slits per cm, so we can find d. closer wavelengths, we could look at the higher-order dispersion (see
Our plan is first to calculate d, then use Equation 32.1a to find the an- Exercise 20). ■

Resolving Power
What’s actually observed The detailed shapes and wavelengths of spectral lines contain a wealth of information about
is the sum of the intensities. the systems in which light originates. Studying these details requires a high dispersion in
order to separate nearby spectral lines or to analyze the intensity-versus-wavelength profile
The lines are just of a single line. Suppose we pass light containing two spectral lines of nearly equal wave-
distinguishable lengths l and l9 through a grating. Figure 32.10 shows that we’ll just be able to distinguish
Intensity

if the maximum
of one falls on them if the peak of one line corresponds to the first minimum of the other; any closer and
the first minimum the lines blur together. Suppose wavelength l has its mth-order maximum at angular posi-
of the other. tion u, so d sin umax 5 ml. We can write this as d sin umax 5 1mN/N2l, with N the number
of slits in the grating. Equation 32.4 then shows that we get an adjacent minimum if we add 1
to the numerator mN. Thus the adjacent minimum satisfies
Angular position mN 1 1
d sin umin 5 l
FIGURE 32.10 Intensity versus angular position N
for spectral lines with slightly different
wavelengths, as dispersed with a grating. Our criterion that the two wavelengths l and l9 be distinguishable is that the maximum
for l9 fall at the location of this minimum for l. But the maximum for l9 satisfies
d sin u9max 5 ml9 5 1mN/N2l9, so for u9max 5 umin we must have 1mN 1 12l 5 mNl9.
Expressing this in terms of the wavelength difference Dl 5 l9 2 l leads to
l
5 mN 1resolving power2 (32.5)
Dl
The quantity l/Dl is the grating’s resolving power, a measure of its ability to distinguish
closely spaced wavelengths. The higher the resolving power, the smaller the wavelength
difference Dl that we can distinguish. Equation 32.5 shows that the resolving power in-
creases with the number of lines, N, on the grating and also with the order, m, of the spec-
trum we observe.

EXAMPLE 32.3 Resolving Power: “Seeing” a Double Star

A double-star system consists of a massive star essentially at rest, with stationary massive star is at l 5 656.272 nm; for the companion
a smaller companion in circular orbit. It’s far too distant for the pair to when it’s moving away from Earth, the Ha line Doppler-shifts to
appear as anything but a single point even to the largest telescopes. 656.329 nm (corresponding to a speed of about 26 km/s). If a spec-
Yet astronomers can “see” the companion star through the Doppler trometer has 5000 lines, what order spectrum will resolve the Ha lines
shift in wavelengths of its spectral lines. The Ha spectral line from the from the two stars?
 32.4 Interferometry 571

INTERPRET The concept here is resolution of distinct spectral lines EVALUATE We have Dl 5 656.329 nm 2 656.272 nm 5 0.057 nm.
using a grating spectrometer. Then
l 656.272 nm
DEVELOP Equation 32.5, l/Dl 5 mN, determines the resolving m5 5 5 2.3
power. We can solve for m to get the order: m 5 l/1N Dl2. We’re
N Dl 15000210.057 nm2
given the two wavelengths, so we can readily find Dl.
ASSESS Since m must be an integer, we’ll have to use the third-order
spectrum. ■

X-Ray Diffraction
The wavelengths of X rays, on the order of 0.1 nm, are far too short for diffraction with Incident Reflected
gratings produced mechanically or photographically. Instead, X-ray diffraction occurs X-ray beam beam
when X rays interact with the regularly spaced atoms in a crystal. At the microscopic
u
level, reflection of an electromagnetic wave occurs when the wave’s electric field sets
electrons oscillating. The electrons re-radiate, producing the reflected beam. With X rays u u u
d d sin u d d sinu
reflecting from a crystal, the regular atomic spacing results in interference that enhances
the reflected radiation at certain angles. Figure 32.11a shows an X-ray beam interacting d
with the atoms in a crystal. In Fig. 32.11b we see that waves reflecting at one layer of (a) (b)
atoms travel a distance 2d sin u farther than those reflecting at the layer above, where u is
the angle between the incident beam and the atomic planes. Constructive interference FIGURE 32.11 (a) X rays reflecting off the planes
occurs when this difference is an integer number of wavelengths: of atoms in a crystal. (b) Constructive interfer-
ence enhances the outgoing beam when the
2d sin u 5 ml 1Bragg condition, m 5 1, 2, 3 c2 (32.6) extra distance 2d sin u is an integer multiple of
the X-ray wavelength.
This Bragg condition lets us use a crystal with known spacing as a diffraction grating for
X rays. More important is the converse: Much of what we know about crystal structure
comes from probing crystals with X rays and using the resulting patterns to deduce posi-
tions of their atoms. X-ray diffraction measurements by British scientist Rosalind Franklin
in 1952 were crucial in establishing the structure of DNA.

Other Gratings
Anything with regularly spaced structures can act as a diffraction grating for waves of suit-
able wavelength. The rainbow of colors you see on the underside of a CD or DVD (see
this chapter’s opening photo) results because adjacent pits of CD tracks (shown in the Ap-
plication earlier in this chapter) act as a diffraction grating. Sound waves in a solid set up
refractive index variations that act as diffraction gratings; changing the wavelength of the
sound changes the “slit” spacing and therefore the diffraction angle. Acousto-optic mod-
ulators (AOMs) based on this principle are widely used to “steer” light beams in light-
wave communication and other opto-electronic technologies. Laser printers and digital
copiers, for example, use an AOM to control the laser beam that “paints” the image of the
printed page on a light-sensitive surface.

GOT IT? 32.2 If you increase the number of slits in a grating while keeping the spac-
ing the same, what happens to (a) the positions of the intensity maxima in the interference
pattern for a given wavelength; (b) the intensity at the maxima; and (c) the width of the
maxima?

32.4 Interferometry
Passing light through multiple slits isn’t the only way to produce interference. So will any
process that separates light into several beams, sends them on different paths, and then re-
joins them. Such processes are the basis of interferometry, an exquisitely sensitive tech-
nique for measuring small displacements, time intervals, and other quantities.
572 Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction

180° phase change

Thin Films
n51 n.1 Light passing through thin, transparent films is partially reflected at both the front and
back surfaces, and the resulting beams recombine to produce interference. In Section 14.6
we saw how waves on a string reflect where one string joins another with different proper-
ties; in particular, the reflected wave is inverted if the second string has greater mass per
unit length. Light behaves analogously: It’s reflected with a 180° phase change at the
air film interface between a material with lower refractive index and one with higher refractive
index. But it reflects without a phase change at an interface from higher to lower refrac-
n51 n.1 tive index. For a thin film with refractive index n higher than its surroundings, Fig. 32.12
shows that there’s a 180° phase change at the first interface and no change at the second.
2 If the film in Fig. 32.12 has thickness d, there’s also a phase change due to the addi-
tional path length for beam 2; for the case of normal incidence, the extra length is 2d.
Because reflected beam 1 forms with a 180° phase change but beam 2 has no phase change,
1
it takes another 180° phase shift—half a wavelength path difference—to put beams 1 and 2
am back in phase to give constructive interference. That occurs if beam 2’s extra path length 2d
t be
den
Inci is half a wavelength, or 112 wavelengths, or any odd-integer multiple of one-half
wavelength: 2d 5 A m 1 12 B ln, where m 5 0, 1, 2, 3, c, and where the subscript n
d
Thin film
indicates that this is the wavelength as measured in the material. In Chapter 30 we found
that the wavelength in a material with refractive index n is reduced by a factor 1/n from
its value in air or vacuum; thus ln 5 l/n, and our condition for constructive interference
becomes
n.1 n51 2nd 5 A m 1 12 B l 1constructive interference, thin film2 (32.7)
Interference in thin layers is the basis of some very sensitive optical techniques. The
shape of a lens, for example, can be measured to within a fraction of a wavelength of light
using interference in a thin “film” consisting of the air between the lens and a flat glass
film air plate (Fig. 32.13).
No phase change

FIGURE 32.12 Reflection and refraction at a thin

film of transparent material, showing a 180° 2 1
phase change at the first interface and none
at the second.

(a) (b)

FIGURE 32.13 (a) A portion of a lens sitting on a flat glass plate. (b) Newton’s rings arise from
the difference in path lengths between rays like 1 and 2, and provide precise information
about the lens shape.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 32.1 Interference: A Soap Film

Figure 32.14 shows a soap film in a circular ring with different col- film is vertical and consists mostly of water, so gravity makes it
ored bands that run horizontally across the film. Why do these bands thicker at the bottom. Therefore, the wavelengths that undergo con-
occur? structive interference vary with vertical position on the film. There
are many bands, with colors repeating, because there are multiple
EVALUATE The bands must be the result of interference, as de-
orders of interference, with different values of m.
scribed in Fig. 32.12. But why are they different colors? The soap
 32.4 Interferometry 573

ASSESS The dark region at the top confirms our explanation: Here the
film is so thin that no visible wavelength undergoes constructive inter-
ference, so it appears dark. The film is probably about to break!

MAKING THE CONNECTION A 20-cm-high soap film is 1 m

thick at the bottom, tapering to near zero thickness at the top. If it’s il-
luminated with 650-nm laser light, how many bright bands appear?
EVALUATE Equation 32.7 gives the condition for constructive interfer-
ence; the number of bands will be the number of interference orders
m possible in this film. Solving for m at the bottom of the film gives
m 5 2nl/d 2 1/2 5 3.6, with n 5 1.333 for water. Since m must be
an integer, there’s no bright band right at the bottom. The m 5 3 band
is higher up, and above it are the m 5 2, m 5 1, and m 5 0 bands,
FIGURE 32.14 Interference in a soap film illuminated with white light. for a total of four bright bands.

In analyzing thin films, we’ve considered only the first reflection at each interface.
Actually, multiple reflections occur within the film, producing ever-weaker rays. A fuller
treatment involving Maxwell’s equations shows that when a film of refractive index n2 is Mirror
Beams travel
sandwiched between materials with indices n1 and n3, complete cancellation of reflected separate paths . . .
rays in the incident medium occurs if the thickness is right and if n2 5 2n1n3. This is the
basis of the antireflection coatings, mentioned in Chapter 30, which ensure maximum Beam
light transfer in camera lenses, solar photovoltaic cells, and other applications. splitter
Light
The Michelson Interferometer source
Mirror
Several optical instruments use interference for precise measurement. Among the simplest . . . then recombine
and most important is the Michelson interferometer, invented by the American physicist and interfere . . .
Albert Michelson and used in the 1880s in a famous experiment that paved the way for the
theory of relativity. We discuss this experiment in the next chapter; here we describe the . . . producing a
interferometer, which is still used for precision measurements. fringe pattern.
Figure 32.15 shows the basic Michelson interferometer. The key idea is that light from Observer
a monochromatic source is split into two beams by a half-silvered mirror called a beam
splitter. The beam splitter is set at a 45° angle, so the reflected and transmitted beams
travel perpendicular paths. Each then reflects off a flat mirror and returns to the beam
splitter. The beam splitter again transmits and reflects half the light incident on it, with the
result that some light from the originally separated beams is recombined. The recombined
beams interfere, and the interference pattern is observed with a viewing lens; an example
of the resulting pattern is shown at the bottom of Fig. 32.15.
If the path lengths for the two beams were exactly the same, they would recombine in FIGURE 32.15 Schematic diagram of a
phase and interfere constructively. In reality, the path lengths are never exactly the same, Michelson interferometer, with a photo
the mirrors are never exactly perpendicular, and the beams aren’t perfectly parallel. But of the interference fringes.
that’s no problem: What happens is that different parts of the beams recombine with dif-
ferent phase differences, and the result is a pattern of light and dark interference fringes,
as shown in Fig. 32.15. The distance between successive fringes corresponds to a path-
Interferometer
length difference of one full wavelength. arms
Now suppose one mirror moves slightly. The path-length differences change and there-
fore the interference pattern shifts. A mere quarter-wavelength mirror movement adds an
extra half-wavelength to the round-trip path. That results in a 180° phase shift, moving
dark fringes to where light ones were. Shifts a fraction of this amount are readily detected,
allowing the measurement of mirror displacements to within a small fraction of a wave-
length. A similar shift occurs if a transparent material is placed in one path, retarding the
beam because of its refractive index. This provides accurate measures of the refractive in-
FIGURE 32.16 The LIGO instrument at Hanford,
dices of gases, which are so close to 1 that less-sensitive techniques don’t work. Washington, is an interferometer with 4-km
The largest Michelson interferometers ever built are twin instruments with 4-km arms. The light undergoes multiple reflections,
arms (Fig. 32.16). These comprise LIGO, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave giving an effective arm length of 300 km.
574 Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction

Observatory. LIGO is designed to detect mirror displacements on the order of 10218 m

resulting from gravitational waves—“ripples” in the structure of space and time caused
by distant cosmic events. LIGO will eventually be dwarfed by a space-based
interferometer with arms 5 million km long!

EXAMPLE 32.4 An Interferometric Measurement: Sandstorm!

A sandstorm has pitted the aluminum mirrors of a desert solar-energy INTERPRET The concept here is interferometry—inferring distance
installation, and engineers want to know the depths of the pits. They from observations of light interference, in this case with the Michel-
construct a Michelson interferometer with a sample from one of the son configuration of Fig. 32.15. The distortions of the interference
pitted mirrors in place of one flat mirror. With 633-nm laser light, the fringes shown in Fig. 32.17 result because some of the light travels a
interference pattern in Fig. 32.17 results. What is the approximate little farther—namely, into the bottom of a pit and back out.
depth of the pit?
DEVELOP The full fringe spacing corresponds to a path difference
This distance corresponds of one wavelength, and Fig. 32.17 shows that the fringe distortion
to a path-length difference l . . .
due to the pit gives a shift about one-fifth of the distance between
fringes. We need to use this information to find the extra distance
traveled by light reflecting from the bottom of the pit, and from that
the pit depth. We’re given the wavelength, so we can estimate the
round trip as approximately 0.2l. The pit depth will be half this
quantity.

EVALUATE The extra path length for the light reflecting off the pit is
0.2l, so the pit depth is about 0.1l. With l 5 633 nm, the pit depth is
about 63 nm.

ASSESS Try measuring that with a meter stick! Interferometry pro-

FIGURE 32.17 Fringe pattern resulting
. . . so this distance vides an exquisitely sensitive measurement of small distances. ■
corresponds to ,0.2l. from a pitted mirror.

32.5 Huygens’ Principle and Diffraction

The interference we’ve been studying in this chapter isn’t the only optical phenomenon
where the wave nature of light is important. There’s also diffraction—the bending of light
or other waves as they pass by objects. Interference and diffraction are closely related, and
the double- and multiple-slit interference we’ve studied actually involves diffraction as
well—hence the term “diffraction grating.”
Diffraction, like other optical phenomena, is ultimately governed by Maxwell’s equa-
tions. But we can understand diffraction more readily using Huygens’ principle, articu-
Original wavefront
lated in 1678 by the Dutch scientist Christian Huygens, who was the first to suggest that
cDt
light might be a wave. Huygens’ principle states:

All points on a wavefront act as point sources of spherically propagating “wavelets”

that travel at the speed of light appropriate to the medium. At a short time Dt later,
the new wavefront is the unique surface tangent to all the forward-propagating
wavelets.

Wavefront Figure 32.18 shows how Huygens’ principle accounts for the propagation of plane and
at time Dt spherical waves.
cDt
later
(a) (b)
Diffraction
FIGURE 32.18 Application of Huygens’ principle Figure 32.19 shows plane waves incident on an opaque barrier containing a hole. Since
to (a) plane and (b) spherical waves. In each
case the wavefront acts like a set of point
the waves are blocked by the barrier, Huygens’ wavelets produced near each barrier edge
sources emitting circular waves that expand cause the wavefronts to bend at the barrier. When the width of the hole is much greater
to produce a new wavefront. than the wavelength, as in Fig. 32.19a, this diffraction is of little consequence, and the
 32.5 Huygens’ Principle and Diffraction 575

waves effectively propagate straight through the hole in a beam defined by the hole size. Barrier
But when the hole size and wavelength are comparable, wavefronts emerging from the
hole spread in a broad pattern (Fig. 32.19b). Thus diffraction, although it always occurs, is
significant only on length scales comparable to or smaller than the wavelength. That’s why
we could ignore diffraction and assume that light always travels in straight lines when we
considered optical systems with dimensions much larger than the wavelength of light.
Diffraction ultimately limits our ability to image small objects and to focus light pre-
cisely. Next, we’ll see why this is so by examining the behavior of light as it passes
through a single slit. The result will help us understand optical challenges ranging from
telescopic imaging of distant astrophysical objects to the development of Blu-ray discs.

Single-Slit Diffraction (a)

In treating double-slit and multiple-slit interference, we assumed that plane waves passing Barrier
through a slit emerged with circular wavefronts. According to Fig. 32.19b, that’s true only
if the slit width is small compared with the wavelength, so the slit can be treated as a sin-
gle, localized source of new waves. When the slit width isn’t small, Huygens’ principle
implies that we have to consider each point in the slit as a separate source—and then we
can expect interference from waves originating at different points in the same slit. Thus a
single wide slit is really like a multiple-slit system with infinitely many slits!
Figure 32.20a shows light incident on a slit of width a. Each point in the slit acts as a
source of spherical wavelets propagating in all directions to the right of the slit. We focus
on a particular direction described by the angle u, and we’ll look at interference of light (b)
from the five points shown. Figure 32.20b concentrates on the points from which rays 1, FIGURE 32.19 Plane waves incident on an opaque
2, and 3 originate and shows that the path lengths for rays 1 and 3 differ by 12 a sin u. These barrier with a hole. Diffraction is negligible for a
two beams will interfere destructively if this distance is half the wavelength—that is, if hole large compared with the wavelength (a),
1
2
a sin u 5 12 l or a sin u 5 l. But if rays 1 and 3 interfere destructively, so do rays 3 and 5, but pronounced for a small hole (b).
which have the same geometry, and so do rays 2 and 4, for the same reason. In fact, a ray
leaving any point in the lower half of the slit will interfere destructively with the point lo-
cated a distance a/2 above it. Therefore, an observer viewing the slit system at the angle u 5
4
satisfying a sin u 5 l will see no light.
3
Similarly, the sources for rays 1 and 2 are a/4 apart and will therefore interfere destruc- 2
tively if 14 a sin u 5 12 l, or a sin u 5 2l. But then so will rays 2 and 3, and rays 3 and 4; in 1
fact, any ray from a point in the lower three-quarters of the slit will interfere destructively Incident
with a ray from the point a/4 above it, and therefore, an observer looking at an angle u sat- light
θ
a
isfying a sin u 5 2l will see no light. 3
We could equally well have divided the slit into six sections with seven evenly spaced u 2
points; we would then have found destructive interference if 16 a sin u 5 12 l, or a sin u 5 3l.
a– u 1
We could obviously continue this process for any number of points in the slit, and there- 2
fore, we conclude that destructive interference occurs for all angles u satisfying
–a sinu
2
a sin u 5 ml 1destructive interference, single-slit diffraction2 (32.8)
(a) (b)
with m any nonzero integer and a the slit width. Note that the case m 5 0 is excluded; it FIGURE 32.20 Each point in a slit acts as a
produces not destructive interference but a central maximum in which all waves are in source of Huygens’ wavelets, which interfere
phase. in the region to the right of the slit.

✓TIP Interference and Diffraction

Equation 32.8 for the minima of a single-slit diffraction pattern looks just like Equa-
tion 32.1a for the maxima of a multiple-slit interference pattern, except that the slit
width a replaces the slit spacing d. Why does the same equation give the minima in
one case and the maxima in another? Because we’re dealing with two distinct but re-
lated phenomena. In the multiple-slit case, each slit was so narrow that it could be con-
sidered a single source, neglecting the interference of waves originating within the
same slit. In the single-slit case, the diffraction pattern occurs precisely because of the
interference of waves from different points within the same slit.
576 Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction

Intensity

Intensity
Intensity
a 5 10l a 5 2l a5l

290° 260° 230° 0° 30° 60° 90° 290° 260° 230° 0° 30° 60° 90° 290° 260° 230° 0° 30° 60° 90°
Angular position Angular position Angular position
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 32.21 Intensity in single-slit diffraction, as a function of the angle u from the centerline, for three values of slit width a.

Intensity in Single-Slit Diffraction

Geometry gave us the positions of the maxima in single-slit diffraction, just as it did for
multiple-slit interference. But to get the intensity across the diffraction pattern, we’d have
to superpose electric fields of the interfering waves, as we did in deriving Equation 32.3
for two-slit interference. But now we’ve got infinitely many fields to sum, corresponding
to waves from every part of the slit. It’s possible to do this using a calculus-like graphical
technique involving the phasor concept introduced in Chapter 28. We won’t go through
the derivation; however, we’ll motivate the result by noting that the diffraction pattern at
any point occurs because of phase differences among waves originating at different parts
of the slit. It’s not surprising, therefore, that a key factor is the phase difference between
waves from opposite ends of the slit. Applying the analysis of Fig. 32.20 to the entire slit
width a gives a path-length difference a sin u for these waves. As usual, this path differ-
ence is to the wavelength as the phase difference f is to a full cycle, 2p radians. Thus
2p
f5 a sin u (32.9)
l
is the phase difference between rays from the ends of the slit to a point at angular position
u. The phasor-summing process relates the amplitude of the net electric field to this phase
difference f and shows that the field is proportional to sin1f/22/1f/22. Used in Equation
29.20 to get the intensity from the electric field, this result gives the intensity as a function
of angle in single-slit diffraction:
sin1f/22 2
S 5 S0 c d (32.10)
f/2
Here S0 is the average intensity at the central maximum of the pattern 1u 5 f 5 02, and
f is given by Equation 32.9. At u 5 f 5 0, Equation 32.10 appears to be indeterminate,
but using the limit sin x/x S 1 as x S 0 shows that the result is indeed S0. Problem 68
explores another approach to Equation 32.10.
Figure 32.21 plots Equation 32.10 for three values of the slit width a in relation to the
wavelength l. For wide slits—a large compared with l—the central peak is narrow and
the secondary peaks are much lower and also half as wide as the central peak. Here dif-
fraction is negligible, and the beam essentially propagates through the slit in the ray ap-
proximation of geometrical optics. But as the slit narrows, the diffracted beam spreads
until, with a 5 l, it covers an angular width of some 120°.
The intensity given by Equation 32.10 will be zero when the numerator on the right-hand
side is zero—that is, when the argument of the sine function is an integer multiple of p. That
occurs when f/2 5 1pa/l2 sin u 5 mp, or when a sin u 5 ml. Thus, we recover our result
of Equation 32.8 for the angular positions where destructive interference gives zero intensity.

Multiple Slits and Other Diffracting Systems

In treating multiple-slit systems in Section 32.2, we assumed the slits were so narrow
compared with the wavelength that the central diffraction peak spread into the entire
space beyond the slit system. When the slit width isn’t negligible, each slit produces a
 32.6 The Diffraction Limit 577

Maxima of single-slit diffraction

FIGURE 32.22 When the slit width is

not negligible, a double-slit system
produces the regular variations of
double-slit interference within a
single-slit diffraction pattern.

single-slit diffraction pattern. The result is a pattern that combines single-slit diffraction
with multiple-slit interference (Fig. 32.22).
Diffraction occurs any time light passes a sharp, opaque edge like the edges of the
slits we’ve been considering. Close examination of the shadow produced by a sharp
edge shows parallel fringes resulting from interference of the diffracting wavefronts
(Fig. 32.23a). More complex diffraction patterns result from objects of different shape
(Fig. 32.23b). Such diffraction limits our ability to form sharp optical images, as we
show in the next section.

32.6 The Diffraction Limit

Diffraction imposes a fundamental limit on the ability of optical systems to distinguish
closely spaced objects. Consider two point sources of light illuminating a slit. The sources
are so far from the slit that waves reaching the slit are essentially plane waves, but the dif-
ferent source positions mean the waves reach the slit at different angles. We assume the
sources are incoherent, so they don’t produce a regular interference pattern. Then light dif-
fracting at the slit produces two single-slit diffraction patterns, one for each source. Be-
cause the sources are at different angular positions, the central maxima of these patterns
don’t coincide, as shown in Fig. 32.24.

FIGURE 32.23 Diffraction patterns from light pass-

For large u ing sharp edges. (a) Straight edge of an opaque
. . . but for
the peaks small u they barrier. (b) Circular aperture with crosshairs.
are distinct . . . overlap.
1
1
u u Fully resolved
2 2 u u

(a)
(a) (b) Barely resolved
(Rayleigh criterion)
FIGURE 32.24 Two distant light sources at different angular positions produce diffraction patterns
whose central peaks have the same angular separation u as the sources.

(b)
If the angular separation between the sources is great enough, then the central max-
ima of the two diffraction patterns will be entirely distinct. In that case we can clearly Unresolved
distinguish the two sources (Fig. 32.24a). But as the sources get closer, the central max-
ima begin to overlap (Fig. 32.24b). They remain distinguishable as long as the total in-
tensity pattern shows two peaks. Since the sources are incoherent, the total intensity is
just the sum of the individual intensities. Figure 32.25 shows how that sum loses its two- (c)
peak structure as the diffraction patterns merge. In general, two peaks are barely distin-
FIGURE 32.25 Since the two sources are
guishable if the central maximum of one coincides with the first minimum of the other. incoherent, the total intensity is just the
This condition is called the Rayleigh criterion, and when it’s met the two sources are sum (gray curve) of the intensities of the two
just barely resolved. diffraction patterns.
578 Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction

Optical systems are analogous to the single slit we’ve just considered. Every system has an
aperture of finite size through which light enters. That aperture may be an actual slit or hole,
like the diaphragm that “stops down” a camera lens, or it may be the full size of a lens or a
telescope mirror. So all optical systems ultimately suffer loss of resolution if two sources—or
two parts of the same object—have too small an angular separation. Thus, diffraction funda-
mentally limits our ability to probe the structure of objects that are either very small or very
distant. Figure 32.26 shows the loss of resolution as diffraction patterns overlap.

Barely Not
Resolved resolved resolved

FIGURE 32.26 Diffraction patterns produced by a

pair of point sources. The angular separation of
the sources decreases until they can’t be
resolved.

Figure 32.24 shows that the angular separation between the diffraction peaks is equal
to the angular separation between the sources themselves. Then the Rayleigh criterion is
just met if the angular separation between the two sources is equal to the angular separation
between a central peak and the first minimum. We found earlier that the first minimum in
single-slit diffraction occurs at the angular position given by sin u 5 l/a, with a the slit
width and with u measured from the central peak. In most optical systems the wave-
length is much less than the size of any apertures, so we can use the small-angle approx-
imation sin u . u. Then the Rayleigh criterion—the condition that two sources be just
resolvable—for single-slit diffraction becomes
l
umin 5 1Rayleigh criterion, slit2 (32.11a)
a
Most optical systems have circular apertures rather than slits. The diffraction pattern
from such an aperture is a series of concentric rings (Fig. 32.27). Mathematical analysis
shows that the angular position of the first ring and therefore the minimum resolvable
source separation for a circular aperture is
1.22l
umin 5 1Rayleigh criterion, circular aperture2 (32.11b)
D
with D the aperture diameter.
Equations 32.11 show that increasing the aperture size allows smaller angular differences
to be resolved. In optical instrument design, that means larger mirrors or lenses. An alterna-
tive is to decrease the wavelength, which may or may not be an option depending on the
source. In high-quality optical systems, diffraction is often the limiting factor preventing per-
fectly sharp image formation; such systems are said to be diffraction limited. For example,
FIGURE 32.27 3-D plot of intensity versus posi- the diffraction limit sets a minimum size for objects resolvable with optical microscopes;
tion in circular diffraction. The right-most im- that’s why electron microscopes—with shorter effective wavelength—are used to image the
age in Fig. 32.26 shows the corresponding smallest biological structures. Large ground-based telescopes are an exception to the diffrac-
diffraction pattern. tion limit; their image quality is limited by atmospheric turbulence, although this can be re-
duced with adaptive optics. From its vantage point above the atmosphere, the Hubble Space
Telescope is the first large diffraction-limited astronomical telescope.
Astronomers circumvent the diffraction limit by combining data from several tele-
scopes to produce, in effect, a single instrument with aperture equal to the telescope sepa-
ration. Radio astronomers achieve exquisite resolution by combining telescopes on
different continents; for optical astronomy the technique is limited to smaller separations.
You can explore astronomical interferometry further in the Passage Problems.
 32.6 The Diffraction Limit 579

GOT IT? 32.3 You’re a biologist trying to resolve details of structures within a cell,
but they look fuzzy even at the highest power of your microscope. Which of the following
might help: (a) substituting an eyepiece with shorter focal length, as suggested by Equa-
tion 31.10; (b) putting a red filter over the white light source used to illuminate the micro-
scope slide; or (c) putting a blue filter over the white light source?

EXAMPLE 32.5 The Diffraction Limit: Asteroid Alert

An asteroid 203106 km away appears on a collision course with EVALUATE If we consider the opposite ends of the asteroid to be like
Earth. What’s the minimum size for the asteroid that could be resolved the two peaks in Fig. 32.24, then the angular size for small u is just
with the 2.4-m-diameter diffraction-limited Hubble Space Telescope, l/L, where L is the distance to the asteroid. Then Equation 32.11b
using 550-nm reflected sunlight? becomes
l 1.22l
INTERPRET This is a problem about the diffraction limit with a circu- 5
lar aperture. We’re after the minimum physical size for the asteroid at L D
a given distance. We identify D 5 2.4 m as the aperture size and or l 5 1.22lL/D 5 5.6 km using the numbers given.
l 5 550 nm as the wavelength of the light.
ASSESS An object this size poses a grave danger, being comparable to
DEVELOP Equation 32.11b, umin 5 1.22l/D, determines the diffrac- the asteroid whose impact caused the extinction of the dinosaurs. If as-
tion limit, expressed as the minimum angular size that can be re- tronomers see only a fuzzy blur, then they’ll have to wait until the aster-
solved. So our plan is to express the unknown physical size l in terms oid is closer to resolve its physical size and assess the danger. ■
of angular size u and then apply Equation 32.11b.

APPLICATION Movies on Disc: CD to DVD to Blu-ray

The Application earlier in this chapter described how a CD encodes informa- light, DVDs can use smaller pit size and spacing because of the lower diffrac-
tion in pits 1.6 m apart and as short as 0.83 m. CDs are read with 780-nm tion limit. That, coupled with a two-layer structure and more sophisticated
infrared laser light. The pit size and spacing are chosen so diffraction effects at data-compression schemes, gives standard DVDs a capacity of about 4.7 GB—
that wavelength don’t cause the CD player’s optical system to confuse adjacent enough for 2 hours or more of video, depending on quality.
pits. The result is a maximum capacity of about 650 MB (megabytes; 1 byte is Despite their large capacity, DVDs aren’t adequate for today’s high-
8 binary bits, with a bit the fundamental piece of binary information repre- definition TV (HDTV). But improvements in laser technology give us a 405-nm
sented by a digital 1 or 0). This translates into 74 minutes of audio. violet laser that enables high-definition video discs. Again, the shorter wavelength
CDs were developed in the 1980s, when inexpensive semiconductor lasers and hence lower diffraction limit, along with other improvements, allow much
were available only in the infrared. By the 1990s inexpensive visible-light more information to fit on a disc. The resulting Blu-ray technology stores 25 GB
lasers became available, and that enabled the development of DVDs (for “digi- on a single-layer disc. That corresponds to 4.5 hours of high-definition video, or
tal video disc” or “digital versatile disc”). Read with 635-nm or 650-nm red 12 hours of standard video. The figure compares CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.
CHAPTER 32 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is that—despite our use of the geometrical-optics approximation in the preceding chapters—light is indeed a wave and therefore
exhibits the two related phenomena of interference and diffraction. These wave effects are important whenever light or any other wave interacts
with objects whose size is comparable to or smaller than the wavelength.

Key Concepts and Equations

Constructive interference occurs when two waves combine in phase: Destructive interference occurs when two waves combine 180° out of
phase:

When light of wavelength l passes through two or more narrow slits, the resulting interference
shows maxima when m51
bright
d sin u 5 ml
where m is an integer called the order. With multiple slits the maxima become stronger and u m50
d
narrower, but their position doesn’t change. bright

m51
bright
2 slit 5 slit
l

Diffraction occurs because, according to Huygens’ principle, each The diffraction limit is a fundamental restriction on our ability to im-
point on a wavefront acts as a source of spherical waves, causing light age small or distant objects. For a circular aperture of diameter D, the
to bend as it encounters sharp edges. Waves from different parts of a Rayleigh criterion gives the minimum angular separation that can be
wavefront interfere to produce diffraction patterns. resolved with light of wavelength l:
1.22l
umin 5
D
Barely Not
Resolved resolved resolved

Applications
A diffraction grating consists of multi- X-ray diffraction uses regularly positioned The Michelson Mirror
ple slits or lines that result in constructive atoms as a grating, and is a powerful tech- interferometer
interference at different positions for dif- nique for analyzing crystal and molecular splits light into
ferent wavelengths. Diffraction gratings structure. Maximum intensity occurs when two beams that
are used in spectrometers to disperse indi- 2d sin u 5 ml travel on per-
vidual wavelengths. A grating’s resolving pendicular paths. Beam
Incident Reflected
power, the ratio of wavelength to the They recombine, Light splitter
X-ray beam beam source
minimum resolvable difference in wave- and the resulting Mirror
lengths, is given by interference al-
l lows precision Interference
5 mN u measurements. pattern
Dl
d
where N is the number of lines in the grat-
d
ing and m is the order of the dispersion.
 Exercises and Problems 581

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion Section 32.4 Interferometry

21. Find the minimum thickness of a soap film 1n 5 1.3332 in
1. A prism bends blue light more than red. Is the same true of a dif- which 550-nm light will undergo constructive interference.
fraction grating? 22. Light of unknown wavelength shines on a precisely machined
2. Why does an oil slick show colored bands? glass wedge with refractive index 1.52. The closest point to the
3. Why does a soap bubble turn colorless just before it dries up and apex of the wedge where reflection is enhanced occurs where the
pops? wedge is 98 nm thick. Find the wavelength.
4. Why don’t you see interference effects between the front and 23. Monochromatic light shines on a glass wedge with refractive
back of your eyeglasses? index 1.65, and enhanced reflection occurs where the wedge is
5. You can hear around corners, but you can’t see around corners. 450 nm thick. Find all possible values for the wavelength in the
Why? visible range.
6. In deriving the intensity in double-slit interference, why can’t 24. White light shines on a 100-nm-thick sliver of fluorite 1n 5 1.432.
you simply add the intensities from the two slits? What wavelength is most strongly reflected?
7. The primary maxima in multiple-slit interference are in the same 25. For the soap film described in Conceptual Example 32.1’s “Mak-
angular positions as those in double-slit interference. Why, then, ing the Connection,” what portion of the film will appear dark
do diffraction gratings have thousands of slits instead of just two? when it’s illuminated with white light?
8. When the Moon passes in front of a star, the starlight intensity fluc-
Section 32.5 Huygens’ Principle and Diffraction
tuates before going to zero instead of dropping abruptly. Explain.
9. Sketch roughly the diffraction pattern you would expect for light 26. For what ratio of slit width to wavelength will the first minima of
passing through a square hole a few wavelengths wide. a single-slit diffraction pattern occur at 690°?
27. Light with wavelength 633 nm is incident on a 2.5-m-wide slit.
Find the angular width of the central peak in the diffraction pat-
Exercises and Problems tern, taken as the angular separation between the first minima.
28. A beam of parallel rays from a 29-MHz Citizen’s Band radio trans-
Exercises mitter passes between two electrically conducting (hence opaque
Section 32.2 Double-Slit Interference to radio waves) buildings located 45 m apart. What’s the beam’s
10. A double-slit system is used to measure the wavelength of light. angular width when it emerges from between the buildings?
The system has slit spacing d 5 15 m and slit-to-screen dis- 29. Find the intensity as a fraction of the central peak intensity for
tance L 5 2.2 m. If the m 5 1 maximum in the interference pat- the second secondary maximum in single-slit diffraction, assum-
tern occurs 7.1 cm from screen center, what’s the wavelength? ing the peak lies midway between the second and third minima.
11. A double-slit experiment with d 5 0.025 mm and L 5 75 cm uses Section 32.6 The Diffraction Limit
550-nm light. Find the spacing between adjacent bright fringes. 30. Find the minimum angular separation resolvable with 633-nm
12. A double-slit experiment has slit spacing 0.12 mm. (a) What laser light passing through a circular aperture of diameter 2.1 cm.
should be the slit-to-screen distance L if the bright fringes are to 31. Find the minimum telescope aperture that could resolve an object
be 5.0 mm apart when the slits are illuminated with 633-nm laser with angular diameter 0.35 arcsecond, observed at 500-nm wave-
light? (b) What will be the fringe spacing with 480-nm light? length. (Note: 1 arcsec 5 1/3600°.)
13. The interference pattern from two slits separated by 0.37 mm has 32. What’s the longest wavelength of light you could use to resolve a
bright fringes with angular spacing 0.065°. Find the light’s wave- structure with angular diameter 0.44 mrad, using a microscope
length. with aperture 1.2 mm in diameter?
14. The 546-nm green line of gaseous mercury falls on a double-slit 33. In bright light, the human eye’s pupil diameter is about 2 mm. If
apparatus. If the fifth dark fringe is at 0.113° from the centerline, BIO diffraction were the limiting factor, what’s the eye’s minimum an-
what’s the slit separation? gular resolution under these conditions, assuming 550-nm light?
Section 32.3 Multiple-Slit Interference Problems
and Diffraction Gratings 34. Find the angular position u of the second-order bright fringe in a
15. In a five-slit system, how many minima lie between the zeroth- double-slit system with 1.5-m slit spacing if the light’s wave-
order and first-order maxima? length is (a) 400 nm and (b) 700 nm.
16. In a three-slit system, the first minimum occurs at angular posi- 35. A double-slit experiment has slit spacing 0.035 mm, slit-to-
tion 5°. Where is the next maximum? screen distance 1.5 m, and wavelength 500 nm. What’s the phase
17. A five-slit system with 7.5-m slit spacing is illuminated with difference between two waves arriving at a point 0.56 cm from
633-nm light. Find the angular positions of (a) the first two max- the center line?
ima and (b) the third and sixth minima. 36. For a double-slit experiment with slit spacing 0.25 mm and
18. Green light at 520 nm is diffracted by a grating with 3000 lines/cm. wavelength 600 nm, at what angular position is the path differ-
Through what angle is the light diffracted in (a) first and (b) fifth ence a quarter wavelength?
order? 37. A screen 1.0 m wide is 2.0 m from a pair of slits illuminated by
19. Light is incident normally on a grating with 10,000 lines/cm. 633-nm laser light, with the screen’s center on the centerline of
Find the maximum order in which (a) 450-nm and (b) 650-nm the slits. Find the highest-order bright fringe that will appear on
light will be visible. the screen if the slit spacing is (a) 0.10 mm and (b) 10 m.
20. Find the second-order angular separation of the two wavelengths 38. A tube of glowing gas emits light at 550 nm and 400 nm. In a
in Example 32.2. double-slit apparatus, what’s the lowest-order 550-nm bright
582 Chapter 32 Interference and Diffraction

fringe that will fall on a 400-nm dark fringe, and what are the 52. An air wedge like that of Fig. 32.28 shows N bright bands when
fringes’ corresponding orders? illuminated from above. Find an expression for the number of
39. On the screen of a multiple-slit system, the interference pattern bands if the air is replaced by a liquid of refractive index n differ-
shows bright maxima separated by 0.86° and seven minima between ent from that of the glass.
each bright maximum. (a) How many slits are there? (b) What’s the 53. A Michelson interferometer uses light from glowing hydrogen at
slit separation if the incident light has wavelength 656.3 nm? 486.1 nm. As you move one mirror, 530 bright fringes pass a
40. You’re designing a spectrometer whose specifications call for a fixed point in the viewer. How far did the mirror move?
minimum of 5° separation between the red hydrogen-a line at 54. Find the wavelength of light used in a Michelson interferometer
656 nm and the yellow sodium line at 589 nm when the two are if 550 bright fringes go by a fixed point when the mirror moves
observed in third order with a grating spectrometer. Available 0.150 mm.
gratings have 2500 lines/cm, 3500 lines/cm, or 4500 lines/cm. 55. One arm of a Michelson interferometer is 42.5 cm long and is en-
What’s the coarsest grating you can use? closed in a box that can be evacuated. The box initially contains
41. For visible light with wavelengths from 400 nm to 700 nm, show air, which is gradually pumped out. In the process, 388 bright
that the first-order spectrum is the only one that doesn’t overlap fringes pass a point in the viewer. If the interferometer uses light
with the next higher order. with wavelength 641.6 nm, what’s the air’s refractive index?
42. Find the total number of lines in a 2.5-cm-wide diffraction grat- 56. Your stereo is in a dead spot caused by direct reception from an
ing whose third-order spectrum puts the 656-nm hydrogen-a FM radio station at 89.5 MHz interfering with the signal reflect-
spectral line 37° from the central maximum. ing off a wall behind you. How much farther from the wall
43. What order is necessary to resolve 647.98-nm and 648.07-nm should you move so that the interference is fully constructive?
spectral lines using a 4500-line grating? 57. A proposed “star wars” antimissile laser is to focus 2.8-μm-
44. A thin film of toluene 1n 5 1.492 floats on water. Find the mini- wavelength infrared light to a 50-cm-diameter spot on a missile
mum film thickness if the most strongly reflected light has wave- 2500 km distant. Find the minimum diameter for a concave mirror
length 460 nm. that can achieve this spot size, given the diffraction limit. (Your
45. NASA asks you to assess the feasibility of a single-mirror space- answer suggests one of many technical difficulties faced by
based optical telescope that could resolve an Earth-size planet 5 antimissile defense systems.)
light-years away. What do you conclude? 58. Suppose one of the 10-m-diameter Keck Telescopes in Hawaii
46. Echelle spectroscopy uses relatively coarse gratings in high or- is trained on San Francisco, 3400 km away. Assuming 550-nm
der. Compare the resolving power of an 80-lines/mm echelle light, and ignoring atmospheric distortion, would it be possible
grating used in 12th order with a 600-lines/mm grating used in to read (a) newspaper headlines or (b) a billboard sign at this
first order, assuming the two have the same width. distance? (c) Repeat for the case of the Keck optical interfer-
47. X-ray diffraction in potassium chloride (KCl) results in a first- ometer, formed from the two 10-m Keck Telescopes and several
order maximum when 97-pm-wavelength X rays graze the crys- smaller ones, with a 50-m effective aperture.
tal plane at 8.5°. Find the spacing between crystal planes. 59. A camera has an f/1.4 lens, meaning the ratio of focal length to
48. As a soap bubble with n 5 1.333 evaporates and thins, reflected lens diameter is 1.4. Find the smallest spot diameter (i.e., the
colors gradually disappear. What are (a) the bubble thickness just diameter of the first diffraction minimum) to which this lens can
as the last vestige of color vanishes and (b) the last color seen? focus parallel light with 580-nm wavelength.
49. An oil film with refractive index 1.25 floats on water. The film 60. The CIA wants your help identifying individual terrorists in a
thickness varies from 0.80 m to 2.1 m. If 630-nm light is inci- photo of a training camp taken from a spy satellite at 100-km al-
dent normally on the film, at how many locations will it undergo titude. You ask for details of the optical system used, but they’re
enhanced reflection? classified. However, they do tell you that the optics are diffrac-
50. You know that it’s safe to microwave plastic containers, since tion limited and can resolve facial features as small as 5 cm. As-
their molecules don’t respond significantly to 2.4-GHz micro- suming a typical optical wavelength of 550 nm, what do you
waves. But since you’ve learned about thin-film interference, you conclude about the size of the mirror or lens in the satellite
worry about enhanced microwave intensity due to multiple re- camera?
flections in plastic cookware. You calculate the minimum thick- 61. While driving at night, your eyes’ irises dilate to 3.1-mm diame-
ness for a plastic tray with refractive index 1.3 that will cause BIO ter. If your vision were diffraction limited, what would be the
enhanced reflection of microwaves incident normal to the plate. greatest distance at which you could see as distinct the two head-
Are your worries assuaged? lights of an oncoming car, spaced 1.5 m apart? Take l 5 550 nm.
51. Two perfectly flat glass plates are separated at one end by a sheet 62. Under the best conditions, atmospheric turbulence limits ground-
of paper 0.065 mm thick. 550-nm light illuminates the plates based telescopes’ resolution to about 1 arcsecond (1/3600 of a
from above, as shown in Fig. 32.28. How many bright bands ap- degree). For what apertures is this limitation more severe than
pear to an observer looking down on the plates? that of diffraction at 550 nm? (Your answer shows why large
ground-based telescopes don’t generally produce better images
than small ones, although they do gather more light.)
Incident light
63. Your molecular biology lab studies proteins, and you’re frus-
BIO trated because your microscopes can’t quite resolve crystallized
proteins. A sales rep touts the advantages of an expensive micro-
scope using 200-nm ultraviolet light, saying you’ll be able to re-
Paper
solve structures less than half the size that’s resolvable with your
optical microscopes. Is the sales rep correct?
64. An air wedge like that of Fig. 32.28 displays 10,003 bright bands
FIGURE 32.28 Problems 51, 52, and 64 when illuminated from above. If the region between the plates is
 Answers to Chapter Questions 583

then evacuated, the number of bands drops to 10,000. Find the re- The technological challenge is to combine the signals with their rela-
fractive index of the air. tive phase intact; for this reason, interferometry has been used success-
65. A thin-walled glass tube of length L containing a gas of unknown fully for decades in radio astronomy but is just beginning to be used
refractive index is placed in one arm of a Michelson interferome- with optical telescopes.
ter using light of wavelength l. The tube is then evacuated. Dur-
ing the process, m bright fringes pass a fixed point in the viewer.
To source 1
Find an expression for the refractive index of the gas.
To source 2
66. Light is incident on a diffraction grating at angle a to the normal.
Show that the condition for maximum light intensity becomes
d1sin u 6 sin a2 5 ml.
67. An arrangement known as Lloyd’s mirror (Fig. 32.29) allows inter-
90° 45°
ference between direct and reflected beams from the same source.
Find an expression for the separation of bright fringes on the screen,
given the distances d and D and the light’s wavelength l. FIGURE 32.30 A two-dish interferometer used for radio astronomy (Passage
Problems 71–74). Dashed lines show directions to sources in Problems 73
and 74.
Screen

Source D 71. If the separation of two telescopes comprising an interferometer

is doubled, the angular separation between two sources just
d barely resolvable by the interferometer will
a. not change.
Mirror
b. decrease by a factor of 1/12.
c. halve.
d. double.
FIGURE 32.29 Lloyd’s mirror (Problem 67) 72. If the separation of two telescopes comprising an interferometer
is doubled, the instrument’s light-collecting power will
68. The intensity in single-slit diffraction can be calculated by summing a. not change.
infinitely many electric-field amplitudes corresponding to waves b. increase by a factor of 12.
from every infinitesimal part of the slit. (a) Referring to Fig. 32.20, c. double.
show that the field from an element of width dy in the slit, a distance d. quadruple.
y from the bottom edge, is dE 5 1Ep dy/l2 sin1vt 1 f1y22, 73. If a point source is located directly above a two-telescope inter-
where f1y2 5 12py/a2 sin u. (b) Integrate dE over the entire slit ferometer, on the perpendicular bisector of the line joining the
(y from 0 to a) and use trig identities from Appendix A to find the telescopes (source 1 in Fig. 32.30), electromagnetic waves reach-
total amplitude, and from there show that the intensity is given by ing the two will be
Equation 32.10. a. in phase.
69. You’re on an international panel charged with allocating “real es- b. out of phase by 45°.
tate” for communications satellites in geosynchronous orbit. The c. out of phase by 90°.
panel needs to know how many satellites could fit in geosynchro- d. you can’t tell without further information
nous orbit without receivers on the ground picking up multiple 74. If a point source is located on a line at 45° to the line joining the
signals. Assume all satellites broadcast at 12 GHz and that re- two telescopes (source 2 in Fig. 32.30), electromagnetic waves
ceiver dishes are 45 cm in diameter. Begin by calculating the an- reaching the two will be
gular size of the beam associated with such a receiver dish, a. in phase.
defined as the full width of its central diffraction peak. Use your b. out of phase by 45°.
result to find the number of satellites allowed in geosynchronous c. out of phase by 90°.
orbit if each receiver dish is to “see” just one satellite. (Hint: d. you can’t tell without further information
Consult Example 8.3.)
70. You’re investigating an oil spill for your state environmental pro-
tection agency. There’s a thin film of oil on water, and you know Answers to Chapter Questions
its refractive index is noil 5 1.38. You shine white light vertically
on the oil, and use a spectrometer to determine that the most Answer to Chapter Opening Question
strongly reflected wavelength is 580 nm. Assuming first-order The individual bits of information need to be stored in physical struc-
thin-film interference, what do you report for the thickness of the tures no smaller than the wavelength of light. The progression to
oil slick? greater information storage from CD to DVD to Blu-ray disc is largely
a result of shorter-wavelength lasers being used to read the discs.
Passage Problems
Even the nearest stars are so distant that a single diffraction-limited tel- Answers to GOT IT? Questions
escope capable of imaging Earth-size planets orbiting them would be 32.1. Closer together.
hopelessly large (see Problem 45). Astronomers get around this limita- 32.2. (a) No change; (b) intensity increases; (c) peaks become narrower.
tion using interferometry to combine data from several telescopes, pro- 32.3. (c) A blue filter means you’re using a shorter wavelength, de-
ducing an instrument that acts like a single telescope with aperture creasing l and therefore u in Equations 32.11, and thus increas-
equal to the distance between the individual telescopes (Fig. 32.30). ing the resolution.
PART FIVE SUMMARY

Optics
Optics is the study of light and its behavior. Geometrical optics is an in straight lines called rays. Physical optics, in contrast, treats light
approximation that holds when the objects with which light interacts explicitly as a wave. Physical optics explains a host of phenomena that
are much larger than its wavelength. In this case, light generally travels ultimately involve the interference of light waves.

When light rays are incident on an in- Lenses and curved mirrors use refraction and reflection, respectively, to form images.
terface between two materials, they
generally undergo reflection and, for
transparent materials, refraction. The C F
angles of incidence and reflection are Object f Image
equal. Snell’s law relates the angles of Image 2f
Object 2f f
incidence and refraction:
1 1 1
Incident ray Reflected ray In both cases the object distance s, image distance s9, and focal length f are related by 1 5 .
u1
s s9 f
u'1
Medium 1 With real images, shown in both figures above, light actually comes from the image. With virtual im-
u2 ages, shown in both figures below, light only appears to come from the image:
Medium 2 Refracted ray
F F
Reflection: u91 5 u1 f Object Image
Refraction (Snell’s law): Image Object f
n1 sin u1 5 n2 sin u2
The wave nature of light becomes important when light interacts with objects comparable in size to its
The index of refraction n relates wavelength, or when light travels different paths and recombines to produce interference.
light’s speed in a medium to its speed c
in vacuum: Destructive interference Constructive interference
c occurs when waves are out occurs when waves are out
n5 of step by an odd-integer l of step by an integer multiple
v 2 l
multiple of a half-wave- of the wavelength.
length.

A system consisting of Dark Photo showing Huygens’ principle explains the prop-
two narrow slits produces Bright alternating agation of waves by stating that each
Dark bright and
a pattern of interference Bright dark fringes. part of a wavefront acts as a source of
fringes resulting from al- Dark circular waves that spread out and in-
Bright
ternating regions of con- terfere to propagate the wave. When
structive and destructive light passes through small apertures or by sharp edges, Huygens’ prin-
interference: ciple shows that the light diffracts, bending and producing interfer-
d sin u 5 ml 1bright fringes2 ence fringes as waves from different points interfere.
d sin u 5 A m 1 12 B l 1dark fringes2 Diffraction fundamentally limits our ability to resolve small objects or
With multiple slits the bright fringes become narrower and brighter: to see closely spaced but distant objects as separate.
Barely Not
1 u u 1 u u Resolved resolved resolved
Two slits Five slits
2 2

A multiple-slit system constitutes a diffraction grating and is used to For a circular aperture of diameter d (such as a telescope with d being
separate different wavelengths in spectroscopy. its mirror diameter), the diffraction limit gives the smallest angular
separation that can be resolved at a given wavelength l:
1.22l
umin 5
d

Part Five Challenge Problem

A double-slit system consists of two slits each of width a, with separation d between the slit centers 1d . a2. Light of intensity S0 and wavelength
l is incident on the system, perpendicular to the plane containing the slits. Find an expression for the outgoing intensity as a function of angular
position u, taking into account both the slit width and the separation. Plot your result for the case d 5 4a, and compare with Fig. 32.22.
PART SIX OVERVIEW

Modern Physics

W hat are the fundamental particles of matter? What holds them together to make The world’s smallest electrical wire, a
carbon nanotube, is only 10 atoms
protons, neutrons, nuclei, atoms, molecules, and solids? Is nature fundamentally
across. In this image made with an
predictable, or does uncertainty rule in the microscopic world? At the other extreme, atomic force microscope, the nanotube
how big is the universe? How did it begin, and how will it end? All these are wire runs across a backdrop of
questions for relativity and quantum physics—collectively called “modern physics” platinum electrodes. Our understand-
ing of physics at the atomic and molec-
because they were developed after the turn of the 20th century. In Part 6 we give a
ular level lets us construct an increasing
brief account of Einstein’s theory of relativity, followed by a glimpse at quantum variety of practical nanoscale devices.
physics and its applications. We end with an overview of the latest developments in
fundamental physics, from the nature of elementary particles to surprising new
findings about the origin and composition of the universe.

585
 33 Relativity

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Recount the historical progression
from 19th-century physics to
relativity (33.1, 33.2).
■ State the principle of special
relativity (33.3).
■ Work quantitative problems
involving time dilation and length
contraction (33.4, 33.5).
■ Explain why events simultaneous in
one frame of reference need not be
simultaneous in another (33.5).
■ Use the Lorentz transformations to
find the space and time coordinates
of events in different reference
frames (33.6).
■ Discredit the common misconcep-
tion that Einstein’s theories imply
that “everything is relative” (33.6).
■ Describe quantitatively the relations
among mass, energy, and momen-
tum in relativity (33.7).
■ Explain qualitatively how relativity
connects electricity and magnetism
(33.8).
■ Explain qualitatively why a general-
ization of relativity leads to Einstein’s
theory of gravity (33.9).
Behind Einstein’s theories is a profoundly
simple principle that can be stated in a
single statement. What is it?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter builds on your existing
knowledge of physics, especially
M axwell’s electromagnetic theory was a crowning achievement of 19th-century physics, pro-
viding an understanding of the nature of light and enabling a host of practical technolo-
gies. At the same time, Maxwell’s electromagnetism led to baffling questions and contradictions
electromagnetism and electromag- that shook the roots of physical understanding and even of common sense.
netic waves (Chapter 29). The theory of relativity resolved these contradictions. It radically altered our fundamental un-
■ We’ll elaborate on the concept of derstanding of the physical world, and its influence spilled over into all areas of human thought.
reference frames, especially inertial Relativity stands as a monument to human intellect and imagination, and it reveals a universe far
reference frames (3.3, 4.2). richer than earlier physicists could conceive of. We’ll approach relativity historically, building on
■ Be prepared to look at old ideas in our understanding of electromagnetism. That way you’ll get a sense of the questions that elec-
new ways: Relativity alters the mean- tromagnetism posed to 19th-century physicists and of how Einstein’s answer to these questions
ings of and relations among physics was at once profoundly bold and sweepingly simple.
concepts like mass, momentum, and
energy, as well as the underlying
concepts of space and time.

586
 33.2 Matter, Motion, and the Ether 587

33.1 Speed c Relative to What?

Maxwell’s equations show that electromagnetic waves in vacuum propagate with speed c.
Speed c relative to what? In Chapter 14 we found the speed of waves on a string; clearly
the speed in that case was relative to the string. Similarly, the 340-m/s speed of sound
in air is clearly relative to the air. If you move through the air, the speed of sound
relative to you won’t be the same. In these and other cases of mechanical waves, it’s
clear what the wave speed means: It’s the speed relative to the medium in which the
wave is a disturbance.

The Ether Concept

What about light? Nineteenth-century physicists, their worldview built on the highly suc-
cessful mechanical paradigm of Newtonian physics, supposed that light waves were like
mechanical waves in requiring a medium. They postulated a tenuous substance called the
ether that permeated the entire universe, allowing light from distant stars to reach us.
Electric and magnetic fields were stresses in the ether, and electromagnetic waves were
propagating disturbances moving through the ether at speed c.
The ether had to have some unusual properties. It must offer no resistance to material
bodies, or the planets would lose energy and spiral into the Sun. It must be very stiff, to
account for the high speed of light. And it had to be more jelly-like than fluid, to support
transverse electromagnetic waves. These properties make ether a rather improbable sub-
stance, but to 19th-century physicists the ether was essential in understanding electromag-
netic waves.
The speed of light c follows from Maxwell’s equations. But in the 19th-century view,
light has speed c only for an observer at rest with respect to the ether. Therefore,
Maxwell’s equations could be correct only in the ether frame of reference. This put elec-
tromagnetism in a rather different position from mechanics. In mechanics, the concept of
absolute motion is meaningless. You can eat your dinner, toss a ball, or do any mechanical
experiment as well on an airplane moving steadily at 1000 km/h as you can when the
plane is at rest on the ground. This is the principle of Galilean relativity, which states that
the laws of mechanics are valid in all inertial reference frames—that is, frames of refer-
ence in uniform motion (Section 4.2). But the laws of electromagnetism seemed valid only
in the ether’s reference frame because only in this frame was the prediction of electromag-
netic waves moving at speed c correct.
So for 19th-century physicists, the laws for one branch of physics (mechanics) seemed
to work in all inertial frames, while those of another branch (electromagnetism) could not.
Despite this dichotomy, physicists had great faith in mechanical models and in the ether
concept, for without the ether the question “speed c relative to what?” seemed impossible
to answer. Thus the late 19th century saw a flurry of experiments to detect the ether. Ulti-
mately they failed, paving the way for the new worldview of relativity that, in Einstein’s
own words, “arose from necessity, from serious and deep contradictions in the old theory
from which there seemed no escape.”

33.2 Matter, Motion, and the Ether

It was natural for 19th-century physicists to ask about Earth’s motion relative to the
ether. If Earth is moving through the ether, then the speed of light should be different
in different directions. On the other hand, Earth might be at rest relative to the ether.
Because other planets, stars, and galaxies move with respect to Earth, it’s hard to imag-
ine that the ether is everywhere fixed with respect to Earth alone: This violates the
Copernican view that Earth doesn’t occupy a privileged spot in the universe. But maybe
Earth drags with it the ether in its immediate vicinity. If this “ether drag” occurs, then
the speed of light must be independent of direction, but if there’s no ether drag, then
the speed of light measured on Earth must depend on direction. Through observation
and experiment, 19th-century physicists sought to resolve the question of Earth’s mo-
tion through the ether.
588 Chapter 33 Relativity

Aberration of Starlight
Imagine standing in a rainstorm with rain falling vertically. To keep dry, you hold your
umbrella with its shaft straight up, as shown in Fig. 33.1a. But if you run, as in Fig. 33.1b,
Vertical you’ll keep driest if you tilt your umbrella forward. Why? Because the direction of rain-
rain;
umbrella fall relative to you is at an angle, as shown in Fig. 33.1c. This assumes you don’t drag with
overhead you a large volume of air. If such an “air drag” occurred, raindrops entering the region
around you would be accelerated quickly in the horizontal direction by the air moving
with you, so they would now fall vertically relative to you, as in Fig. 33.1d. No matter
(a) which way you ran, as long as you dragged air with you, you would point your umbrella
vertically upward to stay dry.
This umbrella example is exactly analogous to the observation of light from stars, with
the rain being starlight and the umbrella a telescope. If Earth doesn’t drag ether, then the
direction from which starlight comes will depend on Earth’s motion relative to the ether.
But if “ether drag” occurs in analogy with Fig. 33.1d, then light from a particular star will
always come from the same direction.
In fact we do observe a tiny change in the direction of starlight. As Earth swings around
vr in its orbit, we must first point a telescope one way to see a particular star. Then, six
Running; months later, Earth’s orbital motion is in exactly the opposite direction, and we must point
tilt umbrella
to keep dry. the telescope in a slightly different direction. This phenomenon is called aberration of
(b) starlight and shows that Earth does not drag the ether.

The Michelson–Morley Experiment

If we reject the pre-Copernican notion that Earth alone is at rest relative to the ether, then
aberration of starlight forces us to conclude that Earth moves through the ether. Furthermore,
the relative velocity of the motion must change throughout the year as Earth orbits the Sun.
Situation of In 1881–1887, American scientists Albert A. Michelson and Edward W. Morley
(b) from runner’s attempted to determine Earth’s velocity relative to the ether. They used Michelson’s in-
reference frame terferometer (Fig. 33.2), whose operation we described in Chapter 32. Recall that the
interferometer produces a pattern of interference fringes that shifts if the round-trip
(c)
travel time for light on one of its two perpendicular arms changes. The interference pat-
tern reflects, among other things, possible differences in travel times that arise from
With “air drag”
rain always differences in the speed of light in different directions—differences that should result
hits umbrella from Earth’s motion through the ether. Rotating the apparatus through 90° would inter-
vertically. change the directions of the arms and should therefore shift the interference pattern.
Now suppose Earth moves at speed v relative to the ether. Then to an observer on Earth,
there’s an “ether wind” blowing past Earth. Suppose the Michelson–Morley apparatus is
oriented with one light path parallel to the wind and the other perpendicular. Consider a
“Dragged” air light beam moving the distance L at right angles to the wind. The beam must be aimed
slightly upwind so that it will actually move perpendicular to the wind. The light moves in
this direction at speed c relative to the ether, but the ether wind sweeps it back so its path
Mirror
(d) Ether
wind
FIGURE 33.1 A rain/umbrella analogy for
aberration of starlight. L
L
Light Beam
source splitter
Mirror

FIGURE 33.2 Simplified diagram of the Michelson–

Morley experiment. Ether wind should result
in a longer travel time for light on the horizontal
arm. Observer
 33.3 Special Relativity 589

in the Michelson–Morley apparatus is at right angles to the wind. From Fig. 33.3, we see Wind
velocity
that its speed relative to the apparatus is u 5 2c2 2 v2, so the round-trip travel time is
vr
2L 2L
tperpendicular 5 5 (33.1) Resultant
u 2c2 2 v2 velocity

Light sent a distance L “upstream”—against the ether wind—travels at speed c relative to ur cr

the ether but at speed c 2 v relative to Earth. It therefore takes time tupstream 5 L/1c 2 v2.
Returning, the light moves at c 1 v relative to Earth, so tdownstream 5 L/1c 1 v2. The round- Velocity
relative
trip time parallel to the ether wind is then to ether

L L 2cL FIGURE 33.3 Vector diagram for light moving

tparallel 5 1 5 2 (33.2)
c2v c1v c 2 v2 at right angles to an ether wind.

The two round-trip travel times differ, with the trip parallel to the ether wind always
taking longer (see Exercises 13, 14, and 27). Light on the parallel trip slows when it
moves against the ether wind, then speeds up when it moves with the wind. But slow-
ing always dominates because the light spends more time moving against the wind than
with it.
The Michelson–Morley experiment of 1887 was sensitive enough to detect differences
in the speed of light an order of magnitude smaller than Earth’s orbital speed. The experi-
ment was repeated with the apparatus oriented in different directions, and at different
times throughout the year, and the same simple but striking result always emerged: There
was never any difference in the travel times for the two light beams. In terms of the ether
concept, the Michelson–Morley experiment showed that Earth does not move relative to
the ether.

A Contradiction in Physics
Aberration of starlight shows that Earth doesn’t drag ether with it. Earth must therefore
move relative to the ether. But the Michelson–Morley experiment shows that it doesn’t.
This contradiction is a deep one, rooted in the fundamental laws of electromagnetism and
in the analogy between mechanical waves and electromagnetic waves. The contradiction
arises directly in trying to answer the simple question: With respect to what does light
move at speed c?
Physicists at the end of the 19th century made ingenious attempts to resolve the
dilemma of light and the ether, but their explanations either were inconsistent with experi-
ment or lacked sound conceptual bases.

33.3 Special Relativity

In 1905, at the age of 26, Albert Einstein (Fig. 33.4) presented his special theory of relativity,
which resolved the dilemma but altered the very foundation of physical thought. Einstein
declared simply that the ether is a fiction. But then with respect to what does light move at
speed c? With respect, Einstein declared, to anyone who cares to observe it. This statement
is at once simple, radical, and conservative. Simple, because its meaning is clear and obvi-
ous. Anyone who measures the speed of light in vacuum will get the value c 5 3.03108 m/s.
Radical, because it alters our commonsense notions of space and time. Conservative, be-
cause it asserts for electromagnetism what had long been true in mechanics: that the laws of
physics don’t depend on the motion of the observer. Einstein summarized his new ideas in
the principle of relativity, which is expressed in this simple sentence:

The laws of physics are the same in all inertial reference frames.

Recall that inertial frames are unaccelerated—that is, frames in which the laws of mechanics
were already valid. Einstein’s statement encompasses all laws of physics, including mechan- FIGURE 33.4 In 1905, when he formulated
ics and electromagnetism. The prediction that electromagnetic waves move at speed c must, special relativity, Einstein was a 26-year-old
then, be a universal prediction that holds in all inertial reference frames. The special theory father.
590 Chapter 33 Relativity

of relativity is special because it’s valid only for the special case of inertial frames. Later
we’ll discuss the general theory of relativity, which removes this restriction.
Einstein’s relativity explains the result of the Michelson–Morley experiment: No mat-
ter what Earth’s speed is relative to anything, an observer on Earth should measure the
same speed for light in all directions. But at the same time, relativity flagrantly violates
our commonsense notions of space and time. We’ll see just how in Sections 33.4–33.6.

33.4 Space and Time in Relativity

A standing pedestrian A pedestrian stands by the roadside as a car drives by (Fig. 33.5). Driver and pedestrian
measures the speed
of light as c.
each measure the speed of light from a blinking traffic signal. The theory of relativity says
Light pulse they’ll both get the same value, c 5 3.03108 m/s, even though the car is moving toward
the light source. How is that possible? Consider how each observer might make the mea-
surement. Each has a meter stick and an accurate stopwatch. Suppose a light flash passes
the front end of each meter stick just as they coincide. Each observer measures the time
vr
for the flash to traverse the 1-m stick and calculates speed 5 distance/time. They get the
same answer—even though common sense suggests that the light should pass the far end
of the “moving” meter stick sooner.
Although the car moves toward How can this be? Maybe the car’s motion affects the driver’s stopwatch, making it in-
the light source at speed v, accurate. But no; this suggestion violates relativity’s assertion that all uniformly moving
the driver also measures the
speed of light as c.
reference frames are equally good vantage points for doing physics. There can’t be any-
thing special about the “moving” reference frame; in fact, it’s meaningless to talk about
FIGURE 33.5 Both driver and pedestrian the car as “moving” and the pedestrian “at rest.” This is the point of relativity: The con-
measure the same speed c for light, even cept of absolute motion is meaningless.
though they’re in relative motion.
The only way out, consistent with relativity, is to let go of absolute space and time. Our two
observers’ instruments are measuring different quantities that depend on their reference
frame—namely, the distance and travel time for the light flash. Those quantities differ in just
the right way to make the speed of light come out the same for both observers. This is certainly
not what common sense tells us about space and time. But in relativity it’s the laws of physics,
not measures of space and time, that must be the same for all. Keep in mind the principle of
relativity, and you’ll see how the rest of special relativity’s remarkable consequences follow.

Time Dilation
Figure 33.6a shows a “light box,” consisting of a box of length L with a light source at one
end and a mirror at the other. A light flash leaves the source, reflects off the mirror, and
returns to the source. We want the time between two events: the emission of the flash and its
return to the source. An event is an occurrence specified by giving its position and its time.
For concreteness, we’ll imagine that the light box is in a spaceship moving past Earth at a
uniform velocity. But don’t think there’s something special about space or spaceships. The
whole point of relativity is that all inertial frames are equivalent places for doing physics,

Mirror

The light The light

path is 2L path is
in box’s longer in
rest frame L frame S.
L
S .

vr
Light
source vDt

C C1 C2
(a) (b)

FIGURE 33.6 A “light box” to explore time dilation shown (a) in a reference frame S’ at
rest with respect to the box and (b) in a frame S where the box is moving to the right.
 33.4 Space and Time in Relativity 591

and our spaceship is just one inertial reference frame. We’ll call that frame S9. There’s also
an accurate clock, C, in the spaceship, and C reads zero just as the light flash is emitted.
In Fig. 33.6a we consider the light-box experiment viewed in the spaceship’s reference
frame. Since the light box is at rest in this frame, the light travels a round-trip distance 2L
from source to mirror and back, giving a round-trip travel time of Dt9 5 2L/c. This is the
time read on the spaceship’s clock C.
Now consider the situation as viewed in Earth’s reference frame, which we’ll call S. In this
frame, spaceship and light clock are moving to the right with speed v, as shown in Fig. 33.6b.
Suppose there are two clocks in Earth’s frame, positioned so the light box passes clock C1
just as the flash is emitted, and passes C2 just as the flash returns to the source. The clocks
are synchronized, and C1 reads zero just as the light flash is emitted. We want to know C2’s
reading at the instant the light box passes it and the flash returns to its source; that will be
the time, Dt, between the flash emission and return as measured in Earth’s frame S.
Figure 33.6b shows that the box moves to the right a distance v Dt in the time between
emission and return of the light flash. Meanwhile the light takes a diagonal path up to the
mirror of the moving box and then back down. The path length is twice the diagonal from
source to mirror or, by the Pythagorean theorem, 2 2L2 1 1v Dt/222. The time for light to
go this distance is the distance divided by the speed of light, or Dt 5 2 2L2 1 1v Dt/222/c.
We explicitly used relativity here, assuming the speed of light remained c in Earth’s frame.
!
If we didn’t believe relativity, we would have vectorially added light’s velocity c and the
!
box’s velocity v . But that would make the spaceship’s frame the only one in which the
speed of light was c—in violation of the relativity principle.
The unknown Dt appears on both sides of our expression; multiplying through by c and
squaring give
c21Dt22 5 4L2 1 v21Dt22
We then solve for 1Dt22 to get
4L2 4L2 1
1Dt22 5 5 a b
c 2v
2 2
c 1 2 v2/c2
2

Taking the square root of both sides, and noting that 2L/c is just the time Dt9 measured in
the frame S9 at rest with respect to the box, we have Dt 5 Dt9/ 21 2 v2/c2 or

Dt9 5 Dt 21 2 v2/c2 1time dilation2 (33.3)

Equation 33.3 describes the phenomenon of time dilation, in which the time between C C
two events is shortest in a frame of reference in which the two events occur at the same
place. In our example, the events are the emission and return of the light flash, and they vr
occur at the same place in the spaceship frame S9—namely, at the bottom of the box. They
don’t occur at the same place in the Earth frame S because the box moves relative to Earth,
so the bottom of the box isn’t in the same place when the light flash returns as it was when
the flash was emitted. Thus Dt9—the time interval measured in the spaceship frame S9, C1 C2
where the events occur at the same place—is shorter than Dt, as you can see from Equa-
FIGURE 33.7 Clock C moves between clocks
tion 33.3 and as illustrated in Fig. 33.7. C1 and C2, which are at rest relative to each
The shorter time Dt9 measured by a single clock present at two events is called a proper other and synchronized in their rest frame.
time. Here “proper” doesn’t mean “correct” or “right”—that would violate relativity, since a C measures a shorter elapsed time.
time measurement in any inertial frame has equal claim to being valid. Rather, “proper” is
used in the sense of “proprietary” in that proper time is the time that belongs to this one par-
ticular clock. In Earth frame S there’s no single clock present at both the emission and return
of the light flash, so the time measurement in this frame doesn’t “belong” to any one clock.
Time dilation is sometimes characterized by saying “moving clocks run slow,” but this
statement violates the spirit of relativity because it suggests that some frames are “really”
moving and others aren’t. The whole point of relativity is that all inertial frames are equally
good for describing physical reality, so none can claim to be “at rest” while others are “mov-
ing.” What the statement “moving clocks run slow” is trying to convey is what we’ve just
seen: The time interval between two events is shortest in a reference frame where the two
occur at the same place. There’s no significance whatever to our putting the light box in a
“moving” spaceship and comparing ship time with Earth time. We could equally well have
592 Chapter 33 Relativity

put the light box and its clock on Earth, and two separate clocks in the ship. Then Earth with
its light box would be moving past the ship at speed v—so the Earth clock would measure
the time Dt9 in Equation 33.3, and the two clocks in the ship frame would measure the longer
time Dt. (That may sound like a contradiction, but it can’t be because there’s nothing special
about any inertial frame, including Earth’s. We’ll return to this point shortly.)
We used a light box to illustrate time dilation. But time dilation isn’t something that
happens only when we use light to determine time intervals. It’s something that happens
to time itself. Take away the light box in Fig. 33.6, and the clocks will show the same dis-
crepancy. Don’t look for a physical mechanism that slows things down. All manifestations
of time—the oscillations of the quartz crystal in a digital watch, the swing of a pendulum
clock, the period of vibration of atoms in an atomic clock, biological rhythms, and human
lifetimes—are affected in the same way.

EXAMPLE 33.1 Calculating Time Dilation: Star Trek

A spaceship leaves Earth on a one-way star trip that earthbound ob- EVALUATE With v 5 0.95c, v/c 5 0.95 and the quantity v 2/c2 in
servers judge will take 25 years. If the ship travels at 0.95c relative to Equation 33.3 becomes 0.952. Then
Earth, how long will the trip take as judged by observers in the ship? Dt9 5 Dt 21 2 v2/c2 5 125 y2 21 2 0.952 5 7.8 y
INTERPRET This is a problem about time dilation. Since the events of
ASSESS This time is considerably shorter than 25 years, confirming
departure from Earth and arrival at the star occur at the same place in
our statement that the time between events is shortest as measured in
the ship’s reference frame, we identify the ship time as the proper time
a reference frame where the events occur at the same place. We’ll
Dt9 and the Earth time as Dt in our discussion of time dilation.
soon explore what happens if the ship turns around and returns to
DEVELOP Equation 33.3, Dt9 5 Dt 21 2 v 2/c2, relates the two times. Earth. ■
We’re given the Earth time Dt, so we can use this equation to find Dt9.

We don’t notice time dilation in our everyday lives because the factor v2/c2 is so small
for even our fastest motion relative to Earth. Even in a jet airplane, the time difference
amounts to a few milliseconds per century. This illustrates the important point that any
results from relativity should agree with commonsense Newtonian physics when relative
velocities are small compared with the speed of light. Since our intuition and common
sense are built on experience at low relative velocities, it’s not surprising that effects at
high relative velocities seem counter to our common sense.

APPLICATION Mountains and Muons

The measurement is then repeated at sea level. The figure shows the situation
Lines represent
paths of muons. in Earth’s reference frame.
Using a detector that records only those muons moving at about 0.994c at
v 5 0.994c the mountaintop altitude, the experiment shows that an average of about 560
muons with this speed are incident on the mountaintop each hour. If the moun-
tain weren’t there, the muons would travel from the mountaintop altitude to sea
level in a time given by
2000 m
Dt 5 5 6.7 s
10.994213.03108 m/s2
The muon’s decay rate is such that one should expect only about 25 of the orig-
2000 m inal 560 muons to remain after a 6.7-s interval, so that’s approximately the
number we might expect to detect each hour at sea level. However, that 6.7-s
Sea level
interval is measured in Earth’s reference frame—not the muons’. In the muons’
frame, time dilation should reduce that interval to
The lines stop where muons decay. Dt9 5 16.7 s2 21 2 0.994 2 5 0.73 s
Time dilation is obvious in experiments with subatomic particles moving, The muons’ decay is determined by their measure of time, and their decay rate
relative to us, at speeds near c. In a classic experiment, the “clocks” are the is such that we should expect 414 muons to survive for 0.73 s.
lifetimes of particles called muons, which are created by the interaction of So what happens? Observers count just over 400 muons per hour at sea
cosmic rays with Earth’s upper atmosphere and subsequently decay. The ex- level. This is no subtle effect. The difference between 25 and 414 is dramatic.
periment consists in counting the number of muons incident each hour on the At 0.994c, the nonrelativistic description is hopelessly inadequate, and time di-
top of Mt. Washington in New Hampshire, about 2000 m above sea level. lation is obvious.
 33.4 Space and Time in Relativity 593

The Twin Paradox

Time dilation lets us travel into the future! The famous “twin paradox” shows how. One twin
boards a spaceship for a journey to a distant star; the other stays on Earth. There are clocks at
both Earth and star, like clocks C1 and C2 in Fig. 33.7. There’s a clock on the spaceship, like
C in Fig. 33.7. Ship clock and Earth clock read the same time as the ship departs (Fig. 33.8a),
but when it arrives at the star, time dilation means the ship clock reads less time than the star
clock (Fig. 33.8b). Now the ship turns around and returns home. Again, the situation is just
like Fig. 33.7 or our light box of Fig. 33.6, so less time elapses on the ship (Fig. 33.8c). The
traveling twin arrives home younger than her earthbound brother! Depending on how far and
how fast she goes, that age difference can be arbitrarily large. But this is a one-way trip to the
future. If the traveling twin doesn’t like what she finds in the future, there’s no going back.

EXAMPLE 33.2 Time Dilation: The Twin Paradox

Earth and a star are 20 light years (ly) apart, measured in a frame at rest vr
with respect to Earth and star. Twin A boards a spaceship, travels at
00
0.80c to the star, and then returns immediately to Earth at 0.80c. Deter-
mine the round-trip travel times in Earth and ship reference frames.

INTERPRET This problem involves time dilation, here applied to the 00 00

two separate legs of the round-trip journey. We identify the ship clock
as C in Fig. 33.7, and the ship time as Dt9. 20 ly
Earth Star
(a)
DEVELOP Earth–star time for the one-way journey follows from
distance 5 speed 3 time, so that’s how we’ll find Dt. Then we can
apply Equation 33.3, Dt9 5 Dt 21 2 v2/c2, to get the ship time Dt9. vr
We’ll double both to get the round-trip times. 15

EVALUATE At 0.80c, the time to go 20 ly is Dt 5 120 ly2/10.80 ly/y2 5

25 y. Equation 33.3 then gives
Dt9 5 125 y2 21 2 0.802 5 15 y 25 25

Doubling these values gives round-trip times of 50 years and 30 years

for the Earth and ship, respectively. Earth Star
(b)
ASSESS The traveling twin returns younger, by 20 years! We’ve
marked the various times on the clocks in Fig. 33.8.
vr
✓TIP Years, Light Years, and the Speed of Light 30

A light year (ly) is the distance light travels in one year. By defi-
nition, therefore, the speed of light is 1 ly/y. It’s often easiest in
FIGURE 33.8 The twin’s journey, 50 50
relativity to work in units where the speed of light is 1, whether
those units be light years and years, light seconds and seconds, drawn from the viewpoint of
the Earth–star reference frame. 20 ly
or whatever.
Clock readings are in years, Earth Star
corresponding to Example 33.2. (c)
■

Here’s the seeming paradox: From the ship’s viewpoint, it looks like Earth recedes,
turns around, and returns. So why isn’t the Earth twin younger? The answer lies in what’s
special about special relativity—namely, it applies only to reference frames in uniform
motion. The traveling twin accelerates when turning around, so briefly she’s in a noniner-
tial reference frame. Although relativity precludes us from saying that one twin is moving
and the other is not, we can say that one twin’s motion changes and the other’s doesn’t.
This is obvious to the traveling twin, who experiences forces associated with the turn-
around. The earthbound twin, of course, doesn’t feel anything unusual when the ship turns
around. During the journey the ship occupies two different inertial frames, separated by
the turnaround acceleration, while Earth remains in a single inertial frame. It’s that asym-
metry that resolves the paradox. The traveling twin really is younger!
594 Chapter 33 Relativity

What if the traveling twin didn’t turn around? Then the situation would be symmetric,
and each could argue that the other’s clocks “run slow.” But unless they get together again
at the same place, there’s no unambiguous way to compare their clock readings or ages.
And they can’t get together without accelerating. As we’ll soon see, clocks that are syn-
chronized in one reference frame aren’t synchronized in another—and that takes the seem-
ing contradiction out of two observers each finding that the other’s clocks “run slow.”

GOT IT? 33.1 Triplets A and B board spaceships and head away from Earth in oppo-
site directions, each traveling the same distance at the same speed before returning
to Earth. When they get back, how do their ages compare? How do they compare with
triplet C, who remained on Earth?

Length Contraction
In Example 33.2 the 20-ly distance, 25-y time, and 0.8c speed are related through the ex-
pression Dx 5 v Dt, where Dx and Dt are measured in the Earth frame. But relativity tells
us that this relation must hold in all inertial reference frames, so it’s also valid in the
spaceship frame except during the turnaround. From the ship’s viewpoint, Earth and star
are moving at v 5 0.80c, and it takes Dt9 5 15 y for the Earth–star system to pass the
ship. Then Dx9 5 v Dt9 5 10.80 ly/y2115 y2 5 12 ly is the Earth–star distance as mea-
sured in the ship frame. Thus measures of space as well as time depend on one’s reference
frame. Equation 33.3 gives Dt9 5 Dt 21 2 v2/c2, so we can write generally that
Dx9 5 v Dt9 5 v Dt 21 2 v2/c2 5 Dx 21 2 v2/c2 (length contraction) (33.4)
for the distance between two objects measured in a reference frame in which they move
with speed v. Here Dx is the distance in a reference frame at rest with respect to the two
objects. Since 21 2 v2/c2 is less than 1 for v . 0, Equation 33.4 shows that Dx . Dx9.
Therefore, the distance is greatest in this so-called rest frame. The two points in question
could be the ends of a single object, in which case Dx is the object’s length. This phenom-
enon of length contraction is also called Lorentz–Fitzgerald contraction, after Dutch
physicist H. A. Lorentz and Irish physicist George F. Fitzgerald, who independently pro-
posed it as an ad hoc way of explaining the Michelson–Morley experiment. Only with
Einstein’s work did the contraction acquire a solid conceptual basis.
Length contraction shows that an object is longest in its own rest frame and is shorter
to observers for whom it’s moving. As with time dilation, don’t go looking for a physical
mechanism that squashes “moving” objects. That presupposes an absolute space with
respect to which contraction occurs. Rather, it’s space itself that’s different for different
observers. Accepting relativity means giving up notions of absolute space and time; length
contraction and time dilation are necessary consequences.

EXAMPLE 33.3 Length Contraction and Time Dilation: SLAC

At the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), subatomic parti- EVALUATE The electrons’ speed is so close to c that it suffices to cal-
cles are accelerated to high energies over a straight path whose length, culate the travel time with v 5 c. (a) We have Dt 5 Dx/c 5
in Earth’s reference frame, is 3.2 km. For an electron traveling at 13.2 km2/13.03108 m/s2 5 11 s. (b) Equation 33.3 gives Dt9 5
0.9999995c, how long does the trip take as measured (a) in Earth’s Dt 21 2 v2/c2; with v/c 5 0.9999995, the square root works out to
frame and (b) in the electrons’ frame? (c) What’s the length of the lin- be 1023, so Dt9 5 11 ns. (c) Equation 33.4 shows that the length shrinks
ear accelerator in the electrons’ frame? by the same factor, to 3.2 m.

INTERPRET We’re being asked about time dilation and length contrac- ASSESS In this case of extremely relativistic speed, the relativistic
tion. The Earth frame here is like the Earth frame of Example 33.2, factor 21 2 v2/c2 is tiny, and the effects of time dilation and length
with the ends of the accelerator replacing Earth and star, and contraction are dramatic. Note that we could approximate v as c in
Dx 5 3.2 km in place of the 20-ly Earth–star separation. In (a) we’re finding Dt, but not in working with the relativistic factor, where even
therefore being asked for Dt, in (b) for Dt9, and in (c) for Dx9. the slightest difference from c is crucial. As a check on our answer,
note that Dx9 5 v Dt9, as required by the principle of relativity. ■
DEVELOP As always Dx 5 v Dt relates distance, time, and speed in a
single reference frame. We’re given Dx and v, so we’ll first solve for Dt.
Then we can use Equation 33.3, Dt9 5 Dt 21 2 v2/c2, for Dt9, and
Equation 33.4, Dx9 5 Dx 21 2 v2/c2, for Dx9.
 33.5 Simultaneity Is Relative 595

Equations 33.3 and 33.4 show that relativistic effects are significant only at high rela-
tive speeds, with v2/c2 comparable to 1. We’ve no experience of such speeds in our every-
day lives, so relativity seems counterintuitive. Had we grown up moving relative to our
surroundings at speeds approaching c, the relativity of space and time would be as obvi-
ous as our commonsense notions seem now. For physicists working with high-energy par-
ticles or studying distant, rapidly moving galaxies, relativistic effects are obvious features
of physical reality.

33.5 Simultaneity Is Relative

One remarkable consequence of relativity is that simultaneity of events and sometimes even
their time order depend on one’s reference frame. Here we explore how this comes about.
Figure 33.9a shows two identical rods approaching each other in a reference frame S B
where they have the same speed v. Figure 33.9b shows that the right end of rod A passes v
the right end of rod B at the same instant that the left ends pass. Call the passing of the two v
right ends event E1 and the passing of the left ends E2. Clearly E1 and E2 are simultaneous, A
meaning they occur at the same time in S. (a)
Now consider a reference frame S9 in which rod A is at rest and is therefore longer than
it was in frame S. Rod B, meanwhile, is moving toward rod A with a greater speed relative B
to S9 than it had relative to S. Therefore, it’s shorter than it was in S. Figure 33.10 shows v
that, as a result of their different lengths, the right ends of the two rods coincide before the v
left ends; in other words, event E1 precedes E2. Now look at the situation from a reference A
frame in which rod B is at rest, and you’ll see that E2 precedes E1 (Fig. 33.11). So events
that are simultaneous in one reference frame aren’t simultaneous in another frame. (b)

FIGURE 33.9 (a) In frame S, rods A and B have

E2 occurs the same speed v and both are contracted
first. by the same amount. (b) Their ends coincide
E1 occurs B at the same time.
.v B first.

A .v
A
(a)
(a)

.v B E1 occurs
B later.

E2 occurs A
later. A .v
(b) (b)

FIGURE 33.10 The passing rods viewed in a FIGURE 33.11 The passing rods viewed in a
reference frame S9 at rest with respect to rod A. reference frame at rest with respect to rod B.

Isn’t this just an illusion resulting from apparent length differences due to the rods’ mo-
tion? Isn’t the picture in frame S (Fig. 33.9) the “real” one? No! Relativity assures us that
all inertial reference frames are equally valid for describing physical reality. The length
differences and changes in the ordering of events aren’t “apparent” and they aren’t “illu-
sions.” They result from valid descriptions in different reference frames, and each has
equal claim to reality. If you insist that one frame—say S—has more validity, then you’re
clinging to the 19th-century notion that there’s one favored reference frame in which alone
the laws of physics are valid.
But how can observers disagree about the order of events? After all, if one event causes
another, we expect cause always to precede effect. As we’ll soon show, the only events
whose time order is different for different observers are those that are so far apart in space,
and so close in time, that not even a light signal from one event could reach the location of
the other event before it happened. There’s no way for such events to influence each other,
so they can’t be causally related.
596 Chapter 33 Relativity

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 33.1 “Running Slow”: A Contradiction?

In Example 33.2, the outbound trip from Earth to star took 25 years in
15
the Earth–star reference frame but only 15 years in the spaceship’s
frame. Thus, observers in the Earth–star frame can say that clocks on FIGURE 33.12 The situation in the ship’s
vr vr frame. Note that Earth, star, and the dis-
the ship “run slow.” What do passengers on the ship say about clocks 09 25
tance between them are contracted,
in the Earth–star frame?
12 ly while the ship appears longer than in
EVALUATE During the outbound trip, the spaceship is in a perfectly Earth Star Fig. 33.8.
good inertial reference frame. So the laws of physics are the same for read zero when the ship left Earth, so in the ship frame it reads 9 years
the ship’s passengers as they are for earthbound observers, and they when the ship reaches the star. Yet the star clock reads 25 years at that
can make exactly the same argument: They see Earth and star moving, event. So, from the ship’s viewpoint, Earth and star clocks are out of
and they conclude that clocks in the Earth–star frame must “run slow.” sync by 16 years. Figure 33.12 shows the situation from the ship’s
Were you inclined to give the seemingly more logical answer that, frame. Compare with Figs. 33.8a and b: Each observer thinks the
since the ship clocks “run slow,” the Earth–star clocks “run fast”? If other’s clocks “run slow,” yet there’s no contradiction!
so, you haven’t applied the principle of relativity: The laws of physics
are the same in all inertial reference frames. There’s nothing special
about the spaceship’s frame that would make it see Earth’s clocks MAKING THE CONNECTION For the star trek of Example 33.1,
“running fast” when observers on Earth, in an exactly analogous situ- how do Earth and the star clock readings differ as judged in the space-
ation, see the ship’s clocks “running slow.” ship’s reference frame?
ASSESS How is this not a contradiction? The answer lies in the rela- EVALUATE The ship sees Earth–star clocks “running slow” by the fac-
tivity of simultaneity. Earth and star clocks are synchronized in tor 21 2 0.952 5 0.312. Given the 7.8-year time for the trip on
the Earth–star frame, but not in the ship’s frame. From the ship’s the ship clock, observers on the ship judge that the elapsed time in
viewpoint, Earth–star clocks are “running slow” by the factor the Earth–star frame is only 17.8 years210.3122 5 2.4 years. But we
21 2 v2/c2 5 0.6 that we found in Example 33.2. So the 15-year know the star clock reads 25 years when the ship arrives, so the Earth
trip time in the ship frame takes, from the ship’s perspective, only clock is behind by 25 years 2 2.4 years 5 22.6 years as judged in the
(0.6)(15 years) 5 9 years on the Earth–star clocks. The Earth clock ship’s reference frame.

33.6 The Lorentz Transformations

Events are determined by where (three spatial coordinates) and when (time) they occur.
Our work with time dilation, length contraction, and the ordering of events suggests that
these coordinates depend on one’s frame of reference. Here we develop general expres-
sions, called the Lorentz transformations, that relate the time and space coordinates of
events in different reference frames.
At t 5 2 s, the x-axis has moved 2 m Consider coordinate axes in a reference frame S and in another frame S9 moving in the
to the right, so x is 2 m less than x. x-direction with speed v relative to S. The origins of the two systems coincide at time
v 5 1 m/s
t 5 t9 5 0. Given an event with coordinates x, y, z, t in S, what are its coordinates
22 21 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
x9, y9, z9, t9 in S9? Were it not for relativity, we’d expect y, z, and t to remain unchanged,
x
while the relative motion along x means a given x in S would correspond to x9 5 x 2 vt
x
in S9 (Fig. 33.13).
21 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Relativity should alter the transformations for both time and the spatial coordinate, x,
FIGURE 33.13 Nonrelativistic picture of two along the direction of relative motion. However, our results must reduce to the nonrelativis-
coordinate axes in relative motion, shown at tic results x9 5 x 2 vt and t9 5 t in the limit v V c. A simple form with this property is
time t 5 2 s. In general, x9 5 x 2 vt. x9 5 g1x 2 vt2, where g is a factor, still to be determined, that reduces to 1 as v S 0. We
could also transform the other way; the only difference is that the x-axis is moving in the
negative direction relative to x9. Therefore, we should have a similar form, with the sign of
v reversed: x 5 g1x9 1 vt92. Now suppose a light flash goes off just as the origins of the
two coordinate systems coincide. The coordinates of this event, E1, are x 5 0, t 5 0 in S,
and x9 5 0, t9 5 0 in S9. At some later time t, an observer at position x in S observes the
light flash; call this event E2. Since light travels with speed c, x 5 ct. In frame S9, E2
has coordinates x9, t9. But relativity requires that light travel with speed c in all inertial
reference frames, so we must have x9 5 ct9. Putting these expressions for x and x9 in
our proposed transformation equations gives ct9 5 gt1c 2 v2 and ct 5 gt91c 1 v2.
Multiplying these two equations yields c2 5 g21c 2 v21c 1 v2 5 g21c2 2 v22. There-
fore, g 5 1/ 21 2 v 2/c2. Taking v S 0 in this expression shows that g S 1 in the nonrel-
ativistic limit, as required. So we have our transformation equations for x.
 33.6 The Lorentz Transformations 597

What about y, z, and t? The y- and z-axes are perpendicular to the direction of motion,
so there’s no length contraction and therefore y9 5 y and z9 5 z. The fact of time dilation
makes clear that measures of time differ in different reference frames, so it’s not surpris-
ing that t9 2 t. You can derive the transformation equations for t from those for x (see
Problem 42). The results, along with the equations we found for x, y, and z, are summa-
rized in Table 33.1.

Table 33.1 The Lorentz Transformations

S to S9 S9 to S

y9 5 y y 5 y9
z9 5 z z 5 z9 1
where g 5
x9 5 g1x 2 vt2 x 5 g1x9 1 vt92 21 2 v2/c2
t9 5 g1t 2 vx/c22 t 5 g1t9 1 vx9/c22

PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGY 33.1 Lorentz Transformations

INTERPRET Make sure the problem involves space and time coordinates of events as measured
in two different frames of reference. Identify the frames, which generally are those of specific
objects introduced in the problem statement. Identify also the events and the particular coordi-
nates you’re interested in.
DEVELOP Establish coordinate systems in the two reference frames, arbitrarily designated S
and S9. Choosing the direction of relative motion along the x-axis will let you use the Lorentz
transformations as they appear in Table 33.1. Remember that time is also a coordinate, and take
the two coordinate systems to coincide at time t 5 t9 5 0. You’ll make the math simpler by
choosing the origin in space and time to occur at one of the events in the problem. Then deter-
mine any other event coordinates that are implicit in the problem statement.
EVALUATE Apply the appropriate Lorentz transformations from Table 33.1 to calculate the un-
known coordinates.
ASSESS Ask whether your results make sense. If your calculated order of events differs in dif-
ferent frames, be sure you’re dealing with events that are far enough apart in space and close
enough in time that they can’t be causally related.

EXAMPLE 33.4 Galactic Fireworks: Using the Lorentz Transformations

Our Milky Way and the Andromeda Galaxy are approximately at rest two supernovas in S are xMW 5 0, tMW 5 0 and xA 5 2 Mly, tA 5 0.
with respect to each other and are 2 million light years (Mly) apart. Here the subscripts designate not just the galaxies but the specific
Supernova explosions occur simultaneously in both galaxies, as events of the supernova explosions. We show the situation at time
judged in the galaxies’ reference frame. A spacecraft is traveling at t 5 0 in Fig. 33.14. The other reference frame is that of the spaceship,
0.8c from the Milky Way toward Andromeda. Find the time between which we designate S9; it’s moving at speed v 5 0.8c along the x-axis
the supernova events as measured in the spacecraft’s reference frame.

INTERPRET We’re given two distant events—both supernova

explosions—that are simultaneous in a particular reference frame.
We’re asked to find the time between them in a different reference
frame. So this problem is about using the Lorentz transformations for
time coordinates.

DEVELOP Following our strategy, we establish coordinate system S,

the galaxy reference frame. We take the origin at the Milky Way, with FIGURE 33.14 Our sketch for Example 33.4, drawn in frame S at time t 5 0,
the x-axis extending through Andromeda (here we’re treating the when observers in S judge both supernova explosions to occur. This picture
galaxies as points). We take t 5 0 to be the time of the supernova does not apply in frame S9!
explosions, which are simultaneous in S. Then the coordinates of the (continued)
598 Chapter 33 Relativity

relative to frame S. Taking the two coordinate systems to coincide at ASSESS Since the Milky Way supernova goes off at t9MW 5 0, our
time t 5 0 gives tMW9 5 0, and we’re in the situation we used to de- negative answer means the Andromeda event occurs 2.7 million years
rive the Lorentz transformations of Table 33.1. So our plan is to ap- earlier in the spacecraft’s reference frame. Again, there’s no problem
ply the transformation equation that gives t9, namely, t9 5 g1t 2 vx/c22. with causality; since the distant events are simultaneous in some frame
(the galaxy frame), they can’t possibly be cause and effect. You can
EVALUATE We first evaluate the factor g, finding that easily show that a spacecraft observer going the other way would
g 5 1/ 21 2 0.82 5 5/3. Then we apply the transformation equation judge the Andromeda supernova to occur 2.7 My later. Problems
for t9 to get the time of the Andromeda supernova in the spacecraft’s 39–41 explore the case when the supernovas occur far enough apart in
reference frame: time that they could be causally related. ■
vxA 5 10.8 ly/y212 Mly2
tA9 5 g a tA 2 2 b 5 a b a 0 2 b 5 22.7 My
c 3 11 ly/y22

Relativistic Velocity Addition

If you’re in an airplane going 1000 km/h relative to the ground and you walk toward the
front of the plane at 5 km/h, common sense suggests that you move at 1005 km/h relative
to the ground. But measures of time and distance vary among frames of reference in rela-
tive motion. For this reason the velocity of an object with respect to one frame doesn’t
simply add to the relative velocity between frames to give the object’s velocity with re-
spect to another frame. In the airplane your speed with respect to the ground is actually a
little less than 1005 km/h as you stroll down the aisle, although the difference is insignifi-
cant at such a low speed.
The correct expression for relativistic velocity addition follows from the Lorentz
transformations. Consider a reference frame S and another frame S9 moving in the posi-
tive x-direction with speed v relative to S. Let their origins coincide at time t 5 t9 5 0, so
the Lorentz transformations of Table 33.1 apply.
Suppose an object moves with velocity u9 along the x9-axis in S9. We seek the velocity
u of the object relative to the frame S. (We’re using u and u9 for the object because we’ve
already used v for the relative velocity of the reference frames.)
In either frame, velocity is the ratio of change in position to change in time, or
u 5 Dx/Dt. Designating the beginning of the interval Dt by the subscript 1 and the end
by 2, we can use the Lorentz transformations to write
Dx 5 x2 2 x1 5 g31x92 2 x 912 1 v1t92 2 t9124 5 g1Dx9 1 v Dt92
and
Dt 5 t2 2 t1 5 g31t92 2 t912 1 v1x92 2 x 912/c24 5 g1Dt9 1 v Dx9/c22
Forming the ratio of these quantities, we have
Dx Dx9 1 v Dt9 1Dx9/Dt92 1 v
5 5
Dt Dt9 1 v Dx9/c 2
1 1 v1Dx9/Dt92/c2
But Dx9/Dt9 is the velocity u9 of the object in frame S9, and Dx/Dt is the velocity u, so
u9 1 v
u5 1relativistic velocity addition2 (33.5a)
1 1 u9v/c2
The numerator of this expression is just what we would expect from common sense. But
this simple sum of two velocities is altered by the second term in the denominator, which
is significant only when both the object’s velocity u9 and the relative velocity v are com-
parable with c. Solving Equation 33.5a for u9 in terms of u, v, and c gives the inverse
transformation:
u2v
u9 5 1relativistic velocity addition2 (33.5b)
1 2 uv/c2
 33.6 The Lorentz Transformations 599

EXAMPLE 33.5 Relativistic Velocity Addition: Collision Course

Two spacecraft approach Earth from opposite directions, each moving INTERPRET The naïve answer, 1.6c, isn’t consistent with relativity. In-
at 0.80c relative to Earth, as shown in Fig. 33.15a. How fast do the stead, this is a problem involving relativistic velocity addition. We iden-
spacecraft move relative to each other? tify the Earth frame of reference as S9 and ship B’s frame as S. Ship A is
moving at u9 5 0.8c relative to the Earth frame S9, and we want to know
its speed u relative to ship B’s frame S. Ship B is also moving toward
Earth at 0.8c, or, equivalently, Earth is moving toward ship B at this
speed, so we identify v 5 0.8c as the relative velocity between frames.

DEVELOP With all terms identified, our plan is to apply Equation

(a) 33.5a to find the velocity u of ship A relative to ship B.

u9 1 v 0.80c 1 0.80c 1.6c

EVALUATE u 5 5 5 5 0.98c
1 1 u9v/c 2
1 21 2
1 1 0.80c 0.80c /c 2
1.64

ASSESS The relative speed is less than the 1.6c we get from a naïve ad-
dition and also less than the speed of light. This result is quite general:
Equations 33.5 imply that as long as an object moves with speed u , c
relative to some frame, then its speed relative to any other frame is less
(b)
than c. And if you set u 5 c to describe a light beam, you’ll find that
FIGURE 33.15 Sketch for Example 33.5 (a) in Earth’s frame S9 and (b) in space- Equations 33.5 give u9 5 c as well—reaffirming the relativistic point
craft B’s frame S. that the speed of light is the same in all inertial reference frames. ■

GOT IT? 33.2 You’re driving down the highway, and your speedometer reads exactly
30 km/h. A car passes you, going in the same direction at exactly 20 km/h relative to you.
Does its speedometer—which measures the car’s speed relative to the road—read more or
less than 50 km/h?

Is Everything Relative?
You already know the answer: The laws of physics aren’t relative—that’s the fundamental
principle of relativity. Neither is the speed of light, whose existence and value follow from
laws of physics—specifically, Maxwell’s equations. And there are a host of other relativistic
invariants, independent of reference frame. One such invariant is the spacetime interval, a
kind of four-dimensional “distance” between two events in space and time. The spacetime
interval is given by an expression that looks like a modified Pythagorean theorem:
1Ds22 5 c21Dt22 2 31Dx22 1 1Dy22 1 1Dz224 (33.6)
where the D quantities are the differences between the time and space coordinates of the
events. The invariance of Ds follows directly from the Lorentz transformations, as you can y
y
show in Problem 61.
The spacetime interval describes a relation between two events that’s independent of refer-
ence frame. The invariance of the spacetime interval suggests that something absolute under- vy vr
lies the shifting sands of relativistic space and time. That something is spacetime—a x
vy
four-dimensional framework linking space and time into a single continuum. The spacetime vx
interval is the magnitude of a four-dimensional vector—a 4-vector—whose components in- x
vx
volve the three spatial distances Dx, Dy, Dz and the time Dt between two events. The individ-
ual space and time components differ in different reference frames, but they always conspire
to give the same invariant interval. This is analogous to the vectors of ordinary two- and three-
dimensional space, where the vector components depend on your choice of coordinate sys-
tem. But the actual vector quantity—for example, a force—has a reality independent of your
coordinate choices, and its magnitude doesn’t depend on the coordinate system (Fig. 33.16).
FIGURE 33.16 Although the x- and y-components
This analogy isn’t perfect because of the negative sign in Equation 33.6’s expression for the of an ordinary vector depend on the choice of
spacetime interval. That sign reflects the fact that the underlying geometry of spacetime isn’t coordinate system, the magnitude of the vec-
the Euclidean geometry you learned in high school. tor does not.
600 Chapter 33 Relativity

Other 4-vectors play a role in more advanced treatments of relativity. These include a
four-dimensional electric-current density, whose components involve charge density and
the three components of ordinary current density; a four-dimensional “wave vector” that
links frequency and wavelength and whose invariant magnitude yields the Doppler effect
in its correct relativistic form; and a 4-potential that yields both the electric and magnetic
fields. A particularly important example is the energy–momentum 4-vector. Its invariant
magnitude is famously related to mass, as we’ll see in the next section.

33.7 Energy and Momentum in Relativity

Conservation of momentum and conservation of energy are cornerstones of Newtonian
mechanics, where they hold in any inertial reference frame. But momentum and energy
are functions of velocity, and we’ve just seen that relativity alters the Newtonian picture of
how velocities transform from one reference frame to another. How, then, can momentum
and energy be conserved in all reference frames?

Momentum
! !
In Newtonian mechanics the momentum of a particle with mass m and velocity u is mu .
! !
(Here we use u for particle velocities, reserving v for the relative velocity between reference
!
frames.) But if a system’s momentum—the sum of its individual particles’ momenta mu —is
conserved in one frame of reference, then relativistic velocity addition suggests that it won’t
be conserved in another. The problem here lies not with momentum conservation but with
!
the Newtonian expression for momentum. The expression mu is actually an approximation
valid only for speeds u much less than c. The measure of momentum valid at any speed is
!
! mu !
p5 5 gmu 1relativistic momentum2 (33.7)
21 2 u2/c2
where g is the familiar relativistic factor. The momentum in Equation 33.7 is conserved
in all reference frames, and at low velocities it reduces to the Newtonian expression
! !
p 5 mu .
As u S c, the factor g grows arbitrarily large, and so does the relativistic momentum
(Fig. 33.17). Since force is the rate of change of momentum, that means a very large force
4
To q is required to produce even the slightest change in the velocity of a rapidly moving parti-
Momentum ratio, p/mu

as u c cle. This helps answer a common question about relativity: Why is it impossible to accel-
3 erate an object to the speed of light? The answer is that the object’s momentum would
approach infinity, and no matter how close to c it was moving, it would still require infi-
2 nite force to give it the last bit of speed.

1 Energy and Mass

The most widely known result of relativity is the famous equation E 5 mc2. Here we de-
0 velop a general expression for relativistic energy and show just what E 5 mc2 means. In
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 the process we’ll gain new insights into energy, momentum, and mass.
Speed, u/c In Chapter 6 we derived the work–energy theorem, and thus developed the concept of
kinetic energy, by calculating the work needed to accelerate a mass m from rest to some
FIGURE 33.17 The ratio of relativistic momentum
final speed. We did that by integrating force over distance, using Newton’s law F 5 dp/dt
to Newtonian momentum mu. The curve
follows Equation 33.7; crosses and circles mark to write force in terms of momentum. We’ll do the same thing here, now using our rela-
experimental data. tivistic expression for momentum. So we have
dp d mu m1du/dt2
5 c d5
dt dt 21 2 u2/c2 11 2 u2/c223/2
Then the kinetic energy gained as a particle accelerates from rest in our reference frame to
a final speed u is
u
dp dp m1du/dt2 mu
K 5 3 dx 5 3 u dt 5 3 u dt 5 3 du
dt dt 11 2 u /c 2
2 2 3/2
0 11 2 u /c 2
2 2 3/2
 33.7 Energy and Momentum in Relativity 601

where we used u 5 dx/dt to replace dx with u dt. The integral is readily evaluated using
the fact that u du 5 12 d1u22, giving
mc2
K5 2 mc2 5 gmc2 2 mc2 (33.8)
21 2 u /c 2 2

for a particle’s kinetic energy in a reference frame where the particle has speed u. Once
again, g here is the relativistic factor 1/ 21 2 u2/c2.
For speeds low compared with c, Equation 33.8 reduces to the Newtonian K 5 12 mu2, as
you can show in Problem 59. But Equation 33.8 suggests, more generally, that kinetic energy
is the difference of two energies—the velocity-dependent quantity gmc2 and the term mc2 that
depends only on mass, not velocity. Pursuing this interpretation, we identify gmc2 as the parti-
cle’s total energy and mc2 as its rest energy. Rearranging Equation 33.8 lets us write the total
energy as the sum of the kinetic energy and the rest energy: E 5 K 1 mc2 or, more simply

mc2
E 5 gmc2 5 1total energy2 (33.9)
21 2 u2/c2
What does all this mean? Put u 5 0 in Equation 33.9 and E 5 mc2—showing that the
total energy of a stationary particle isn’t zero but is directly proportional to its mass. Thus
that particle has energy simply by virtue of having mass or, as Einstein first recognized,
mass and energy are equivalent. The proportionality between mass and energy is a whop-
ping big c2—about 931016 J/kg in SI units.
Although we developed Equation 33.9 by considering kinetic energy, the mass–energy
equivalence E 5 mc2 is universal. Energy, like mass, exhibits inertia. A hot object is slightly
harder to accelerate than an otherwise identical cold one because of the inertia of its thermal
energy. A stretched spring is more massive than an otherwise identical unstretched one be-
cause of its extra potential energy. When a system loses energy, it loses mass as well.
To the public, E 5 mc2 is synonymous with nuclear energy. The equation does de-
scribe mass changes in nuclear reactions, but it applies equally well to chemical reactions
and all other energy conversions. Weigh a nuclear power plant and weigh it again a month
later, and you’ll find it weighs slightly less. Weigh a coal-burning power plant and all the
coal and oxygen that go into it for a month, then weigh all the carbon dioxide and other
combustion products, and you’ll find a difference. If both plants produce the same amount
of energy, the mass difference is the same for both. The distinction lies in the amount of
mass released as energy in individual reactions. Fission of a single uranium nucleus in-
volves about 50 million times as much energy, and therefore mass, as the reaction of a car-
bon atom with oxygen to make carbon dioxide. That’s why a coal-burning power plant
consumes many hundred-car trainloads of coal each week, while a nuclear plant needs
only a few truckloads of uranium every year or so. Incidentally, neither process converts
very much of the fuel mass to energy; if we could convert all the mass in a given object to
energy, ordinary matter would be an almost limitless source of energy. Such conversion is
in fact possible, but only in the annihilation of matter and antimatter.

EXAMPLE 33.6 Mass–Energy Equivalence: Annihilation

A positron is an antimatter particle with the same mass as the electron gets energy mc2. So our plan is to evaluate this quantity. We’ll need the
but the opposite electric charge. When an electron and positron meet, electron mass m, which is given inside the front cover of this book.
they annihilate and produce a pair of identical gamma rays (bundles
EVALUATE We have E 5 mc2 5 19.1310231 kg213.03108 m/s2 5
2
of electromagnetic energy). Find the energy of each gamma ray.
82 fJ.
INTERPRET This is a problem about mass–energy equivalence—in
this case all the mass of the electron–positron pair changing to ASSESS High-energy physicists usually work in electronvolts, and our
gamma-ray energy. We’ll assume the pair has negligible kinetic en- 82-fJ answer is equivalent to 511 keV. Detection of 511-keV gamma
ergy K, so the total energy available is just their rest energy. rays from laboratory or astrophysical sources is a sure sign of
electron–positron annihilation. The medical technique PET (positron
DEVELOP With K 5 0, Equation 33.9 reduces to E 5 mc2. Since there emission tomography) uses these annihilation gamma rays to image
are two particles, each of mass m, and two identical gamma rays, each processes occurring inside the body. ■
602 Chapter 33 Relativity

Given the fame of E 5 mc2, it’s easy to overlook the fact that the rest energy mc2 is
generally only part of a particle’s total energy. For a particle moving at velocity u that’s
small compared with c, the total energy is only slightly greater than mc2; the extra is very
nearly the Newtonian kinetic energy, 12 mu2. (Here “at rest” and “moving” are, of course,
relative to some inertial reference frame.) But when a particle moves with nearly the speed
of light, the relativistic factor g 5 1/ 21 2 u2/c2 becomes much greater than 1, and the
total energy gmc2 is many times the rest energy. Such a particle is termed relativistic.

EXAMPLE 33.7 Total Energy: A Relativistic Electron

An electron has total energy 2.50 MeV. Find (a) its kinetic energy and EVALUATE (a) We have
(b) its speed. K 5 E 2 mc2 5 2.50 MeV 2 0.511 MeV 5 1.99 MeV
INTERPRET Here we’re given the electron’s total energy and asked (b) Since E 5 gmc2, g 5 E/mc2 5 2.50 MeV/0.511 MeV 5 4.89.
how much of that is the kinetic energy associated with its speed, But g 5 1/ 21 2 u2/c2, which we solve to get
which we’re also asked for. u 5 c21 2 1/g2 5 2.943108 m/s

DEVELOP Equation 33.9 gives total energy, which is the sum of ki- ASSESS Our answer for kinetic energy is considerably greater than
netic energy K and rest energy mc2. So our plan is to subtract the rest the electron’s rest energy, and our speed u is close to c, both confirm-
energy to find the kinetic energy. Equation 33.9 also expresses the to- ing that this is a relativistic electron. ■
tal energy as gmc2, so we can find g 5 1/ 21 2 u2/c2 and then solve
for the speed u. We don’t need to calculate mc2 because we found it in
Example 33.6: For the electron, mc2 5 511 keV or 0.511 MeV.

GOT IT? 33.3 The rest energy of a proton is 938 MeV. Without doing any calcula-
tions, quickly estimate the speed of a proton with total energy 1 TeV 11012 eV2.

The Energy–Momentum Relation

In Newtonian physics the equations p 5 mu and K 5 12 mu2 yield p2 5 2K/m. Similarly,
Problem 60 shows that in relativity we can combine the equations p 5 gmu and
E 5 gmc2 to get

E 2 5 p2c2 1 1mc222 1energy–momentum relation2 (33.10)

which involves E rather than K because in relativity the energy includes both kinetic and
rest energies. For a particle at rest, p 5 0 and Equation 33.10 shows that the total energy
is just the rest energy. For highly relativistic particles, the rest energy is negligible and the
total energy becomes very nearly E 5 pc. Some “particles”—like the photons that, in
quantum physics, are “bundles” of electromagnetic energy—have no mass. These parti-
cles exist only in motion at the speed of light, and for them Equation 33.10 gives the exact
relation E 5 pc.
Rearranging Equation 33.10 gives 1mc22 5 E 2 2 p2c2. This should remind you of
2

Equation 33.6 for the spacetime interval, whose square is the difference between the
squares of the time component c Dt and the spatial separation 21Dx22 1 1Dy22 1 1Dz22.
Similarly, our rearranged Equation 33.10 gives the square of the rest energy mc2 as the dif-
ference between the squares of the total energy and the magnitude of the momentum multi-
plied by c. We can therefore think of energy and momentum as the time and space
components of a 4-vector. Your frame of reference determines how this energy–momentum
4-vector breaks out into time and space components—that is, into energy and momentum.
In a particle’s rest frame, for example, p 5 0 and the vector has only a time component
equal to the rest energy. But no matter what frame you’re in, the magnitude of the 4-vector
is the same, and it’s equal to the rest energy mc2. Therefore, mass—the rest energy divided
by the constant c2—is a relativistic invariant.
 33.9 General Relativity 603

33.8 Electromagnetism and Relativity In wire’s frame:

Moving charge
q ur
Historically, relativity arose from deep questions about the propagation of electromagnetic experiences
waves. We’ve seen that relativity alters concepts, such as space, time, energy, and momen- r magnetic force.
FB
r
tum, that are fundamental to Newtonian physics. For that reason, Newtonian physics be- B
comes an approximation valid at low speeds. But relativity is built on the premise that
vr
Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism are correct in all reference frames—including 1 1 1 1 1 1
v
the prediction of electromagnetic waves propagating at speed c. Even the title of Einstein’s 2 2 2 2 2 2
famous 1905 paper—“On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies”—shows how inti-
mately related are electromagnetism and relativity. Maxwell’s equations are relativistically Neutral
wire
correct and require no modification.
(a)
Although electric and magnetic fields in any frame of reference obey the same
Maxwell equations, the fields themselves aren’t invariant. Sit in the rest frame of a point In charged particle’s frame:
charge, and you see a spherically symmetric point-charge field. Move relative to the charge, Particle “sees” charged
and you see a magnetic field as well, associated with the moving charge. So electric and wire and experiences
electric force.
magnetic fields aren’t absolutes; what one observer sees as a purely electric field an- q
other may see as a mix of electric and magnetic fields, and vice versa. You can think of
r
r
the electric and magnetic fields as components of a more fundamental electromagnetic FE E
field; how that field breaks out into electric and magnetic fields depends on your frame
of reference. Although the fields are different in different reference frames, there’s an ,v
important electromagnetic quantity that’s invariant—namely, electric charge. 1 1 1 1
.v
We’ll illustrate the deep relationship that relativity imposes on electricity and magne- 2 22 2 22 222 2 22 2 2
tism by considering the force on a positively charged particle moving relative to a current-
carrying wire. For simplicity, assume the wire contains equal line-charge densities of Net negative
positive and negative charge, moving in opposite directions with the same speed v relative charge
to the wire (Fig. 33.18a). The resulting current produces a magnetic field that encircles the
! (b)
wire, and the charged particle moving
! ! ! right with velocity u as shown in Fig. 33.18a
to the
experiences a magnetic force FB 5 qu 3 B toward the wire. Because the positive and neg- FIGURE 33.18 The force on a charged particle
ative line-charge densities are equal, the wire is neutral, so there’s no electric force. is magnetic or electric, depending on the
Now look at the situation in the particle’s reference frame. The positive charges in the reference frame.
wire have a lower speed relative to the particle than the negative charges, so in the parti-
cle’s frame the distances between negative charges are contracted more than the distances
between positive charges, as shown in Fig. 33.18b. But charge is invariant, so that means
the charge per unit length is greater for the negative charges. In the frame of the charged
particle, the wire carries a net negative charge! That results in an electric field pointing
! !
toward the wire, and therefore the charged particle experiences an electric force FE 5 qE
toward the wire. Of course, there’s still a magnetic ! field as well, but since the particle is at
!
rest in its own frame, the magnetic force qu 3 B is zero.
We’ve given two quite different descriptions of the force on the charged particle. In the
wire’s reference frame, there’s
! a purely magnetic force that we could determine knowing
!
the magnetic force qu 3 B and how magnetic fields arise from currents. In contrast, de- Rocket
scribing the force in the particle’s reference frame requires no knowledge of magnetism accelerates
! in interstellar
whatever. We need to know only the electric force qE and how electric fields arise from Rocket at
space; no
rest on
charges. This illustrates a profound point: Electricity and magnetism aren’t independent Earth; ball
gravity, but
phenomena that happen to be related. Rather, they’re two aspects of a single phenomenon— ball
accelerates
accelerates
electromagnetism. Given the relativity principle, it’s impossible to have electricity without downward.
relative to
magnetism, or vice versa. Relativity provides the complete unification of electromagne- rocket.
tism that we’ve hinted at throughout our study of these phenomena. 9.8 m/s2 9.8 m/s2

33.9 General Relativity

The special theory of relativity is restricted to reference frames in uniform motion. Fol- Earth
lowing special relativity, Einstein attempted to formulate a theory that would encompass
observers in accelerated motion. But he recognized that it’s impossible to distinguish the
FIGURE 33.19 It’s impossible to distinguish
effects of uniform acceleration from those of a uniform gravitational field (Fig. 33.19). the effects of uniform gravitation from acceler-
Consequently, Einstein’s 1916 general theory of relativity became a theory of gravity. ation, which is why general relativity is about
General relativity describes gravity as the geometrical curvature of four-dimensional gravity.
604 Chapter 33 Relativity

spacetime. In this description, matter and energy curve spacetime in their vicinity, and ob-
jects moving through the curved spacetime follow the straightest possible paths—which
aren’t the straight lines of Euclidean geometry. Figure 33.20 shows a two-dimensional
analogy for particles in curved spacetime.

. . . particles respond by moving

A massive object curves
in the straightest possible paths
spacetime . . .
in curved spacetime.

FIGURE 33.20 A two-dimensional analog of curved spacetime in general relativity.

General relativity’s predictions differ substantially from those of Newton’s theory of

gravity only in regions of very strong gravitational fields—far stronger than those found
anywhere in our solar system. For that reason general relativity has become a cornerstone
of modern astrophysics, describing the physics of such bizarre objects as neutron stars,
black holes, and so-called gravitational lenses that can produce multiple images of astro-
physical objects (Fig. 33.21). General relativity also addresses cosmological questions of
the origin and ultimate fate of the universe. But we’re not without terrestrial uses for gen-
eral relativity; the Global Positioning System (GPS) would be off by several kilometers if
the effects of general relativity on the GPS satellites’ clocks weren’t taken into account.

FIGURE 33.21 The “Einstein Cross” comprises

four images of the same quasar, formed as
light follows different paths in the curved
spacetime surrounding a massive galaxy
(visible at center).
CHAPTER 33 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is a simple one: The laws of physics are the same for all observers and don’t depend on one’s state of motion. That’s the principle
of relativity. Special relativity is restricted to inertial reference frames; general relativity removes that restriction and in so doing becomes a the-
ory of gravity. Both relativity theories radically alter our commonsense notions of space and time. In relativity, measures of space and time—but
not the laws of physics—become dependent on one’s reference frame.

Key Concepts and Equations

Among the laws of physics are Invariance of c leads to time dilation and length contraction:
Maxwell’s equations, with their pre-
diction of electromagnetic waves
(e.g., light) propagating at the speed
C /
C Dt 5 Dt 1 2 v2 c2

of light c. Therefore, the speed of v

light is the same in all inertial refer- In C’s frame,
ence frames. distance is
Dt
Light pulse
L 5 L 1 2 v2 c2/
C1 C2
L
vr
Additionally, events simultaneous in one reference frame may not be simultaneous in another frame.

Time dilation and length contraction are specific instances of

the Lorentz transformations of space and time coordinates S to S9 S9 to S
of events observed in different reference frames. The transfor- y9 5 y y 5 y9
mations here apply to relative motion in the x-direction.
z9 5 z z 5 z9 1
where g 5
x9 5 g1x 2 vt2 x 5 g1x9 1 vt92 21 2 v2/c2
t9 5 g1t 2 vx/c22 t 5 g1t9 1 vx9/c22

Underlying the changing measures of space and time is four-dimensional Energy, momentum, and mass are closely related in relativity:
spacetime, in which exist 4-vectors whose magnitude is independent !
! mu !
of reference frame. Momentum: p 5 5 gmu
21 2 u /c2 2
Invariant spacetime interval:
mc2
1Ds22 5 c21Dt22 2 31Dx22 1 1Dy22 1 1Dz224 Energy: E 5 5 gmc2 5 K 1 mc2 5 21pc22 1 1mc222
21 2 u2/c2
Invariant particle mass:
1mc222 5 E 2 2 p2c2 Kinetic energy Rest energy

Applications
The Michelson–Morley experiment of 1887 Relativity shows that velocities don’t simply Einstein’s famous E 5 mc2 describes a uni-
failed to detect any motion of Earth relative to add; rather, versal interchangeability between matter and
the ether, the medium in which 19th-century energy; contrary to common opinion, it isn’t
u9 1 v
physicists believed light propagated with u5 just about nuclear energy.
speed c. This result helped pave the way for 1 1 u9v/c2
relativity, with no ether and with c the same in where u9 is an object’s velocity relative to a
all inertial reference frames. reference frame S9, u its velocity relative to
frame S, and v the relative velocity between S
and S9.
606 Chapter 33 Relativity

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion from Earth to Sun (a) according to an observer on Earth and
(b) according to an alien aboard the ship?
1. Why was the Michelson–Morley experiment a more sensitive test 19. How fast would you have to move relative to a meter stick for it
of motion through the ether than independent measurements of to be 99 cm long in your reference frame?
the speed of light in two perpendicular directions? 20. A hospital’s linear accelerator produces electron beams for can-
2. Why was it necessary to repeat the Michelson–Morley experi- BIO cer treatment. The accelerator is 1.6 m long and the electrons
ment throughout the year? reach a speed of 0.98c. How long is the accelerator in the elec-
3. What’s special about the special theory of relativity? trons’ reference frame?
4. Does relativity require that the speed of sound be the same for all Section 33.7 Energy and Momentum in Relativity
observers? Why or why not? 21. By what factor does an object’s momentum change if you double
5. Time dilation is sometimes described by saying that “moving its speed when its original speed is (a) 25 m/s and (b) 100 Mm/s?
clocks run slow.” In what sense is this true? In what sense does 22. At what speed will the momentum of a proton (mass 1 u) equal
the statement violate the spirit of relativity? that of an alpha particle (mass 4 u) moving at 0.5c?
6. If you’re in a spaceship moving at 0.95c relative to Earth, do you 23. At what speed will the Newtonian expression for momentum be
perceive time to be passing more slowly than it would on Earth? in error by 1%?
Think! Is your answer consistent with the relativity principle? 24. A particle is moving at 0.90c. If its speed increases by 10%, by
7. The Andromeda Galaxy is 2 million light years from the Milky Way. what factor does its momentum increase?
Although nothing can go faster than light, it would still be possible 25. Find (a) the total energy and (b) the kinetic energy of an electron
to travel to Andromeda in much less than 2 million years. How? moving at 0.97c.
8. Is matter converted to energy in a nuclear reactor? In a burning 26. At what speed will the relativistic and Newtonian expressions for
candle? In your body? kinetic energy differ by 10%?
9. If you took your pulse while traveling in a high-speed spacecraft,
would it be faster than, slower than, or the same as on Earth?
10. The rest energy of an electron is 511 keV. What’s the approxi- Problems
mate speed of an electron whose total energy is 1 GeV? (Note: 27. Show that the time of Equation 33.2 is longer than that of Equa-
No calculations needed!) tion 33.1 when 0 , v , c.
11. An atom in an excited state emits a burst of light. What happens 28. You’re designing a Michelson interferometer in which a speed-
to the atom’s mass? of-light difference of 100 m/s in two perpendicular directions is
! !
12. The quantity E # B is invariant. What does this say about
! how! dif-
supposed to shift the interference pattern so a bright fringe of
ferent observers will measure the angle between E and B in a 550-nm light ends up where the adjacent dark fringe would be in
light wave? the absence of a speed difference. How long should you make the
interferometer’s arms?
29. Earth and Sun are 8.3 light minutes apart, as measured in their
Exercises and Problems rest frame. (a) What’s the speed of a spacecraft that makes the
trip in 5.0 min according to its on-board clocks? (b) What’s the
Exercises trip time as measured by clocks in the Earth–Sun reference
Section 33.2 Matter, Motion, and the Ether frame?
13. An airplane makes a round trip between two points 1800 km 30. You’re the communications officer on a fast spaceship that takes
apart, flying with airspeed 800 km/h. What’s the round trip fly- 50 years in ship time to reach the Andromeda Galaxy, 2 million
ing time (a) if there’s no wind, (b) with wind at 130 km/h perpen- light years from Earth in the common rest frame of Earth and
dicular to a line joining the two points, and (c) with wind at Andromeda. As soon as you reach Andromeda, your captain or-
130 km/h along a line joining the two points? ders you to send a radio message to Earth announcing your ar-
14. Consider a Michelson–Morley experiment with 11-m light rival; he claims the message will reach Earth about a century
paths perpendicular and parallel to the ether wind. What would after you left. You claim it will be much later when the message
be the difference in light travel times on the two paths if Earth arrives. Who’s right?
moved relative to the ether at (a) its orbital speed (Appendix E); 31. You wish to travel to a star N light years from Earth. How fast must
(b) 0.01c; (c) 0.5c; and (d) 0.99c? you go if the one-way journey is to occupy N years of your life?
32. The nearest star beyond our solar system is about 4 light years
Section 33.4 Space and Time in Relativity away. If a spaceship can get to the star in 5 years, as measured on
15. Two stars are 50 ly apart, measured in their common rest frame. Earth, (a) how long would the ship’s pilot judge the journey to
How far apart are they to a spaceship moving between them at take? (b) How far from Earth would the pilot find the star to be?
0.75c? 33. Twins A and B live on Earth. On their 20th birthday, twin B
16. How long would it take a spacecraft traveling at 0.65c to get from climbs into a spaceship and makes a round-trip journey at 0.95c
Earth to Pluto according to clocks (a) on Earth and (b) on the space- to a star 30 light years distant, as measured in the Earth–star ref-
craft? Assume Earth and Pluto are on the same side of the Sun. erence frame. What are their ages when twin B returns to Earth?
17. A spaceship passes by you at half the speed of light, and you de- 34. Radioactive oxygen-15 decays at such a rate that half the atoms
termine that it’s 35 m long. Find its length as measured in its rest in a given sample decay every 2 min. If a tube containing 1000
frame. O-15 atoms is moved at 0.80c relative to Earth for 6.67 min ac-
18. An extraterrestrial spacecraft whizzes through the solar system at cording to clocks on Earth, how many atoms will be left at the
0.80c. How long does it take to go the 8.3 light minute distance end of that time?
 Exercises and Problems 607

35. Two distant galaxies are receding from Earth at 0.75c in opposite Earth–star frame. (b) Repeat for the ship’s frame. (Hint: The dis-
directions. How fast does an observer in one galaxy measure the tance in the ship frame is the distance an observer has to move
other to be moving? with respect to that frame to be at both events—not the same
36. Two spaceships are racing. The “slower” one passes Earth at as the Lorentz-contracted distance between Earth and star.)
0.70c, and the “faster” one moves at 0.40c relative to the slower (c) Compute the square of the spacetime interval in both frames
one. What’s the faster ship’s speed relative to Earth? to show explicitly that it’s invariant.
37. Use relativistic velocity addition to show that if an object moves 48. Use Equation 33.6 to calculate the square of the spacetime inter-
at speed v , c relative to some inertial reference frame, then its val between the events (a) of Problem 39 and (b) of Problem 40.
speed relative to any other inertial frame must also be less than c. Comment on the signs of your answers in relation to the possibil-
38. Earth and Sun are 8.33 light minutes apart. Event A occurs on ity of a causal relationship between the events.
Earth at time t 5 0 and event B on the Sun at t 5 2.45 min, as 49. A light beam is emitted at event A and arrives at event B. Show
measured in the Earth–Sun frame. Find the time order and time that the spacetime interval between the two events is zero.
difference between A and B for observers (a) moving on a line 50. Compare the momentum changes needed to boost a spacecraft
from Earth to Sun at 0.750c, (b) moving on a line from Sun to (a) from 0.1c to 0.2c and (b) from 0.8c to 0.9c.
Earth at 0.750c, and (c) moving on a line from Earth to Sun at 51. Event A occurs at x 5 0 and t 5 0 in reference frame S. Event B
0.294c. occurs at x 5 3.8 light years and t 5 1.6 years in S. Find (a) the
39. You’re writing a galactic history involving two civilizations that distance and (b) the time between A and B in a frame moving at
evolve on opposite sides of a 105-ly-diameter galaxy. In the 0.80c along the x-axis of S.
galaxy’s reference frame, civilization B launched its first space- 52. When a particle’s speed doubles, its momentum increases by a
craft 50,000 years after civilization A. You and your readers, factor of 3. What was its original speed?
from a more advanced civilization, are traveling through the 53. Find (a) the speed and (b) the momentum of a proton with kinetic
galaxy at 0.99c on a line from A to B. Which civilization do you energy 500 MeV.
record as having first achieved interstellar travel, and how much 54. Among the most energetic cosmic rays ever detected are protons
in advance of the other? with energies around 1020 eV. Find the momentum of such a pro-
40. Repeat Problem 39, now assuming that civilization B lags A by ton, and compare with that of a 25-mg insect crawling at 2 mm/s.
1 million years in the galaxy’s reference frame. 55. A large city consumes electrical energy at the rate of 1 GW. If
41. Could there be observers who would judge the events in Prob- you converted all the rest mass in a 1-g raisin to electrical energy,
lems 39 and 40 to be simultaneous? If so, how must such ob- for how long could it power the city?
servers be moving relative to the galaxy? 56. In a nuclear-fusion reaction, two deuterium nuclei combine to
42. Derive the Lorentz transformations for time from the transforma- make a helium nucleus plus a neutron, releasing 3.3 MeV of en-
tions for space. ergy in the process. By how much do the combined masses of the
43. In the light box of Fig. 33.6, let event A be the emission of the helium nucleus and the neutron differ from the combined masses
light flash and event B its return to the source. Assign suitable of the original deuterium nuclei?
space and time coordinates to these events in the frame in which 57. Find the kinetic energy of an electron moving at (a) 0.0010c,
the box moves with speed v. Apply the Lorentz transformations (b) 0.60c, and (c) 0.99c. Use suitable approximations where
to show that the time between the two events in the box frame is possible.
given by Equation 33.3. 58. Find the speed of an electron with kinetic energy (a) 100 eV,
44. You’re a consultant for the director of a sci-fi movie. The film (b) 100 keV, (c) 1 MeV, and (d) 1 GeV. Use suitable approxima-
starts with two spaceships, each measuring 25 m long in its rest tions where possible.
frame, approaching Earth in opposite directions with speeds 59. Use the binomial approximation (Appendix A) to show that
shown in Fig. 33.22. The director wants to know how long to Equation 33.8 reduces to the Newtonian expression for kinetic
make ship B for scenes shot (a) in Earth’s reference frame and energy in the limit u V c.
(b) in ship A’s frame. Your answers? 60. Show that Equation 33.10 follows from the expressions for rela-
tivistic momentum and total energy.
A B 61. Show from the Lorentz transformations that the spacetime inter-
val of Equation 33.6 has the same value in all reference frames.
62. How fast would you have to travel to reach the Crab Nebula,
v 5 0.65c v 5 0.50c 6500 light years from Earth, in 20 years? Give your answer to
seven significant figures.
FIGURE 33.22 Problem 44; the drawing is in Earth’s reference frame 63. At what speed are a particle’s kinetic and rest energies equal?
64. A cosmic-ray proton with energy 20 TeV is heading toward Earth.
45. How fast would you have to go to reach a star 200 light years What’s Earth’s diameter measured in the proton’s reference frame?
away in a 75-year human lifetime? 65. When an object’s speed increases by 5%, its momentum in-
46. An advanced civilization has developed a spaceship that goes, creases by a factor of 5. What was its original speed?
with respect to the galaxy, only 50 km/s slower than light. (a) Ac- 66. Use the Lorentz transformations to show that if two events are
cording to the ship’s crew, how long does it take to cross the separated in space and time so that a light signal leaving one
galaxy’s 100,000-ly diameter? (b) What’s the galactic diameter event cannot reach the other, then there is an observer for whom
measured in the ship’s reference frame? the two events are simultaneous. Show that the converse is also
47. A spaceship travels at 0.80c from Earth to a star 10 light years true: If a light signal can get from one event to the other, then no
distant, as measured in the Earth–star reference frame. Let event observer will find them simultaneous.
A be the ship’s departure from Earth and event B its arrival at the 67. A source emitting light with frequency f moves toward you at
star. (a) Find the distance and time between the two events in the speed u. By considering both time dilation and the effect of
608 Chapter 33 Relativity

wavefronts “piling up” as shown in Fig. 14.34, show that you 72. Taking your pulse, you find
measure a Doppler-shifted frequency given by a. it’s significantly slower than when you’re on Earth.
c1u b. it’s the same as when you’re on Earth.
f9 5 f c. it’s significantly faster than when you’re on Earth.
Ac 2 u
73. How much do you age during your interstellar journey?
Use the binomial approximation (Appendix A) to show that this
a. 3 years
result can be written in the form of Equation 14.13 when u V c.
b. just under 4 years
68. Equation 33.5a transforms the velocity u of an object moving in
c. just over 4 years
the x-direction—the same direction as the relative velocity v of
d. 5 years
the two reference frames. Now suppose the object’s velocity also
has a component uy perpendicular to the two frames’ relative 74. Back on Earth, Mission Control judges that your shipboard
!
velocity v . Find the transformation from u9y to uy. clocks run slow. What do you judge about clocks at Mission
69. Consider a relativistic particle of mass m moving along a straight Control?
line. Use Equation 33.7 to find an expression for the force on the a. They run fast.
particle, defined as F 5 dp/dt, in terms of its acceleration b. They keep time at the same rate as your clocks.
a 5 du/dt. c. They run slow.
70. Find the speed of a particle whose relativistic kinetic energy is d. You can’t tell anything about their clocks.
50% greater than the Newtonian value calculated for the same 75. In your spaceship’s reference frame, the distance from the Sun to
speed. Proxima Centauri is
71. It’s the 24th century, and you’re a curator at the Starfleet a. 2.4 light years.
Museum of Ancient Technology. Archaeologists have unearthed a b. just under 4 light years.
“TV tube,” an ancient device for displaying moving images. Your c. 4 light years.
job is to get it working. One reference says the device accelerated d. 5 light years.
electrons, which then bombarded a screen to produce images; to
the electrons, the tube was 57 cm long. You measure the tube and
find it’s 60 cm long. To get it working, you need to know the elec-
Answers to Chapter Questions
trons’ speed and the potential difference needed to accelerate
them. The electron’s rest energy is 511 keV. Your answers? Answer to Chapter Opening Question
The laws of physics are the same for all observers, regardless of their
Passage Problems state of motion.
You’ve been named captain of NASA’s first interstellar mission since
the Voyager robotic spacecraft. You board your spaceship, accelerate Answers to GOT IT? Questions
quickly to 0.8c, and cruise at constant speed toward Proxima Centauri, 33.1. A and B are the same age, both younger than C.
the closest star to our Sun. Proxima Centauri is 4 light-years distant as 33.2. Less, although insignificantly so at such low relative speeds.
measured in the two stars’ common rest frame. On the way, you con- 33.3. Very nearly c.
duct various medical experiments to determine the effects of a long
space voyage on the human body.
 34 Particles and Waves
New Concepts, New Skills
By the end of this chapter you should be
able to
■ Explain how blackbody radiation, the
photoelectric effect, the Compton
effect, and atomic spectra contradict
classical physics and thus led to the
development of quantum physics
(34.2, 34.3, 34.4).
■ Describe the quantization hypothe-
ses of Planck, Einstein, and Bohr,
including the role of Planck’s
constant h (34.2, 34.3, 34.4).
■ Assess quantitatively the wavelengths
of radiation for blackbodies at differ-
ent temperatures (34.2).
■ Use the quantization condition E 5 hf
to determine photon energies (34.3).
■ Calculate photon energies and wave-
lengths associated with electron
transitions in Bohr’s model for the
atom (34.4).
■ Describe wave–particle duality, and
Ridges and valleys represent bright and dark fringes calculate the wavelengths of matter
in the interference pattern produced by two beams waves given mass and velocity (34.5).
of ultracold sodium atoms. What does this picture ■ Explain the uncertainty principle and
tell us about the nature of matter? Bohr’s complementarity principle
(34.6, 34.7).

N ewtonian mechanics and Maxwell’s electromagnetism constitute the core of classical

physics, providing a deep understanding of physical reality. Although these theories were
firmly established by the middle of the 19th century, they remain central to the work of many
Connecting Your Knowledge
■ This chapter introduces radical new
ideas at the heart of quantum
contemporary scientists and engineers. physics. Nevertheless, we’ll build on
Nevertheless, at the end of the 19th century a few seemingly minor phenomena defied classical some already-familiar concepts,
explanation. Most physicists felt that it was only a matter of time before these, too, came under the including energy and momentum
classical umbrella. But that was not to be. We’ve seen how questions about light led to a radical (Chapters 4 and 6).
restructuring of our concepts of space and time. Other questions, especially those concerning mat- ■ We’ll use wave concepts, including
ter at the atomic scale, brought about an even more radical transformation of physical thought. wavelength, frequency, interference,
This chapter explores some phenomena that led to quantum physics and recounts early at- and diffraction (14.1, 14.2, 14.5, 32.5).
tempts to explain them. The next chapter gives a fuller account of quantum theory, and subse-
quent chapters explore its application to atoms, molecules, nuclei, and quantum-based
technologies.

34.1 Toward Quantum Theory

Are matter and energy continuously divisible? The essential difference between classical
and quantum physics is that the former answers this question “in general, yes,” while the
latter says definitively “no.” Most physical quantities are quantized, coming in only cer-
tain discrete values.
609
610 Chapter 34 Particles and Waves

The idea that physical quantities might come in discrete “chunks” is not new. Some
2400 years ago the Greek philosopher Democritus proposed that all matter consists of in-
divisible atoms. By the start of the 20th century a more scientifically grounded atomic the-
ory was widely accepted. J. J. Thomson’s discovery of the electron in 1897 showed that
atoms might be divisible after all, but at the same time it revealed a finer division of mat-
ter into discrete “chunks.” Robert A. Millikan’s 1909 oil-drop experiment showed that
electric charge is similarly quantized. Discovery of the proton and later the neutron further
solidified the notion that matter comprises fundamental building blocks with definite val-
ues for their physical properties.
Quantization of matter into particles with discrete properties is not incompatible with
classical physics as long as those particles behave according to classical laws—in particu-
lar, that they move continuously through space and can have any amount of energy. Add
electromagnetism to the picture and the classical viewpoint requires that the fields be con-
tinuous, exerting forces on charged particles and changing, in a gradual and continuous
way, the particles’ energies.
The startling fact of quantum physics is that this classical behavior does not occur at
the atomic scale; instead, energy itself is often quantized. Reconciling the implications of
that fact with our commonsense notions of matter and motion has proved impossible; in-
stead, the quantum world speaks a different language, one in which deeply ingrained ideas
about causality and the solid reality of matter seem no longer to apply. Here we look at
three distinct phenomena that force us to accept the idea that energy can be quantized.

34.2 Blackbody Radiation

Heat an object hot enough and it glows, emitting electromagnetic radiation in the form of
light. As we saw in Section 16.3, the total power radiated is proportional to the fourth
power of the temperature. There’s also a change in wavelength with increasing tempera-
ture: The first visible glow is a dull red, changing with higher temperatures to orange and
then yellow colors corresponding to ever-shorter wavelengths.
Incoming radiation . . . A perfect absorber of electromagnetic radiation is called a blackbody because it ab-
sorbs all light and thus appears black. When a blackbody is heated, it emits blackbody
radiation at a range of wavelengths. Many objects—such as the Sun or an electric-stove
burner—behave approximately like blackbodies. An excellent approximation to a black-
body is a hollow piece of any material with a small hole. As Fig. 34.1 shows, any radia-
tion entering the hole undergoes multiple reflections and is eventually absorbed. The hole,
therefore, is a nearly perfect absorber, so when the material is heated, the radiation emerg-
ing is blackbody radiation.
Experimental study of blackbody radiation shows three characteristic features:
1. The radiation covers a continuous range of wavelengths, with the total power radi-
ated at all wavelengths combined given by the Stefan–Boltzmann law that we intro-
duced in Chapter 16:
. . . is eventually all absorbed.
Pblackbody 5 sAT4 (34.1)
FIGURE 34.1 A cavity with a small hole absorbs
nearly all incident radiation and hence is a where A is the area of the radiating surface, T is its absolute (kelvin) temperature, and
near-perfect blackbody.
s 5 5.6731028 W/1m2 # K42 is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.
2. The radiation peaks at a wavelength that’s inversely proportional to the temperature;
this is known as Wien’s law.
3. The distribution of wavelengths depends only on temperature, not on the material
of which the blackbody is made.
A blackbody’s radiance measures the radiated power as a function of wavelength. Be-
cause the blackbody emits a continuous spectrum, we have to express radiance as power
per unit spectral interval. If we choose intervals in wavelength, then the relation implied in
feature 2 above gives a peak radiance at wavelength lpeak such that
lpeakT 5 2.898 mm # K 1Wien’s law2 (34.2a)
 34.2 Blackbody Radiation 611

We emphasize, however, that the choice of fixed wavelength intervals is arbitrary. If we had
chosen fixed frequency intervals, then the constant in Equation 34.2a would be different,
and a plot of radiance versus wavelength would peak at a different wavelength (see Problem
74). So lpeak in Equation 34.2a is not some absolute measure of the wavelength at which 6000 K
the blackbody emits the “most” radiation, but rather the wavelength of the maximum radia-
tion if you choose to keep track of power in intervals of fixed wavelength. A more physi-

Radiance
At higher T,
cally based quantity is the median wavelength, below and above which half the power is peak shifts to
lower l.
radiated; it’s given by
lmedianT 5 4.11 mm # K (34.2b)
4000 K
Whatever measure one chooses, though, the important point is that the peak wavelength is
inversely proportional to temperature. In our subsequent discussion we’ll adopt a defini- 3000 K
tion of radiance as the power emitted per unit area per unit wavelength interval; then Equa-
tion 34.2a describes the peak wavelength. Figure 34.2 plots this measure of blackbody 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
radiance at three temperatures. Wavelength l (mm)
Microscopically, blackbody radiation is associated with the thermal motions of FIGURE 34.2 Blackbody radiance—energy per
atoms and molecules, so it’s not surprising that the radiation increases with tempera- unit wavelength interval—as a function of
ture. In the late 1800s physicists tried to apply the laws of electromagnetism and statis- wavelength.
tical mechanics to explain the experimental observations of blackbody radiation. They
met with some success in describing such aspects as the T4 dependence of the total en-
ergy radiated, and the shifting of the radiation distribution toward shorter wavelengths
with increasing temperature, but they could not reproduce the actual observed distribu-
tion at all wavelengths.
In 1900 the German physicist Max Planck formulated an equation that fit the observed
radiance curves for blackbody radiation at all wavelengths:
2phc2
R1l, T2 5 (34.3)
l51ehc/lkT 2 12
Two familiar quantities here are Boltzmann’s constant k 5 1.38310223 J/K, introduced
in Chapter 17, and the speed of light c. A new quantity is the constant h, whose value
Planck chose in order to make the equation fit experimental data.
Planck first presented his law as a purely empirical equation describing blackbody
experiments. Later he showed that his equation had a remarkable physical interpretation:

The energy of a vibrating molecule is quantized, meaning it can have only certain
discrete values. Specifically, if f is the vibration frequency, then the energy must 7hf
To q To q
be an integer multiple of the quantity hf:
6hf
E 5 nhf, n 5 0, 1, 2, 3, c (34.4)
5hf

4hf
where h is the constant Planck introduced in Equation 34.3. Today we know h as one of
the fundamental constants of nature and call it Planck’s constant. Its value is approxi- 3hf
mately 6.63310234 J # s, and it’s because h is so small that quantum phenomena are usu-
Energy
Energy

ally obvious only in the atomic and molecular realm. Planck’s quantization of the energy 2hf
of vibrating molecules implies further that a molecule can absorb or emit energy only in
discrete “bundles” of size hf, and that in doing so it jumps abruptly from one of its al- hf
lowed energy levels to another (Fig. 34.3). (Later developments showed that Planck was
0
correct about the size of the energy jumps but that the factor n in Equation 34.4 should (a) (b)
actually be n 1 12.)
Planck himself was very conservative and reluctant to accept or elaborate on his FIGURE 34.3 (a) In classical physics, a vibrating
theory’s evident disagreement with classical physics; nevertheless, his revolutionary molecule can have any energy. (b) Allowed en-
ergies in Planck’s theory are integer multiples
work won Planck the 1918 Nobel Prize. Other physicists subsequently emphasized the of hf. Energy-level diagrams like this are used
contrast between Planck’s work and the classical treatment of blackbody radiation. frequently in quantum physics, and usually the
That earlier treatment, based on the assumption that energy is shared equally among horizontal axis has no physical significance.
612 Chapter 34 Particles and Waves

To q: the all possible vibrational modes, had led to the Rayleigh–Jeans law for the radiance of
ultraviolet catastrophe a blackbody:
Classical theory 2pckT
R1l, T2 5 (34.5)
l4
Radiance

Planck theory
Not only did the Rayleigh–Jeans law contradict experimental measurements, but it led to the
absurd conclusion that every object, at every nonzero temperature, should emit electromag-
netic energy at an infinite rate, with that energy concentrated at the shortest wavelengths
0 1 2 3 4 (Fig. 34.4). Since the shortest wavelength known at the time was ultraviolet, this phenome-
Wavelength, l (mm) non was called the ultraviolet catastrophe. In Planck’s equation the exponential term in
the denominator grows rapidly with decreasing wavelength, diminishing the radiance and
FIGURE 34.4 Radiance versus wavelength for averting the ultraviolet catastrophe. Problems 68, 72, and 75 show that Planck’s law reduces
blackbody radiation at 6000 K, showing also
to the Rayleigh–Jeans law for longer wavelengths, and that it also leads to Wien’s displace-
the incorrect classical prediction.
ment law and the Stefan–Boltzmann law.

EXAMPLE 34.1 Blackbody Radiation: Lightbulb Efficiency

A standard incandescent lightbulb’s filament temperature is about 3000 K. EVALUATE (a) Equation 34.2a gives l 5 2.898 mm # K/3000 K 5
(a) Find the wavelength of peak radiance, and (b) compare the radiance 966 nm. (b) To compare radiances, we form a ratio of the right-hand
at 550 nm—the approximate center of the visible spectrum—with the sides of Equation 34.3 evaluated at the wavelengths l2 5 550 nm and
peak radiance. l1 5 966 nm. The numerators cancel, giving
R1l2, T2 l151ehc/l1kT 2 12
INTERPRET This problem involves radiation from an object at a 5 5 0.38
known temperature, and we identify the filament as a blackbody. R1l1, T2 l251ehc/l2kT 2 12
We’re asked for both the peak wavelength and a comparison of radi-
ances at two different wavelengths. We’re implicitly adopting our def- ASSESS Our 966-nm answer for (a) lies in the infrared, suggesting that
inition of radiance as power emitted per unit area per unit wavelength, incandescent lightbulbs aren’t very efficient at producing visible light;
and our answers will reflect this choice. that’s the reason they’re gradually being phased out. Our answer to
(b) confirms this point, showing there’s much less radiance in the visi-
DEVELOP Equation 34.2a gives the peak wavelength, and Equation ble than at the infrared peak. And remember that we’ve defined radiance
34.3 gives the radiance as a function of wavelength. So our plan for (a) as power per unit area per unit wavelength interval. If we adopt the
is to solve Equation 34.2a, lpeakT 5 2.898 mm # K, for T 5 3000 K. more physical median wavelength given by lmedianT 5 4.11 mm # K, we
For (b) we’ll form a ratio of radiances from Equation 34.3, using the find lmedian 5 1.4 m, well into the infrared. Since half the radiation
result of (a) and the given 550-nm visible wavelength. occurs at wavelengths longer than this median, the bulb emits far more
than half its energy as invisible infrared. ■

GOT IT? 34.1 Two identical blackbodies are heated until A’s temperature is twice
B’s. Compare their total radiated power and their wavelengths of peak radiance.

Electrode Evacuated Light

tube
34.3 Photons
Planck showed that vibrating molecules could exchange energy with electromagnetic ra-
diation only in quantized bundles of size hf. Is the radiation’s energy similarly quantized?

Surface ejecting
The Photoelectric Effect
A
photoelectrons In 1887 Heinrich Hertz observed that metals emit electrons when struck by light. Obser-
vations of this photoelectric effect continued with experiments involving metal electrodes
V
in evacuated glass containers (Fig. 34.5). Illuminating one electrode causes it to emit elec-
trons. Making the second electrode positive attracts the electrons, and the resulting current
Voltage source measures the rate at which electrons are ejected. Make the second electrode sufficiently
negative, on the other hand, and the electron energy isn’t great enough to overcome the re-
   
pulsive potential; then the current ceases. This so-called stopping potential provides a
measure of the ejected electrons’ maximum kinetic energy Kmax 5 eVs.
FIGURE 34.5 Apparatus for studying the photo- Classical physics suggests that the photoelectric effect should occur because an elec-
electric effect. tron experiences a force in the oscillating electric field of a light wave. As the electron
 34.3 Photons 613

absorbs energy from the wave, the amplitude of its motion should grow until eventually it
has enough energy to escape from the metal. Because the energy in a wave is spread
throughout the entire wave, it might take a while for a single tiny electron to absorb
enough energy. Increasing the light intensity should increase the electric field, resulting in
the electron being ejected sooner and with more energy. Changing the wave frequency
should have little effect.
The photoelectric effect does occur, but not in the way classical physics suggests. Figure The stopping potential
34.6 shows results from a photoelectric experiment, in the form of current versus voltage as Vs indicates the maximum
electron energy, which is
read by the meters in Fig. 34.5. These results, along with observations made by varying the independent of intensity.
frequency of the incident light, show three major disagreements with the classical prediction:
Current High intensity
1. Current begins immediately, showing that electrons are ejected immediately, even
in dim light.
2. The maximum electron energy, as measured by the stopping potential Vs, is Low intensity
independent of the light intensity.
3. Below a certain cutoff frequency no electrons are emitted, no matter how intense
the light. Above the cutoff frequency electrons are emitted with a maximum energy
that increases in proportion to the light-wave frequency. Vs Voltage

In 1905, the same year he formulated the special theory of relativity, Albert Einstein FIGURE 34.6 Current versus voltage for the pho-
proposed an explanation for the photoelectric effect. Einstein suggested that an electro- toelectric experiment of Fig. 34.5, shown for
two light intensities at the same frequency.
magnetic wave’s energy is concentrated in “bundles” called quanta or photons. Einstein
applied to these photons the same energy-quantization condition that Planck had already
proposed for molecular vibrations: that photons in light with frequency f have energy hf,
where again h is Planck’s constant:

E 5 hf 1photon energy2 (34.6) Table 34.1 Work Functions

The more intense the light, the more photons—but the energy of each photon is unrelated Element (Symbol) f 1eV2
to the light intensity. Silver (Ag) 4.26
Einstein’s idea explains all three nonclassical aspects of the photoelectric effect. Each Aluminum (Al) 4.28
material has a minimum energy—called the work function, f—required to eject an elec-
Cesium (Cs) 2.14
tron. (Table 34.1 lists work functions for selected elements.) Since the energy in a photon
Copper (Cu) 4.65
of light with frequency f is hf, the photons in low-frequency light have less energy than
Potassium (K) 2.30
the work function and are therefore unable to eject electrons—no matter how many pho-
tons there are. At the cutoff frequency, the photon energy equals the work function, and Sodium (Na) 2.75
the photons have just enough energy to eject electrons. As the frequency increases still Nickel (Ni) 5.15
further, the electrons emerge with maximum kinetic energy K equal to the difference be- Silicon (Si) 4.85
tween the photon energy and the work function:
Kmax 5 hf 2 f (34.7)
Thus, the electrons’ maximum kinetic energy depends only on the photon energy—that is,
on the light frequency but not on its intensity (Fig. 34.7). Finally, the immediate ejection
of electrons follows because an individual photon delivers its entire bundle of energy to an Wavelength (nm)
700 600 500 400 300
electron all at once. Einstein received the 1921 Nobel Prize primarily for his explanation
Stopping potential (V)

of the photoelectric effect rather than for his more controversial relativity theories. In 1914 2.5
Millikan, who had earlier demonstrated the quantization of electric charge, carried out IR Visible Ultraviolet
2
meticulous photoelectric experiments that confirmed Einstein’s hypothesis and helped
1.5 Slope = h /e
earn Millikan the 1923 Nobel Prize.
1
0.5
GOT IT? 34.2 If you replot Fig. 34.7 for a substance with a different work function, 0
4 6 8 10 12
(a) will the slope of the line change? (b) Will the point at which it intersects the horizontal Light frequency (1014 Hz)
axis change?
FIGURE 34.7 Results of a photoelectric
experiment, showing stopping potential as a
function of light frequency and wavelength.
The stopping potential in volts is a direct
Today, the photoelectric effect is used in extremely sensitive light detectors called measure of the electron energy in
photomultipliers. In these devices, electrons dislodge additional electrons in a series of electronvolts.
614 Chapter 34 Particles and Waves

electrodes called dynodes, resulting in a cascade of as many as a billion electrons for each
incident photon (Fig. 34.8).

3rd dynode 1st dynode Photocathode

Transparent
window

Incident
FIGURE 34.8 A photomultiplier produces photon
a large pulse of electrons from a single
incident photon. 2nd dynode Electrons

EXAMPLE 34.2 The Photoelectric Effect: Designing a Photomultiplier

(a) Choose a suitable material from Table 34.1 for the light-sensitive which this is possible is cesium, with f 5 2.14 eV. (b) At l 5 400 nm
surface in a photomultiplier that will respond to visible light at wave- and f 5 c/l, Equation 34.7 gives Kmax 5 hc/l 2 f 5 0.96 eV. Here
lengths of 575 nm and shorter. (b) Find the maximum kinetic energy we converted the SI value of hc/l to electronvolts before subtracting f.
of electrons ejected with the shortest-wavelength visible light, around
400 nm. ASSESS Make sense? The work function we’ve chosen is just under the
2.16-eV photon energy at 575 nm, so electrons ejected with photons of
INTERPRET This problem is about the photoelectric effect. In this wavelength have negligible kinetic energy. The 400-nm minimum
(a) we’re asked for a material in which 575-nm light can eject elec- visible wavelength corresponds to roughly 50% higher frequency and
trons. That means the work function can be no greater than the energy therefore energy, or roughly 3 eV. It takes about 2 eV to overcome the
of a 575-nm photon. In (b) we need to find the excess electron energy, work function, leaving about 1 eV of electron kinetic energy.
over the work function, for 400-nm light.

DEVELOP Equation 34.6, E 5 hf, relates the quantized energy of a ✓TIP Working with Electronvolts
photon to its frequency. Since fl 5 c, we can rewrite Equation 34.6 Recall that 1 electronvolt (eV) is the energy gained by an electron
as E 5 hc/l. We’ll use this to find the photon energy, and then we’ll across a 1-volt potential. So electronvolts are a unit of energy, but not
consult Table 34.1 for an appropriate material. Finally, we can use the standard SI unit, which is the joule. We computed an energy
f 5 c/l in Equation 34.7, Kmax 5 hf 2 f, to get the maximum E 5 hc/l in SI units and then converted to electronvolts using the fac-
kinetic energy of electrons when l 5 400 nm. tor 1 eV 5 1.6310219 J. In general it’s safest to work in SI units and
then convert to eV as needed.
EVALUATE (a) At 575 nm, E 5 hc/l 5 3.46310219 J, or 2.16 eV,
where 1 eV 5 1.6310219 J. This energy must be enough for the elec-
tron to overcome the work function; the only material in Table 34.1 for ■

Waves or Particles?
In positing the existence of photons, Einstein gave the first inklings of the wave–particle
duality—the seemingly dual nature of light, which acts in some situations like a wave and
in others, as in the photoelectric effect, more like a localized particle. We now turn to an-
other phenomenon that demonstrates light’s particle-like aspect. Later we’ll see how the
wave–particle duality encompasses not only light but matter as well.

The Compton Effect

In 1923 the American physicist Arthur Holly Compton, at Washington University in
St. Louis, did an experiment that dramatically confirmed the particle-like aspect of elec-
tromagnetic radiation. Although Compton’s work came much later in the history of quan-
tum theory than Einstein’s, we include it here because it so strongly corroborates
Einstein’s photon hypothesis.
Compton was studying the interaction of X rays with electrons. Classically, an electron
subject to an electromagnetic wave should undergo oscillatory motion, driven by the
wave’s oscillating electric field. Since accelerated charge is the source of electromagnetic
 34.3 Photons 615

waves, the electron should itself produce electromagnetic waves of the same frequency as
the incident waves (Fig. 34.9a). As we saw in Section 29.7, the electron should radiate in
all directions, with maximum radiation perpendicular to its oscillatory motion.

Classical: Electron oscillates

and re-radiates at wave frequency.
Quantum: Photon collides with
electron, losing energy and
emerging with longer wavelength.
r
E
Scattered
photon
r
B
u
f
Incident
photon Recoiling
electron
(a) (b)

FIGURE 34.9 Classical and quantum descriptions of the interaction between electromagnetic
waves and free electrons.

Compton and his coworkers measured the intensity of scattered X rays as a function
of wavelength for different scattering angles. Remarkably, they found the greatest con-
centration of scattered X rays at a wavelength longer than that of the incident radiation u 5 45°
(Fig. 34.10). They interpreted their results as implying that particle-like photons had col-
lided with electrons, losing energy to the electrons and therefore, since E 5 hf, emerg-
ing with lower frequency and correspondingly longer wavelength (Fig. 34.9b).
We can understand this Compton effect by treating the interaction as an elastic colli-
sion between the incident photon and a stationary electron. The photon moves at c, so it’s
necessary to use relativistic expressions for energy and momentum. You can work out the
details in Problem 73; the result gives the Compton shift: Dl 5 l 2 l0—that is, the
change from the photon’s original wavelength l0: 0
h u 5 90°
Dl 5 11 2 cos u2 1Compton shift2 (34.8)
mc
Figure 34.10 shows that this equation is in excellent agreement with experimental data.
X-ray intensity

The term h/mc in Equation 34.8 is the Compton wavelength of the electron and gives the
wavelength shift for a photon scattering at u 5 90°. Its value is lC 5 h/mc 5 0.00243 nm,
or 2.43 pm. Equation 34.8 shows that the largest wavelength shift will be 2lC, occurring at
u 5 180°. For the shift to be noticeable it should be a significant fraction of the incident
wavelength, which therefore can’t be too many times the Compton wavelength. For X rays, l 0
is in the range from approximately 10 pm to 10 nm, and therefore, detection of the Compton u 5 135°
shift in X rays is already difficult. It would be totally impossible with visible light.
Today, Compton scattering with gamma rays is a widely used technique for studying
the structure of matter. For example, abnormalities in human bone can be detected
through Compton scattering of gamma rays emitted by a radioactive source embedded in
bone. And the inverse Compton effect—the scattering of a rapidly moving electron off a
photon—is a common process in high-energy astrophysical systems and is used in the
laboratory to produce beams of gamma radiation.
The wavelength shift in Compton scattering admits no classical explanation. Coming 0
after a decade of experimental and theoretical work that pointed increasingly to quantiza- 70 75
Wavelength (pm)
tion as the essence of the atomic world, Compton’s experimental results were for many
physicists the convincing evidence for the reality of quanta. FIGURE 34.10 Compton’s results for scattering of
X rays with l 5 71 pm. Right-hand peak
shows the wavelength shift of the Compton
GOT IT? 34.3 Will the Compton wavelength shift be greater or less for photons of a effect. The unshifted left-hand peak is from
photons scattering off tightly bound atomic
given wavelength scattering off protons rather than electrons?
electrons, which don’t absorb significant en-
ergy. Solid curves are theoretical predictions.
616 Chapter 34 Particles and Waves

34.4 Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Atom

In Chapter 29 we found that accelerated charges are the source of electromagnetic radia-
tion. By 1900 it was known that atoms contain negative electrons as well as regions of
positive charge; by 1911 experiments by Ernest Rutherford and his colleague Hans Geiger
and student Ernest Marsden had localized the positive charge in the tiny but relatively
massive nucleus. According to classical physics, electrons should orbit the nucleus under
the influence of the electric force, radiating electromagnetic wave energy as they acceler-
ate in their orbits. In fact, a classical calculation shows that atomic electrons will quickly
radiate away all their energy and spiral into the nucleus. Thus, the very existence of atoms
is at odds with classical physics.

The Hydrogen Spectrum

A more subtle problem involving atoms dates to 1804, when William Wollaston noticed
lines between some of the colors dispersed by a prism. Ten years later the German opti-
cian Josef von Fraunhofer dispersed the solar spectrum sufficiently that he could see hun-
dreds of narrow, dark lines against the otherwise continuous spectrum. Studies of light
emitted by diffuse gases excited by electric discharges show similar spectral lines, these
bright against an otherwise dark background (recall Fig. 30.13). Such emission spectra
result when atoms emit light of discrete frequencies. Absorption spectra, in contrast,
arise when atoms in a diffuse gas absorb discrete frequencies of light from a continuous
source. We emphasize the word “diffuse”: Discrete spectra generally arise only when a
gas is sufficiently diffuse that light from one atom stands a strong chance of escaping the
gas before it interacts with other atoms. In dense gases multiple interactions result in the
continuous spectrum of blackbody radiation.
Every element produces its own unique spectral lines, so analysis of spectra, even from
the remote reaches of the cosmos, allows us to identify and characterize the material emit-
ting the light. Spectral analysis led to the discovery of helium in the Sun’s atmosphere be-
fore that element had been identified on Earth—hence the name, from the Greek word
helios for Sun. Measuring the Doppler shift of spectral lines lets us “see” stars orbiting
black holes in distant galaxies, and also gives direct evidence for the expansion of the uni-
verse. Back on Earth, the technique of atomic absorption spectroscopy uses spectral lines
to determine the elemental composition of substances, helping identify pollutants or trace
the flow of elements in biological samples.
In 1884, a Swiss schoolteacher named Johann Balmer realized that the wavelengths of
the first four lines in the visible spectrum of hydrogen (see Fig. 30.13) were related by the
equation
1 1 1
5 RH a 2 2 2 b
l 2 n
where n 5 3, 4, 5, 6, c and RH is the Rydberg constant for hydrogen, with the approx-
imate value 1.0973107 m21. Other series of lines in the hydrogen spectrum were soon
found, and Balmer’s equation was generalized to
1 1 1
5 RH a 2 2 2 b (34.9)
l n2 n1
where n1 5 n2 1 1, n2 1 2, c. The Balmer series of lines has n2 5 2; the Lyman se-
ries, in the ultraviolet, has n2 5 1; and the infrared Paschen series has n2 5 3. There are
in fact infinitely many such series, corresponding to n2 5 1, 2, 3, c.
But why should atoms emit discrete spectral lines? And why should the hydrogen lines
form patterns with the simple regularity of Equation 34.9?

The Bohr Atom

In 1913 the great Danish physicist Niels Bohr proposed an atomic theory that accounted
for the spectral lines of hydrogen. In the Bohr atom the electron moves in a circular orbit
about the nucleus, held by the electric force. Classically, any orbital radius and corre-
spondingly any energy and angular momentum should be possible. But Bohr quantized
 34.4 Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Atom 617

the atom, stating that the only possible orbits were those with angular momentum an inte-
ger multiple of Planck’s constant divided by 2p. Angular momentum quantization implies
energy quantization, which, as we’ll show, leads to Equation 34.9 for the hydrogen spec-
tral lines.
Bohr asserted that an electron in an allowed orbit does not radiate energy, in contradic-
tion to the predictions of classical electromagnetism. But an electron can jump from one
orbit to another, emitting or absorbing a photon whose energy is equal to the energy differ-
ence between the two orbital levels. We can therefore find the expected photon energies—
and the corresponding wavelengths—if we know the allowed energy levels.
To find the quantized atomic energy levels in Bohr’s model, consider a hydrogen atom
consisting of a fixed proton and an electron in circular orbit. Treating the proton as fixed
is a good approximation because its mass is nearly 2000 times the electron’s. We consider
only electron speeds much less than that of light, which is an excellent approximation in
hydrogen.
In Example 11.1 we found that the angular momentum of a particle with mass m and
speed v, moving in a circular path of radius r, is mvr. Thus, Bohr’s quantization condi-
tion reads
mvr 5 n" 1quantization, Bohr atom2 (34.10)
where n 5 1, 2, 3, c and where we define " ; h/2p (read “h bar”). We need to relate
the electron’s angular momentum to its energy so we can find out what Equation 34.10
implies about energy quantization.
We studied circular orbits for the inverse-square force of gravity in Chapter 8, where
we found that kinetic and potential energies in a circular orbit are related by K 5 2 12 U,
with the zero of potential energy at infinity. The total energy K 1 U is therefore 21 U.
These results hold for any 1/r2 force, including the electric force. In the electric case the
potential energy U is the point-charge potential of the proton, ke/r, multiplied by the elec-
tron charge, 2e. Then the total energy is E 5 12 U 5 2ke2/2r. The minus sign means the
electron is bound to the proton, in that it would take energy to separate them. Solving this
equation for r then gives
ke2
r52 (34.11)
2E
Since the kinetic energy is K 5 212 U 5 2E, we also have 12 mv2 5 2E or v 5 122E/m.
Using our expressions for r and v in the quantization condition 34.10 gives
m 122E/m12ke2/2E2 5 n". Solving for the energy E, we find
k2e4m
E52
2"2n2
It’s convenient to define the Bohr radius, a0, as
"2
a0 5 5 0.0529 nm
mke2
With this definition the energy becomes

ke2 1
E52 a b 1energy levels, Bohr atom2 (34.12a)
2a0 n2

Equation 34.12a gives us the allowed energy levels under Bohr’s quantization condition.
Evaluating this expression for the case n 5 1 gives E1 5 22.18310219 J 5 213.6 eV;
it’s then convenient to write Equation 39.12a numerically in the form
13.6 eV
E52 (34.12b)
n2
where in both forms n 5 1, 2, 3, c. The lowest energy state, n 5 1, is called the ground
state; the others are excited states.
618 Chapter 34 Particles and Waves

Now we have the allowed energy levels. What about spectra? When an electron jumps
between energy levels, it emits or absorbs a photon whose energy hf is equal to the en-
ergy difference between the levels. So imagine an electron going from a higher level n1 to
a lower level n2. The energy difference, according to Equation 34.12a, is
ke2 1 1 ke2 1 1
DE 5 2 a 2 2 2b 5 a 2 2 2b
2a0 n1 n2 2a0 n2 n1
and this is equal to the energy of the emitted photon. But the photon energy is
DE 5 hf 5 hc/l, and therefore 1/l 5 DE/hc or, using our expression for DE,
1 ke2 1 1
5 a 2 2b
l 2a0hc n22 n1
This looks just like Equation 34.9 for the hydrogen spectral lines, except that ke2/2a0hc re-
places the Rydberg constant RH. Evaluating this quantity gives ke2/2a0hc 5 1.093107 m21,
which is very close to the experimentally observed Rydberg constant. The small discrepancy
results from our approximation that the proton is stationary.
Bohr’s theory of quantized angular momentum thus accounts brilliantly for the
observed spectrum of hydrogen. We can understand the origin of the various spectral line
series using Fig. 34.11, an energy-level diagram for the Bohr model of hydrogen. Al-
lowed energy levels are shown as horizontal lines, and various possible transitions among
levels as vertical arrows. Transitions with a common final state are grouped, and each
group represents a different series of spectral lines.

Infinitely more energy

levels and transitions
below E 5 0

0 n5q
20.54 n55

a 1875 nm
b 1282 nm
20.85 n54

21.51 n53
656.3 nm
486.1 nm
434.0 nm
410.2 nm
Paschen series
a
b
g
d n52
Energy (eV)

23.40
Balmer series
121.6 nm
102.6 nm
97.3 nm
95.0 nm

FIGURE 34.11 Energy-level diagram for

the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom,
showing transitions responsible for the
first three series of spectral lines. Each
a
b
g
d

series arises from jumps to a common –13.60 n51

final state. Lyman series

Knowing the energy levels of Equation 34.12, we can also find the radii of the allowed
electron orbits, as given by Equation 34.11:
ke2 ke2 2a0n2
r52 5a ba b 5 n2a0 (34.13)
2E 2 ke2
 34.5 Matter Waves 619

Thus, the lowest energy orbit has a radius of one Bohr radius, with higher-energy orbits
growing rapidly with increasing n. A hydrogen atom in its ground state—n 5 1— has a
diameter of two Bohr radii, or about 0.1 nm. As we’ll see in Chapter 35, the Bohr model’s
precise electron orbits aren’t compatible with the fully developed theory of quantum me-
chanics; nevertheless, Equation 34.13 does give the approximate size of atoms.

EXAMPLE 34.3 The Bohr Model: Big Atoms

Hydrogen atoms are normally in their ground state, with diameter ap- EVALUATE (a) The diameter is twice the radius, so Equation 34.13
proximately 0.1 nm. But in the diffuse gas of interstellar space, atoms gives d 5 122127322a0 5 7.9 m. (b) Inverting Equation 34.9 to get
exist in highly excited states with sizes approaching a fraction of a the wavelength gives
millimeter. Such Rydberg atoms can also be produced temporarily in 1 1 21
the lab. Transitions among Rydberg states result in photons at radio l 5 c RH a 2
2 2b d
5 92 cm
272 273
wavelengths. One of the longest wavelengths observed corresponds to
a transition from n 5 273 to n 5 272. (a) What’s the diameter of a with RH 5 1.0973107 m21.
hydrogen atom in the n 5 273 state? (b) At what wavelength should a
ASSESS Our atomic diameter is some 75,000 times that of ground-
radio telescope be set to observe this transition?
state hydrogen and about the size of a red blood cell! A wavelength
INTERPRET This is a problem about electron transitions in hydrogen of 92 cm corresponds to a frequency f 5 c/l of about 300 MHz,
atoms, albeit of unusual size. The Bohr model applies. which happens to lie in a gap between VHF TV channel 13 and UHF
channel 14. ■
DEVELOP We’ll use Equation 34.13, r 5 n2a 0, to find the atomic di-
ameter, with n 5 273. Equation 34.9, 1/l 5 RH11/n22 2 1/n122, will
give the transition wavelength with n1 5 273 and n2 5 272.

Equation 34.12 shows, and Fig. 34.11 suggests, that there are infinitely many electron
energy levels between the ground state at 213.6 eV and zero energy. It’s possible to give
an atomic electron enough energy to bring it above the E 5 0 level, but then it’s no
longer bound to the proton. Removing an electron is ionization, and Equation 34.12b and
Fig. 34.11 show that it takes 13.6 eV to ionize a hydrogen atom in its ground state. This
quantity is the ionization energy.

Limitations of the Bohr Model

Bohr’s theory proved astoundingly successful in explaining the hydrogen spectrum. It
also explains the spectra of hydrogen-like ions—atoms with all but one of their elec-
trons removed—with the appropriate change in the value of the nuclear charge. And it
has some success in predicting the spectra of atoms such as lithium and sodium that
have a single valence electron beyond a group of more tightly bound electrons. But it
can’t account for the spectra of more complicated atoms, even two-electron helium.
And with hydrogen, there are subtle spectral details that the Bohr model doesn’t ad-
dress. Furthermore, like Planck’s original quantum hypothesis, Bohr’s quantization of
atomic energy levels lacked a convincing theoretical basis. We’ll see in the next chap-
ter how the much more comprehensive theory of quantum mechanics overcomes these
limitations.

34.5 Matter Waves

In classical physics, light is purely a wave phenomenon. Einstein’s photons gave light a
particle-like quality as well. In 1923, ten years after Bohr’s atomic theory, a French prince
named Louis de Broglie (pronounced “de Broy”) set forth a remarkable hypothesis in his
doctoral thesis. If light has both wave-like and particle-like properties, he reasoned, why
shouldn’t matter also exhibit both properties?
We saw in Chapter 29 that light with energy E also carries momentum p 5 E/c.
Combined with Equation 34.6, that means a photon of light with frequency f has
620 Chapter 34 Particles and Waves

Allowed: momentum p 5 hf/c. Since fl 5 c, the photon’s momentum and wavelength are there-
n 5 3 orbit fore related by
h
l5 1de Broglie wavelength2 (34.14)
p

De Broglie proposed that this same relation should hold for particles of matter; at nonrela-
tivistic speed, for example, an electron should have associated with it a de Broglie wave-
length given by h/mv.
De Broglie used his matter-wave hypothesis to explain why atomic electron orbits
are quantized. He proposed that Bohr’s allowed orbits were those in which standing
Not
allowed waves could exist (Fig. 34.12), in much the same way that a violin string can support
only certain frequencies of standing waves. Suppose that n full wavelengths of a de
Broglie electron wave fit around the circumference of the electron’s circular orbit. Then
FIGURE 34.12 The allowed electron orbits in the
we must have nl 5 n1h/p2 5 n1h/mv2 5 2pr, with r the orbit radius. Multiplying both
Bohr atom are those that can fit an integral sides by mv/2p then gives mvr 5 nh/2p 5 n", which is Bohr’s quantization condition.
number of de Broglie wavelengths around the Thus, de Broglie’s hypothesis provides a natural explanation for the quantization of
circular Bohr orbit. atomic energy levels.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 34.1 The de Broglie Wavelength: Large and Small

If matter has wave properties, why don’t we observe baseballs, cars, thermal agitation always means a significant random velocity. Only
and people undergoing quantum interference? at very low temperatures can macroscopic systems exhibit quantum
interference.
EVALUATE Planck’s constant h is tiny, and the masses of macroscopic
objects are large. That makes the de Broglie wavelength (Equation
34.14) of macroscopic objects minuscule if they have any velocity MAKING THE CONNECTION Find the de Broglie wavelength of
whatsoever. Since wave behavior is evident only when waves interact (a) a 150-g baseball pitched at 45 m/s and (b) an electron moving at
with systems comparable in size to the wavelength, the wave aspect of 1 Mm/s. Compare your results with the sizes of home plate and an
macroscopic objects isn’t evident. Even with subatomic particles, atom, respectively.
wave behavior isn’t obvious at high velocities (i.e., high values of mo-
EVALUATE Given mass and speed, Equation 34.14 becomes l 5 h/mv.
mentum p in the denominator of Equation 34.14). In the atom, though,
it’s a different story, as Making the Connection shows. This gives lbaseball . 10234 m, unimaginably smaller than home plate.
But lelectron . 0.7 nm, several times the size of an atom. Therefore,
ASSESS Couldn’t we make a macroscopic object’s wavelength large wave effects dominate this electron’s interactions with atoms.
by making its momentum mv small? Yes—but at normal temperatures,

APPLICATION The Electron Microscope

In Chapter 32 we found that light can’t sharply image objects whose size is on
the order of the wavelength or smaller—a factor that limits the resolving power
of conventional microscopes. But Equation 34.14 shows that we can control
the wavelength of electrons by adjusting their speed—and therefore we can
achieve electron wavelengths much shorter than that of light. The electron
microscope exploits this effect, providing resolutions down to about 1 nm and
magnifications of 106.
Electron microscopes accelerate electron beams to energies of 50–100 keV,
with corresponding wavelengths of about 0.005 nm. Magnetic fields act as fo-
cusing lenses, forming an image of whatever object is placed in the beam path.
An electronic detector reads the image, which is then displayed on a screen.
Electron microscopes are indispensable tools in biology, chemistry, and
materials science. A related device, the scanning electron microscope, pro-
duces dramatic three-dimensional images at magnifications of 102105, as
shown in the photo of an ant carrying a microelectronic chip.
 34.6 The Uncertainty Principle 621

Electron Diffraction and Matter-Wave Interference

In 1927 the American physicists Clinton Davisson and Lester Germer gave a convinc-
ing verification of de Broglie’s matter-wave hypothesis. Davisson and Germer were
studying the interaction of an electron beam with a nickel crystal, and they noticed
regular intensity peaks reminiscent of X-ray diffraction. Shortly afterward, the Scot-
tish physicist George Thomson observed electron diffraction directly, further evidence
of the electron’s wave nature (Fig. 34.13). Thomson was the son of J. J. Thomson,
who had discovered the electron as a particle in 1897. Together their work captured
the electron’s wave–particle duality. Today, experiments with entire atoms and even
larger clusters of matter exhibit wave interference—as shown in this chapter’s open-
ing photo.

34.6 The Uncertainty Principle

FIGURE 34.13 Diffraction produced by passing
In classical physics it’s possible, in principle, to know the exact position and velocity of a an electron beam through a circular aperture
particle and therefore to predict with certainty its future behavior. But not so in quantum shows that electrons have a wave-like character.
physics! In 1927 the German physicist Werner Heisenberg presented his famous
uncertainty principle, which states that some pairs of quantities cannot be measured si-
multaneously with arbitrary precision. Position and momentum constitute one such pair;
if we measure a particle’s position to within an uncertainty Dx, then we can’t simultane-
ously determine its momentum to an accuracy better than Dp, where

Dx Dp $ " 1uncertainty principle2 (34.15)

Why this limitation? The fundamental reason is quantization. To measure some prop-
erty of a system requires interacting with the system—for example, shining light on it.
Interaction involves energy, and the interaction energy disturbs the system slightly. As a
result, values inferred from the measurement are no longer quite right. In classical physics
the energy can be arbitrarily small, resulting in a negligible disturbance. But in quantum
theory the minimum energy is a single quantum, like a photon of light, and thus the distur-
bance can’t be arbitrarily small.
So why not use lower-frequency light, whose photon energy hf is lower? Because
lower frequency means longer wavelength and, as we found in Chapter 32, diffraction
effects limit resolution at longer wavelengths. Heisenberg summarized this dilemma Short- . . . little
with the “thought experiment” illustrated in Fig. 34.14, which uses a single photon to wavelength, diffraction,
observe an electron. A short-wavelength photon allows precise localization of the elec- high-energy precise
photon . . . localization . . .
tron (Fig. 34.14a). But short wavelength means high frequency and thus high photon
energy. The high-energy photon imparts considerable momentum to the electron, and pr
thus the very act that fixes the electron’s position degrades our knowledge of its mo- . . . big change
in momentum.
mentum. We can decrease this disturbance with a lower-energy, longer-wavelength
(a)
photon (Fig. 34.14b). But now diffraction precludes precisely determining the elec-
tron’s position. So we can measure the electron’s position accurately, at the expense of
knowing its momentum. Or we can measure its momentum accurately, but then we
can’t know its position. With a photon of intermediate wavelength we could measure Long-wavelength,
low-energy
both quantities, but neither precisely. The uncertainty principle, Equation 34.15, quanti- photon . . .
fies this trade-off.
The uncertainty principle is intimately connected with de Broglie’s wave hypothesis.
Suppose we pass an electron beam through a slit, as shown in Fig. 34.15 (next page). Then
we know the electrons’ vertical position to within the slit width. If the slit is much wider
than the electrons’ de Broglie wavelength, there’s minimal diffraction. The electrons fol- . . . diffraction
low straight lines and we’re quite sure of their vertical momentum, in this case zero rprevents localization . . .
p
(Fig. 34.15a). But with a wide slit we don’t know much about the electrons’ vertical posi- . . . but momentum
change is small.
tion. Making the slit smaller gives a more precise position, but then diffraction spreads the
(b)
beam, increasing the uncertainty in the electrons’ vertical momentum (Fig. 34.15b). So
the wave nature of matter ultimately imposes a trade-off: The more we know of a parti- FIGURE 34.14 Heisenberg’s “quantum
cle’s position, the less we know of its momentum, and vice versa. microscope” thought experiment.
622 Chapter 34 Particles and Waves

Uncertainty
Large Well-known in vertical
position vertical Well-known momentum
uncertainty momentum (~0) position

Wide slit Narrow slit

(a) (b)

FIGURE 34.15 The wave nature of matter is intimately related to the uncertainty principle, as shown here for
beams of electrons passing through wide and narrow slits. In (b), diffraction introduces the uncertainty in
vertical momentum.

EXAMPLE 34.4 The Uncertainty Principle: Microelectronics

A beam of aluminum atoms is used to dope a semiconductor chip to EVALUATE We have
set its electrical properties. If the atoms’ velocity is known to within Dp 5 m Dv 5 126.98 u211.66 3 10227 kg/u210.20 m/s2
0.2 m/s, how accurately can they be positioned? 5 9310227 kg # m/s
INTERPRET This is a question about simultaneously knowing the Then Equation 34.15 gives the position uncertainty:
atoms’ position and velocity—paired quantities governed by the un- "
certainty principle. Dx 5 5 12 nm
Dp
DEVELOP We’re given the velocity uncertainty Dv, from which we’ll where, again, " 5 h/2p.
find the momentum uncertainty Dp 5 m Dv. Then we can use the un-
ASSESS Our 12-nm answer is about 100 atomic diameters and shows
certainty principle, Equation 34.15, Dx Dp $ ", to find the uncer-
that the uncertainty principle constrains our ability to fabricate very
tainty Dx in position. To find the mass, we’ll need aluminum’s atomic
weight from Appendix D, along with Appendix C’s conversion from
small microelectronic structures. ■
unified mass units (u) to kilograms.

It sounds like the uncertainty principle only limits our knowledge. But in fact it proves use-
ful in estimating the size and energies of atomic-scale systems, as the next example shows.

EXAMPLE 34.5 The Uncertainty Principle: Estimating Atomic and Nuclear Energies
Use the uncertainty principle to estimate the minimum energy possi- Dp 5 p 2 12p2 5 2p. The uncertainty principle says Dp $ "/Dx,
ble for (a) an electron confined to a region of atomic dimensions, so there’s a minimum magnitude for the momentum given by
about 0.1 nm, and (b) a proton confined to a region of nuclear dimen- p $ "/2 Dx. Using p 5 mv and K 5 12 mv2 gives K 5 p2/2m, and
sions, about 1 fm. therefore the uncertainty principle requires
1 " 2
INTERPRET We’re given the uncertainty in position; that’s the width K$ a b
of the region in which the particles are confined. The particles can’t 2m 2 Dx
be at rest, or we’d know that their momentum was exactly zero—in
violation of the uncertainty principle. So they must have a minimum EVALUATE Evaluating this constraint for an electron with Dx 5 0.1 nm
momentum and therefore energy. We’re asked to find that energy. and for a proton with Dx 5 1 fm gives minimum energies of about
1 eV and 5 MeV, respectively.
DEVELOP We need to find the minimum momentum consistent with
the uncertainty principle, and from it the energy. Suppose a particle ASSESS Energies in electronvolts are typical of atomic-scale systems,
has momentum of magnitude p, but we don’t know its direction. as we saw in Fig. 34.11. Our result shows that nuclear energies are
It could be going one way, with momentum p, or the other way, some 5 million times greater—indicating the dramatic difference be-
with momentum 2p. Then the momentum itself is uncertain by tween chemical and nuclear energy sources. ■

Energy–Time Uncertainty
A second pair of variables that defy simultaneous measurement are the energy of a system
and the time it remains at that energy. The energy uncertainty DE is related to the time Dt
through the inequality
DE Dt $ " (34.16)
 34.7 Complementarity 623

One effect of energy–time uncertainty is to render atomic and nuclear energy levels inex-
act and therefore to broaden spectral lines. If an atom were forever in a fixed energy state,
we could take infinitely long to measure its energy and therefore make DE arbitrarily
small. But excited states of atoms have characteristic lifetimes (typically ,1028 s), which
limit the measurement time and therefore set a minimum uncertainty in the energy level.
Problem 66 and Passage Problems 79–82 explore energy–time uncertainty.

Observers, Uncertainty, and Causality

The uncertainty principle moves the observer from a passive onlooker to an active participant
in physical events. To observe is necessarily to disturb, and quantum theory is therefore con-
cerned with the role of the observer and the process of measurement. The uncertainty princi-
ple is fundamentally a statement about what can and cannot be learned through measurement.
Position and momentum cannot be measured simultaneously with perfect accuracy.
Surely, though, a particle has well-defined values of both, even though we can’t know them?
The answer seems to be no. The standard interpretation of quantum mechanics suggests that
it makes no sense to talk about what can’t be measured, and recent experiments have ruled
out “hidden variables” that might be active at a lower level to guide the particle in a deter-
ministic path. Its wave aspect makes a particle a “fuzzy” thing, and it really makes no sense
to think of it as a tiny ball with definite momentum and position. For that reason it also
makes no sense to think of the particle’s future as being fully determined in the sense that
Newton’s laws determine the future path of, say, a baseball. We’re left with uncertainty—or
indeterminacy, as Heisenberg’s word also translates—as a fundamental fact of our universe.

34.7 Complementarity
One of the most disturbing aspects of quantum theory is the wave–particle duality—the
seeming contradiction that matter and light have both wave-like and particle-like proper-
ties. If this bothers you, you’re in good company: Heisenberg himself expressed frustra-
tion in trying to understand the quantum world:
I remember discussions with Bohr which went through many hours till very late at night and
ended almost in despair; and when at the end of the discussion I went alone for a walk in the
neighboring park I repeated to myself again and again the question: Can nature possibly be
as absurd as it seems to us in these atomic experiments?*
Bohr dealt with the wave–particle duality through his principle of complementarity. The
wave and particle pictures, he said, are complementary aspects of the same reality. If we do
an experiment to measure a wave-like property—for example, the diffraction of electrons—
then we find wave properties but not particle properties. If we do an experiment to measure
a particle-like property—for example, localizing an electron—then we won’t find wave
properties. The two measurements require different experiments, and we can’t perform both
simultaneously on the same entity. So we’ll never catch wave and particle in an outright
contradiction, and the answer to the question “Which is it, wave or particle?” has to be that
it’s both, and which you find depends on what experiment you choose to perform.
Bohr articulated a second principle that helps reconcile the seeming contradiction
between classical and quantum physics. His correspondence principle states that the pre-
dictions of classical and quantum physics should agree in situations where the size of indi-
vidual quanta is negligible. Taking h S 0 in Planck’s law, for example, gives the classical
Rayleigh–Jeans law (see Problem 68). Or, for large n, the energies of adjacent atomic states
in the Bohr model become so close that the levels appear essentially as a continuum of al-
lowed energies—as expected in classical physics. Or consider a 1000-W radio beam; the
photon energy hf is so low that the beam contains an enormous number of photons per unit
beam length, and we can consider the energy distributed essentially continuously over the
beam. But in a 1000-W X-ray beam, the photon energy is much higher and the number of
photons correspondingly fewer; it’s therefore difficult to avoid the fundamental fact of energy
quantization. Visible light lies somewhere in between; we can often treat its energy as being
continuously distributed, except when it interacts with systems as small as individual atoms.
*Werner Heisenberg, Physics and Philosophy: The Revolution in Modern Science (New York:
Harper & Brothers, 1962).
CHAPTER 34 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big ideas here are at the heart of quantum physics—a radically different view of reality at the atomic scale. Quantization means that some
physical quantities—often including energy—come only in discrete values. Another fundamental aspect of quantum reality is wave–particle dual-
ity, wherein light and matter exhibit both wave-like and particle-like aspects. Bohr’s complementarity principle precludes these ever being in di-
rect conflict. Finally, quantization and wave–particle duality lead to the uncertainty principle, which states that it’s impossible to measure
simultaneously and with arbitrary precision a particle’s position and momentum.

Key Concepts and Equations

Planck’s constant, The energy of electromagnetic ra- Electron energies in the Bohr model of hydrogen are quantized
h 5 6.63310234 J # s diation with frequency f is quan- according to
tized in photons with energy ke2 1 13.6 eV
sets the fundamental scale of E52 a b .2
quantization. E 5 hf 2a0 n2 n2
It’s also expressed as “h bar”: where n is an integer and a0 5 0.0529 nm is the Bohr radius.
" 5 h /2p

The de Broglie wavelength of a particle with momentum p is The uncertainty principle relates uncertainties in position and
h momentum:
l5
p Dx Dp $ "

Applications
A correct description of blackbody radiation requires Planck’s quan- The photoelectric effect involves the ejection of electrons from a
tization hypothesis. The peak radiance—energy radiated per unit metal surface illuminated with electromagnetic waves. Explanation of the
wavelength interval—from a blackbody at temperature T occurs at a effect led Einstein to propose photons as the quanta of electromagnetic-
wavelength given by lT 5 2.898 mm # K. wave energy.
T1 . T2
Electrode Evacuated Light
Classical prediction:
tube
ultraviolet catastrophe
Radiance

Surface ejecting
photoelectrons
T2

Wavelength (mm)

The Compton effect shows that photons interact with free Quantization of atomic energy levels E50 n5q
electrons exactly like colliding particles, losing energy and leads directly to atomic spectra. In n54
emerging with longer wavelength. the Bohr model of hydrogen, the
spectral line produced in a transition n53
Scattered
from the n1 to the n2 energy level is
photon
given by n52
1 1 1
5 RH a 2 2 2 b
l n2 n1
a 121.6 nm
b 102.6 nm
g 97.3 nm

Incident
photon Recoiling where RH 5 1.0973107 m21.
electron

E 5 213.6 eV n51
 Exercises and Problems 625

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 23. A red laser at 650 nm and a blue laser at 450 nm emit photons at
the same rate. How do their total power outputs compare?
1. Why does classical physics predict that atoms should collapse? 24. Find the maximum work function for a surface to emit electrons
2. Looking at the night sky, you see one star that appears red, an- when illuminated with 900-nm infrared light.
other yellow, and another blue. Compare their temperatures. Section 34.4 Atomic Spectra and the Bohr Atom
3. Imagine an atom that, unlike hydrogen, had only three energy
25. Calculate the wavelengths of the first three lines in the Lyman se-
levels. If these levels were evenly spaced, how many spectral
ries for hydrogen.
lines would result? How would their wavelengths compare?
26. Which spectral line of the hydrogen Paschen series 1n2 5 32 has
4. What colors of visible light have the highest-energy photons?
wavelength 1282 nm?
5. Why is the immediate ejection of electrons in the photoelectric
27. What’s the maximum wavelength of light that can ionize hydro-
effect surprising from a classical viewpoint?
gen in its ground state? In what spectral region is this?
6. Suppose the Compton effect were significant at radio wave-
28. At what energy level does the Bohr hydrogen atom have diame-
lengths. What problems might this present for radio and TV
ter 5.18 nm?
broadcasting?
7. How are the uncertainty principle and wave–particle duality Section 34.5 Matter Waves
related? 29. Find the de Broglie wavelength of (a) Earth, orbiting the Sun at
8. How many spectral lines are in the entire Balmer series? 30 km/s, and (b) an electron moving at 10 km/s.
9. Why are the lines of the Lyman series in the ultraviolet while 30. How slowly must an electron be moving for its de Broglie wave-
some Balmer lines are in the visible? length to be 1 mm?
10. Why does the photoelectric effect suggest that light has particle- 31. A proton and electron have the same de Broglie wavelength.
like properties? How do their speeds compare, assuming v V c for both?
11. Energy–time uncertainty limits the precision with which we can 32. Find the de Broglie wavelength of electrons with kinetic energies
know the mass of unstable particles (those that decay after a fi- (a) 10 eV, (b) 1.0 keV, and (c) 10 keV.
nite time). Why?
12. If you measure a particle’s position with perfect accuracy, what Section 34.6 The Uncertainty Principle
do you know about its momentum? 33. A proton is confined to a space 1 fm wide (about the size of an
13. How might our everyday experience be different if Planck’s con- atomic nucleus). What’s the minimum uncertainty in its velocity?
stant had the value 1 J # s? 34. Is it possible to determine an electron’s velocity accurate to
14. Why are the energies given by Equations 34.12 negative? 61 m/s while simultaneously finding its position to within
61 m? What about a proton?
Exercises and Problems 35. A proton has velocity v 5 11500 6 0.252 m/s. What’s the uncer-
tainty in its position?
Exercises 36. An electron is moving in the x-direction with speed measured
at 50 Mm/s, accurate to 610%. What’s the minimum uncertainty
Section 34.2 Blackbody Radiation in its position?
15. If you double a blackbody’s temperature, by what factor does its 37. Find the minimum energy for a neutron in a uranium nucleus
radiated power increase? whose diameter is 15 fm.
16. The surface temperature of the star Rigel is 104 K. Find (a) the
power radiated per square meter of its surface, (b) its lpeak, and Problems
(c) its lmedian. 38. Find the power per unit area emitted by a 3000-K incandescent
17. Find lpeak and lmedian for Earth, considered a 288-K blackbody. lamp filament in the wavelength interval from 500 nm to 502 nm.
18. Spacecraft instruments measure the radiation from an asteroid, 39. Treating the Sun as a 5800-K blackbody, compare its UV radi-
and the data show that the power per unit wavelength peaks at ance at 200 nm with its visible radiance at its 500-nm peak
40 m. Assuming the asteroid is a blackbody, find its surface wavelength.
temperature. 40. For a 2.0-kK blackbody, by what percentage is the Rayleigh–Jeans
19. The Sun approximates a blackbody at 5800 K. (a) Find the wave- law in error at wavelengths of (a) 1.0 mm, (b) 10 m, and
length of peak radiance on the per-unit-wavelength basis implicit (c) 1.0 m?
in Equation 34.2a. (b) Find the median wavelength, below which 41. The radiance of a blackbody peaks at 660 nm. (a) What’s its tem-
half the radiation is emitted (Equation 34.2b). Identify the spec- perature? (b) How does its radiance at 400 nm compare with that
tral region of each. at 700 nm?
42. (a) Find the Compton wavelength for a proton. (b) Find the en-
Section 34.3 Photons ergy in electronvolts of a gamma ray whose wavelength equals
20. Find the energy in electronvolts of (a) a 1.0-MHz radio photon, the proton’s Compton wavelength.
(b) a 5.031014-Hz optical photon, and (c) a 3.031018-Hz X-ray 43. Find the rate of photon production by (a) a radio antenna broad-
photon. casting 1.0 kW at 89.5 MHz, (b) a laser producing 1.0 mW of
21. The human eye is sensitive to wavelengths from about 400 to 633-nm light, and (c) an X-ray machine producing 0.10-nm
BIO 700 nm. What’s the corresponding range of photon energies? X rays with total power 2.5 kW.
22. A microwave oven uses electromagnetic radiation at 2.4 GHz. 44. Electrons in a photoelectric experiment emerge from an alu-
(a) What’s the energy of each microwave photon? (b) At what minum surface with maximum kinetic energy 1.3 eV. Find the
rate does a 900-W oven produce photons? wavelength of the illuminating radiation.
626 Chapter 34 Particles and Waves

45. (a) Find the cutoff frequency for the photoelectric effect in cop- in diameter, and, as Chapter 32 shows, you need to image with
per. (b) Find the maximum energy of the ejected electrons if the waves whose wavelength is at least this small. You can use either
copper is illuminated with light of frequency 1.831015 Hz. an inexpensive electron microscope that accelerates electrons to
46. The stopping potential in a photoelectric experiment is 1.8 V kinetic energies of 40 keV, or a more expensive unit that pro-
when the illuminating radiation has wavelength 365 nm. Deter- duces 100-keV electrons. Will the less expensive microscope
mine (a) the work function of the emitting surface and (b) the work?
stopping potential for 280-nm radiation. 65. An electron is trapped in a “quantum well” 20 nm wide. Find its
47. Chlorophyll is a photosynthetic molecule common in green minimum possible speed.
BIO plants. On a per-unit-wavelength basis, its ability to absorb visi- 66. Typically, an atom remains in an excited state for about 1028 s
ble light has two peaks, at 430 nm and 662 nm. (a) Find the cor- before it drops to a lower state, emitting a photon in the process.
responding photon energies. (b) Use these peak wavelengths to What’s the uncertainty in the energy of this transition?
explain why plants are green. 67. An electron is moving at 106 m/s and you wish to measure its en-
48. Find the initial wavelength of a photon that loses half its energy ergy to an accuracy of 60.01%. What’s the minimum time nec-
when it Compton-scatters from an electron and emerges at 90° to essary for this measurement?
its initial direction. 68. Use the series expansion for ex (Appendix A) to show that
49. When light shines on potassium, the photoelectrons’ maximum Planck’s law (Equation 34.3) reduces to the Rayleigh–Jeans law
speed is 4.23105 m/s. Find the light’s wavelength. (Equation 34.5) when l W hc/kT.
50. The maximum electron energy in a photoelectric experiment is 69. A photon’s wavelength is equal to the Compton wavelength of a
2.8 eV. When the wavelength of the illuminating radiation is in- particle with mass m. Show that the photon’s energy is equal to
creased by 50%, the maximum energy drops to 1.1 eV. Find the particle’s rest energy.
(a) the work function of the emitting surface and (b) the original 70. Show that the frequency range of the hydrogen spectral line
wavelength. series involving transitions ending at the nth level is
51. A 150-pm X-ray photon Compton-scatters off an electron and Df 5 cRH/1n 1 122.
emerges at 135° to its original direction. Find (a) the wavelength 71. A photon undergoes a 90° Compton scattering off a stationary
of the scattered photon and (b) the electron’s kinetic energy. electron, and the electron emerges with total energy gmec2,
52. Find the kinetic energy of an initially stationary electron after a where g is the relativistic factor introduced in Chapter 33. Find
0.10-nm X-ray photon scatters from it at 90°. an expression for the initial photon energy.
53. A photocathode ejects electrons with maximum energy 0.85 eV 72. Show that Wien’s law (Equation 34.2a) follows from Planck’s
when illuminated with 430-nm blue light. Will it eject elec- law (Equation 34.3). (Hint: Differentiate Planck’s law with re-
trons when illuminated with 633-nm red light? If so, what will spect to wavelength.)
be the maximum electron energy? 73. Consider an elastic collision between a photon with initial
54. (a) Find the highest possible energy for a photon emitted as the wavelength l0 moving in the x-direction and a stationary elec-
electron jumps between two adjacent energy levels in the Bohr tron, as depicted in Fig. 34.9b. Use relativistic expressions for
hydrogen atom. (b) Which energy levels are involved? energy and momentum from Chapter 33 to show that con-
55. Find (a) the wavelength and (b) the energy in electronvolts of the servation of energy and momentum yield the equations
photon emitted when a Rydberg hydrogen atom drops from the hc/l0 1 mc2 5 hc/l 1 gmc2, h/l0 5 1h/l2 cos u 1 gmu cos f,
n 5 180 level to the n 5 179 level. and 0 5 1h/l2 sin u 2 gmu sin f, where l is the post-collision
56. The wavelengths of a spectral line series tend to a limit as photon wavelength and the angles u and f are as shown in
n1 S `. Evaluate the series limit for (a) the Lyman series and Fig. 34.9b. Solve these equations to find the Compton shift
(b) the Balmer series in hydrogen. (Equation 34.8).
57. A Rydberg hydrogen atom makes a downward transition to the 74. What would the constant in Equation 34.2a be if blackbody radi-
n 5 225 state, emitting a 9.32-eV photon. What was the origi- C ance were defined for fixed intervals of frequency rather than
nal state? wavelength? (Hint: Use l 5 c/f to express the radiance as
58. A hydrogen atom is in its ground state when its electron absorbs R1f, T2, then differentiate to find the maximum, and solve the
a 48-eV photon. What’s the energy of the resulting free electron? resulting relation numerically. Express your answer in a form
59. How much energy does it take to ionize a hydrogen atom in its like Equations 34.2a and b.)
first excited state? 75. Integrate Equation 34.3 over all wavelengths to get the total
60. Ultraviolet light with wavelength 75 nm shines on hydrogen power radiated per unit area. Show that your result is equiva-
atoms in their ground states, ionizing some of the atoms. What’s lent to Equation 34.1, with the Stefan–Boltzmann constant
the energy of the electrons freed in this process? given by s 5 2p5k4/15c2h3. (Hint: Use hc/lkT as the integra-
61. Helium with one of its two electrons removed acts very much tion variable.)
like hydrogen, and the Bohr model successfully describes it. Find 76. Perform a numerical integration of Equation 34.3 to the wave-
(a) the radius of the ground-state electron orbit and (b) the pho- C length given by Equation 34.2b. Divide by the result of Problem 75,
ton energy emitted in a transition from the n 5 2 to the n 5 1 and thus verify that Equation 34.2b gives the wavelength above
state in this singly ionized helium. and below which a blackbody radiates half its energy.
62. Through what potential difference should you accelerate an elec- 77. Use the momentum conservation equations in Problem 73 and Equa-
tron from rest so its de Broglie wavelength will be the size of a tion 34.8 for the Compton shift to show that the electron’s recoil an-
hydrogen atom, about 0.1 nm? gle in Fig. 34.9b is given by tan f 5 sin u/11 1 lC /l011 2 cos u2.
63. Find the minimum electron speed that would make an electron 78. Show that in the Bohr model, the frequency of a photon emitted
microscope superior to an optical microscope using 450-nm light. in a transition between levels n 1 1 and n, in the limit of large n,
64. You’re a cell biologist who wants to image microtubules that is equal to the electron’s orbital frequency. (This is an example
BIO form the “skeletons” of living cells. The microtubules are 25 nm of Bohr’s correspondence principle.)
 Answers to Chapter Questions 627

Passage Problems 80. An energy uncertainty of 1 MeV corresponds to a particle life-

Particle physicists use the energy–time uncertainty relation to estimate time closest to
the lifetimes of unstable particles produced in high-energy particle ac- a. 10234 s.
celerators (Chapter 39). Some particles have lifetimes of 10224 s and b. 10221 s.
shorter—impossible to measure directly. However, physicists can c. 1029 s.
measure particle masses, and they do so for many instances of the d. 1 s.
same particle to get a distribution of masses. By Einstein’s E 5 mc2, 81. The converse approach is used for particles with longer lifetimes:
that corresponds to a distribution of energies (Fig. 34.16). Measuring Direct measurement of the lifetime yields, through energy–time
the distribution’s width at half its peak (see Fig. 34.16) gives an esti- uncertainty, a range of expected values for particle energies or
mate of the energy uncertainty, and the corresponding Dt from masses. The longer the lifetime,
inequality 34.16 provides the particle’s lifetime. a. the wider the mass range and the narrower the energy range.
b. the wider the mass and energy ranges.
c. the narrower the mass range and the wider the energy range.
d. the narrower the mass and energy ranges.
82. For a particle with lifetime 1027 s, the corresponding mass range
Number of measurements

Width at half the is closest to

A
maximum value a. 10244 u.
provides a measure b. 10227 u.
of the uncertainty c. 10217 u.
DE. d. 1 u.

B
Answers to Chapter Questions
C
Answer to Chapter Opening Question
Measured energy E 5 mc2 That matter, like light, behaves as waves under some circumstances.

FIGURE 34.16 Mass distributions for high-energy particles (Passage Problems Answers to GOT IT? Questions
79–82). The vertical axis gives the number of measurements that yield a 34.1. A emits 16 times as much radiation, with a peak wavelength
given value on the horizontal axis half that of B.
34.2. (a) No, the slope remains h/e. (b) Yes; the horizontal intercept
79. Which of the curves in Fig. 34.16 represents the particle with the is the cutoff frequency, which depends on the work function.
shortest lifetime? 34.3. Much less because lC is inversely proportional to mass.
a. A
b. B
c. C
d. You can’t tell from the graph.
 35 Quantum Mechanics

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Describe quantitatively the relation
between the wave and particle de-
scriptions of quantum systems (35.1).
■ Solve the Schrödinger equation
for one-dimensional square-well
potentials (35.2).
■ Apply Schrödinger-equation
solutions for quantum harmonic
oscillators (35.3).
■ Describe quantum tunneling (35.3).
■ Explain the complexities, especially
quantum degeneracy, that arise in
two and three dimensions (35.4).
■ Describe qualitatively the basis of
antimatter and spin in the application
of special relativity to quantum
physics.
This scanning-tunneling microscope image
shows a “quantum corral” of 48 iron atoms on a
copper surface. What unusual quantum phenom-
enon enables this type of microscopy?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ Our quantitative description of quan-
tum physics builds on the fundamen-
T he ideas developed in the preceding chapter are at the core of the old quantum theory. The
old quantum theory introduced the basic concepts of quantum physics and was successful
in explaining a number of quantum phenomena—for example, blackbody radiation, the photo-
tal ideas introduced in Chapter 34. electric effect, and the hydrogen spectrum. On the other hand, it couldn’t treat even the simplest
■ We’ll use the mathematical descrip- multielectron atoms, and it left some subtle spectral features unexplained. Furthermore, the old
tion of waves in terms of frequency, quantum theory was a hodgepodge of separate but loosely related ideas, each developed to
wavelength, and wave number k explain a particular phenomenon; it lacked coherence and clear guiding principles.
(14.2). Is there a more coherent theory that predicts the behavior of systems at the atomic and sub-
■ The concept of potential energy and atomic scales, and that offers a satisfying description of how such systems really work? The an-
potential-energy curves will be vital swer is at once an emphatic yes and a disappointing no. Yes, because quantum mechanics,
in describing confined particles developed in the 1920s, predicts with remarkable precision the observed properties of atomic
(7.2, 7.4). systems, including their energies, the wavelengths of spectral lines, and the lifetimes of excited
■ We’ll develop the quantum analog of atoms. No, because quantum mechanics doesn’t give a satisfying visual picture of the atomic
the simple harmonic oscillator, and and subatomic worlds. The uncertainty principle and wave–particle duality are essential aspects
we’ll use both differential and inte- of quantum mechanics. Any picture we formulate of electrons or photons whizzing around like
gral calculus in solving quantum miniature balls with precise positions and momenta is inappropriate. But quantum mechanics
systems (13.2). does provide a self-consistent description that lets us explore and predict the behavior of
atoms, the organization of chemical elements, the physics of semiconductors and superconduc-
tors, the extraordinary behavior of matter at low temperature, the formation of white dwarf
stars, the operation of lasers, and a host of other phenomena for which classical physics is at
best inaccurate and at worst totally inadequate. In this chapter we explore the mathematical
628
 35.1 Particles, Waves, and Probability 629

structure and physical interpretation of quantum mechanics. In Chapters 36 and 37 we’ll apply
quantum mechanics first to the atom and then to more complex systems that involve quantum-
mechanical interactions among many atoms.

35.1 Particles, Waves, and Probability

Photons and Light Waves
In Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory we had a seemingly complete description of light as
an electromagnetic wave. Now we find, through the photoelectric and Compton effects,
that light sometimes manifests itself as particles. What’s the connection between wave and
particle descriptions?
In a photoelectric experiment, the rate at which electrons are ejected depends on the
light’s intensity. Since an electron is ejected when it absorbs a photon, we conclude that
the number of photons in the incident light is proportional to light intensity. Now, the in-
tensity of an electromagnetic wave depends on the square of the electric or magnetic field
(Equations 29.20b, c). The fields, in turn, obey Maxwell’s equations, so one aspect of a
photoelectric experiment—namely, the rate of electron ejection—relates to Maxwell’s de-
scription of light as an electromagnetic wave.
We can quantify the relation between waves and photons, but only in a statistical sense. High amplitude . . .
The ejection of individual electrons in a photoelectric experiment is quite random. The un- Light wave
certainty principle prevents us from following a photon trajectory and predicting when and
where an electron will be ejected. All we can say is that electrons are more likely to be
ejected where the wave intensity is greater. Specifically, the probability that an electron Photon beam
will be ejected is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident electromagnetic
waves—that is, to the square of the wave fields. More generally, the probability of finding
a photon in a beam of electromagnetic waves is directly proportional to the wave intensity
(Fig. 35.1). . . . high probability
of finding a photon
In this quantum-mechanical description, the fields still evolve according to Maxwell’s
equations. For example, the fields of an electromagnetic wave undergoing double-slit in- FIGURE 35.1 The probability of finding a photon
terference develop regions of maximum and minimum wave intensity—the bright and is directly proportional to the intensity of the
electromagnetic wave. The figure is only sug-
dark bands of the interference pattern. But the wave fields determine only the probability gestive because we can’t depict photons as
that individual photons will be detected in the interference pattern. That’s why a very short localized particles.
exposure or a low-intensity beam results not in a weak version of the interference pattern
but in a seemingly arbitrary pattern. Only with large numbers of photons does the statisti-
cal pattern emerge (Fig. 35.2).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 35.2 Development of a two-slit interference pattern from random photon events:
(a) 50 photons, (b) 250 photons, (c) 1000 photons, (d) 10,000 photons.

In quantum mechanics, then, the relation between the wave and particle aspects of light
is this: As long as we don’t try to detect the light, it propagates as a wave governed by
Maxwell’s equations. But when we detect the light, we do so through interactions involv-
ing individual photons. Those interactions are random events whose probability depends
on the wave intensity—that is, on the square of the wave fields.

Electrons and Matter Waves

In Chapter 34 we introduced de Broglie’s remarkable hypothesis that matter, as well as
light, exhibits both wave and particle properties. The wave–particle duality puts matter
630 Chapter 35 Quantum Mechanics

High amplitude . . . and light on essentially the same footing, and the statistical interpretation is the same for
Matter wave each. Figure 35.3 shows a beam of particles and its associated de Broglie matter wave. Just
as the probability of finding a photon is proportional to the wave intensity—that is, the
square of the electromagnetic-field amplitude—so the probability of finding a particle is
directly proportional to the square of the matter-wave amplitude. And as with light, the
Particle beam
particle nature of matter manifests itself only when we try to detect a particle; leave it
alone, and the particle’s behavior is governed by its wave nature.
Maxwell’s equations determine the behavior of light waves, but what equation describes
. . . high probability matter waves? In 1926 the Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger answered this question with
of finding a particle
his Schrödinger wave equation. In the same year, Schrödinger showed that his wave theory
FIGURE 35.3 A beam of particles and its was equivalent to a matrix-based theory that Heisenberg, Max Born, and Pascual Jordan had
associated matter wave. formulated in 1925. Heisenberg received the 1932 Nobel Prize in physics, and Schrödinger
shared the 1933 Nobel Prize with Paul Dirac for their contributions to quantum theory.

35.2 The Schrödinger Equation

The Schrödinger equation describes matter waves in terms of a wave function, c (Greek
psi), which depends on both space and time. The solution of differential equations in two
variables is beyond the mathematical level of this text, so here we’ll consider only spatial
variations, and for now we’ll further restrict ourselves to one dimension.
We can understand the Schrödinger equation by considering a sinusoidal wave of the
form c1x2 5 A sin kx, where, as usual in describing waves, k 5 2p/l, with l the wave-
length. Differentiating this expression twice gives
d2c1x2
5 2Ak2 sin kx 5 2k2c1x2
dx2
But k 5 2p/l and, for matter waves, de Broglie’s hypothesis gives l 5 h/p, with h
Planck’s constant and p the particle’s momentum. Thus we can write k in terms of momen-
tum as k 5 2pp/h 5 p/". Now in classical physics a particle of mass m has kinetic energy
K and momentum p related by K 5 p2/2m. Furthermore, kinetic energy is the difference
between the total energy E and the potential energy U; thus E 2 U 5 p2/2m. Putting this
all together, we can write the quantity k2 in our differentiated wave expression as
p2 2m1E 2 U2
k2 5 2
5
" "2
Make this substitution and do a little algebra; the result is

"2 d c1x2
2
time-independent
2 1 U1x2c1x2 5 Ec1x2 a $ b (35.1)
2m dx2 Schrodinger equation

This is the time-independent Schrödinger equation, giving the spatial variation of

matter waves in one dimension. A solution of the full time-dependent equation consists
of a solution to Equation 35.1 multiplied by a sinusoidal oscillation with frequency
f 5 E/h, where E is the particle energy. We developed the time-independent
Schrödinger equation by merging de Broglie’s matter-wave hypothesis l 5 h/p with
the Newtonian relation K 5 p2/2m; for that reason, we expect the equation to hold only
for nonrelativistic particles.
The Schrödinger equation provides a description of physical reality in remarkable agree-
ment with experiments. As we’ll see, Schrödinger’s equation goes a long way toward explain-
ing the structure of atoms, their chemical properties, and indeed the entire science of chemistry.
Furthermore, the Schrödinger description obeys the correspondence principle, agreeing
with Newtonian mechanics for macroscopic systems where quantum effects are small.

The Meaning of c
What’s the meaning of the wave function c? That’s a deep question that physicists and
philosophers continue to debate. In the standard interpretation, c is not an observable
 35.2 The Schrödinger Equation 631

quantity. It manifests itself only in the statistical distributions of particle detections. More
specifically, the probability per unit volume—also called the probability density—that
we’ll find a particle is given by c2. For a particle confined to one dimension, the probabil-
ity density becomes the probability per unit length, and we interpret c to mean that the
probability P1x2 of finding the particle in a small interval dx at position x is

P1x2 5 c21x2 dx 1probability and the wave function2 (35.2)

We can interpret Equation 35.2 in two ways. At face value, it gives the probability that a
single experiment, with a detector at position x set up to find particles in an interval of
width dx, will detect the particle (Fig. 35.4). Or, if we do many such experiments, the
equation gives the fraction of the experiments in which we’ll find a particle in our detector.

Probability of finding
the particle in the interval Probability of finding the particle
dx at x1 is P(x1) 5 c2(x1)dx. in the interval dx at x2 is higher
than at x1.

c2(x2)

c2
Wave function, c

c2(x1)

Position, x

x1 x2 Position, x

dx dx
(a) (b)

FIGURE 35.4 The meaning of the probability density c21x2. (a) A wave function and (b) its square,
which gives the probability density.

But what is c? How can it be unobservable yet govern the behavior of matter? There
can’t be a direct causal link between the wave function and individual particles, since c
determines only the probability that a particle will behave in a certain way. Think about
this! In quantum mechanics the outcome of an experiment isn’t fully determined. The
Schrödinger equation describes only the probability of a given outcome. The quantum
world is so different, according to the standard interpretation, that our macroscopic lan-
guage, concepts, and pictorial models are simply inadequate. In particular, macroscopic
causality gives way to microscopic indeterminancy in which quantum events are truly ran-
dom; physical laws govern only the statistical pattern of events.
The philosophical implications of quantum mechanics have been debated since the the-
ory was formulated. A central theme in this debate is the possibility of “hidden variables,”
physical quantities that might be hidden from us by the uncertainty principle but that
might nevertheless govern the microscopic world in a fully deterministic way. Experi-
ments of the early 1980s placed severe restrictions on such hidden-variable theories, but
fascinating discussions on the interpretation of quantum mechanics continue. Here, how-
ever, we turn to the Schrödinger equation to see how it’s used in analyzing quantum-
mechanical systems.

Normalization and Other Constraints on the Wave Function

In one dimension, the quantity c2 dx represents the probability of finding the particle in
the interval dx. But the particle must be somewhere. Therefore, if we sum the probabilities
of finding the particle in all such intervals dx, the result must be 1; there must be a 100%
chance that we’ll find the particle somewhere. Since the probability density may vary with
position, that sum becomes an integral:
1`

3 c2 dx 5 1 1normalization condition2 (35.3)

2`
632 Chapter 35 Quantum Mechanics

Once we have a solution c1x2 to the Schrödinger equation 35.1, this normalization con-
dition sets the overall amplitude of the function c.
The Schrödinger equation contains the second derivative of c. In order that this term
be well defined, both c itself and its first derivative must be continuous. (An exception to
the continuity condition on dc/dx—possible only in unrealistic example situations—
occurs if the potential energy U becomes infinite.)

35.3 Particles and Potentials

The Infinite Square Well
We first solve the Schrödinger equation for a particularly simple system—a particle
trapped in one dimension between two perfectly rigid walls. Although unrealistic in some
respects, this system nevertheless is a surprisingly good approximation to some real quan-
tum systems, including some electronic devices and simple nuclei. More important, its
analysis illustrates the general procedure for applying the Schrödinger equation and shows
how energy quantization emerges from Schrödinger’s theory.
In classical physics, a particle trapped between rigid walls moves back and forth with
constant speed. In the absence of friction or other losses, the particle’s energy remains
constant at its initial value. And in classical physics, that value can be anything.
To ` To ` We can describe the particle’s situation using its potential-energy curve. Since the parti-
cle experiences no forces while it’s between the walls, its potential energy U is constant
in this region, and we can fix the arbitrary zero of potential energy by setting U 5 0. If
Potential energy, U

the walls are perfectly rigid, then the particle can’t penetrate them, no matter what its energy.
This means that the potential energy becomes abruptly infinite at the walls. Then the potential-
energy curve for our particle looks like Fig. 35.5; you can see from the figure why this
curve is called an infinite square well. In this case the well extends from x 5 0 to x 5 L.
We now consider the quantum-mechanical description of a particle in the infinite
square well. The particle has a wave function whose time-independent part is given by the
0 L Schrödinger equation (Equation 35.1):
Position, x
"2 d2c
FIGURE 35.5 Infinite square well potential- 2 1 U1x2c 5 Ec
energy curve describes a particle con-
2m dx 2
strained to move in one dimension between where the potential energy U1x2 is that of the square well in Fig. 35.5:
rigid walls separated by a distance L.
U 5 0 for 0 , x , L
U 5 ` for x , 0 or x . L
Since there’s no chance that the particle can penetrate the rigid walls, the function c must
be exactly zero in the region where U 5 `. All we need to calculate, then, is c inside the
well, where 0 # x # L. To ensure that the particle is confined to the well, our solution
must satisfy so-called boundary conditions c 5 0 at x 5 0 and at x 5 L.
Within the well, U 5 0 and the Schrödinger equation becomes
"2 d2c
2 5 Ec (35.4)
2m dx2
To find solutions, recall de Broglie’s hypothesis that the allowed orbits in the Bohr atom
are those for which standing waves just “fit” around the orbit. We have a similar situation
with the infinite square well, in which the allowed solutions should be standing waves with
nodes at the ends of the well—exactly analogous to standing waves on a string with both
ends clamped that we discussed in Chapter 14. So we want a sinusoidal wave for c1x2,
subject to the boundary conditions c102 5 0 and c1L2 5 0. The first condition is satisfied
if we take a wave of the form c 5 A sin kx, with A and k both constants. The second condi-
tion requires that k 5 np/L, where n is any integer—a condition equivalent to saying that
an integer number of half-wavelengths fit in the well. So we propose a solution of the form
npx
c1x2 5 A sin a b
L
 35.3 Particles and Potentials 633

with the constant A still undetermined. This equation represents standing waves with
nodes at the ends of the square well, but does it satisfy the Schrödinger equation? We can
find out by substituting into Equation 35.4. We need not only c but also its second deriva-
tive; twice differentiating our proposed solution gives
d 2c n2p2 npx
5 2A sin a b
dx 2 L 2 L
Substituting c and d2c/dx2 into Equation 35.4 gives
"2 n2p2 npx npx
a2 b c 2A 2 sin a b d 5 EA sin a b
2m L L L
which reduces to
n2p2"2 n2h2
E5 2
5 1energy levels for an infinite square well potential2 (35.5)
2mL 8mL2
Equation 35.5 says that our proposed solution can indeed satisfy the Schrödinger equation—
provided the particle energy E has a value given by Equation 35.5, with n an integer.
Our standing-wave solutions show how the quantization of energy arises naturally from
the Schrödinger equation. Physically, the reason for quantization remains as de Broglie had
postulated: Matter waves in a confined system must be standing waves with an integer num-
ber of half-wavelengths. Although de Broglie’s hypothesis and the Schrödinger equation lead
to exactly the same conclusion for the infinite square well, we’ll see that with more compli-
cated potential-energy functions only the Schrödinger equation can give us the full story.
The integer n that appears in Equation 35.5 is the quantum number for the particle in
the square well. The physical state of a quantum-mechanical system is its quantum state.
5 25E1
Here one quantum number suffices to specify the quantum state, which then tells us every-

Quantum number, n
thing quantum mechanics has to say about the situation. As far as the Schrödinger equation

Energy, E
is concerned, it looks like all integer values of n are allowed. The choice of negative or pos- 4 16E1
itive n has no physical significance, since c2 has the same value with either sign of c; for
this reason, negative n’s are redundant. But n 5 0 implies c 5 0 everywhere, giving no
3 9E1
chance of finding the particle anywhere. So we’re left with positive integer values of n.
With only nonzero n’s allowed, Equation 35.5 shows that the particle’s energy is always 2 4E1
positive; zero energy isn’t allowed. The lowest possible energy is E1 5 h2/8mL2, obtained 1 E1
with n 5 1. This is the ground-state energy; the corresponding wave function is the
FIGURE 35.6 Energy-level diagram for a
ground-state wave function. A nonzero ground-state energy is a common feature particle in an infinite square well. Energy is
of quantum systems and one with no classical counterpart. Figure 35.6 is an energy-level proportional to n2, so the levels aren’t evenly
diagram for the infinite square well. spaced.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 35.1 Ground-State Energy

Why can’t the ground-state energy of the square well be zero? energy for the square well is a specific instance of this so-called zero-
point energy.
EVALUATE Consider the uncertainty principle: If the ground-state
energy were zero, then we would know precisely the particle’s kinetic
energy p2/2m—zero—and therefore we would know that its momen- MAKING THE CONNECTION An electron drops from the n 5 2
tum p was also zero. But we know that the particle is within the well, state to the ground state of a 0.75-nm-wide infinite square well, emit-
so the uncertainty in its position is at most the well width L. The ting a photon in the process. Find the photon’s energy.
product Dp Dx would then be zero, in violation of the uncertainty
EVALUATE Equation 35.5 gives the square-well energies. Here the
principle.
photon’s energy is the difference between E2 and the ground-state en-
ASSESS We used the uncertainty principle in the preceding chapter to ergy E1: DE 5 3.2310219 J, or 2.0 eV.
estimate the minimum energies of confined particles. The ground-state

GOT IT? 35.1 Electron A is confined to a square well 1 nm wide; electron B to a

similar well only 1 pm wide. How do their ground-state energies compare?
634 Chapter 35 Quantum Mechanics

Normalization, Probabilities, and the

Correspondence Principle
We still don’t know the constant A in our solution for the infinite square well. We find this
using the normalization condition 35.3: #2` c2 dx 5 1. Inside the well, c 5 A sin1npx/L2;
`

outside, c 5 0. So we can write the normalization condition as an integral over 0 , x , L:

L
2 npx
3 A sin a L b dx 5 1
2
0
L
If we divided #0 sin21npx/L2 dx by the well width L, we would have the average of sine
squared over an integer number of half-cycles—or just 12. So the integral of sin21npx/L2
from 0 to L is 12 L, and therefore A21L/22 5 1, or A 5 12/L. The normalized wave func-
` `
tion is then
2 npx
cn 5 sin a b (35.6)
AL L
n 5 15
where the subscript n refers to the function associated with the nth quantum state. Figure 35.7
shows wave functions for the ground state and three excited states.
Break Where are we likely to find the particle? Classically, it would move back and forth
at constant speed and therefore would be equally likely to be anywhere in the well.
Quantum-mechanically, the probability of finding it at some position x is proportional to
the probability density c2 at that point. Figure 35.8 shows the probability densities given
n53
by squaring the wave functions of Fig. 35.7. For n 5 1 we’re clearly most likely to find
the particle near the middle of the well—in marked contrast to the classical prediction of
equal probability everywhere. For other low-n states there are obvious regions of high and
low probability. But as the quantum number increases, the maxima and minima of the
probability density get closer together. Any instrument we use to detect the electron has a
n52 finite resolution, and once the periodicity of the wave function drops below that resolu-
tion, we measure an average probability, which is essentially constant over the interval
(Fig. 35.8).
n51 This is a manifestation of Bohr’s correspondence principle: For large quantum num-
bers n, the interval between adjacent energy levels becomes small compared with the en-
FIGURE 35.7 Wave functions for a particle in an ergy itself, and a measurement of the electron’s position gives results in agreement with
infinite square well, each centered on the classical physics. But classical physics is totally inadequate at low n, where the nonclassi-
corresponding energy level. cal zero-point energy and quantization are most evident.

For large n the

detector samples an
average equal to the
classical probability. n 5 15

Rectangle width is
detector resolution;
area of rectangle is
probability of
detecting the particle.
n53
Solid curve is
quantum probability
density; dashed line is
FIGURE 35.8 Classical (dashed) and quantum classical.
(solid) probability densities for a particle in
an infinite square well. The shaded area un- n52
For n = 1 quantum
der each curve is 1, indicating that the parti- and classical
cle must be somewhere in the well. Width of probabilities
the colored rectangle is the resolution of an disagree; similarly n51
instrument used to detect the particle. for n = 2 and 3.
 35.3 Particles and Potentials 635

EXAMPLE 35.1 Quantum Probability: The Square-Well Ground State

A particle is in the ground state of an infinite square well. Find the The wave function is
probability that it will be found in the left-hand quarter of the well. normalized to make
area under the
INTERPRET This is a question about probability, and we know that the entire curve equal to 1 . . .
probability density is the square of the wave function. So our solution
is going to involve c2.

DEVELOP The ground-state wave function from Equation 35.6 is

c1 5 12/L sin1px/L2. We normalized the wave function so the inte-
gral of c12 over the entire well is 1, showing that the particle is
somewhere in the well. That is, the area under the entire plot of c12 is
1. We sketched c12 in Fig. 35.9, showing that the probability of find-
ing the particle in some region is the area under the curve in that re-
gion. So to find the probability that the particle is in the left-hand
quarter of the well, we’ll evaluate #c2 dx from 0 to 14 L. . . . so this area
gives the probability
EVALUATE The probability becomes of finding the particle
1
L/4 between x 5 0 and x 5 4 L.
2 px
P5 sin2 a b dx
L 30 L FIGURE 35.9 Sketch for Example 35.1.
We can integrate using the table at the end of Appendix A; the result is
L/4
2 x sin12px/L2
P5 a 2 2 b 5 2 a L 2 L b 5 0.091
L 2 4p/L 0 L 8 4p the well, and reflects the lower value of c2 nearer the well ends.
Problem 52 repeats the calculation of this example for arbitrary
ASSESS This is considerably lower than the probability P 5 0.25 quantum numbers, showing that classical and quantum probabilities
we would expect classically for finding the particle in any quarter of agree at large n. ■

GOT IT? 35.2 Which of the following would be a reasonable answer if Example 35.1
had asked for the probability that the particle would be found in the central quarter of the
well: (a) 0.091, (b) 0.25, (c) 0.475, (d) 0.90?

The infinite square well gives insights into important quantum phenomena shared by
more realistic systems such as atoms. These include quantized energy levels, nonzero
ground-state energy, nonclassical probabilities, and agreement with classical physics at
large quantum numbers. In Chapter 36 we’ll apply the Schrödinger equation to atoms,
where we’ll find many of the same phenomena. First, though, we look at some other sim-
ple systems that exhibit additional quantum behaviors.

The Harmonic Oscillator

In Chapter 13 we studied simple harmonic motion, which occurs when a particle is sub-
ject to a restoring force that’s directly proportional to the displacement from equilibrium.
Such a linear restoring force implies a quadratic potential-energy function, and con-
versely, as we pointed out in Section 13.5, any system with a quadratic potential-energy
function is a harmonic oscillator. That includes many systems at the atomic and molecular
scale. Understanding the quantum-mechanical harmonic oscillator is therefore crucial in 4 9_ hv
2
describing the behavior of matter on small scales. 7_
3 2 hv
A mass–spring system has potential energy U 5 12 kx2 and oscillates with angular
frequency given by Equation 13.7: v 5 1k/m. Combining these equations gives 2 5_
2 hv
U 5 12 mv2x2, providing a potential-energy function suitable for an electron or atom vi- 3_
brating at the end of a molecular bond. Solving the Schrödinger equation for this potential 1 2 hv
requires advanced math techniques, and shows that normalizable wave functions exist n50 E 5 1_2 hv
only for discrete values of the energy E:
En 5 A n 1 12 B "v (35.7) FIGURE 35.10 Energy-level diagram for a
quantum-mechanical harmonic oscillator,
where now n 5 0 is the ground state. Figure 35.10 shows an energy-level diagram for the superposed on its quadratic (i.e., parabolic)
harmonic oscillator; note the even spacing implied by Equation 35.7. The additive factor 12 potential-energy curve.
636 Chapter 35 Quantum Mechanics

c2(x) in Equation 35.7 shows that Planck wasn’t quite right in suggesting that the allowed har-
Turning
points monic-oscillator energies should be multiples of hf15"v2. Planck’s spectral distribution
(Equation 34.3) is nevertheless correct, but he did not foresee the existence of nonzero
n50
ground-state energy.
The even spacing between the energy levels of the harmonic oscillator is in marked
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 x
contrast to the situation in atoms (Fig. 34.11) or in the infinite square well (Fig. 35.6).
(a)
A quantum harmonic oscillator emits or absorbs photons as it makes transitions among
adjacent levels, and the even spacing means that all transitions between adjacent levels of
n51 a pure harmonic oscillator involve photons of the same energy.
A classical harmonic oscillator moves slowest near its turning points, so it’s most likely
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 to be found at the extremes of its motion. It’s least likely to be at its equilibrium position,
(b) where it’s moving fastest. As with the square well, the harmonic oscillator in low-n states
exhibits unclassical behavior; in the ground state it’s most likely to be found at its equilib-
n52 rium position! Figure 35.11 shows classical and quantum probability densities for the har-
monic oscillator; note that for larger n the two begin to agree, once again showing Bohr’s
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 correspondence principle at work.
(c)
Quantum Tunneling
n53
One remarkable feature of Fig. 35.11 is the nonzero probability of finding a quantum-
harmonic oscillator beyond its classical turning points—the points at which its kinetic en-
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 ergy has been converted entirely to potential energy. This unusual situation, which seems
(d) to violate energy conservation, has no counterpart in the classical description of matter.
n 5 10 Another example of penetration into a classically forbidden region is a particle encoun-
tering a potential barrier (Fig. 35.12). Examples of such barriers include electric potential
differences associated with atomic nuclei, gaps between solid materials, and insulating lay-
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 ers in some semiconductor devices. Classically, a particle whose total energy is lower than
(e) the barrier energy is confined to one side of the barrier. If we solve the Schrödinger equa-
tion for this potential-energy curve, however, we find oscillatory solutions on either side
FIGURE 35.11 Probability densities c21x2 for
some states of the harmonic oscillator. Dashed
of the barrier, joined according to the continuity conditions on c and dc/dx by exponen-
curves are classical predictions. Increasing tial functions within the barrier. Such a solution is shown superimposed on the barrier in
spread in the turning points reflects the higher Fig. 35.12. The probability density c2 associated with this solution remains nonzero
energy of the higher-n states. through the barrier and continues to give a nonzero probability of finding the particle on
the far side—implying that a particle initially on one side of the barrier may later be found
Nonzero probability on the other side.
of finding particle How likely is this phenomenon, called quantum tunneling? That depends on the rela-
inside or to right
of barrier tion of the particle energy E to the barrier energy U, and also on the width of the barrier.
As you can show in Problem 47, the c function inside the barrier involves exponential
functions of the form e612m1U2E2x/". In general, these exponentials drop very rapidly
across the barrier width unless the particle energy E is close to the barrier energy or the
U particle mass m is small. The probability that a particle will be found on the far side of the
E barrier is therefore very low when the mass m is large, so quantum tunneling is a micro-
scopic phenomenon (Fig. 35.13).
x
It looks as if tunneling violates energy conservation. But we’re saved by the uncertainty
FIGURE 35.12 A potential barrier of height U, principle. If we catch the particle within the barrier, the uncertainty in its position is no
showing the wave function for a particle inci- greater than the barrier width. We know from Example 34.5 that this implies a minimum
dent from the left with energy E lower than the energy. A quantitative analysis shows that minimum to be such that we can no longer be
barrier energy U.
sure the particle energy is lower than the barrier energy. If we don’t try to detect a particle
within the barrier, its penetration is a purely wave phenomenon to which our particulate en-
ergy considerations don’t apply. Again we see the wave–particle duality at work: If we
don’t observe the particle, its behavior is governed by the associated waves and may result
in most unparticle-like phenomena such as tunneling. If we do try to catch it in the act of
U
E such behavior, it ceases to be wave-like and the surprising phenomena cease.
Tunneling is important in a number of quantum-mechanical phenomena and technologi-
x cal devices. That the Sun shines—and therefore that we’re alive—is a consequence of quan-
FIGURE 35.13 For a massive particle, the wave
tum tunneling of nuclei in the Sun’s core. Classically, those nuclei don’t have sufficient
function drops rapidly in the barrier, giving energy to get close enough to overcome their mutual electric repulsion. But they can tunnel
negligible probability of penetration. through this “Coulomb barrier” and fuse to release the enormous energy that powers the
 35.3 Particles and Potentials 637

Sun. An opposite process, alpha decay, occurs as alpha particles tunnel through a potential
barrier that traps them inside large nuclei like uranium. Measurement of the alpha particles’
energy shows it to be lower than the barrier energy, confirming that tunneling occurs. Semi-
conductor devices involving quantum tunneling hold the promise of a new generation
of much faster electronic circuits. Finally, tunneling is the basis of the scanning-tunneling
microscope (STM), a remarkable device that lets us image individual atoms.

GOT IT? 35.3 A proton and an electron approach a barrier. Both have the same en-
ergy E, which is lower than the barrier potential U. Which is more likely to get through?

APPLICATION Scanning Tunneling Microscope

to reach the tip, resulting in an electric current. The exponential falloff of the
wave function means this tunneling current is extremely sensitive to the tip-to-
surface gap, and therefore changes significantly with surface irregularities.
A practical STM scans the tip over the surface, and feedback devices move
the tip to keep the tunneling current constant despite surface irregularities, as
shown in the figure. Therefore, the tip traces out surface irregularities, and this
information is used to construct an image of the surface (see this chapter’s
opening photo).

Scanning motion Feedback

motion

Developed in the 1980s by Heinrich Rohrer and Gerd Binnig of IBM Zurich Probe
Feedback keeps tip
Research Laboratory, the Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) has become a
this distance
vital tool for semiconductor engineers, biologists, chemists, and nanotechnolo- constant, so the
gists. The STM works by quantum tunneling between an extraordinarily fine tip traces out Tunneling
conducting tip and the surface under study. The photo shows a scanning electron the surface contours. current
Surface
microscope image of an STM tip, which may be only one atom wide. As in the
barrier of Fig. 35.12, the electron wave function tapers off exponentially in the
space outside the surface. Place a conducting tip near but not touching the sur- Material
face, and there’s a nonzero probability that electrons will tunnel through the gap

Finite Potential Wells

Both the infinite square well and the harmonic oscillator have potential wells of infinite
depth. No matter what its energy a particle is bound in such a well; it can’t escape to large
distances. Its quantized energy states are therefore all bound states. Provided they aren’t
too shallow, wells of finite depth also exhibit quantized bound states whose wave func-
tions resemble those of the infinite square well (Fig. 35.14), although they show a small
but nonzero probability of tunneling into the classically forbidden region outside the well.

E3 = 0.81U0

n53

U0

n52 E2 = 0.37U0
FIGURE 35.14 Bound-state wave functions
for a finite square well, superposed on the
associated energy levels. For this combina-
n51 E1 = 0.098U0 tion of well depth, well width, and particle
L mass there are only three bound states.
638 Chapter 35 Quantum Mechanics

Quantized bound states represent particles with energy lower than the well height. Par-
ticles with higher energy are free to move anywhere, and their wave functions are every-
Continuum where oscillatory. Furthermore, particles in these unbound states can have any energy
states whatsoever as long as it exceeds the well height; unbound energies aren’t quantized.
Rather, there’s a continuum of allowed energies above the well top, in contrast to the dis-
E = U0 crete, quantized levels below (Fig. 35.15). We’ll find both bound and unbound states again
in the next chapter when we study the atom.
n53

35.4 Quantum Mechanics in Three Dimensions

n52
One-dimensional quantum systems show important features of the quantum world, like en-
ergy quantization and tunneling. But atoms and most other quantum systems are three-
n51
dimensional. The wave function then depends on all three spatial variables, and the
E=0
Schrödinger equation reflects this complexity. You can explore the three-dimensional
FIGURE 35.15 Energy-level diagram for a finite Schrödinger equation in Problem 49; here we just point out some new features of three-
square well shows discrete bound states and dimensional quantum systems.
a continuum of unbound states. A single quantum number n characterizes quantum states in one dimension. With the
infinite square well, for example, an integer number of half-wavelengths can fit in the
Two n
half-x 5 2 well, and n is that number. Each n is associated with a distinct energy level. In two or
wave
lengths three dimensions, similar considerations lead to independent quantum numbers for each
y dimension (Fig. 35.16). For each set of quantum numbers there’s an associated energy.
c
For a particle of mass m confined to a cubical box of side L, for example, a generaliza-
gth

tion of the one-dimensional square well leads to the energy levels

n
ele
-w 1

h2
alf 5
av

E5 1nx2 1 ny2 1 nz22 (35.8)

e h ny

x
8mL2
On

where the n’s are the quantum numbers associated with each spatial dimension. As in one
FIGURE 35.16 The wave function for a particle dimension, the allowed values for the n’s are positive integers. Thus, the ground state has
confined to a square region in two dimensions. nx 5 ny 5 nz 5 1. But what’s the first excited state? It could be nx 5 2, ny 5 nz 5 1. But
The function is sin1nxpx/L2 sin1nypy/L2, with it could equally well be nx 5 ny 5 1, nz 5 2, or nx 5 nz 5 1, ny 5 2, since all three of
nx 5 2 and ny 5 1. these combinations give the same energy.
Two or more quantum states with the same energy are termed degenerate. The first
Cubical Rectangular
excited state of a particle confined to a cubical box is threefold degenerate, meaning
E211 there are three distinct states with the same energy. Degeneracy is often associated with
E112 ,E121 ,E211 E121
E112 symmetry of the quantum-mechanical system. In the cubical box, the equal-length
sides result in different combinations of quantum numbers with the same energy. Mak-
Energy, E

E111 E111 ing the sides different would remove the degeneracy, splitting a single energy level into
three (Fig. 35.17). The same thing happens in more realistic quantum systems. For ex-
ample, imposing a magnetic field on an otherwise spherically symmetric atom breaks
E50 the symmetry and may split energy levels that were previously degenerate (Fig. 35.18).
Detection of this splitting in optical spectra allows measurement of magnetic fields on
FIGURE 35.17 Energy-level diagrams showing the the Sun and in other remote objects.
ground state and first excited state for a particle
in a three-dimensional box. Making the sides
different lengths removes the degeneracy.
B50 B 5 2.38 T
Light intensity

Light intensity

404.60 404.65 404.70 404.60 404.65 404.70

Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
(a) (b)

FIGURE 35.18 (a) Spectral line at 404.66 nm produced by mercury atoms undergoing transitions
from n 5 7 to n 5 6. The upper level is actually threefold degenerate. (b) A magnetic field
breaks the symmetry and removes the degeneracy, splitting the spectral line.
 35.5 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics 639

35.5 Relativistic Quantum Mechanics

Like Newtonian physics, quantum mechanics based on the Schrödinger equation is not
consistent with special relativity’s requirement that the laws of physics be the same in all
inertial reference frames. It’s therefore an approximation valid for particle speeds v much
lower than c. For most applications in atomic, molecular, and condensed-matter physics,
v V c so the Schrödinger equation applies. But when particle speeds are a significant
fraction of c, the Schrödinger equation becomes inadequate and must be replaced with a
relativistic wave equation. And even for slowly moving particles, the requirement of rela-
tivistic invariance leads to some surprising new phenomena.

The Dirac Equation and Antiparticles

In 1928 the English physicist Paul Dirac formulated a relativistic wave equation for elec-
trons. In the process he encountered several unexpected mathematical requirements with
deep physical significance.
Dirac replaced the Newtonian energy–momentum relation K 5 p2/2m with the rela-
tivistic expression E 2 5 1mc22 1 p2c2 that we saw in Chapter 33. But this expression
2

implies two values for E, depending on which sign one chooses in taking the square root.
Dirac argued that both roots are meaningful and that the negative root implies the exis-
tence of a particle identical in mass to the electron but carrying positive charge. The 1932
discovery of this positron vindicated Dirac’s brilliant idea. Today we know that every ele-
mentary particle has a corresponding antiparticle, identical in mass but opposite in elec-
tric, magnetic, and other properties.
Einstein’s energy–mass equivalence implies that pair creation of a particle–antiparticle
pair is possible, given energy 2mc2 equivalent to the mass of the pair. The opposite
process, annihilation, occurs as particle and antiparticle meet and disappear to form a pair
of photons. Although pair creation is rare today, it was commonplace in the hot, early uni-
verse, where thermal energy alone was high enough to create particle–antiparticle pairs.
In those early times Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence would have been obvious, and
the number of particles in a closed volume wouldn’t have remained constant.

Electron Spin
Another unexpected mathematical result of Dirac’s work was that the wave function had
to involve matrices. This, Dirac showed, implied physically that the electron must possess
an intrinsic angular momentum—something physicists had already inferred from experi-
ments, but without any theoretical grounding. This angular momentum, called spin, has
enormous significance in quantum mechanics and particularly in atomic structure, as we’ll
see in the next chapter.
CHAPTER 35 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is the description of particles in the quantum realm using wave functions, whose square relates to the probability of finding a
particle. Thus the link between the most thorough description physics can provide—the wave function—and the behavior of an individual particle
is only statistical. The Schrödinger equation gives the wave function for nonrelativistic particles and leads to energy quantization for confined
particles.

Key Concepts and Equations

The time-independent Schrödinger equation gives the wave function c for a particle of mass m with total energy E and potential energy U:
"2 d2c
2 1 U1x2c 5 Ec
2m dx2

The square of the wave function is the P(x) 5 c2dx Normalization: A particle must be c2(x)dx 5 1
probability density. In one dimension somewhere, so
the probability of finding the particle in c2 1` c2
some small interval dx at position x is 3 c21x2dx 5 1
2`
P(x) 5 c21x2 dx

x x
dx

Applications
Infinite square well ` ` Harmonic oscillator
2 npx Energy levels: En 5 A n 1 12 B "v
Wave functions: cn 5 sin a b
AL L n 5 15
9_ hv
n2h2 4 2
Energy levels: En 5 7_
8mL2 Break 3 2 hv
h 2
2 5_
3-D well: E 5 1nx2 1 ny2 1 nz22 2 hv
8mL2 n53 1 3
_ hv
2
n50 E 5 1_2 hv

n52

n51

Finite well Quantum tunneling

Discrete bound states; continuum of unbound states Nonzero probability of finding a quantum particle in a
region forbidden by classical energy conservation leads to
the possibility of barrier penetration:
Continuum
states
E = U0

n53 U
E
x
n52

n51
E=0
 Exercises and Problems 641

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion (mass 60 kg) in a room-sized one-dimensional infinite square well
(width 2.6 m), how big would h have to be if your minimum pos-
1. Explain qualitatively why a particle confined to a finite region sible energy corresponded to a speed of 1.0 m/s?
cannot have zero energy. 19. A particle is confined to a 1.0-nm-wide infinite square well. If
2. Does quantum tunneling violate energy conservation? Explain. the energy difference between the ground state and the first ex-
3. Bohr’s correspondence principle states that quantum and classi- cited state is 1.13 eV, is the particle an electron or a proton?
cal mechanics must agree in a certain limit. Give an example. 20. A 3-g snail crawls at 0.5 mm/s between two rocks 15 cm apart.
4. The ground-state wave function for a quantum harmonic oscillator Treating this system as an infinite square well, determine the ap-
has a single central peak. Why is this at odds with classical physics? proximate quantum number. Does the correspondence principle
5. What’s the essential difference between the energy-level struc- permit the use of the classical approximation in this case?
tures of infinite and finite square wells? 21. An alpha particle (mass 4 u) is trapped in a uranium nucleus with
6. In terms of de Broglie’s matter-wave hypothesis, how does mak- diameter 15 fm. Treating the system as a one-dimensional square
ing the sides of a box different lengths remove the degeneracy well, what would be the minimum energy for the alpha particle?
associated with a particle confined to that box? 22. A quantum harmonic oscillator has ground-state energy 0.14 eV.
7. A particle is confined to a two-dimensional box whose sides are What would be the system’s classical oscillation frequency f ?
in the ratio 1:2. Are any of its energy levels degenerate? If so, 23. Find the ground-state energy for a particle in a harmonic oscillator
give an example. If not, why not? potential whose classical angular frequency v is 1.031017 s21.
8. What did Einstein mean by his remark, loosely paraphrased, that 24. A harmonic oscillator emits a 1.1-eV photon as it undergoes a
“God does not play dice”? transition between adjacent states. Find its classical oscillation
9. Some philosophers argue that the strict determinism of classical frequency f.
physics is inconsistent with human free will, but that the indeter- 25. The ground-state energy of a harmonic oscillator is 4.0 eV. Find
minacy of quantum mechanics does leave room for free will. the energy separation between adjacent quantum states.
Others claim that physics has no bearing on the question of free 26. Your roommate is taking Newtonian physics, while you’ve
will. What do you think? moved on to quantum mechanics. He claims that QM can’t be
right, because he didn’t see any evidence of quantized energy
Exercises and Problems levels in a mass–spring harmonic oscillator experiment. You re-
ply by calculating the spacing between energy levels of this sys-
Exercises tem, which consists of a 1-g mass on a spring with k 5 80 N/m.
What is that spacing, and how does this help your argument?
Section 35.2 The Schrödinger Equation
10. What are the units of the wave function c1x2 in a one-dimensional Section 35.4 Quantum Mechanics in Three Dimensions
situation? 27. If all sides of a cubical box are doubled, what happens to the
2 2
11. A particle’s wave function is c 5 Ae2x /a , where A and a are ground-state energy of a particle in that box?
constants. (a) Where is the particle most likely to be found? 28. A very crude model for an atomic nucleus is a cubical box 1 fm
(b) Where is the probability per unit length half its maximum value? on a side. What would be the energy of a gamma ray emitted if a
12. The solution to the Schrödinger equation for a particular poten- proton in such a nucleus made a transition from its first excited
tial is c 5 0 for ƒ x ƒ . a and c 5 A sin1px/a2 for 2a # x # a, state to the ground state?
where A and a are constants. In terms of a, what value of A is re- 29. An electron is confined to a cubical box. For what box width will
quired to normalize c? a transition from the first excited state to the ground state result
in emission of a 950-nm infrared photon?
Section 35.3 Particles and Potentials
13. What’s the quantum number for a particle in an infinite square Problems
well if the particle’s energy is 25 times the ground-state energy? 30. Find an expression for the normalization constant A for the wave
14. A particle in an infinite square well makes a transition from a function given by c 5 0 for ƒ xƒ . b and c 5 A(b2 2 x2) for
higher to a lower energy state; the corresponding energy decrease 2b # x # b.
is 33 times the ground-state energy. Find the quantum numbers 31. Suppose c1 and c2 are solutions of the Schrödinger equation for
of the initial and final states. the same energy E. Show that the linear combination ac1 1 bc2
15. Determine the ground-state energy for an electron in an infinite is also a solution, where a and b are arbitrary constants.
square well of width 10.0 nm. 32. An electron is trapped in an infinite square well 25 nm wide.
16. Find the width of an infinite square well in which a proton’s min- Find the wavelengths of the photons emitted in these transitions:
imum energy is 100 eV. (a) n 5 2 to n 5 1; (b) n 5 20 to n 5 19; (c) n 5 100 to n 5 1.
17. A quantum wire is a conducting structure so thin that quantum 33. An electron drops from the n 5 7 to the n 5 6 level of an infi-
effects are evident. Electron energies in a quantum wire are quan- nite square well 1.5 nm wide. Find (a) the energy and (b) the
tized and so, therefore, are electrical properties such as resistivity. wavelength of the photon emitted.
A particular quantum wire is made from carbon nanotubes 1.0 nm 34. Show explicitly that the difference between adjacent energy lev-
in diameter. Approximating the structure as a one-dimensional els in an infinite square well becomes arbitrarily small compared
infinite square well, find the energies (in eV) of an electron in with the energy of the upper level, in the limit of large quantum
(a) the ground state and (b) the first excited state. number n.
18. One reason we don’t notice quantum effects in everyday life is 35. An electron is in a narrow molecule 4.4 nm long, a situation
that Planck’s constant h is so small. Treating yourself as a particle that approximates a one-dimensional infinite square well. If the
642 Chapter 35 Quantum Mechanics

electron is in its ground state, what is the maximum wavelength 49. The generalization of the Schrödinger equation to three dimen-
of electromagnetic radiation that can cause a transition to an ex- sions is
cited state?
"2 ' 2c ' 2c ' 2c
36. The ground-state energy for an electron in infinite square well A 2 a 2 1 1 b 1 U1x, y, z2c 5 Ec
is equal to the energy of the first excited state for an electron in 2m 'x 'y 2
'z2
well B. How do the wells’ widths compare? (a) For a particle confined to the cubical region 0 # x # L,
37. Electrons in an ensemble of 10-nm-wide square-well systems are 0 # y # L, 0 # z # L, show by direct substitution that
initially in the n 5 4 state. Find the wavelengths of all spectral the equation is satisfied by wave functions of the form
lines emitted as the electrons cascade to the ground state through c(x, y, z) 5 A sin(nxpx/L) sin(nypy/L) sin(nzpz/L), where the
all possible downward transitions. n’s are integers and A is a constant. (b) In the process of working
38. Sketch the probability density for the n 5 2 state of an infinite part (a), verify that the energies E are given by Equation 35.8.
square well extending from x 5 0 to x 5 L, and determine 50. A 9-W laser beam shines on an ensemble of 1024 electrons, each in
where the particle is most likely to be found. the ground state of a one-dimensional infinite square well 0.72 nm
39. An infinite square well extends from 2L/2 to L/2. (a) Find ex- wide. The photon energy is just high enough to raise an electron
pressions for the normalized wave functions for a particle of to its first excited state. How many electrons can be excited if the
mass m in this well, giving separate expressions for even and odd beam shines for 10 ms?
quantum numbers. (b) Find the corresponding energy levels. 51. A large number of electrons are confined to infinite square wells
40. A particle is in the ground state of an infinite square well. What’s 1.2 nm wide. They’re undergoing transitions among all possible
the probability of finding the particle in the left-hand third of the states. How many visible lines (400 nm to 700 nm) are in the
well? spectrum emitted by this ensemble of square-well systems?
41. A laser emits 1.96-eV photons. If this emission is due to electron 52. A particle is in the nth quantum state of an infinite square well.
transitions from the n 5 2 to n 5 1 states of an infinite square (a) Show that the probability of finding it in the left-hand quarter
well, what’s the well width? of the well is
42. What’s the probability of finding a particle in the central 80% of
an infinite square well, assuming it’s in the ground state? 1 sin1np/22
P5 2
43. Is quantization significant for macromolecules confined to bio- 4 2np
BIO logical cells? To find out, consider a protein of mass 250,000 u
confined to a 10 m-diameter cell. Treating this as a particle in a (b) Show that for odd n, the probability approaches the classical
one-dimensional square well, find the energy difference between value 14 as n S `.
53. (a) Using the potential energy U 5 2 mv2x 2 discussed on page 635,
1
the ground state and the first excited state. Given that biochemi-
cal reactions typically involve energies on the order of 1 eV, what develop the Schrödinger equation for the harmonic oscillator.
(b) Show by substitution that c0(x) 5 A 0e2a x /2 satisfies your
2 2

do you conclude about the role of quantization?

44. In your physical chemistry course, you model hydrogen chloride equation, where a 5 mv/" and the energy is given by Equation
2

as a hydrogen atom on a spring; the other end of the spring is at- 35.7 with n = 0. (c) Find the normalization constant A 0. You then
tached to a rigid wall (the massive chlorine atom). In order to de- have the ground-state wave function for the harmonic oscillator.
termine the spring constant in your model, you measure the 54. You’re trying to convince a friend that nuclear energy represents
minimum photon energy that will promote HCl molecules to a much more concentrated energy source than fossil fuels, whose
their first excited state. The result is 0.358 eV. What do you cal- combustion involves rearranging atomic electrons. For a rough
culate for the effective k? comparison, you calculate the ground-state energy of a proton
45. A particle detector has a resolution 15% of the width of an infi- confined to 1-fm-diameter atomic nucleus and that of an electron
nite square well. What’s the probability that the detector will find confined to a 0.1-nm-diameter atom. Approximating each system
a particle in the ground state of the square well if the detector is as a one-dimensional infinite square well, what’s the ratio of their
centered on (a) the midpoint of the well and (b) a point one- ground-state energies?
fourth of the way across the well?
46. Find the probability that a particle in an infinite square well is lo- Passage Problems
cated in the central one-fourth of the well for the quantum states BIO Quantum dots, or qdots, are nanoscale crystals of semiconductor
n 5 (a) 1, (b) 2, (c) 5, and (d) 20. (e) What’s the classical proba- material that trap electrons in a potential well closely resembling the
bility in this situation? three-dimensional square well discussed in Section 35.4. Physicists,
47. A particle of mass m is in a region where its total energy E is less materials scientists, and semiconductor engineers have been study-
than its potential energy U. Show that the Schrödinger equation ing qdots for their potential to miniaturize electronic components.
has nonzero solutions of the form Ae 6 12m1U2E2x/". Such solutions More recently, qdots have been used in biology and medicine to
describe the wave function in quantum tunneling, beyond the “tag” individual molecules, helping scientists follow cellular
turning points in a quantum harmonic oscillator, or beyond the processes (Fig. 35.19). Qdots also facilitate high-resolution imaging
well edges in a finite potential well. within the cell, and they show promise for medical diagnostics and
48. (a) Use Equation 35.8 to draw an energy-level diagram for the targeting tumors for the delivery of anticancer agents. In the bio-
first six energy levels of a particle in a cubical box, in terms of medical context, qdots work as replacements for traditional fluores-
h2/8mL2, and (b) give the degeneracy of each. cent dyes. Illuminating qdots promotes their electrons to higher
 Answers to Chapter Questions 643

energy levels; as they drop back, they emit photons of precise wave- 56. If the dot behaves as a perfectly cubical 3-D square well, the first
length. A dot’s size and structure determine this wavelength. excited state is
a. nondegenerate.
b. twofold degenerate.
20 mm
c. threefold degenerate.
d. You can’t tell without knowing the energy.
57. If the dot behaves as a perfectly cubical 3-D square well, the
ground state is
a. nondegenerate.
b. twofold degenerate.
c. threefold degenerate.
d. You can’t tell without knowing the energy.
58. If all three sides of a qdot are halved, its ground-state energy
a. is halved.
b. drops to one-fourth its original value.
c. doubles.
d. quadruples.

Answers to Chapter Questions

Answer to Chapter Opening Question
Quantum tunneling, the ability of particles to penetrate a barrier that
classical physics says they don’t have sufficient energy to overcome.

Answers to GOT IT? Questions

FIGURE 35.19 In this microscopic photo, motor protein molecules called 35.1. B’s ground-state energy is 106 times higher than A’s.
dynein have been tagged with quantum dots, allowing their paths to be 35.2. (c), which is almost twice the classical prediction.
tracked (Passage Problems 55–58). 35.3. The electron.

55. If a qdot’s size is decreased, what happens to the wavelength of

the photon emitted in a transition from the dot’s first excited state
to the ground state?
a. The wavelength increases.
b. The wavelength decreases.
c. The wavelength is unchanged.
 36 Atomic Physics

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Evaluate the energies and angular mo-
menta of hydrogen-like atoms (36.1).
■ Calculate the probability of locating an
electron in hydrogen-like atoms (36.1).
■ Explain the role of electron spin, and
evaluate spin angular momentum
(36.2).
■ Couple orbital and spin angular
momenta to find allowed values for
total angular momentum (36.2).
■ Explain the exclusion principle and
how it accounts for the periodic table
of the elements (36.3, 36.4).
■ Determine the electronic structure
of multielectron atoms (36.4).
■ Explain the origin of atomic spectra,
and interpret energy-level diagrams
for complex atoms (36.5).
■ Explain how lasers work (36.5).
How do the principles of quantum physics
explain the different chemical elements?

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter applies the Schrödinger
equation to hydrogen and hydrogen-
I n Chapter 35 we applied the Schrödinger equation to simplified quantum systems. Here we
turn to the more realistic case of the atom, and explore how quantum mechanics explains
atomic structure and the periodic table of the elements. We’ll deal most thoroughly with the sim-
like atoms (35.2). plest atom, hydrogen, and we’ll be more qualitative in describing multielectron atoms.
■ We’ll build on the concepts of wave
function and probability density, and
we’ll treat atomic electrons as quan- 36.1 The Hydrogen Atom
tum particles trapped in the potential Like a particle in a three-dimensional box, the electron in hydrogen is confined to a three-
well associated with the electric force dimensional potential well. For the electron, the well results from the proton’s electrostatic
(35.1, 35.3, 20.2, 22.2, 23.1). attraction. From Chapter 22 we know that the electric potential of the proton, treated as a
■ We’ll revisit angular momentum point charge e, is V1r2 5 ke/r, with r the distance to the proton and the zero of potential
(11.3) and find that it plays a major at infinity. Electric potential is energy per unit charge, so we multiply by the electron
role in atomic physics. charge 2e to get the potential energy of an electron in the presence of a proton:
■ Your knowledge of chemistry will
ke2
help you appreciate how quantum U1r2 5 2 (36.1)
physics explains the periodic table r
of the elements.

644
 36.1 The Hydrogen Atom 645

We treat the massive proton as being at rest at the origin, so Equation 36.1 gives the elec-
tron’s potential energy as a function of radial position r. We can therefore use Equation
36.1 as the potential energy in the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom.

The Schrödinger Equation in Spherical Coordinates

Because the electron’s potential energy depends on radial distance r, it’s best to work in
spherical coordinates, where the position of a point is given by its distance r from the ori-
gin along with two angles u and f that specify its orientation (Fig. 36.1). Converting the
Schrödinger equation to spherical coordinates is straightforward but tedious; the result is

"2 ' 2 'c 1 ' 'c 1 '2c ke2 Schrödinger equation,

2 c a r b 1 a sin u b 1 d 2 c 5 Ec a b (36.2)
2mr2 'r 'r sin u 'u 'u sin2 u 'f2 r spherical coordinates

where we’ve used Equation 36.1 for the potential-energy function. z

Although Equation 36.2 looks forbidding, it can be solved readily using advanced tech-
niques. For total energy E less than zero, corresponding to bound states in hydrogen’s
potential well, most solutions become infinite at large r and therefore aren’t normalizable. P
As a result, only certain values of the energy E give acceptable bound-state solutions. For
total energy greater than zero, the electron is unbound and any energy proves possible, as
with the finite square well.
r
u
The Hydrogen Ground State
y
In general, solutions to Equation 36.2 depend on all three variables r, u, f. But some solu-
f
tions, including the ground state, are spherically symmetric—they depend only on r. Here
we show that the ground state has the form of an exponential, and in the process derive the
ground-state energy. Consider the function x

c 5 Ae 2r/a0
(36.3) FIGURE 36.1 Spherical coordinates r, u, f
provide an alternative to rectangular
where A and a0 are as yet undetermined constants, the latter with the units of length. For coordinates x, y, z.
this spherically symmetric function, nothing depends on the angular variables u and f, so
derivatives with respect to those variables are strictly zero. We’re then dealing with a func-
tion of only one variable, so we can write total instead of partial derivatives. Equation 36.2
then becomes
"2 d 2 dc ke2
2 a r b 2 c 5 Ec (36.4)
2mr2 dr dr r
Substituting the proposed solution 36.3 for c gives
"2 "2 ke2
2 1 2 5 E1
2ma02 mra0 r
(see Problem 42), where E1 is the ground-state energy. This equation must be satisfied for
all values of r, so the two r-dependent terms must cancel:
"2 ke2
5
mra0 r
or
"2
a0 5 5 5.29310211 m 5 0.0529 nm
mke2
This is precisely the Bohr radius that we introduced in Chapter 34.
646 Chapter 36 Atomic Physics

With the r terms gone, our expression for the ground-state energy becomes
E1 5 2"2/2ma02 5 213.6 eV, where the minus sign shows that the atom is a bound sys-
tem. Thus Equation 36.3 is indeed a solution to the Schrödinger equation for hydrogen,
with energy E1 5 213.6 eV.
Area 4pr2 In deriving expressions for a0 and E1, we’ve shown how Schrödinger’s theory gives
two fundamental parameters of atomic physics: the Bohr radius and the hydrogen
ground-state energy. Both agree with the values we found in Chapter 34 using the
r simpler Bohr model. But Bohr’s theory still clings to the notion of classical orbits, with
a0 the ground-state orbital radius. Schrödinger’s theory is truly quantum mechanical,
representing the electron with its wave function c and associated probability distribu-
dr tion. The Bohr radius is no longer an actual orbital radius but instead determines
FIGURE 36.2 A thin shell has volume dV 5 4pr2 dr; atomic size only in a statistical sense.
thus the probability per unit radial distance is
4pr2 times the probability per unit volume. The Radial Probability Distribution
Because the ground-state wave function falls off exponentially as e2r/a0, we’re unlikely to
Peak at one
Bohr radius a0 find the electron at distances far greater than the Bohr radius. But where are we most
likely to find it? Although c is greatest at r 5 0, that’s not the answer. In three dimensions
Radial probability density, P(r)

the probability density c2 is the probability per unit volume of finding the electron. In ask-
ing where we’re most likely to find the electron, we want the probability per unit radial
distance. Figure 36.2 shows a thin spherical shell with radius r and therefore area 4pr2. It
has thickness dr, so its volume is dV 5 4pr2 dr. Then the probability of finding the elec-
tron in this shell is c2 dV 5 4pr2c2 dr. The radial probability density, P1r2, is the prob-
ability per unit radius, or
P1r2 5 4pr2c2 1radial probability density2 (36.5)
0 1 2 3 4 5
For the hydrogen ground state, we use Equation 36.3 for c to get P1 5 4pr2A2e22r/a0.
r / a0
Figure 36.3 is a plot of this probability density, which peaks at r 5 a0. Thus the single
FIGURE 36.3 Radial probability density for the most likely place to find the electron in ground-state hydrogen is one Bohr radius from
hydrogen ground state. the proton.

EXAMPLE 36.1 The Hydrogen Atom: Normalization and the Probability Distribution
(a) Determine the normalization constant A in Equation 36.3. (b) Use 22/a0 in the table’s expression for #x 2eax dx, we have
the resulting wave function to find the probability that the electron in `
the hydrogen ground state will be found beyond the Bohr radius. 3 4pA r e dr
2 2 22r/a0

0
`
INTERPRET The wave function 36.3 contains an undetermined con- r2e22r/a0 2 e22r/a0 2
stant A. This problem is asking us to apply the normalization condi- 5 4pA2 e 2 c a2 r 2 1b d f 2 5 1
122/a02 122/a02 122/a022 a0 0
tion to find A and then use the concept of radial probability density to
The expression in curly brackets vanishes at r 5 `, and at r 5 0 the
determine the probability of finding the electron beyond r 5 a0.
exponentials are just 1, so we have 4pA2 C 0 2 A 214 a03 B D 5 1, or
DEVELOP The electron must be somewhere in the range r 5 0 to A 5 1/ 2pa03.
r 5 `. Since P1r2 dr is the probability of finding the electron in (b) Now we change the lower limit on the integral from 0 to a0. The
a region of width dr, the normalization condition becomes result is
#0 P1r2 dr 5 1. So our plan is to evaluate this integral using the
`
`
ground-state probability density P1 5 4pr2A2e22r/a0. We’ll then solve P1r . a02 5 3 4pr2A2e22r/a0 dr
for the unknown A. Then we can integrate again, this time from r 5 a0 a
to r 5 `, to get the probability of finding the electron beyond a0. 5 4pA2a30 A 12 e22 1 34 e22 B 5 5pA2a30e22
With A2 5 1/pa03, this becomes P1r . a02 5 5e22 . 0.677.
EVALUATE (a) Using the probability density P1, the normalization
condition becomes ASSESS Our result shows that about two-thirds of the time, the elec-
r5`
tron will be found beyond the Bohr radius. So although it’s reasonable
3 4pr A e
2 2 22r/a0
dr 5 1 to say that the atom’s radius is roughly the Bohr radius, both Fig. 36.3
r50
and our result here show that there’s no sharp cutoff that marks the
We could evaluate using integration by parts; however, the result is in
the integral table at the end of Appendix A. Replacing x by r and a by
“size” of the atom. ■
 36.1 The Hydrogen Atom 647

Excited States of Hydrogen

So far we’ve examined only the ground state of hydrogen. But Equation 36.2 admits many
more normalizable solutions, corresponding to the excited states of hydrogen.
In general, each energy level is associated with one spherically symmetric wave func-
tion and a number of nonsymmetric ones. For historical reasons, the spherically symmetric
states are called s states. The distinct energy levels are labeled by the quantum number n,
called the principal quantum number. The ground state, for example, is the 1s state. The
energy of the nth level, derivable from the Schrödinger equation, turns out to agree exactly
with the earlier Bohr theory:

1 "2 E1 213.6 eV
En 5 2 5 2 5 1hydrogen energy levels2 (36.6)
n2 2ma02 n n2

The spherically symmetric state with energy E2—that is, the 2s state—has wave function
given by
1 r 2r/2a0
c2s 5 a2 2 be (36.7)
4 22pa03 a0
P(r)
By substituting this function into Equation 36.4, you can verify that the energy E2 is given 1s
by Equation 36.6 (see Problem 60). The radial probability densities for the first three
spherically symmetric states are plotted in Fig. 36.4; notice that the excited states corre-
spond to larger, more “smeared-out” atoms.
Although we’re discussing hydrogen, our results generalize to any single-electron 2s
atom—that is, to an atom of atomic number Z ionized Z 2 1 times. For such an atom the 3s
potential-energy function becomes 2kZe2/r, and our calculations go through as before ex-
cept that the factor e2 is replaced by Ze2. Then the energy levels become
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z2 "2 Z2E1 113.6 eV2Z2 r/a0
En 5 2 2 5 5 2 (36.8)
n 2ma02 n2 n2 FIGURE 36.4 Radial probability densities for the
spherically symmetric 1s, 2s, and 3s states of
reflecting the tighter binding of the more highly charged nucleus (see Fig. 36.5 and
hydrogen.
Problem 61).

0 n5q
GOT IT? 36.1 Which is the most appropriate estimate for the radial “size” of a hy- 20.54Z 2 n55
drogen atom in its 2s state: (a) a0, (b) 2a0, (c) 5a0, (d) 15a0? 20.85Z 2 n54

21.51Z 2 n53

Orbital Quantum Numbers and Angular Momentum

In the spherically symmetric s states, it turns out that the orbital angular momentum 23.40Z 2 n52
Energy (eV)

associated with the electron’s motion is zero. This is at odds with Bohr’s prediction
that angular momentum should be an integer multiple of ". And it makes clear that we
can’t be talking here about classical orbits, since motion in an elliptical or circular
path entails angular momentum. But there are other solutions to the Schrödinger equa-
tion for hydrogen, solutions that aren’t spherically symmetric and that have nonzero
angular momentum.
For a given principal quantum number n, there are in fact n distinct solutions with dif-
ferent angular momenta. The orbital quantum number l distinguishes these states and
ranges from 0 to n 2 1. Thus the ground state 1n 5 12 corresponds to the single value
l 5 0. Higher energy levels, however, are degenerate, meaning there’s more than one l –13.60Z 2 n51
value for each n . 1. The orbital quantum number determines the magnitude L of the Ground state
electron’s orbital angular momentum:
FIGURE 36.5 Energy-level diagram for a one-
electron atom with atomic number Z. Energies
L 5 2l1l 1 12" 1quantization of orbital angular momentum2 (36.9)
scale as Z2.
648 Chapter 36 Atomic Physics

EXAMPLE 36.2 Orbital Angular Momentum: An Excited State

Find the possible values for the orbital angular momentum of an elec- EVALUATE With l 5 0, Equation 36.9 gives L 5 0; for l 5 1,
tron in the n 5 3 state of hydrogen. L 5 12"; and for l 5 2, L 5 16".

INTERPRET We’re asked about the orbital angular momentum L, ASSESS l 5 0 is the spherically symmetric 3s state, which we’ve seen
whose value follows from the orbital quantum number l. Thus we’ll has zero angular momentum. The higher-l states have increasing an-
need the possible l values for n 5 3. gular momentum. ■
DEVELOP For any n, there are n distinct l values, from 0 to n 2 1. For
n 5 3, that means l 5 0, 1, or 2. So our plan is to evaluate L using
Equation 36.9, L 5 1l1l 1 12", for these three l values.

States with l values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, c are given the letter labels s, p, d, f, g, h, c.

These combine with the principal quantum number n to specify both the energy and angu-
lar momentum of a state. Thus, the ground state is 1s, and the n 5 2 state with l 5 1 is
the 2p state. (The lowercase letters s, p, d, c are used in discussing individual electrons,
while the corresponding capital letters denote orbital angular momentum states of an en-
tire atom. For one-electron hydrogen, the two are the same.)
Circular orbit: Quantization of orbital angular momentum is another nonclassical aspect of quantum
maximum L
mechanics. In classical physics, an electron of a given energy can have any angular mo-
mentum, up to the maximum of a circular orbit (Fig. 36.6). At high n, the number of l val-
Elliptical orbit: ues is so large that we don’t notice quantization—another manifestation of Bohr’s
lower L correspondence principle. But for low n, the quantum-mechanical discreteness of both en-
ergy and angular momentum is clearly evident.

Space Quantization
Angular momentum is a vector, and the angular momentum vector is quantized not only
in magnitude but also in direction—a phenomenon called space quantization. Space
quantization of orbital angular momentum gives rise to a third quantum number, ml. Space
quantization becomes evident when an atom is in a magnetic field that establishes a pre-
FIGURE 36.6 Classical electron orbits with the ferred axis along which the angular momentum component can be measured; for this rea-
same energy but different angular momenta. son ml is called the orbital magnetic quantum number.
Space quantization requires that the component Lz of orbital angular momentum along
any chosen axis have only values given by
z L 5 ml" 1space quantization2 (36.10)

where ml takes integer values from 2l to l. Thus an l 5 1 state can have one of three pos-
Lz = h sible ml values: 21, 0, or 11, corresponding to angular momentum components 2", 0, or
1" along some axis. Since the magnitude of the angular momentum in an l 5 1 state is
r
L = 2h 12" (see Example 36.2), none of these values corresponds to full alignment with the axis.
Instead, we can think geometrically of the angular momentum vectors as being con-
Lz = 0 strained to lie at angles cos211Lz /L2 to the axis; for l 5 1 these angles are 645° and 90°
(Fig. 36.7). Although the angle is useful for diagramming the angular momentum vector,
we emphasize that the quantum numbers l and ml tell everything there is to know about
quantized orbital angular momentum. Quantum physicists, therefore, aren’t usually con-
cerned with the orientation of angular momentum vectors.
Lz = – h

36.2 Electron Spin

Detailed observation of the hydrogen spectrum shows that spectral lines exhibit a fine
FIGURE 36.7 The three possible orientations for
splitting; where a lower-resolution spectrum shows one spectral line, at higher resolution
the angular momentum vector in the l 5 1
state, where L 5 12". Only the z-component there appears a closely spaced pair of lines. This splitting could not be explained using the
is fixed; the x- and y-components are three quantum numbers n, l, and ml. In 1925 the Austrian physicist Wolfgang Pauli sug-
uncertain. gested that a fourth quantum number, capable of taking only two values, might be needed.
 36.2 Electron Spin 649

Soon Samuel Goudsmit and George Uhlenbeck realized that the spectral splitting could be
explained if this fourth quantum number were associated with an intrinsic angular mo-
mentum, or spin, carried by the electron. Later, as we indicated in Chapter 35, Paul Dirac
showed that electron spin follows from the requirement of relativistic invariance. Spin is
an inherently quantum-mechanical property with no classical analog. Although it can be
visualized crudely by imagining the electron to be a small sphere spinning about an axis,
this classical picture is really inappropriate.
Spin angular momentum is quantized similarly to orbital angular momentum. But un-
like the orbital quantum number l that takes a range of integer values, the electron spin
quantum number s has only the single value s 5 12. The electron is therefore a spin-12 parti-
cle. The magnitude of the spin angular momentum is related to the spin quantum number
in the same way that the magnitude of orbital angular momentum is related to the orbital
quantum number l:

S 5 2s1s 1 12" 1quantization of spin angular momentum2 (36.11)

Since s takes only the value 12, the magnitude of the electron spin angular momentum
is S 5 13
2 ".

Spin angular momentum also exhibits space quantization. That is, the component of
spin along a chosen axis takes only the values
Sz 5 ms" (36.12)
where the quantum number ms has the two possible values 212 and 112. Figure 36.8 shows z
space quantization of electron spin.
Sz = 1 h
Magnetic Moment of the Electron 2

Together, the electron’s spin and electric charge mean the electron behaves like a minia-!
ture current loop, with an intrinsic magnetic dipole moment.
! The dipole moment vector M r
S = 3h
associated with the spin angular momentum vector S is given by 2

! e !
M52 S (36.13)
m Sz = – 1 h
! 2
with e/m the electron’s charge-to-mass ratio (see Problem 67). Since the component of S on
any axis can take only the values 612 ", the components of the magnetic moment can be only
FIGURE 36.8 Space quantization of electron
e" spin.
Mz 5 6 (36.14)
2m
The quantity mB 5 e"/2m is a fundamental unit for measuring magnetic moments called Classical: Any spin
the Bohr magneton; its value is 9.27310224A # m2. orientation allowed . . .
Detector
The ratio of magnetic moment to spin angular momentum is twice what we would ex- Magnet
pect classically for a charged particle in circular motion. Like spin itself, the factor of 2 is pole
a relativistic effect first explained by Dirac. Actually, the factor is not quite 2 but approxi-
mately 2.00232, a result that follows from the theory of quantum electrodynamics. Atomic
beam . . . resulting in
Magnet a continuous
The Stern–Gerlach Experiment pole beam.
In 1922, Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach at the University of Hamburg demonstrated the Nonuniform
quantization of atomic angular momentum vectors. The Stern–Gerlach experiment used a magnetic field
deflects atoms
nonuniform magnetic field to separate a beam of silver atoms according to the component of according to the Space quantization: Two
their angular momentum along the field direction. T. E. Phipps and J. B. Taylor repeated the orientations of allowed spin orientations . . .
experiment in 1927, giving unambiguous verification of quantized electron spin. They used their magnetic
dipole moments.
hydrogen atoms in the ground state; as we’ve seen, this state has zero orbital angular mo-
mentum, so the only angular momentum effects are due to electron spin. Classically a beam
of hydrogen should be spread into a continuous band corresponding to angular momentum . . . so beam
splits in two.
components from 2 213 " to 1 213 ". But in fact the beam always splits in two, corresponding
to the two angular momentum components 612 ". Figure 36.9 shows the experiment. FIGURE 36.9 The Stern–Gerlach experiment.
650 Chapter 36 Atomic Physics

GOT IT? 36.2 The nucleus of oxygen-17 has spin 52. How many possible orientations
are there for its spin angular momentum vector?

Total Angular Momentum and Spin-Orbit Coupling

Orbital and spin angular momenta combine! through the process of spin-orbit coupling to
give an atom’s total angular momentum, J:
! ! !
J5L1S (36.15)
The magnitude J is quantized similarly to orbital and spin angular momenta:

J 5 2j1j 1 12" 1quantization of total angular momentum2 (36.16)

For an atom with a single electron, the quantum number j takes the values
j 5 l 6 12 for l 2 0 (36.17a)
j5 1
2 for l 5 0 (36.17b)
The state of an atom with total angular momentum J is specified by the principal quantum
r number, the capital letter designating the orbital angular momentum 1S, P, D, F, G, c2,
S
and, as a subscript, the j value. Thus a hydrogen atom with n 5 3, l 5 2, and j 5 32 is des-
r
ignated 3D3/2. !
S r
J Total angular momentum also exhibits space quantization, with the component of J on
L
r some axis given by
r r
L J
Jz 5 mj" (36.18)
j = 1 j = 3
2
2 Here the quantum number mj takes the values 12j, 2j 1 1, c, j 2 1, j2.
FIGURE 36.10 Spin-orbit coupling with l 5 1, for Derivation of these so-called angular momentum coupling rules is not easy, but we
which Equation 36.17a gives j 5 12 or j 5 32 . can understand them in terms of simple vector diagrams like those shown in Fig. 36.10.

EXAMPLE 36.3 Spin-Orbit Coupling: Finding the Angular Momentum

(a) Find the possible magnitudes for the total angular momentum of by Equation 36.18: 232 ", 212 ", 12 ", 32 ". Similar counting gives six
hydrogen in the l 5 2 state. (b) !For each possible J, how many values values for j 5 52.
are there for the component of J on a given axis?
ASSESS Figure 36.11 shows how the spin and orbit angular momenta
INTERPRET We’re asked about total angular momentum, which re- combine to give the two possible j values in this example. ■
sults from spin and orbital angular momentum contributions
! as shown
in Fig. 36.10, and about the space quantization of J.

DEVELOP (a) Equations 36.16, J 5 2j1j 1 12", and 36.17a,

j 5 l 6 12, determine J. With l 5 2, our plan is to use Equation 36.17a
to find the possible j values. Then we can apply Equation 36.16 to get
each corresponding J. (b) Equation 36.18, Jz 5 mj", determines the Jz
values in terms of mj, which ranges from 2j to j. So once we have
the j’s, we can determine the number of Jz values.

EVALUATE (a) With l 5 2, Equation 36.17a gives j 5 j 5 52. For

3
2 or
115
j 5 32, Equation 36.16 yields J 5 22 A 2 1 1 B " 5
3 3
2
"; similarly,
FIGURE 36.11 Vector diagrams for spin-orbit coupling with l 5 2 (Example 36.3).
135
j 5 gives J 5
5
2 2
". (b) For j 5 there are four possible mj values
3
2

from 2j to j: 232, 212, 12, 32, and correspondingly four Jz values, given
 36.3 The Exclusion Principle 651

The two j values for a given l correspond to two distinct quantum states, and these Spin-orbit
states have slightly different energies. This energy difference is associated with the orien- effect splits the
n = 2 level.
tation of the electron’s magnetic moment in a magnetic field that, in the electron’s refer- 2P3/2
ence frame, results from the apparent motion of the positively charged nucleus around! the
n=2
electron—a field whose direction is that of the electron’s orbital angular! momentum L. As
2P1/2
Equation ! 36.13 shows, the electron’s negative charge means its spin S and magnetic mo-
ment M have opposite directions. Because a magnetic dipole has the highest energy when
Levels if Allowed
it’s !oriented
! opposite the magnetic field, this means that the more nearly parallel alignment no spin- transitions
of S and L —corresponding to j 5 l 1 12 —has the higher energy. orbit
In hydrogen, the magnitude of the energy difference between the j 5 12 and j 5 32 states effect

of the first excited level is only 531025 eV, far smaller than the 10.2-eV separation be-
tween this level and the ground state. Because the n 5 2, l 5 1 state is actually two states
of slightly different energy, hydrogen atoms undergoing transitions from these states to n=1 1S1/2
the ground state emit two spectral lines slightly separated in wavelength. The term fine
structure describes this and related spectral-line splittings. In the present example, the FIGURE 36.12 Energy-level diagram showing
split spectral line is called a doublet. Figure 36.12 is an energy-level diagram showing the spin-orbit splitting of the 2P levels in
hydrogen. Other fine-structure effects lower
effect of spin-orbit splitting in hydrogen. Other fine-structure effects also alter energy lev- the energies of both 2P states and of the
els; in hydrogen, for example, both levels shown in Fig. 36.12 actually drop below the ground state, and make the 2S state degener-
Schrödinger prediction, and the 2S1/2 level is degenerate with 2P1/2. ate with 2P1/2.
The spin-orbit effect results from a magnetic field internal to the atom itself. But split-
ting of energy levels also occurs in an external magnetic field and is called the Zeeman
effect. We showed an example of Zeeman splitting in Fig. 35.18. 4 4
Since it has zero orbital angular momentum, the ground state does not exhibit spin-orbit
splitting. But interaction of the electron spin with the magnetic dipole moment of the nucleus
results in an even finer splitting known as hyperfine structure. The transition between the

Quantum number, n

Quantum number, n
two hyperfine levels of the hydrogen ground state—corresponding physically to a change in
the orientation of the electron spin vector—involves a photon of 21-cm wavelength. Radio as-

Energy
tronomers use the 21-cm hydrogen radiation to map interstellar hydrogen in the cosmos. 3 3

36.3 The Exclusion Principle

In trying to understand why atomic electrons distributed themselves as they did, Pauli in 2 2
1924 developed his exclusion principle, which, loosely, states that two electrons cannot
be in the same quantum state. Since an electron’s quantum state includes its spin orien-
tation specified by ms, the exclusion principle means that at most two electrons can oc- 1 1
cupy a state whose other quantum numbers n, l, and ml are the same. No exclusion Exclusion principle:
The Pauli exclusion principle has profound implications for multielectron systems, re- principle: two electrons per level
quiring that most electrons remain in high-energy states (Fig. 36.13). If the exclusion prin- many electrons
ciple didn’t hold, atomic electrons would collapse to the ground state and there would be FIGURE 36.13 Particles in a square well, showing
no such thing as chemistry or life! The exclusion principle even manifests itself at the cos- the exclusion principle’s effect on electron
mic scale, as the Application shows. distribution.

APPLICATION White Dwarfs and Neutron Stars

White dwarf the collapse eventually halts because of a quantum-mechanical pressure as-
Sun sociated with the exclusion principle.
Neutron star When the Sun collapses some 5 billion years from now, its electrons will drop
into the lowest available energy states. But as with the square well in Fig. 36.13,
the exclusion principle requires that most of the Sun’s 1057 electrons will end
Black hole up in high-energy states. The associated degenerate electron pressure—inde-
Neutron star pendent of temperature, unlike the pressure of an ordinary gas—will stabilize
White dwarf
the Sun as a white dwarf, about the size of Earth. For stars more massive than
When a star exhausts its nuclear fuel, it collapses because there’s no longer about 1.4 Sun masses, collapse proceeds until the protons and electrons merge
pressure to counter gravity. For a star with more than several times the Sun’s to form neutrons. The neutrons, too, develop a degenerate pressure that stabi-
mass, there’s no force strong enough to halt the collapse, and the star be- lizes the resulting neutron star with a mass exceeding the Sun’s crammed into
comes a black hole from which nothing can escape. But in less massive stars a 20-km sphere! The figure compares the sizes of these stellar endpoints.
652 Chapter 36 Atomic Physics

The Pauli exclusion principle quickly became fundamental to the developing quantum
mechanics of the late 1920s. But physicists remained dissatisfied invoking this seemingly
ad hoc rule with no theoretical basis. Late in the 1930s, following detailed analysis of rel-
ativistic quantum theories, Pauli finally showed that the exclusion principle, like spin, is
ultimately grounded in the requirement of relativistic invariance. Pauli found that particles
whose spin quantum number s is a half-integer (collectively called fermions) must neces-
sarily obey the exclusion principle. On the other hand, particles with integer spin (called
bosons) do not obey the exclusion principle. Photons, for example, are spin-1 particles
FIGURE 36.14 Velocity distribution of atoms in a and therefore an arbitrarily large number of them can occupy exactly the same quantum
Bose–Einstein condensate shows a large peak
at the near-zero velocity of atoms all in their
state. The laser, with its intense, coherent beam of light, is possible because the many pho-
common ground state. The three peaks show tons that make up the beam are essentially all in the same state. In 1995 physicists at the
the evolution from a normal gas to the University of Colorado first succeeded in producing an assemblage of bosonic matter all
condensate. in the same quantum state (Fig. 36.14). This so-called Bose–Einstein condensate had
been a goal of physicists since 1924, when the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose first
suggested the possibility. The Bose–Einstein condensate represents a truly new state of
matter, in which thousands of atoms join quantum mechanically to behave as a single en-
tity. Today physics labs around the world are experimenting with Bose–Einstein conden-
sates, probing the fundamentals of quantum physics and developing applications including
atom-beam analogs of the optical laser.

36.4 Multielectron Atoms and the Periodic Table

Our modern understanding of the chemical elements developed in the late 18th century,
when chemists first distinguished compounds, such as water, from elements, defined as
substances that couldn’t be decomposed by chemical means. From the formulas for vari-
ous compounds, chemists could determine the relative atomic masses of the elements. The
first attempts to organize the elements systematically used atomic mass, but a break-
through occurred in 1869, when the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev set up a table
with the approximately 60 elements then known. He left blanks where necessary to main-
tain the periodic occurrence of similar chemical properties. Elements filling the blanks
were soon discovered, validating Mendeleev’s periodic table and suggesting an underly-
ing order in the composition of atoms. Then, early in the 20th century, studies of X-ray
spectra led to a table organized by atomic number Z, the number of protons in the nu-
cleus. When this was done, a number of elements missing from earlier periodic tables
were identified. The modern periodic table is shown in Fig. 36.15 and is printed with
atomic weights inside the back cover.

Explaining the Periodic Table

The orderly arrangement of elements in the periodic table enhances our understanding of
chemistry and our ability to formulate new and useful compounds. But why does nature
exhibit this regularity? The answer lies in the Schrödinger equation and the exclusion
principle.
Solution of the Schrödinger equation for multielectron atoms is complicated by the in-
teractions among the electrons; analytic solutions like those for hydrogen aren’t generally
available. But qualitatively, we still find energy levels characterized by the principal quan-
tum number n. Each such level is called a shell; for historical reasons, the shells
n 5 1, 2, 3, c are also labeled with the letters K, L, M, c. As with hydrogen, an elec-
tron at the nth energy level can have any of the n values l 5 0, 1, 2, c, n 2 1 for the or-
bital quantum number. The different angular momentum states within a shell are termed
subshells; subshells with the values l 5 0, 1, 2, 3, c are labeled with the letters
s, p, d, f, c. Finally, for each subshell there are 2l 1 1 possible values of the magnetic
orbital quantum number ml, ranging from 2l to l. A state characterized by all three quan-
tum numbers n, l, and ml is called an orbital. Table 36.1 summarizes shell-structure nota-
tion; for completeness, the table also lists the spin quantum number ms.
The structure of a multielectron atom is determined by the quantum states of its con-
stituent electrons—their distribution among the shells, subshells, and orbitals. According
 36.4 Multielectron Atoms and the Periodic Table 653

In this column are the inert

gases, whose outer shells
Hydrogen and the alkali metals are full so they don't easily
have one outer-shell electron, react chemically.
making them highly reactive.
The nonmetals (gray) tend to
accept electrons when they
form chemical compounds.
1 2
H He
3 4 2 Atomic number 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be He Symbol B C N O F Ne
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Lanthanide
Cs Ba series
Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Actinide
Fr Ra series
Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn

Lanthanide 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
series La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Actinide 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
series Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr

Elements in each of these two Most of the elements (color) Elements 113–118 were
series have similar properties are classified as metals, synthesized so recently that they
because their outermost shells meaning they tend to give haven't been officially named.
remain the same. up electrons when forming
chemical compounds.

FIGURE 36.15 The periodic table. A larger version, with atomic weights, is inside the back cover;
the names of the elements are in Appendix D.

Table 36.1 Atomic Shell Structure

Quantum Shell Allowed Letter Number of

Number Notation Values Labels States
n Shell 1, 2, 3, c K, L, M, c Infinite
l Subshell 0, 1, 2, c, n 2 1 s, p, d, f, c n
ml Orbital 2l, 2l 1 1, c, l 2 1, l — 2l 1 1
ms — 212, 112 2

to the exclusion principle, no two electrons can be in exactly the same quantum state; that
is, they can’t have the same values for all four quantum numbers n, l, ml, and ms. Since an
atomic orbital is characterized by the three quantum numbers n, l, and ml, the exclusion
principle implies that at most two electrons can occupy a single orbital.
We’re now ready to understand the ground-state electronic structure of multielectron
atoms. The simplest is helium (He), with two electrons. The K shell 1n 5 12 is the lowest
possible energy level. As Table 36.1 shows, only the zero-angular-momentum s subshell
is permitted within the K shell, and within that subshell there’s only the single orbital cor-
responding to ml 5 0. But that orbital can accommodate two electrons. So in the ground
state of helium, both electrons occupy the s subshell of the K shell. We describe this with
the notation 1s2, where 1 stands for the principal quantum number n, s for the subshell,
and the superscript 2 for the number of electrons in that subshell. The corresponding nota-
tion for hydrogen is 1s1.
After helium comes lithium (Li), with three electrons. From our analysis of helium, we
know that the K shell is full with two electrons. So the third electron goes into the L shell,
654 Chapter 36 Atomic Physics

or n 5 2 energy level. Of the subshells in the L shell, the s subshell turns out to have
slightly lower energy than the others, so the third electron occupies the s subshell. Then
the electronic configuration of lithium is 1s22s1—that is, a helium-like core with a single
outer electron in the s subshell of the n 5 2 level.
Beryllium (Be), with four electrons, fills the 1s and 2s subshells; its designation is
1s22s2. The fifth electron of boron (B) then goes into the 2p subshell, giving the structure
1s22s22p1. Table 36.1 shows that a p subshell 1l 5 12 allows three ml values—that is,
three orbitals, capable of holding a total of six electrons. As we advance in atomic num-
ber, electrons continue to fill the p subshell. Finally, at neon 1Z 5 102, the 2p subshell is
full. Only with the next element, sodium 1Z 5 112, does the n 5 3 shell begin to fill.
Table 36.2 lists electronic configurations for the elements hydrogen 1Z 5 12 through
argon 1Z 5 182, along with their ionization energies (the energy required to remove the
outermost electron).

Table 36.2 Electronic Configurations and Ionization Energies of Elements 1–18

Electronic
Atomic Number, z Element Configuration Ionization Energy (eV)
1
1 H 1s 13.60
2 He 1s2 24.60

3 Li 1s22s1 5.390
4 Be 1s22s2 9.320
5 B 1s22s22p1 8.296
6 C 1s22s22p2 11.26
7 N 1s22s22p3 14.55
8 O 1s22s22p4 13.61
9 F 1s22s22p5 17.42
10 Ne 1s22s22p6 21.56

11 Na 1s22s22p63s1 5.138
12 Mg 1s22s22p63s2 7.644
13 Al 1s22s22p63s23p1 5.984
14 Si 1s22s22p63s23p2 8.149
15 P 1s22s22p63s23p3 10.48
16 S 1s22s22p63s23p4 10.36
17 Cl 1s22s22p63s23p5 13.01
18 Ar 1s22s22p63s23p6 15.76

Gaps mark ends of periodic-table rows.

An atom’s chemical behavior is determined primarily by its outermost electrons, be-

cause these electrons interact most directly with nearby atoms and because they’re most
weakly bound to their nuclei. Table 36.2 shows that the outer-electron configurations
for lithium through neon (Ne) are the same as the corresponding configurations for
sodium (Na) through argon (Ar). The chemical properties of the corresponding atoms
are therefore similar. Both lithium and sodium, for example, have a single electron in
their outermost shell. As their relatively low ionization energies suggest, this electron is
loosely bound, so it readily interacts with other atoms, giving these elements their ex-
treme reactivity. Neon and argon, in contrast, both have completely filled outermost
shells. All the outer-shell electrons have essentially the same energy; the corresponding
ionization energy is high; and there’s little tendency for these electrons to interact with
other atoms. As a result, argon and neon are inert; they don’t readily form chemical
compounds, and at normal temperatures they’re gases. Other element pairs also share
similar properties. Fluorine and chlorine, for instance, each need only one more elec-
tron to achieve the energetically favorable inert-gas configuration. Consequently these
elements readily accept electrons. Materials such as common salt, NaCl, owe their high
melting points to the strong bond that results when reactive sodium gives up its outer
 36.5 Transitions and Atomic Spectra 655

electron to electron-accepting chlorine, and the resulting positive and negative ions bind
strongly by the electrostatic force. We’ll consider molecular bonding in the next chapter.
Beyond argon 1Z 5 182, shielding effects of the inner electrons result in the 4s states
having lower energy than the 3d states. Potassium 1Z 5 192 thus has the electronic con-
figuration 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 rather than 1s22s22p63s23p63d1. After potassium comes
calcium, with two electrons in its single 4s orbital. But the 4p orbitals do have higher en-
ergy than the 3d, so elements beyond calcium begin filling the 3d orbitals. The next ten
elements, scandium through zinc, have chemical properties that vary only slightly because
their two outermost electrons remain 4s electrons; collectively, they’re transition ele-
ments. (Chromium, Z 5 24, and copper, Z 5 29, are minor exceptions; in these an extra
electron goes into the 3d orbitals, leaving only one 4s electron.) Finally, elements 31
(gallium) through 36 (krypton) repeat the pattern of aluminum through argon shown in
Table 36.2, as their 4p orbitals fill with electrons. Krypton, with its outer p subshell full, is
again an inert gas.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 36.1 The Periodic Table

Explain the general structure of the periodic table’s first five rows. The fifth row is a repeat of the fourth, as first the 5s orbitals fill, then the
higher-energy 4d orbitals, then the remaining 5p orbitals.
EVALUATE Each row of the periodic table starts with an element
whose outermost shell contains a single s electron; these elements in- ASSESS Our explanation shows why elements in each column of the
clude hydrogen and the highly reactive alkali metals. Each row ends periodic table have similar chemical properties, while those properties
with an inert gas, its outermost p subshell full. The first row involves generally change as we move across the table’s rows.
filling the 1s orbital only; since this orbital holds at most two elec-
trons, there are only two elements in the first row. The second row has
eight elements, associated with the filling of the 2s and 2p orbitals, as MAKING THE CONNECTION Determine the electronic configura-
shown in Table 36.2. The third row is like the second, but with the 3s tion of iron.
and 3p orbitals filling. Because the 4s orbitals have lower energy than EVALUATE Z 5 26 for iron, so we need to accommodate eight more
the 3d orbitals, the third row ends with an inert gas whose 3p orbitals electrons outside iron’s argon-like core. Since iron is a transition ele-
are full, and the fourth row begins as the 4s orbital begins to fill. Then ment, its 4s orbitals fill before 3d. So two electrons go into 4s and the
come the elements Z 5 21 through Z 5 30, in which the 3d orbitals remaining six into 3d. Iron’s electronic configuration is therefore
are filling; these make for ten additional elements in the fourth row. 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2.

The sixth and seventh rows don’t quite fit our analysis in Conceptual Example 36.1. At
element 57, lanthanum, the 4f orbitals begin filling while the outermost electron remains 6s.
This continues through element 71, lutetium, giving elements 57–71 similar chemical prop-
erties. These elements constitute the lanthanide series, and they’re printed separately be-
low the main table. Row seven repeats this pattern, with the actinide series. Seventh-row
elements beyond uranium (element 92) are radioactive with half-lives that are short com-
pared to Earth’s age. They’re not found naturally but are produced in particle accelerators,
fission reactors, and nuclear explosions. Elements beyond the actinides are very short-lived.
Note the crucial role the exclusion principle plays in our discussion of the chemical
elements. Without that principle, every atom in its ground state would have all its elec-
trons in the 1s orbital. There would be no qualitative distinction among the elements, and
the science of chemistry would not exist. Nor would there be any chemists or physicists;
life itself would be impossible without the rich diversity of chemical compounds formed
from the different elements.

36.5 Transitions and Atomic Spectra

Emission and absorption of photons with specific energies provide the most direct mani-
festation of quantized atomic-energy levels, and give rise to the spectral lines that permit
precise analysis of atomic systems from the laboratory to distant astrophysical objects.
Even simple hydrogen exhibits myriad quantum states. In multielectron atoms, the possi-
bilities for electronic excitation are even more numerous. The spectra of atoms reflect this
rich array of available quantum states.
656 Chapter 36 Atomic Physics

S P D F Selection Rules
0
7f
Not all energy-level transitions are equally likely. So-called selection rules determine
7p 7d
7s 6p
6d 6f which are allowed transitions—those most likely to occur. One rule limits allowed tran-
5d 5f
6s sitions to those for which the orbital quantum number l changes by Dl 5 61; this and
5p 4d 4f
–1 5s other selection rules are related to conservation of angular momentum. Quantum mechan-
4p ics also provides a way of calculating transition probabilities, and from them the mean
3d
lifetimes of excited states. For outer electrons, excited states that de-excite by allowed
4s transitions have typical lifetimes on the order of 1029 s.
Energy (eV)

–2
Transitions that are not allowed by selection rules are called forbidden transitions;
most are not strictly impossible but just extremely unlikely. States that can lose energy
only by forbidden transitions are metastable states; their lifetimes are many orders of
–3 3p magnitude longer than the nanosecond timescale for allowed transitions. “Glow in the
dark” phosphorescent materials emit light through the slow de-excitation of metastable
states. Forbidden spectral lines are valuable probes of low-density astrophysical gases in
–4 which collisions are rare, and atoms can therefore remain in metastable states.
Near-vertical
lines show
allowed Optical Spectra
transitions.
–5 Spectral lines in or near the visible involve transitions among the incompletely filled outer
3s
atomic shells. The alkali metals, with a single outer s electron, therefore produce spectra
FIGURE 36.16 Energy-level diagram for sodium, qualitatively similar to that of hydrogen. However, the more complicated structure of a mul-
neglecting spin-orbit splitting. Note the widely
separated 4s and 4p levels, with 3d between
tielectron atom shifts some energy levels (Fig. 36.16). Many of the transitions in Fig. 36.16
them; this explains why the 4s orbital fills are actually doublets or triplets resulting from spin-orbit splitting (Fig. 36.17). The energy-
before 3d. level structure is even more complicated for atoms with more than one outer-shell electron.

3p3/2 3p1/2

D2 D1
λ = 588.995 nm λ = 589.592 nm

FIGURE 36.17 Magnified portion of sodium’s

energy-level diagram, showing spin-orbit splitting
of the 3p level. Transitions from the two states
result in the slightly different wavelengths of the
sodium D doublet. 3s

GOT IT? 36.3 Which of the transitions shown in Fig. 36.16 results in a photon of the
shortest wavelength?

EXAMPLE 36.4 Atomic Spectra: The Sodium Doublet

Use Fig. 36.17 to determine the energy difference between the 3p Fig. 36.17, and then subtract to get the energy difference between the
states of sodium. 3p levels.

INTERPRET We’re asked about the energy difference between two EVALUATE We have
atomic states (3p1/2 and 3p3/2), and we’re given the wavelengths of hc hc
DE3p 5 2 5 3.42310222 J.
photons emitted in transitions from those states to a common end state 588.995 nm 588.592 nm
13s2. We know that those photons carry off energy equal to the differ-
ence between the energies of the starting and ending states. ASSESS Our answer is about 2 meV, much lower than the eV-range
energies associated with optical transitions themselves. That’s ex-
DEVELOP The quantization condition E 5 hf relates photon energy pected, given the small separation between the 3p states evident in
and frequency; since fl 5 c, we also have E 5 hc/l. Our plan is to Fig. 36.17. In sodium, states below 3s are all full, so 3s is the lowest
use this expression for the energies for the two transitions shown in end state for optical transitions. ■
 36.5 Transitions and Atomic Spectra 657

Spontaneous and Stimulated Transitions Before After

What makes an electron jump between energy levels? In an upward transition, the elec- E2 E2
tron must absorb the appropriate amount of energy. Generally, that energy is supplied by a
photon whose energy is equal to the energy difference between the two levels; the process
E1 E1
is called stimulated absorption (Fig. 36.18a). (Upward transitions can result from other
processes as well, as, for example, in an energetic collision between two atoms or the in- (a)
teraction of a free electron with atomic electrons.)
For most downward transitions, however, there’s no specific cause. An electron E2 E2
spontaneously jumps from a higher to a lower energy level and a photon is emitted; this
is spontaneous emission (Fig. 36.18b). Although an individual spontaneous emission
is a random event, quantum mechanics gives the probability per unit time for that event E1 E1
to occur; the inverse of that probability is the mean lifetime of the excited state. (b)
In 1917 Einstein recognized a third possibility: Excited atoms can be stimulated to drop
into lower energy states by the mere presence of a photon, again of energy appropriate to E2 E2
the transition. A second photon is emitted in the process, with the same energy and phase
as the stimulating photon, and in the same direction. This process, stimulated emission,
is the reverse of stimulated absorption (Fig. 36.18c). E1 E1
Spontaneous emission, stimulated absorption, and stimulated emission play major roles (c)
in the transfer of radiation through gases. And stimulated emission is responsible for an
important technological development: the laser. FIGURE 36.18 Interaction of photons with atomic
electrons. Horizontal lines denote two atomic
energy levels, and the wave is a photon with
energy equal to the difference between the
two levels. (a) Stimulated absorption; (b) spon-
taneous emission; (c) stimulated emission.

APPLICATION The Laser

These will drop . . . and six

This electron in succession . . . photons will
dropped . . . stimulating emerge.
spontaneously . . . these two.

As Fig. 36.18c suggests, stimulated emission is a way to multiply photons with interstellar gas clouds. Some lasers, especially those using chemical dyes or
identical wavelength and phase. The laser, whose name derives from light temperature-sensitive semiconductors, are tunable over a range of wavelengths.
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, exploits this effect to produce Laser light is monochromatic, since all photons have essentially the same en-
an intense beam of coherent light. The key to laser action is a population inver- ergy. It’s coherent because the photons all have the same phase. Coherence allows
sion, an unusual situation with many atoms in an excited state. The excited state the beam to travel long distances with minimal spreading and enables very precise
is usually metastable, to prevent spontaneous emission from de-exciting the focusing. Finally, laser light can be made extremely intense, since stimulated emis-
atoms. Atoms are first excited to a higher state from which they quickly drop by sion extracts energy from many atoms simultaneously. Since photons are spin-1
spontaneous emission to the metastable state, where they’re “stuck” by the lack of particles that don’t obey the exclusion principle, there’s no limit to the number of
allowed transitions downward. The excitation process is called pumping, and the photons in a laser beam. Small lasers like those used in laser pointers have power
excitation energy source is the pump. Laser pumps include flash lamps, sunlight, outputs in the sub-milliwatt range, while large continuous lasers in excess of 1 MW
other lasers, electric currents, chemical reactions, and even nuclear explosions. are available, and pulsed outputs of 100 MW and higher have been achieved. Mul-
With a large number of excited atoms, it isn’t long before one randomly de- tiple laser systems, like those used in nuclear fusion experiments, reach peak pow-
excites even from the metastable state. It emits a photon that passes by other ers of 1014 W—100 times the output of all the world’s electric generating plants.
excited atoms, causing stimulated emission. That makes more photons and still Today lasers are ubiquitous. They’re used in commonplace applications like
more stimulated emission, as shown in the figure. The process snowballs, re- bar-code scanners and CD/DVD drives. Medical lasers correct vision, whiten
sulting in an intense beam of photons with the same wavelength and phase. In teeth, and perform bloodless surgery. Biologists use laser beams as “optical tweez-
a laser, the radiating medium sits in a cavity with mirrors at the ends; as the ers” to manipulate microscopic structures within cells. Lasers have replaced older
photons reflect off the mirrors and traverse the medium, more and more stimu- technologies in surveying, leveling, and measuring instruments used in construc-
lated emission results, building up the beam intensity. One mirror is only par- tion. Industrial lasers cut metal, shape gears, and harden surfaces. Semiconductor
tially reflective to allow the laser beam to emerge. Some lasers produce a short lasers drive the optical fibers that carry communications signals and Internet traf-
burst of radiation before being pumped to prepare for another burst. Others are fic. Military lasers lock on targets for precise weapons guidance. Ultrafast lasers
pumped continuously, resulting in a continuous beam. probe chemical reactions that occur on femtosecond timescales. Lasers halt atoms’
The first laser, built in 1960, used a ruby rod as the lasing medium, sur- thermal motion, cooling materials to nanokelvin levels and enabling Bose–Einstein
rounded by a coiled flash lamp for the pump. Since then a myriad of laser types condensates. Laser beams reflected from the Moon measure its distance to within a
have been developed. Almost anything can be used as the lasing medium, pro- few centimeters, testing Einstein’s general relativity. Holograms capture interfering
vided a population inversion is possible. Laser media include gases, solids, liq- laser wavefronts, creating three-dimensional images. Future laser applications may
uids, semiconductors, and ionized plasmas. Natural laser action occurs even in include laser-driven spaceflight and the use of lasers to clear space debris.
CHAPTER 36 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is that atomic electrons are quantum particles trapped in the 3-dimensional potential well associated with the electric force. Solv-
ing the Schrödinger equation then leads to quantized energy levels. Considerations of electron spin and orbital angular momentum introduce subtle
details into the atom’s energy-level structure. The exclusion principle permits only one atomic electron per quantum state, and this fact underlies
the shell structure of atoms and the periodic table of the elements.

Key Concepts and Equations

The principal quantum number n determines the energy levels in 0 eV Ionized n 5 ` P(r)
hydrogen: 20.85 eV n54 1s
21.5 eV n53
E1

Energy (eV)
1 "2 213.6 eV 23.4 eV n52
En 5 2 2 5 2 5
n 2ma02
n n2
2s
For n 5 1 the electron is most likely to be found one Bohr radius a0
from the nucleus; in higher-energy states it’s likely to be farther
away. 213.6 eV n51 0 5 10 15
Ground state r/a0
Energy-level diagram Radial probability density

The orbital quantum number l determines The orbital magnetic quantum number ml deter- z
the angular momentum: mines the component of the angular momentum along
any given axis: Lz = h
L 5 2l1l 1 12"
r
where l ranges from 0 to n 2 1. Lz 5 ml" L = 2h
Lz = 0
This is space quantization, where ml ranges from
2l to l. Space quantization
for l = 1
Lz = – h

Electrons are spin-12 particles or fermions; z Spin-orbit coupling results in fine-structure splitting of atomic-
the component of their spin angular mo- energy levels.
Sz = 1 h
mentum on a given axis is 612 ". 2 2P3/2
Electron spin gives rise to the electron’s r
intrinsic magnetic dipole moment, charac- S = 3h n=2
2
terized by the Bohr magneton: 2P1/2
Sz = – 1 h
2
mB 5 e"/2m 5 9.27310 224
A # m2

! !
Spin angular momentum S and total angular momentum J obey quantization rules similar to those of orbital angular momentum.

Applications
Bosons are particles with inte- In stimulated absorp- Before After
ger spin. They don’t obey the tion, an electron ab- E2 E2
Stimulated
exclusion principle, allowing sorbs a photon and absorption
many particles to be in the jumps to a higher en- E1 E1
same state, as happens in a ergy level.
Bose–Einstein condensate or E2 E2
a laser beam. Electrons in excited Spontaneous
states can drop to emission
E1 E1
Forming a Bose– Einstein condensate lower energy states by
either spontaneous or
stimulated emission. E2 E2
Stimulated
emission
E1 E1
 Exercises and Problems 659

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 24. Some very short-lived particles known as delta resonances have
spin 32. Find (a) the magnitude of their spin angular momentum
1. The electron in a hydrogen atom is somewhat like a particle con- and (b) the number of possible spin states.
fined to a three-dimensional box. In the atom, what plays the role 25. What are the possible j values for a hydrogen atom in the 3D
of the confining box? state?
2. A friend who hasn’t studied physics asks you the size of a hydro- Section 36.3 The Exclusion Principle
gen atom. How do you answer?
26. An infinite square well contains nine electrons. Find the energy
3. How many quantum numbers are required to specify fully the
of the highest-energy electron in terms of the ground-state en-
state of a hydrogen atom?
ergy E1.
4. Both the Bohr and Schrödinger theories predict the same ground-
27. A quantum harmonic oscillator with frequency v contains 21
state energy for hydrogen. Do they agree about the angular
electrons. What’s the energy of the highest-energy electron?
momentum in the ground state? Explain.
5. Is it possible for a hydrogen atom to be in the 2d state? Explain. Section 36.4 Multielectron Atoms and the Periodic Table
6. Can the component of a quantized angular momentum measured 28. Use shell notation to characterize rubidium’s outermost electron.
on a given axis ever equal the magnitude of the angular momen- 29. Write the full electronic structure of scandium.
tum vector? Explain. 30. Write the full electronic structure of bromine.
7. The electron is a spin-12 particle. Does this mean the electron’s
intrinsic angular momentum is 21 "? Explain. Section 36.5 Transitions and Atomic Spectra
8. How does the Stern–Gerlach experiment provide convincing evi- 31. Show that the wavelength l in nm of a photon with energy E in
dence for space quantization? eV is l 5 1240/E.
9. Why is there no spin-orbit splitting in hydrogen’s ground state? 32. The 4f S 3p transition in sodium produces a spectral line at
10. How does the exclusion principle explain the diversity of chemi- 567.0 nm. Find the energy difference between these two levels.
cal elements? 33. The 4p S 3s transition in sodium produces a double spectral
11. Helium and lithium exhibit very different chemical behavior, yet line at 330.2 and 330.3 nm. What’s the energy splitting of the
they differ by only one unit of nuclear charge. Explain. 4p level?
12. Why is stimulated emission essential for laser action?
Problems
13. What distinguishes a Bose–Einstein condensate from ordinary
matter? 34. Adapt part (b) of Example 36.1 to find the probability that an
electron in the hydrogen ground state will be found beyond two
Bohr radii.
Exercises and Problems 35. Determine the principal and orbital quantum numbers for a hy-
drogen atom whose electron has energy 0.850 eV and orbital
Exercises angular momentum L 5 112".
Section 36.1 The Hydrogen Atom 36. Find (a) the energy and (b) the magnitude of the orbital angular
14. Using physical constants accurate to four significant figures (see momentum for an electron in the 5d state of hydrogen.
inside front cover), verify the numerical values of the Bohr radius 37. Assuming the Moon’s orbital angular momentum is quantized,
a 0 and the hydrogen ground-state energy E1. estimate its orbital quantum number l.
15. A group of hydrogen atoms is in the same excited state, and pho- 38. The maximum possible angular momentum for a hydrogen atom
tons with at least 1.5-eV energy are required to ionize these in a certain state is 30111". Find (a) the principal quantum
atoms. What’s the quantum number n for the initial excited state? number and (b) the energy.
16. Find the maximum possible magnitude for the orbital angular 39. A hydrogen atom is in an l 5 2 state. What are the possible an-
momentum of an electron in the n 5 7 state of hydrogen. gles its orbital angular momentum vector can make with a given
17. Which of the following is not a possible value for the magni- axis?
tude of the orbital angular momentum in hydrogen: (a) 112 "; 40. A hydrogen atom has energy E 5 20.850 eV. Find the maxi-
(b) 120 "; (c) 130 "; (d) 140 "; (e) 156 "? mum possible values for (a) its orbital angular momentum and
18. The orbital angular momentum of the electron in a hydrogen atom (b) the component of that angular momentum on a given axis.
has magnitude 2.585310234 J # s. Find its minimum possible energy. 41. An electron in hydrogen is in the 5f state. What possible values,
19. What’s the orbital quantum number for an electron whose orbital in units of ", could a measurement of the orbital angular momen-
angular momentum has magnitude L 5 130 "? tum component on a given axis yield?
20. A hydrogen atom is in the 6f state. Find (a) its energy and (b) the 42. Substitute Equation 36.3 into Equation 36.4 and carry out the dif-
magnitude of its orbital angular momentum. ferentiations to show that you get the first unnumbered equation
21. Give a symbolic description for the state of the electron in a following Equation 36.4.
hydrogen atom with total energy 21.51 eV and orbital angular 43. Differentiate the radial probability density for the hydrogen
momentum 16". ground state, and set the result to zero to show that the electron is
most likely to be found at one Bohr radius.
Section 36.2 Electron Spin 44. Repeat Exercise 25 for the case where you know only that the
22. Verify the value of the Bohr magneton m B in Equation 36.14. principal quantum number is 3; that is, l might have any of its
23. Theories of quantum gravity predict a spin-2 particle called the possible values.
graviton. What would be the magnitude of the graviton’s spin an- 45. A hydrogen atom is in the 4F5/2 state. Find (a) its energy in units
gular momentum? of the ground-state energy, (b) its orbital angular momentum in
660 Chapter 36 Atomic Physics

units of ", and (c) the magnitude of its total angular momentum n 5 4 state. (a) Draw an energy-level diagram showing all al-
in units of ". lowed transitions that could occur as this electron drops toward
46. Suppose you put five electrons into an infinite square well of the ground state, including transitions from lower levels that
width L. Find an expression for the minimum energy of this sys- could be reached from n 5 4. (b) Find all the possible photon en-
tem, consistent with the exclusion principle. ergies emitted in these transitions.
47. A harmonic oscillator potential of natural frequency v contains 64. An ensemble of one-electron square-well systems of width 1.17 nm
eight electrons and is in its lowest-energy state. (a) What is its all have their electrons in highly excited states. They undergo all
energy? (b) What would the lowest energy be if the electrons possible transitions in dropping toward the ground state, obeying
were replaced by spin-1 particles of the same mass? the selection rule that Dn must be odd. (a) What wavelengths of
48. You work for a nanotechnology company developing a new visible light are emitted? (b) Is there any infrared emission? If so,
quantum device that operates essentially as a one-dimensional in- how many spectral lines lie in the infrared?
finite square well of width 2.5 nm. You’re asked to specify the 65. Use the radial probability density from Equation 36.5 and the
maximum number of electrons in the device before the total elec- normalized ground-state hydrogen wave function from Equation
tron energy exceeds 25 eV. Your answer? 36.3 and Example 36.1 to calculate the average radial distance rav
49. Determine the electronic configuration of copper. for an electron in the ground state. (Note: Because the probability-
50. An electron in a highly excited state of hydrogen 1n1 W 12 drops density curve isn’t symmetric, the average radial distance isn’t
into the state n 5 n2. Find the lowest value of n2 for which the the same as the most probable distance shown in Fig. 36.3.)
emitted photon will be in the infrared. 66. Follow the procedure in Problem 65 to calculate the average ra-
51. A solid-state laser made from lead–tin selenide has a lasing tran- dial distance for an electron in the 2s state of hydrogen.
sition at a wavelength of 30 m. If its power output is 2.0 mW, 67. The ratio of the magnetic moment, in units of the Bohr magneton
how many lasing transitions occur each second? mB, to the angular momentum, in units of ", is called the g-factor.
52. For hydrogen, fine-structure splitting of the 2p state is only about (a) Show that the classical orbital g-factor for an atomic electron
50 eV. What percentage is this difference of the photon energy in a circular Bohr orbit is gL 5 1. (b) Show that Equation 36.13
emitted in the 2p S 1s transition? Your answer shows why it’s gives gS 5 2 for the g-factor associated with electron spin.
hard to observe spin-orbit splitting in hydrogen. 68. You work for a company that makes red helium–neon lasers
53. Find the probability that the electron in the hydrogen ground widely used in physics experiments. Figure 36.19 shows an
state will be found in the radial-distance range r 5 a0 6 0.1a0. energy-level diagram for this laser. An electric current excites he-
54. You’ve acquired a laser for your dental practice. It produces 400-mJ lium to a metastable level E1 at 20.61 eV above the ground state.
BIO pulses at 2.94-m wavelength. A patient wonders about the num- Collisions transfer energy to neon atoms, exciting them to
ber of photons in each pulse, and where they lie in the EM spec- E2 5 20.66 eV. The lasing transition drops the atoms to E3,
trum. Your answer? emitting a 632.8-nm photon in the process. You’re asked to find
55. What’s the most orbital angular momentum that could be added the maximum possible efficiency for this laser—that is, the light
to an atomic electron initially in the 6d state without changing its energy emitted as a percentage of the energy supplied to excite
principal quantum number? What would be the new state? the atoms. Your answer?
56. A hydrogen atom is in an F state. (a) Find the possible values for
22
its total angular momentum. (b) For the state with the greatest an- E1 E2
Energy (eV above common ground state)

20 632.8 nm
gular momentum, ! find the number of possible values for the E3
18
component of J on a given axis.
16
57. A hydrogen atom is in the 2s state. Find the probability that its 14
electron will be found (a) beyond one Bohr radius and (b) beyond 12
10 Bohr radii. 10
58. Show that the maximum number of electrons in an atom’s nth 8
shell is 2n2. 6
59. Form the radial probability density P21r2 associated with the c2s 4
state of Equation 36.7, and find the electron’s most probable ra- 2
dial position. 0 E0 E0
Helium Neon
60. Substitute the wave function c2 of Equation 36.7 into Equation
36.4 to verify that the equation is satisfied and that the energy is FIGURE 36.19 Energy-level diagram for the helium–neon laser (Problem 68).
given by Equation 36.6 with n 5 2.
61. (a) Verify Equation 36.8 by considering a single-electron atom
with nuclear charge Ze instead of e. (b) Calculate the ionization Passage Problems
energies for single-electron versions of helium, oxygen, lead, and With sufficient energy, it’s possible to eject an electron from an inner
uranium. atomic orbital. A higher-energy electron will then drop into the unoc-
62. Excimer lasers for vision correction generally use a combination cupied state, emitting a photon with energy equal to the difference be-
BIO of argon and fluorine to form a molecular complex that can ex- tween the two levels. For inner-shell electrons, photon energies are in
ist only in an excited state. Stimulated de-excitation produces the keV range, putting them in the X-ray region of the spectrum.
6.42-eV photons, which form the laser’s intense beam. What’s These characteristic X rays are labeled with the letter indicating the
the corresponding photon wavelength, and where in the spectrum shell to which the electron drops, followed by a Greek letter indicat-
does it lie? ing the higher level from which it drops; thus Ka designates a transi-
63. A selection rule for the infinite square well allows only those tion from the L shell to the K shell.
transitions in which n changes by an odd number. Suppose an in- Characteristic X rays provide scientists and physicians with an im-
finite square well of width 0.200 nm contains an electron in the portant diagnostic tool. Environmental scientists bombard pollution
 Answers to Chapter Questions 661

samples with high-energy electrons, knocking out inner-shell elec- 70. In general, how should the energy of an element’s La X rays
trons and thus producing X-ray spectra that help identify contami- compare with the energy of its Ka X rays?
nants (Fig. 36.20a). Geologists do the same with rocks. Medical a. They have less energy.
radiologists reverse the process, exploiting the fact that X rays cause b. They have the same energy.
inner-shell transitions as well as complete ejection of inner-shell c. They have greater energy.
electrons. In particular, radiologists use the element barium in this d. You can’t tell without knowing the element.
way to produce high-contrast X-ray images of the intestinal tract 71. Elements A and B have atomic numbers ZA and ZB 5 2ZA. How
(Fig. 36.20b). do you expect element B’s Ka X-ray energy to compare with that
of element A?
a. B’s Ka energy should be about one-fourth that of A.
b. B’s Ka energy should be about half that of A.
c. B’s Ka energy should be about twice that of A.
AsKa 1 PbLa d. B’s Ka energy should be about four times that of A.
72. Emission of characteristic X rays occurs in the context of multi-
X-ray intensity

Pb electron atoms that generally have all but one of their electrons
As Lb
present. You should therefore expect the X-ray energies to be de-
Kb scribed
a. quite accurately by Bohr’s atomic theory.
b. through hydrogen-like solutions to the Schrödinger equation.
3 5 7 9 11 13
X-ray energy (keV) c. only approximately by Bohr’s or hydrogenic solutions to the
(a) (b) Schrödinger equation.

FIGURE 36.20 Passage Problems 69–72. (a) An X-ray spectrum from air pollu-
tants trapped on a filter. The labeled peaks show the presence of lead (Pb) Answers to Chapter Questions
and arsenic (As), as evidenced by Ka, Kb, La, and Lb characteristic X rays.
(b) X-ray of an intestinal tract, made by coating the intestinal wall with Answer to Chapter Opening Question
X-ray-opaque barium
Only one electron is allowed in a given atomic quantum state, leading
to the shell structure of atoms and to chemical properties based on the
69. Molybdenum’s X-ray spectrum has its Ka peak at 17.4 keV. The outermost atomic electrons.
corresponding X-ray wavelength is closest to
a. 1 pm. Answers to GOT IT? Questions
b. 100 pm. 36.1. (c).
c. 1 nm. 36.2. Six.
d. 100 nm. 36.3. 5p S 3s.
 37 Molecules and Solids

New Concepts, New Skills

By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Describe the principal kinds of
molecular bonding (37.1).
■ Evaluate energy levels associated
with molecular rotation and
vibration (37.2).
■ Predict and analyze molecular
spectra (37.2).
■ Describe quantitatively the structure
of ionic solids (37.3).
■ Describe the electrical properties of
insulators, conductors, and semicon-
ductors using band theory (37.3).
■ Explain the role of the Fermi energy
in metallic conduction and its tem-
perature dependence (37.3).
■ Distinguish between type I and
type II superconductors (37.4).
What equation determines the structure
of a complex molecule, like the aspirin
molecule shown here?

Connecting Your Knowledge

This chapter applies quantum mechan-
ics to molecules and solids. It’s necessar-
I n principle, we could apply the Schrödinger equation to all the particles making up a molecule
or even a solid, but in practice that’s difficult for all but the simplest molecules. Ever-increasing
computer power has brought more complex molecules within reach of structural calculations
ily more qualitative than preceding based in the Schrödinger equation, but in many cases it’s appropriate to describe molecular and
chapters, but it draws on and elaborates solid structure more qualitatively.
the following quantitative notions:
■ Potential-energy curves (7.4)
■ The quantum harmonic oscillator
37.1 Molecular Bonding
(35.3) The binding of atoms into molecules involves both electric forces and quantum-mechanical
■ Angular momentum and rotational effects associated with the exclusion principle. Although individual atoms are electrically
inertia (10.3, 11.3) neutral, the distribution of charge within them gives rise to attractive or repulsive forces.
■ Rotational energy (10.4) When atoms are squeezed closely together, interactions involving the spins of their outer-
■ Quantization of angular momentum most electrons also result in attractive or repulsive interactions. For atoms with unfilled
(36.2, 36.3) outer shells, it’s energetically favorable for electrons to pair with opposite spins; this
■ The interaction of electric dipoles causes an attractive interaction. When the outer atomic shells are filled, the exclusion prin-
(20.5) as the origin of the van der ciple forces electrons from separate atoms into different states as the atoms are brought
Waals force between molecules (17.1) together. One or more electrons go into higher energy states, raising the overall energy and
■ Mechanisms of electrical conduction, resulting in a repulsive interaction. Finally, if atoms get very close, the electrical repulsion
including semiconductors (24.2) of the nuclei becomes important. Ultimately, the balance of attractive and repulsive inter-
■ The specific heats of gases (18.3) actions determines the equilibrium configuration of a molecule. In energy terms, we can

662
 37.1 Molecular Bonding 663

think of a stable molecule as a minimum-energy configuration of the electrons and nuclei 8

Equilibrium
making up two or more atoms (Fig. 37.1). Although such force and energy considerations

Potential energy (eV)

6 separation
ultimately govern all molecules, we distinguish several molecular binding mechanisms 4
based on which interactions are most important.
2
r0
Ionic Bonding 0
1 2 3 4 5 6
As we saw in Chapter 36, elements near the left side of the periodic table have few elec- –2
trons in their outermost shells and correspondingly low ionization energies. In contrast, –4 Nuclear separation (Bohr radii)
elements near the right side of the table have nearly filled shells and consequently strong
FIGURE 37.1 Potential energy of a pair of hydro-
affinities for electrons. When atoms from these different regions of the periodic table gen atoms as a function of the distance
come together, it takes relatively little energy to transfer electrons between them. Sodium, between their nuclei.
for example, has an ionization energy of 5.1 eV, meaning it takes this much energy to
make an Na1 ion. Chlorine, at the opposite end of the periodic table, has such a strong
electron affinity that the energy of a Cl2 ion is actually 3.8 eV below that of a neutral Cl
atom. Thus an expenditure of only 1.3 eV 15.1 eV 2 3.8 eV2 is required to transfer the
outermost electron from a sodium to a chlorine atom. The resulting ions are strongly at-
tracted and come together until they reach equilibrium at an internuclear separation of
about 0.24 nm. The total energy of the pair is then 4.2 eV below that of neutral chlorine
and sodium atoms at large separation (Fig. 37.2). Since it would therefore take 4.2 eV to
separate the atoms, this quantity is called the dissociation energy.
Because the minimum-energy sodium–chlorine structure consists of ions bound by the
electrostatic force, the binding mechanism is termed ionic bonding. Ionic bonding gener-
ally occurs in crystalline solids. Because the building blocks of an ionically bound sub-
stance are electrically charged, each can bind to several of the opposite charge, resulting
in a regular crystal pattern (Fig. 37.3). Because the electrostatic force is strong, ionic
solids are tightly bound and therefore have high melting points (801°C for NaCl). And be-
cause all electrons are bound to individual nuclei, there are no free electrons and therefore
ionic solids are electrical insulators.
Need to supply 1.3 eV
to transfer electron
6 from Na to Cl, creating
Na1 and Cl2
4
Potential energy (eV)

2 Na+ + Cl–
1.3 eV
0 Na + Cl
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 r (nm)
–2 Dissociation energy Na+
4.2 eV
–4 Cl –
–6

FIGURE 37.2 Potential-energy curve for Na1 FIGURE 37.3 A sodium chloride
and Cl2 ions, with zero energy corresponding crystal is a regular array of sodium
to infinite separation of neutral Na and Cl and chlorine atoms, bound by the
atoms. electrostatic force.
Highest probability
here, encouraging
Covalent Bonding atoms to stay together

In an ionic bond, each electron is associated with only one ion. In a covalent bond, on the
other hand, electrons are shared among atoms. Covalent bonds occur between atoms whose
outermost shells aren’t full, and whose outer electrons can therefore pair with opposite
spins. The simplest example of a covalent bond is the hydrogen molecule, H 2. Since each
hydrogen atom has a single 1s electron, each could accommodate in its 1s shell a second
electron with opposite spin. When two hydrogen atoms join, quantum mechanics predicts a
molecular ground state in which both electrons share a single orbital, with the highest prob- FIGURE 37.4 Probability density for finding
ability of finding the electrons between the nuclei (Fig. 37.4). Dissociation energies for electrons in the ground state of molecular
covalent bonds are, like those of ionic bonds, on the order of a few electronvolts. hydrogen 1H22.
664 Chapter 37 Molecules and Solids

With their outermost molecular orbitals full, covalently bonded molecules often have
no room for another electron in their structures. For example, adding a third hydrogen to
H 2 is impossible because the ground-state orbital already contains two electrons with op-
posite spins, so the exclusion principle requires that a third electron go into a higher en-
ergy state. The energy of that state is higher than that of an H 2 molecule and a distant
H atom; for this reason H 3 isn’t a stable molecule. Because their outermost molecular or-
bitals are full, covalent molecules interact only weakly, and as a result many common co-
valent materials—for example, H 2, CO, N2, and H 2O—are either gases or liquids at
ordinary temperatures. In other cases covalent bonds can form crystalline structures.
A simple example is diamond, a pure-carbon solid formed when each carbon atom bonds
covalently to its four nearest neighbors. A more dramatic covalent molecule is buckmin-
sterfullerene, C 60, a soccer-ball configuration of 60 carbon atoms (Fig. 37.5).

FIGURE 37.5 Buckminsterfullerene, C 60 , is a sym-

metric arrangement of 60 carbon atoms. Dis- Hydrogen Bonding
covered in the 1980s, C60 and related fullerenes If water consists of covalently bonded molecules, why is it ever a solid? The answer lies
hold promise in a wide range of technological
applications.
in hydrogen bonds that form when the tiny, positively charged proton of a hydrogen nu-
cleus nestles close to the negative parts of other molecules. In ice, hydrogen bonds link a
proton in one H 2O molecule to the oxygen in another. Because covalent bonding within
the water molecule leaves the oxygen only slightly negative and the hydrogen only slightly
positive, hydrogen bonds are much weaker than ionic or covalent bonds; a typical hydro-
gen-bond energy is 0.1 eV. Hydrogen bonds are important in determining the overall con-
figuration of complicated molecules. In DNA, for example, covalent bonds join atoms to
form long chains; hydrogen bonds then link two chains into the double-helix structure.

Van der Waals Bonding

In Section 20.5 we mentioned the van der Waals force that arises from electrostatic inter-
actions between induced dipole moments of otherwise nonpolar molecules. In gases, the
van der Waals force causes deviations from the ideal-gas law that are most pronounced at
high densities. As temperature drops, this weakly attractive force becomes effective in
binding molecules into liquids and solids. Liquid and solid oxygen 1O22 and nitrogen 1N22,
for example, are held together by van der Waals bonds.

Metallic Bonding
In a metal, the outermost atomic electrons aren’t bound to individual nuclei, but move
throughout the material. The metal forms a crystal lattice of positive ions, bound by this
“electron gas.” The free electrons give a metal its high electrical and thermal conductivities.

37.2 Molecular Energy Levels

(a) In a molecule, electric forces bind electrons and nuclei into a single structure. Like any
quantum-mechanical bound system, the energy levels of a molecule are quantized. As in
atoms, differences among molecular energy levels are associated with different electronic
configurations (Fig. 37.6). But molecules are more complex than atoms, and molecular
energy can take additional forms.
In Chapter 18, we found that a complete description of the specific heats of gases re-
quired that we consider the rotational and vibrational motions of individual molecules. We
hinted at quantum mechanics, pointing out that each of these modes of molecular motion
could absorb only certain discrete amounts of energy (see Fig. 18.17). Here, in a quantum-
mechanical treatment of molecular energetics, we consider rotational and vibrational
(b)
energy states as well as electronic configuration.

FIGURE 37.6 Electron probability densities for Rotational Energy Levels

(a) the ground state and (b) the first excited
state of hydrogen. Nuclei are farther apart If a molecule is rotating, it has angular momentum L whose magnitude, from Equation
in the excited state. 11.4, is L 5 Iv, where I is the rotational inertia and v the angular speed. The quantization
 37.2 Molecular Energy Levels 665

conditions that we found in Chapter 36 for atomic angular momenta also hold for the
angular momentum of molecular rotation, so we have
L 5 2l1l 1 12" (37.1)
where the quantum number l takes on integer values 0, 1, 2, 3, c. But then the rotational
energy, which from Equation 10.17 is Erot 5 12 Iv2, must also be quantized. Solving the
equation L 5 Iv for v allows us to write the energy as
L 2 L2
Erot 5 12 I a b 5
I 2I
Applying the quantization condition 37.1 for L, we then have the quantized rotational
energy levels:
"2
Erot 5 l1l 1 12 for l 5 0, 1, 2, 3, c (37.2)
2I

EXAMPLE 37.1 Molecular Rotation: Computing Molecular Size

A gas of HCl molecules shows spectral lines that result from transi- EVALUATE (a) The energy difference D1DE2 between adjacent transi-
tions between pairs of adjacent rotational energy levels. The energy of tion energies is
the transition increases by 2.63 meV from one spectral line to the "2 l "21l 2 12 "2
next. (a) Use this experimental result to determine the rotational iner- D1DE2 5 2 5
I I I
tia of the HCl molecule. (b) Approximating the more massive chlorine
as being essentially fixed, find an expression for the rotational inertia Setting this to the observed 2.63-meV spacing and solving for I give
in terms of the hydrogen mass and the separation of the two atomic I 5 2.65310247 kg # m2, where we had to convert meV to J to get the
nuclei. (c) Use the results of parts (a) and (b) to determine the internu- result in SI. (b) We’ve already shown that I 5 mR2. (c) Equating our
clear separation in HCl. algebraic and numerical expressions for I and solving give the inter-
nuclear distance:
INTERPRET We’re asked to infer molecular properties from spectro- I 2.65310247 kg # m2
scopic observations. We’re given not the wavelength or energy of a given R5 5 5 0.126 nm
A m A 1.67310227 kg
spectral line, but the energy difference associated with adjacent lines.
where we approximated the hydrogen mass, m, with the proton mass
DEVELOP Spectral lines result from photons emitted as a molecule listed inside the front cover.
drops from one of the energy levels of Equation 37.2 to the next lower
level. So the energy of such a photon is ASSESS Our answer makes sense, since it’s slightly larger than an iso-
lated hydrogen atom. However, it’s approximate because we took the
"2
"l 2
DEl S l21 5 3l1l 1 12 2 1l 2 12l4 5 chlorine as perfectly fixed and we also ignored the quantum-mechanical
2I I ground-state energy of molecular vibration, which stretches the mole-
An adjacent spectral line would result from the transition l 2 1 S l 2 2, cule. Photon energies for low l values are on the order of that 2.63-
giving DEl21 S l22 5 "21l 2 12/I. So our plan for (a) is to take the dif- meV spacing, corresponding to a wavelength of about 0.5 mm. This is
ference between these two transition energies, equate it to the ob- in the microwave region of the spectrum, with much lower energy and
served energy difference of 2.63 meV between adjacent spectral lines, longer wavelength than we’ve seen for transitions between atomic
and solve for I. For (b) we can treat the molecule as having a fixed energy levels. ■
center (Cl) with a particle (H) in circular motion. Its rotational inertia
is then given by Equation 10.12: I 5 mR2. Equating the two expres-
sions for I will let us solve for the internuclear separation R in (c).

Curve approximates
Vibrational Energy Levels
Potential energy

a parabola . . .
The equilibrium configuration of a molecule corresponds to the minimum of the molecu- . . . giving simple
harmonic motion.
lar potential-energy curve. In the vicinity of that minimum the curve is well approximated
by a parabola (Fig. 37.7). In Chapter 13 we saw that parabolic potential-energy curves re-
sult in simple harmonic motion, and in Chapter 35 we used a parabolic potential-energy
curve in the Schrödinger equation for the harmonic oscillator. There, we found that quan- Atomic separation
tized vibrational energy levels are given by
FIGURE 37.7 Near its minimum, the molecular
Evib 5 A n 1 12 B "v (37.3) potential-energy curve approximates a parabola.
666 Chapter 37 Molecules and Solids

where the quantum number n takes on integer values 0, 1, 2, 3, c, and where v is the
natural frequency for classical harmonic oscillations of the molecule. The selection rule
for harmonic oscillators limits allowed transitions to those with Dn 5 61, so "v is the
energy of photons emitted or absorbed in allowed transitions among vibrational energy
levels. (Actually, the small-amplitude approximation is often justified for only the lower
quantum states, so Equation 37.3 and the selection rule Dn 5 61 may apply to only
these states.) For typical diatomic molecules, v is on the order of 1014 s21, in the infrared
region of the spectrum. Consequently, study of molecular vibrations involves infrared
spectroscopy.
As we found in Chapter 35, the minimum energy of a quantum harmonic oscillator
is the ground-state energy E0 5 12 "v. Thus a molecule can never have zero vibrational
energy, although Equation 37.2 shows that it can have zero rotational energy.

EXAMPLE 37.2 Molecular Energies: Rotational and Vibrational

An HCl molecule is in its vibrational ground state. Its classical vibra- EVALUATE Equating the vibrational and rotational energies gives
tion frequency is f 5 8.6631013 Hz. If its rotational and vibrational "2
energies are nearly equal, what are its rotational quantum number and l1l 1 12 5 12 "v 5 "pf
2I
angular momentum?
where we used v 5 2pf. So l1l 1 12 5 2pfI/", and Equation 37.1,
INTERPRET We’re being asked to compare energies associated with L 5 2l1l 1 12", gives
two different processes: vibration and rotation. We’re told the vibra- 2pfI
tional energy state (the ground state, n 5 0), and we need to find the L5 " 5 12pfI" 5 1fIh 5 1.23310233 J # s
A "
rotational state with comparable energy.
where we used the rotational inertia I 5 2.65310247 kg # m2 that we
DEVELOP Equation 37.3, Evib 5 A n 1 B
2 "v, with n 5 0 gives the
1 found in Example 37.1.
ground-state vibrational energy Evib 5 12 "v 5 12 hf, where we used
ASSESS Our angular momentum is about 12 times "; approximating
" 5 h/2p and v 5 2pf. Our plan is to equate this to the rotational
l1l 1 12 by l2 in Equation 37.1 then shows that l is about 12. So we
energy of Equation 37.2, Erot 5 1"2/2I2l1l 1 12, and solve for the
need a fairly high rotational quantum state to give the same energy as
quantity l1l 1 12. Then we’ll use Equation 37.1 to get the angular
the vibrational ground state. That’s consistent with transitions be-
momentum.
tween adjacent rotational states involving microwave photons, while
vibrational transitions involve infrared photons. ■

Molecular Spectra
l=4 A molecule with vibrational quantum number n and rotational quantum number l can
undergo transitions obeying the selection rules Dn 5 61 and Dl 5 61. If molecules
l=3 couldn’t rotate, the molecular spectrum would consist of a single line at the classical vi-
n=1
l=2 bration frequency, corresponding to transitions among adjacent vibrational states. But
l=1
l=0 each vibrational level corresponds to an infinite number of rotational states. The result-
ing energy-level diagram is shown in Fig. 37.8. At typical temperatures, only the ground
l=4 and first vibrational levels are significantly populated, but with energy distributed
among many rotational levels. As a result, molecular spectra show a rich structure, with
l=3 many lines corresponding to the different transitions of Fig. 37.8. Figure 37.9 is a spec-
n=0
l=2 trum of HCl, taken with a high-resolution infrared spectrometer that resolves the indi-
l=1
l=0 vidual spectral lines. At lower resolution, the pattern shows up as a broad band, and we
often speak of infrared absorption bands in describing the effect of molecules on in-
FIGURE 37.8 Energy-level diagram showing the
frared radiation. For example, absorption bands of atmospheric carbon dioxide limit the
ground state and first vibrational excited
state of a diatomic molecule; also shown are escape of infrared radiation from Earth, causing the global warming that we described
four of the infinitely many rotational states in Chapter 16. Molecular energy levels are therefore at the heart of today’s most global
for each n. environmental concern.
 37.3 Solids 667

These lines correspond

to the left-hand arrows . . . and these to the
in Fig. 37.8 . . . right-hand arrows.

Fine splitting
Absorption shows mass
difference
between
35Cl and
37Cl.

3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 FIGURE 37.9 Absorption spectrum of HCl, show-
Wavelength (m) ing lines that result from transitions between
Increasing energy the n 5 1 and n 5 0 vibrational states.

GOT IT? 37.1 You meet a scientist who uses microwave technology to study molec-
ular structure. What form of molecular energy is she most concerned with?

37.3 Solids
Bonding mechanisms can join relatively few atoms to form a molecule, or many to form a
solid. In the lowest energy state, the atoms of a solid are arranged in a regular, repeating
pattern; the solid is then crystalline. Sometimes solids form without their atoms having
the opportunity to achieve a crystal structure; such solids are termed amorphous. Glass is
a common amorphous solid. Amorphous materials are difficult to analyze due to their in-
herent randomness, so we concentrate here on crystalline solids.

Crystal Structure
The hallmark of a crystalline solid is the regular arrangement of atoms. Looking closely
shows that a basic pattern repeats throughout the crystal (Fig. 37.10). This basic arrangement
is the unit cell. Different crystalline materials have different unit cells (Fig. 37.10a, c). Some-
times the same underlying matter may assume different structures, depending on how the
solid was formed; this is the case with diamond and graphite, both crystalline forms of carbon.
As with individual molecules, properties like atomic separation in a crystalline solid are
determined by the interplay of attractive and repulsive interactions. The situation is compli-
cated, however, because an individual atom experiences forces from many other atoms in
the crystal. With ionic bonding, those forces are electrical attraction and repulsion as

Na+

Cl–

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 37.10 (a) The unit cell of cesium chloride has eight chlorine ions surrounding each cesium ion.
(b) A cesium chloride crystal is a periodic array of unit cells. (c) Sodium chloride is different; here each
ion is surrounded by only six nearest neighbors of the opposite type.
668 Chapter 37 Molecules and Solids

described by Coulomb’s law; that makes ionic crystals most amenable to simple mathe-
matical treatment.
For ionic crystals, we can take individual ions to be point charges. Consider the NaCl
structure of Fig. 37.10c. Each sodium ion is surrounded by six nearest chlorine ions, each
some distance r away. The potential energy of a singly ionized positive sodium ion in the
potential of each negative chlorine ion is 2ke2/r. So the contribution to the potential en-
ergy of the six nearest chlorines is 26ke2/r, with the minus indicating an attractive inter-
action. But then there are 12 sodium ions a distance 12r from the sodium; they give rise
to a repulsive force and consequently a positive potential energy 112ke2/12r. At a dis-
tance of 13r there are eight more chlorines, giving potential energy 28ke2/13r. The re-
sult is that the electrostatic potential energy of the sodium ion can be written as
U1 5 2a1ke2/r2, where a 5 6 2 12/12 1 8/13 2 c; a is called the Madelung
constant. Many terms in the series are required to compute a accurately, showing that the
effect of distant ions is significant in determining the energy of an ion in the crystal. For
the NaCl structure, a is approximately 1.748.
2 As ions are brought closer together, they experience the repulsive effect of the exclu-
sion principle, as we discussed in Section 37.1. This repulsion is described approximately
Repulsive by a potential energy of the form U2 5 A/rn, where A and n are constants. So the total
Energy (units of |U0|)

1
potential energy of an ion in the crystalline solid is
Separation (units of r0)
ke2 A
0 U 5 U1 1 U2 5 2a 1 n
1 2 3 r r
Total At equilibrium the potential energy is a minimum (Fig. 37.11), corresponding to zero net
–1 Equilibrium
at minimum force on the ion. Differentiating the potential energy with respect to r and setting dU/dr to
Attractive
zero to find the minimum, we have
–2
ake2 nA
FIGURE 37.11 Potential-energy function for an 05 2 n11
ionic crystal, showing separate contributions r02
r0
of the attractive and repulsive terms.
where r0 designates the equilibrium separation. Solving for A gives A 5 ake2 r0n21/n, so
the potential energy becomes
ke2 r0 1 r0 n
U 5 2a c 2 a b d (37.4)
r0 r n r
The value of U at the equilibrium separation r0 is designated U0 and is called the ionic co-
hesive energy. The magnitude of U0 represents the energy needed to remove an ion en-
tirely from the crystal. The cohesive energy is sometimes given in kcal/mol, in which case
its magnitude is the energy per mole needed to break an entire crystal into its constituent
ions (see Exercise 23).

EXAMPLE 37.3 Potential Energy in a Solid: The NaCl Crystal

The ionic cohesive energy for NaCl is 27.84 eV. The equilibrium EVALUATE Solving gives
separation, which follows from the measured density, is 0.282 nm (see U0 r0 21
Exercise 22). Use these values and the Madelung constant a 5 1.748 n 5 a1 1 2 b 5 8.22
ake
to find the exponent n in Equation 37.4 for NaCl.
with k the constant in Coulomb’s law and e the elementary charge;
INTERPRET Here we’re given all but one of the quantities in the ex- other quantities are given in the problem statement.
pression for a crystal’s potential energy, and we’re asked to solve for
the one unknown, n. ASSESS The large value of this exponent shows that the NaCl crystal
is strongly resistant to compression. In Problem 46 you can calculate
DEVELOP Equation 37.4 for the potential energy U looks formidable, the associated repulsive force. ■
with n in two places, including an exponent. But we’re given the ionic
cohesive energy U0, which is the value of U when r 5 r0. So the two
terms r0 /r become 1, and since 1n 5 1, the n in the exponent drops
out. With r 5 r0 and U 5 U0, Equation 37.4 simplifies to
ke2 1
U0 5 2a a1 2 b
r0 n
Our plan is to solve this equation for n.
 37.3 Solids 669

Band Theory
Quantum-mechanical analysis of a solid containing 1023 atoms or so might seem a hope-
less task. But the regularity of a crystalline solid makes that problem, while not easy, at
least amenable to mathematical treatment. The physical regularity of the solid is reflected
mathematically in the properties of the wave function; specifically, the wave function for a
crystalline solid in equilibrium is itself periodic. That’s because equivalent points in dif-
ferent unit cells have exactly the same physical properties.
We won’t solve the Schrödinger equation for a crystal, or even write the solutions. But we
can see what some properties of those solutions must be. Consider two identical atoms, ini-
tially widely separated, as they’re brought closer together. When the atoms are far apart,
they’re described by identical wave functions and associated energy-level diagrams; a given
electron state, for example, has exactly the same energy in each atom. But as the atoms move
closer, their wave functions begin to overlap to form a single wave function that characterizes
the entire composite system. Because of the exclusion principle, two electrons that were in
identical states in the two widely separated atoms can no longer be in the same state. This
effect manifests itself as a separation of what were originally identical energy levels
(Fig. 37.12a). As more and more atoms come together, initially identical energy levels split
into ever more finely spaced levels (Fig. 37.12b). In a crystalline solid, there are so
many atoms that each level splits into an essentially continuous band of allowed ener-
gies (Fig. 37.12c). Band gaps separate the bands arising from distinct single-atom
states, as shown in Fig. 37.12c. An electron can have any energy between the top and
bottom of a band, but energies in the band gaps are forbidden. The situation is like a sin-
gle atom, where electrons are allowed only certain discrete energies, except now the dis-
crete levels have broadened into bands.

Equilibrium
separation
Potential energy

Potential energy

Potential energy

2s 2s 2s

Eg Energy gap

1s 1s 1s

r0
Atomic separation Atomic separation Atomic separation
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 37.12 (a) Energy levels of the 1s and 2s states as a pair of atoms are brought close together. (b) With
five atoms, each level splits into a group of five closely spaced levels. (c) In a crystalline solid, the large
number of atoms results in essentially continuous energy bands, separated by gaps.

We’re usually interested in the properties of a solid at or near its equilibrium state, des-
ignated r0 in Fig. 37.12c. There the solid is characterized by an energy-level diagram in
which the energy levels are those of Fig. 37.12c at the value r 5 r0 (Fig. 37.13).

2s band
Energy

1s band

FIGURE 37.13 Energy-level diagram for the

equilibrium separation of Fig. 37.12c.
670 Chapter 37 Molecules and Solids

Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

3p Unoccupied states
Sometimes the splitting and shifting depicted in Fig. 37.12 result in overlapping bands.
Figure 37.14 shows the band structure of sodium, in which the 3s and 3p bands overlap.
Note that the high-energy band containing electrons—here the 3s/3p band—is not com-
pletely full, meaning that energy levels in the upper portion of the band aren’t occupied by
3s
electrons.
Occupied states
We can determine which of the allowed energy levels of a solid will be occupied in the
same way we established the electronic structure of atoms: by placing a given total num-
FIGURE 37.14 Band structure of metallic sodium, ber of electrons in the lowest possible levels consistent with the exclusion principle. In
with gray indicating filled states and color some materials, like sodium, that filling process results in the highest-energy occupied
unfilled states. Bands lower than 3s aren’t
band being only partially full. But in others, like the material shown in Fig. 37.15, the
shown; they correspond to inner electrons,
whose levels aren’t split significantly. highest-energy occupied band is completely full.
Figures 37.14 and 37.15 show the essential difference between conductors and insula-
tors. A conductor is a material in which charges are free to move in response to an electric
field. Classically, there’s no problem with this: Apply an electric field, and if an electron
Unoccupied states is “free,” it will accelerate and gain energy. But quantum mechanically, an electron can
gain energy only by jumping into a higher allowed energy level. So there needs to be a
higher unoccupied level available.
Energy

In sodium, the 3s atomic level contains a single electron, although it has room for two.
Put N sodium atoms together to form a crystal, and the 3s band contains only N of the to-
tal 2N electrons it could hold. So the 3s band is only half full, as Fig. 37.14 shows, and
therefore electrons near the top of the filled portion have available unoccupied states with
Occupied states only a little more energy. That makes it easy for an electric field to promote electrons to
unoccupied levels. For that reason sodium is an electrical conductor.
FIGURE 37.15 Band structure for an insulator. In the material of Fig. 37.15, in contrast, one band is completely full and the next
higher one empty. An electron in the filled band can’t gain energy unless it’s enough to
jump the band gap. Electric fields of reasonable magnitude can’t provide this energy, so
the electrons are stuck in the filled bands. That makes the material an insulator.

Metallic Conductors
We found in Chapter 24 that classical physics can’t account for the details of metallic
conduction, in particular the temperature dependence of conductivity. Quantum me-
chanically, the conduction electrons in a metal are like electrons in the three-dimen-
sional box of Section 35.4. They’re free to move about inside the metal, but not to leave
it. The number of states available to the electrons, per unit energy interval, turns out to
increase with energy. You can see the beginnings of this trend in Fig. 35.18, which
shows the first few states of the three-dimensional box. We won’t do this count; the re-
sult, however, is given by
2 7/2pm3/2
g1E2 5 a b 1E (37.5)
h3
where m is the electron mass and g1E2 is the density of states—the number of states per
unit volume per unit energy interval centered on the energy E.
At absolute zero, electrons fill the lowest available states according to the exclusion
principle. The energy of the highest filled level at absolute zero is the Fermi energy, EF.
At temperature T 5 0, all states below the Fermi energy are full, and all those above are
empty, as shown in Fig. 37.16a.
For T . 0, thermal energy promotes some electrons to levels above the Fermi energy,
leaving some levels just below EF vacant (Fig. 37.16b). Now, the Fermi energy in most
metals is about 1–10 eV, much higher than the thermal energy at typical temperatures
(0.025 eV at room temperature). So the electron distribution changes only slightly—and
that means electrons near the Fermi energy carry essentially all the electric current, re-
gardless of temperature. The mean electron speed is therefore quite different from the
 37.3 Solids 671

classical thermal speed (see Problem 50), and that makes the temperature dependence of
electrical conductivity in metals very different from the classical prediction.

At T 5 0, states
below EF are
Density of states, g(E) At T . 0 . . .

Density of states, g(E)

full . . .
. . . thermal
. . . and states energy promotes
above EF are a few electrons
empty. to levels above EF.

EF EF
Energy, E Energy, E
(a) (b)

FIGURE 37.16 Density of states given by Equation 37.5, with shaded region indicating occu-
pied energy levels. (a) T 5 0; (b) T . 0.

GOT IT? 37.2 Both parts of Fig. 37.16 describe the same piece of metal. How do the
shaded areas compare? Why? What’s your interpretation of this shaded area?

Semiconductors
In Chapter 24 we gave a classical description of semiconductors—the materials at the Table 37.1 Band-Gap Energies for Selected
heart of our modern electronic world. Here we see how band theory gives a quantum- Semiconductors (at 300 K)
mechanical explanation of semiconductors. Semiconductor Band-Gap Energy (eV)
Our band diagram for an insulator (Fig. 37.15) is strictly correct only at absolute
zero. Here the highest occupied band—the valence band—is full, and above it the Si 1.14
conduction band is empty. At temperatures above absolute zero, though, random ther- Ge 0.67
mal energy may give an occasional electron enough energy to jump the gap into the InAs 0.35
conduction band, where it has plenty of nearby states available and can thus respond InP 1.35
freely to an electric field. In good insulators, the band gap is many electronvolts and GaP 2.26
this effect is negligible. But in some materials, notably silicon and germanium, the GaAs 1.43
band gap is on the order of 1 eV (see Table 37.1). At room temperature, thermal exci- CdS 2.42
tation promotes enough electrons into the conduction band that these materials conduct CdSe 1.74
electricity, although their conductivity is much lower than in metallic conductors. Such ZnO 3.2
a material is a semiconductor. Figure 37.17 compares the band structures for conduc- ZnS 3.6
tors, insulators, and semiconductors.

Conduction band

Valence band

Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

FIGURE 37.17 Band structures for a conductor, an insulator, and a

semiconductor. Gray indicates occupied states.
672 Chapter 37 Molecules and Solids

In Chapter 24 we showed how doping—adding small quantities of impurities—could

radically alter the electrical properties of semiconductors. In terms of band theory, a
dopant such as phosphorus, with five valence electrons, adds donor levels just below the
Donor
levels conduction band (Fig. 37.18a). Thermal energy readily promotes electrons from these lev-
Acceptor els into the conduction band, greatly increasing the conductivity. This makes an N-type
levels
semiconductor because its predominant charge carriers are electrons. A dopant like
boron, in contrast, creates acceptor levels just above the valence band (Fig. 37.18b). Elec-
trons promoted to these levels leave behind holes that act as positive charge carriers. The
result is a P-type semiconductor.
(a) (b)
In Chapter 24 we gave a classical explanation of how a junction of P- and N-type semi-
FIGURE 37.18 Band structures in doped conductors conducts electric current in only one direction. From there we went on to de-
semiconductors: (a) N-type; (b) P-type. scribe the operation of the transistor—the semiconductor device at the heart of all modern
electronics. We can also understand the PN junction in terms of band structure. In Fig.
24.10 we showed how electrons and holes diffuse across a PN junction, depleting the junc-
tion of charge carriers and making it a poor conductor. Diffusion of electrons also gives
the P-type side of the junction a net negative charge, and diffusion of the holes makes the
N-type side positive. This charge separation creates an electric field pointing from N to P,
as shown in Fig. 37.19a. The field opposes further diffusion of charge and thus establishes
an equilibrium in which there’s no net charge flow across the junction. Because they’ve
moved with the electric field, the electrons that have diffused into the P-type region have
higher potential energy than those that remained behind in the N-type region. (Remember
that electrons are negative, so their potential energy increases when they move in the same
direction as an electric field.) As a result, the band-structure diagram for electrons in the
PN junction takes the form shown in Fig. 37.19b.

P Junction N
Electrons
. . . and holes diffuse Conduction

Electron energy
diffuse into
into N region. band
P region . . . Potential
"hill"
r Band
E
This establishes r gap
P E N
an electric field Valence
from N to P. band
(a) (b)

Stronger electric field,

Lower higher
potential potential P
P Junction N Junction N
"hill" "hill"
Conduction Conduction
Electron energy

Electron energy

band band
r
r Band E
E Band
gap
gap
Valence Valence
band band
Weaker
electric field (c) (d)

FIGURE 37.19 (a) Physical picture of an unbiased PN junction and (b) the corresponding band structure.
(c) Band structure of a forward-biased junction and (d) a reverse-biased junction.

Now suppose we connect a battery to our PN junction, with the positive terminal to
the P-type side of the junction. This condition is called forward bias. The effect is to
make the P-type material less negative, the N-type less positive, and thus weaken the
electric field and lower the potential “hill” that separates the two regions (Fig. 37.19c). It
becomes easier for electrons to move from N to P and, as we could show with analogous
diagrams for holes, it’s easier for holes to move from P to N. So a current flows in the
P-to-N direction, and the forward-biased PN junction becomes a good conductor. If, on
 37.4 Superconductivity 673

the other hand, we connect the battery’s positive terminal to the N-type material, then we
strengthen the internal electric field and steepen the potential “hill,” making it hard for
charges to cross the junction (Fig. 37.19d). Now the PN junction is reverse biased, and
it’s a poor conductor.
As electrons and holes pour across a forward-biased junction, many recombine; that is,
they drop from the conduction band into the valence band, releasing energy in the process.
In light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and diode lasers, this energy appears as photons whose en-
ergy is close to that of the band gap. Because E 5 hf, the band gap determines the fre-
quency and, equivalently, the wavelength and color of the emitted light. Development of
semiconductor lasers with ever-larger band gaps enabled the evolution from CD to DVD to
Blu-ray discs that we outlined in Chapter 32. Conversely, a material whose band gap corre-
sponds to visible-light photons can absorb light energy, promoting electrons to the conduc-
tion band and driving current through an external circuit. Such photovoltaic cells have long
been used to generate electricity on spacecraft and in remote terrestrial applications. As FIGURE 37.20 Japan’s Sanyo Solar Ark incorpo-
their cost continues to drop, photovoltaics are increasingly used for electric power genera- rates some 5000 photovoltaic panels and gen-
tion on individual buildings and in larger-scale solar power plants (Fig. 37.20). erates a peak power of 630 kW.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 37.1 CD to Blu-ray: Engineering the Band Gap

The amount of information stored on CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs ASSESS As Making the Connection shows, the band gap for Blu-ray is
is limited in part by diffraction effects associated with the wave- nearly twice that of a CD laser. In fact, the trade name “Blu-ray” comes
length of the laser light used to “read” the disc (see Chapter 32’s Ap- from the blue wavelength used. Multiple-layer storage and better com-
plication “Movies on Disc”). The lasers used in optical drives are pression algorithms also contribute to Blu-ray’s much greater capacity.
semiconductor lasers, with wavelengths set by the semiconductors’
band gaps. Compare the band gaps of lasers used for reading CDs
and Blu-ray discs. MAKING THE CONNECTION The lasers that “read” CDs, DVDs,
and Blu-ray discs operate at 780 nm, 650 nm, and 405 nm, respec-
EVALUATE A CD holds 74 minutes of audio, yet a Blu-ray disc of tively. Find the corresponding band gaps.
the same physical size holds several hours of high-definition video.
EVALUATE Photon energy quantization E 5 hf 5 hc/l gives the pho-
So Blu-ray data are stored at a smaller spatial scale and thus require
a shorter wavelength to “read” the data. Since E 5 hf 5 hc/l, that ton energy and therefore the required band gap. Working in electron-
means higher photon energy and therefore a larger band gap. volts gives 1.59 eV for CD, 1.91 eV for DVD, and 3.07 eV for Blu-ray.

37.4 Superconductivity
In Chapter 24 we introduced superconductivity—the complete loss of electrical resist-
ance in some materials at low temperature. First discovered in mercury in 1911, supercon-
ductivity was for decades limited to a few elements and alloys below about 20 K. A
breakthrough in 1986 brought a new class of metal-oxide superconductors with supercon-
ducting transition temperatures of about 100 K; today the highest transition tempera-
tures exceed 160 K. The ultimate goal of a room-temperature superconductor, once
thought beyond reach, may yet be achieved.
Superconductors find use in an ever-increasing range of applications, including high-
strength electromagnets for MRI scanners, particle accelerators, materials separation, and
research; compact, efficient motors for vehicle and marine propulsion; high-Q filters for
cell-phone base stations; sensitive magnetic-field sensors for brain-wave imaging and
physics research; underground power transmission in crowded cities; and so-called syn-
chronous condensers for optimizing the power factor in AC power transmission (see Sec-
tion 28.5). Other applications include superconducting electronic devices that promise
orders-of-magnitude increases in computer speed, and magnetically levitated vehicles for
ground transportation at speeds up to 500 km/h (see the Application on p. 675).
674 Chapter 37 Molecules and Solids

Superconductivity and Magnetism

The hallmark of a superconductor is zero electrical resistance. Another distinguishing
characteristic is the Meissner effect, wherein a superconductor excludes magnetic flux
from its interior (Fig. 37.21). Figure 37.21c shows why: Currents in the superconductor
create their own magnetic field that exactly cancels the field within the material. As we
pointed out in Section 27.6, a superconductor’s exclusion of magnetic flux makes it per-
fectly diamagnetic. The magnetic levitation shown in Fig. 27.34 is a manifestation of the
Meissner effect, wherein a magnet is supported over a superconductor by mutual repul-
sion between the magnet and currents in the superconductor.

r
Above Tc magnetic In the superconducting Supercurrents J establish
field lines penetrate state, magnetic flux a field that adds with the
the material. is excluded. applied one in (a) to yield
the net field in (b).

r r r
B B B

r
J

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 37.21 The Meissner effect.

As the strength of an applied magnetic field increases, so do the currents and resulting
magnetic field of the superconductor. But beyond a critical field, the external magnetic
field alters the superconducting state, and the superconductor no longer excludes magnetic
flux. In type I superconductors, superconductivity ceases abruptly at the critical field
(Fig. 37.22a). Type II superconductors, in contrast, have upper and lower critical fields,
between which superconductivity gradually diminishes (Fig. 37.22b). At the lower critical
field the material begins to allow flux penetration, and a regular array of nonsuperconduct-
ing regions forms, centered on magnetic field lines. These grow with increasing field, un-
til at the upper critical field the superconducting regions vanish altogether.
Because electric currents generate magnetic fields, the critical field can limit the current-
carrying capability of superconductors. Fortunately type II superconductors have high
enough upper critical fields to permit substantial currents. Type IIs tend to be alloys or
complex mixtures, and include all the high-T superconductors. Critical fields of high-T
superconductors are as high as 100 T; however, these materials are brittle ceramics and
present engineering challenges to the fabrication of wires and other flexible conductors.
Field due to supercurrents

Field due to supercurrents

Superconductive
regions are decreasing . . .
Superconductivity
ceases. . . . until superconductivity
ceases.

Bc Bc1 Bc2
Applied field Applied field
(a) (b)

FIGURE 37.22 Responses of (a) type I and (b) type II superconductors to applied magnetic fields.
Bc denotes the critical field.
 37.4 Superconductivity 675

APPLICATION Maglev!

Passengers arriving at Shanghai’s Pudong International Airport make the 30-km

trip to a city metro station in only 7 minutes, “flying” on a magnetically levitated
vehicle—a maglev—at speeds exceeding 400 km/h. The Shanghai system uses
conventional electromagnets and electronic feedback circuits to keep the vehicle
levitated a mere 1 cm above its guideway. But others are developing maglev sys-
tems that rely on superconducting magnets for both levitation and propulsion.
Coils in the guideway carry alternating current, alternately pushing and pulling
the vehicle’s onboard magnet. In effect, vehicle and guideway become a linear
electric motor, much like a conventional motor that’s been “unwound” to produce
straight-line motion. In superconducting systems, any deviation from perfect
alignment with the guideway results in induced currents and, correspondingly,
magnetic forces that act to keep the maglev vehicle centered in its guideway. To-
day’s superconducting maglevs require onboard refrigeration systems, so devel-
opment of a room-temperature superconductor would make maglev a much more
attractive transportation alternative. The photo shows a Japanese superconducting
maglev that has achieved speeds of 450 km/h.

Theories of Superconductivity
Superconductivity is a purely quantum-mechanical phenomenon; classical physics is to-
tally inadequate to explain its existence. A successful theory of conventional low-Tc su-
perconductors, called the BCS theory after its originators, was formulated in 1957 by
John Bardeen, Leon Cooper, and John Robert Schrieffer; the trio shared the 1972 Nobel
Prize in physics.
In BCS theory, superconductivity results from a quantum-mechanical pairing of elec-
trons that leads to a lower-energy state in which electron pairs move through the crystal
lattice with no energy loss to the ions, resulting in zero electrical resistance. The electron
pairing involves one electron slightly deforming the ion lattice, with the second electron
attracted by the slight positive charge of the deformed lattice (Fig. 37.23a, b). But the
paired electrons aren’t physically close; typically, a million other electrons, each paired
with another distant electron, may lie between the two (Fig. 37.23c). The result of this
long-range pairing is coherent motion of the conduction electrons that extends throughout
the superconductor. Like well-choreographed dancers, the electrons all move together in a
way that precludes energy loss to the ion lattice.
High-temperature superconductors aren’t fully understood, although they almost cer-
tainly involve quantum-mechanical pairing of charge carriers. The mechanism of the pair-
ing is less clear; one promising candidate involves magnetic interactions, although other
mechanisms are under investigation. Superconductivity presents a continuing challenge to
both theorists and experimentalists.

106 electrons

– – – –
–
– –
Electrons correlated 1 m
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 37.23 Electron pairing in BCS theory. (a) A normal conductor, with uncorrelated electrons. (b) In a su-
perconductor, one electron passing through the lattice deforms it slightly. About 10212 s later, a second
electron passes through and experiences the potential of the deformed lattice. The two electrons are there-
fore correlated. (c) Paired electrons are typically 1 μm apart, with a million others in their vicinity. The coher-
ent motion of all the paired electrons results in superconductivity.
CHAPTER 37 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is that quantum mechanics can explain the structure of molecules and solids as well as the atoms treated in Chapter 36. At this
level we can’t solve the Schrödinger equation for these many-particle systems, but we’ve argued—using energy and angular momentum quantiza-
tion and the exclusion principle—that quantum effects are important in molecules and solids.

Key Concepts and Equations

Common types of molecular bonding include ionic, Molecules exhibit both rotational and vibrational energy, giving rise to a rich structure
covalent, hydrogen, van der Waals, and metallic of quantized energy levels and the resulting spectra.
bonding. Whatever the bonding mechanism, a stable ● Quantization of angular momentum leads to l=4
molecule is at the minimum of its potential-energy
quantized rotational energy levels: l=3
curve, shown below for H 2. n=1
"2 l=2
8 Erot 5 l1l 1 12, l 5 0, 1, 2, c l=1
Equilibrium 2I l=0
Potential energy (eV)

6 separation ● The vibrational energy levels are those of the

4 harmonic oscillator: l=4
2
r0
Evib 5 A n 1 1
2 B "v, n 5 0, 1, 2, c n=0
l=3
0 l=2
1 2 3 4 5 6 l=1
–2 l=0
–4 Nuclear separation (Bohr radii)

When atoms join to make solids, individual atomic energy levels separate to form
bands. Band theory distinguishes conductors from insulators depending on whether
Conduction band
the uppermost occupied band is partially or completely full, respectively.
Semiconductors are like insulators, but with a much smaller band gap that permits
thermal excitation of electrons into the conduction band.
In a metallic conductor, the energy of the highest occupied state at absolute zero Valence band
is the Fermi energy.
Conductor Insulator Semiconductor

Applications
Superconductivity is a quantum-mechanical phenomenon that occurs at low Superconductivity

supercurrents
supercurrents

Field due to
Field due to

temperatures and admits no classical explanation. Paired electrons move coher- regions decreasing . . .
Superconductivity
ently through a superconductor without energy loss to the ion lattice, resulting ceases. . . . superconductivity
ceases.
in zero electrical resistance. Superconductors exclude magnetic fields—the
Meissner effect—up to a critical field that destroys superconductivity, Bc Bc1 Bc2
abruptly in type I superconductors and gradually in type II superconductors. Applied field Applied field
(a) (b)

The band structure of doped semiconductors helps explain the one-way conduction of a PN junction, a phenomenon at the heart of modern
electronics.
Stronger electric field,
Lower higher
potential potential P Junction N
P Junction N "hill" P Junction N
"hill"
Electron energy

Electron energy

Electron energy

Conduction Conduction Conduction

Potential band band band
"hill" r r
E Band r Band E Band
gap E gap gap
Valence Valence Valence
band band band
Weaker
electric field
No applied voltage Forward bias Reverse bias
 Exercises and Problems 677

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion Section 37.3 Solids

22. Use the 2.16-g/cm3 density of NaCl to calculate the ionic spacing
1. Why is the exclusion principle crucial to the existence of stable r0 in the NaCl crystal. (Hint: Consult Appendix D.)
molecules? 23. Express the 7.84-eV ionic cohesive energy of NaCl in kilocalo-
2. Why do ionically bonded materials have high melting points? ries per mole of ions.
3. Ionic bonds clearly result from electrostatic attraction between 24. Lithium fluoride, LiF, has the same crystal structure as NaCl and
ions. In what way do covalent bonds also involve electrostatic therefore has essentially the same Madelung constant a. Its ionic
attraction? cohesive energy is 210.5 eV and the value of n in Equation 37.4
4. Does it make sense to distinguish individual NaCl molecules in a is 6.25. Find the equilibrium ionic separation in LiF.
salt crystal? What about individual H2O molecules in an ice crys- 25. Find the wavelength of light emitted by a gallium phosphide
tal? Explain. (GaP) light-emitting diode. (Hint: See Table 37.1.)
5. Is it useful to think of the highest-energy electrons as “belong- 26. What’s the shortest wavelength of light that could be produced
ing” to individual atoms in an ionically bonded molecule? In a by electrons jumping the band gap in a material from Table 37.1?
covalently bonded molecule? What is that material?
6. What are the approximate relative magnitudes of the energies as- 27. Which material in Table 37.1 would provide the longest wave-
sociated with electronic excitation of a molecule, with molecular length of light in a light-emitting diode? What’s that wavelength?
vibration, and with molecular rotation? 28. A common light-emitting diode is made with gallium arsenide
7. Radio astronomers have discovered many complex organic mol- phosphide (GaAsP) and emits red light at 650 nm. What’s its
ecules in interstellar space. Why were these discoveries made band gap?
with radio telescopes and not optical telescopes?
8. In Fig. 18.17, why are rotational states excited at lower tempera- Problems
tures than vibrational states?
29. A molecule drops from the l 5 2 to the l 5 1 rotational level,
9. Would you expect solid hydrogen to conduct electricity? Why or
emitting a 2.50-meV photon. If the molecule then drops to the ro-
why not?
tational ground state, what energy photon will it emit?
10. The Fermi energy in metals is much higher than the thermal en-
30. A molecule absorbs a photon and jumps to the next higher rota-
ergy at typical temperatures. Why does this make the mean speed
tional state. If the photon energy is three times what would be
of conduction electrons nearly independent of temperature?
needed for a transition from the rotational ground state to the first
11. Why does the size of the band gap determine whether a material
rotational excited state, between what two levels is the transition?
is an insulator or a semiconductor?
31. Find an expression for the energy of a photon required for a tran-
12. How would you expect the conductivity of an undoped semicon-
sition from the 1l 2 12th level to the lth level in a molecule with
ductor to depend on temperature? Why?
rotational inertia I.
13. Name some technological innovations that might result from a
32. A molecule with rotational inertia I undergoes a transition from
room-temperature superconductor.
the lth rotational level to the 1l 2 12th level. Show that the wave-
14. Suppose a room-temperature superconductor were discovered,
length of the emitted photon is l 5 4p2Ic/hl.
but it had a very low critical field. In what way would this limit
33. The rotational spectrum of diatomic oxygen shows spectral lines
its practical applicability?
spaced 0.356 meV apart in energy. Find O2’s atomic separation.
15. How do type I and type II superconductors differ?
(Hint: See Example 37.1, and remember that the oxygen atoms
have equal mass.)
Exercises and Problems 34. Use the result given in Problem 59 to find the bond length in car-
bon monoxide (CO), given that excitation of the first rotational
Exercises state requires photons of wavelength 2.59 mm.
Section 37.2 Molecular Energy Levels 35. For the HCl molecule of Example 37.2, determine (a) the energy
16. Find the energies of the first four rotational states of the HCl of the vibrational ground state and (b) the energies of photons
molecule described in Example 37.1. emitted in transitions among adjacent vibrational states, for the
17. The rotational inertia of oxygen 1O22 is 1.95310246 kg # m2. Find cases Dl 5 11 and Dl 5 21.
the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation needed to excite 36. Diatomic deuterium has classical vibration frequency
oxygen molecules to their first rotational excited state. 9.3531013 Hz and rotational inertia 9.17310248 kg # m2. Find
18. Find the wavelength of a photon emitted in the l 5 5 to l 5 4 tran- (a) the energy and (b) the wavelength of a photon emitted in a tran-
sition of a molecule whose rotational inertia is 1.75310247 kg # m2. sition between the n 5 1, l 5 1 state and the n 5 0, l 5 2 state.
19. Photons of wavelength 1.68 cm excite transitions from the rota- 37. Carbon dioxide contributes to global warming because the tri-
tional ground state to the first rotational excited state in a gas. atomic CO2 molecule exhibits many vibrational and rotational
What’s the rotational inertia of the gas molecules? excited states, and transitions among them occur in the infrared
20. The classical vibration frequency for diatomic hydrogen 1H 22 is region where Earth emits most of its radiation. Among the
1.3231014 Hz. Find the spacing between its vibrational energy strongest IR-absorbing transitions is one that takes CO2 from its
levels. ground state to the first excited state of a “bending” vibration and
21. The energy between adjacent vibrational levels in diatomic sets the molecule rotating in its first rotational excited state. The
nitrogen is 0.293 eV. What’s the classical vibration frequency energy required for this transition is 82.96 meV. What IR wave-
of N2? length does this transition absorb?
678 Chapter 37 Molecules and Solids

38. An oxygen molecule is in its vibrational and rotational ground 52. Photons with energy lower than a semiconductor’s band gap
states. It absorbs a photon of energy 0.19653 eV and jumps to the aren’t readily absorbed by the material, so a measurement of ab-
n 5 1, l 5 1 state. It then drops to n 5 0, l 5 2, emitting a sorption versus wavelength gives the band gap. An absorption
0.19546-eV photon. Find (a) the classical vibration frequency spectrum for silicon shows no absorption for wavelengths longer
and (b) the rotational inertia of the molecule. than 1090 nm. Use this information to calculate the band gap in
39. The internuclear spacing in diatomic hydrogen 1H 22 is 74 pm. silicon, and verify its value in Table 37.1.
Find the energy of a photon emitted in a transition from the first 53. Calculate the median wavelength lmedian for sunlight, treating the
rotational excited state to the ground state. Sun as a 5800-K blackbody (see Equation 34.2b). Use your re-
40. Biological macromolecules are complex structures that exhibit sult to decide whether zinc selenide, with band gap 3.6 eV, would
BIO many more vibrational modes than the diatomic molecules con- make a good photovoltaic cell.
sidered in this chapter. DNA has a low-frequency “breathing” 54. Pure aluminum, which superconducts below 1.20 K, exhibits a
mode whose associated photon wavelength is 330 m. Find the critical field of 9.57 mT. Find the maximum current that can be
corresponding (a) frequency and (b) photon energy in eV. carried in a 30-gauge (0.255-mm-diameter) aluminum super-
41. What wavelength of infrared radiation is needed to excite a tran- conducting wire without the field from that current exceeding
sition between the n 5 0, l 5 3 state and the n 5 1, l 5 2 state the critical field. (Hint: Where is the field greatest? Consult Ex-
in KCl, for which the rotational inertia is 2.43310245 kg # m2 and ample 26.7.)
the classical vibration frequency is 8.40 THz? 55. The critical field in a niobium–titanium superconductor is 15 T.
42. Find the wavelengths emitted in all allowed transitions between What current in a 5000-turn solenoid 75 cm long will produce a
the first three rotational states in the n 5 1 level to any states in field of this strength?
the n 5 0 level in H 2, whose rotational inertia and classical vi- 56. The transition from the ground state to the first rotational excited
bration frequency are 4.60310248 kg # m2 and 3.6931014 Hz, re- state in diatomic oxygen 1O22 requires 356 eV. At what tem-
spectively. perature would the thermal energy kT be sufficient to set di-
43. Determine the constant n in Equation 37.4 for potassium chloride atomic oxygen into rotation? Would you ever find diatomic
(KCl), which has the same crystal structure as NaCl and for oxygen exhibiting the specific heat of a monatomic gas at normal
which r0 5 0.315 nm and U0 5 27.21 eV. pressure?
44. A salt crystal contains 1021 sodium–chlorine pairs. How much en- 57. Green fluorescent protein (GFP) is a substance that was first ex-
ergy would it take to compress the crystal to 90% of its normal size? BIO tracted from jellyfish; variants are used to “tag” biological mole-
45. Lithium chloride, LiCl, has the same structure and therefore the cules for study. The original “wild” GFP absorbs 395-nm light,
same Madelung constant as NaCl. The equilibrium separation in undergoing an upward transition to an excited state. Movement
LiCl is 0.257 nm, and n 5 7 in Equation 37.4. Find the ionic of a proton within the protein then excites it to 2.44 eV above the
cohesive energy of the LiCl crystal. ground state. Photons emitted in the subsequent downward tran-
46. You’re researching the possibility of storing radioactive waste in sition to the ground state provide a visual indication of the GFP’s
underground salt formations. In support of this idea, you’d like location as seen in a microscope. What’s the wavelength of these
to demonstrate that salt is extremely resistant to compression. photons?
You differentiate Equation 37.4 to obtain an expression for the 58. The density of rubidium iodide (RbI) is 3.55 g/cm3, and its ionic
force on an ion in an ionic crystal, and then use your result to find cohesive energy is 2145 kcal/mol. Determine (a) the equilibrium
the force on an ion in NaCl if the crystal were compressed to half separation and (b) the exponent n in Equation 37.4 for RbI.
its equilibrium spacing (see Example 37.3 for relevant parame- 59. You’re troubled that Example 37.1 neglects the mass of the hy-
ters). You compare this with the electrostatic attraction at this drogen, and you wonder how much error this introduces. So you
compression. What do you find? consider a diatomic molecule consisting of different atoms with
47. Integrating Equation 37.5 over all energies gives the total number masses m1 and m2, separated by a distance R, and derive an ex-
of states per unit volume in a metal. Therefore, integrating from pression for the molecule’s rotational inertia about its center of
E 5 0 to E 5 EF—that is, over the occupied states only—gives mass. You then calculate a more accurate value for the HCl bond
the number of conduction electrons per unit volume. Carry out this length in Example 37.1. Your results?
integration to show that the electron number density is given by 60. What fraction of conduction electrons in a metal at absolute zero
2 9/2pm3/2 3/2 have energies less than half the Fermi energy?
n5 a b EF 61. The Madelung constant (Section 37.3) is notoriously difficult to
3h2
calculate because it’s the sum of an alternating series of nearly
48. The Fermi energy in aluminum is 11.6 eV. Use the result of Prob- equal terms. But it can be calculated for a hypothetical one-
lem 47 to find the density of conduction electrons in aluminum. dimensional crystal consisting of an evenly spaced line of alter-
49. Use the result of Problem 47 to determine the Fermi energy for cal- nating positive and negative ions (Fig. 37.24). Show that the po-
cium, which has 4.631028 conduction electrons per cubic meter. tential energy of an ion in this “crystal” can be written as
50. You’re trying to explain to your classmates how classical and
ke2
quantum descriptions of electrical conduction in metals differ. U 5 2a
Using copper’s Fermi energy (7.0 eV), you calculate the associ- r0
ated electron speed, then compare your result with the classical where the Madelung constant a has the value 2 ln 2.
thermal speed for an electron at room temperature (300 K). What
do you find, and how does this help with your explanation?
51. The Fermi temperature is defined by equating the thermal energy
kT to the Fermi energy, where k is Boltzmann’s constant. Calcu- r0
late the Fermi temperature for silver, for which EF 5 5.48 eV,
and compare it with room temperature. FIGURE 37.24 Problem 61
 Answers to Chapter Questions 679

62. The lower-energy states in a covalently bound diatomic molecule and PV cells’ semiconductor band-gap energy. For silicon, the band
can be found approximately from the so-called Morse potential gap is 1.14 eV; photons with less energy can’t promote electrons to the
U1r2 5 U01e21r2r02/a 2 e221r2r02/a2, where r is the atomic separa- conduction zone and are thus unavailable for the PV energy conver-
tion and U0, r0, and a are constants determined from experimen- sion. Conversely, photons with more than the band-gap energy give up
tal data. Calculate dU/dr and d2U/dr2 to show that U has a their excess energy as heat, also reducing PV efficiency.
minimum, and find expressions for (a) Umin and (b) the separation 66. Problem 53 shows that the median wavelength in the solar spec-
rmin at the minimum energy. trum is 710 nm, at the visible-IR boundary. What percentage of
63. (a) Count the number of electron states N1E2 with energy equal the incident solar energy can a silicon PV cell absorb? (Hint: See
to or less than E in Equation 35.8 by finding the volume available Exercise 36.31.)
to such states in the space with Cartesian coordinate axes a. about 25%
nx, ny, nz. (Hint: Consider each set of positive integers, at the cor- b. about 50%
ner of a unit cube, and that lies inside a radius 2nx2 1 ny2 1 nz2, c. about 75%
and remember that there are two spin values per state.) (b) Dif- 67. How does the percentage of the number of incident solar photons
ferentiate N1E2 with respect to E to obtain Equation 37.5. that a PV cell absorbs compare with the energy percentage in the
64. Use Equation 37.5 to calculate the average energy of a conduc- preceding problem?
tion electron at T 5 0 in terms of the Fermi energy. a. It’s less than the energy percentage.
65. You’re designing a new medical MRI imager, which calls for a b. It’s the same as the energy percentage.
BIO long solenoid wound with 75 turns per meter of niobium– c. It’s more than the energy percentage.
titanium superconductor. The upper critical field for your partic-
68. Making PV cells with a semiconductor whose band gap is lower
ular Nb-Ti alloy is 12 T. To avoid a disastrous loss of supercon-
than silicon’s will
ductivity (see Example 27.9), you want to limit the actual field to
a. increase the fraction of solar energy absorbed while decreas-
half the upper critical field. What maximum current do you spec-
ing the amount of absorbed energy lost as heat.
ify for your device?
b. increase both the fraction of solar energy absorbed and the
Passage Problems amount of absorbed energy lost as heat.
c. decrease the fraction of solar energy absorbed while increas-
Photovoltaic (PV) cells convert sunlight energy directly into electric-
ing the amount of absorbed energy lost as heat.
ity, with no moving parts (recall Fig. 37.20). In a PV cell, photons in-
d. decrease both the fraction of solar energy absorbed and the
cident on a semiconductor PN junction promote electrons to the
amount of absorbed energy lost as heat.
conduction band, producing electron-hole pairs and driving current
through an external circuit (Fig. 37.25). Commercially available PV 69. One way to improve PV efficiency is to make multi-layer cells
cells are 15–20% efficient, meaning they convert this fraction of inci- with several PN junctions using semiconductors with different
dent sunlight into electrical energy; the theoretical maximum effi- band gaps. For a multi-layer PV cell to be effective,
ciency is around 33% for silicon-based PV cells. An important a. the junction with the largest band gap should be closest to the
limitation on PV efficiency is the relation between the solar spectrum top of the PV cell.
b. the junction with the largest band gap should be closest to the
bottom of the PV cell.
Metallic Antireflection c. the largest band gap should correspond to infrared
contact coating
wavelengths.
Thin, d. the smallest band gap should correspond to ultraviolet wave-
transparent
lengths.
Photon N-type
semiconductor
Answers to Chapter Questions
PN
junction Answer to Chapter Opening Question
Metallic The Schrödinger equation.
contact
P-type Answers to GOT IT? Questions
semiconductor
37.1. Rotational energy.
FIGURE 37.25 Operation of a photovoltaic cell, showing a solar photon pro- 37.2. The shaded areas are the same; they represent the number of
ducing an electron-hole pair at the PN junction (Passage Problems 66–69). conduction electrons per unit volume.
 38 Nuclear Physics
New Concepts, New Skills
By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Characterize nuclei by atomic num-
ber and mass number, and explain
the difference between isotopes of
the same element (38.1).
■ Distinguish stable from unstable
nuclei, and explain the chart of
the nuclides (38.1).
■ Calculate nuclear sizes and spin
angular momenta (38.1).
■ Describe qualitatively models
of nuclear structure (38.1).
■ Describe the three common types
of radiation, and write equations
describing each (38.2).
■ Quantify radioactivity, and describe its
time dependence using half-life (38.2).
■ Describe the curve of binding energy
and how it explains energy release in
nuclear fission and fusion (38.3).
■ Explain nuclear fission and its role as
an energy source, including several
types of nuclear reactors (38.4). Changing regions of mental activity are evident in these
■ Describe nuclear fusion, explaining PET (positron emission tomography) scans of a human
how it powers the Sun and stars and brain. What is a PET scan actually “seeing,” and why does
outlining prospects for terrestrial PET require hospitals to have on-site cyclotrons?
fusion (38.5).

Connecting Your Knowledge

■ This chapter takes us into the nucleus I n Chapters 36 and 37 we explored atomic structure and saw how atoms join to form molecules
and solids. Now we turn inward, to the atomic nucleus. Since Ernest Rutherford and his col-
leagues discovered the nucleus in 1911, we’ve known that all the atom’s positive charge and nearly
at the heart of the atom. Although
much of this material is new, it builds all its mass are concentrated in a tiny nuclear region only about 1025 of the atom’s diameter.
on the idea of atomic structure (34.4). By 1920 Rutherford had proposed that nuclei beyond hydrogen contain neutral as well as posi-
■ It also draws on earlier physics tive particles, and today we know the nucleus is a composite of positive protons and neutral
concepts, including energy and the neutrons—collectively called nucleons. As we’ve seen, the uncertainty principle implies high
fundamental forces (4.3, Chapters 6 minimum energies for particles confined in small regions, so we can infer that the nucleus is a
and 7). huge energy repository. We’ll conclude this chapter with a look at humankind’s attempts to har-
ness that energy.

38.1 Elements, Isotopes, and Nuclear Structure

We saw in Chapter 36 how the number of electrons determines an atom’s shell structure
and therefore its chemical behavior. It’s the number of protons in the nucleus—the atomic
number, Z—that, in turn, determines the number of electrons in a neutral atom. That
means all nuclei with the same Z belong to the same element.

680
 38.1 Elements, Isotopes, and Nuclear Structure 681

Isotopes and Nuclear Symbols

Nuclei of the same element can, however, have different numbers of neutrons. That’s be-
cause neutrons don’t affect the nuclear charge and therefore have negligible influence on
chemical behavior. Nuclei of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are dis-
tinct isotopes. We call the total number of nucleons the mass number, A. Specification of the
atomic number Z and mass number A then fully describes a nucleus. Figure 38.1 shows
the conventional symbolism used in describing nuclei: the element symbol with a preced-
ing subscript for Z and superscript for A. Actually, the atomic number and symbol are re-
dundant. To be helium (He), for example, means to have two nuclear protons and therefore
Z 5 2; to be uranium means Z 5 92. Sometimes, therefore, we write helium-4, He-4, or
4
He to mean the same thing as 42He.
Elements typically have several naturally occurring isotopes; a few are shown in
Fig. 38.1. Most hydrogen has a single proton in its nucleus, but about one in 6500 hydro-
gen atoms is deuterium 121H2, whose nucleus contains a proton and a neutron. Most oxy-
gen is 168O, but O-17 and O-18 also occur naturally; their ratios in polar ice cores provide
valuable information about past climates. Most uranium is 238 92U, but 0.7% is the U-235
that’s used in fission reactors and weapons—hence the great concern about the prolifera-
tion of uranium-enrichment facilities to increase the proportion of U-235. Incidentally, the
atomic masses listed in the periodic table are averages that reflect the natural abundances
of an element’s several isotopes. Most elements also have short-lived radioactive isotopes
that don’t usually occur naturally but can be produced through nuclear reactions; more on
these later.

The mass number A is the

A total number of nucleons.
Z Symbol The atomic number Z is
the number of protons.

8 9
Hydrogen + + Oxygen
8 + 8 +

hydrogen-1 hydrogen-2
1 2 oxygen-16 oxygen-17
1H 1H 16 17
(deuterium) 8O 8O

+
Helium 143 146
+ + + Uranium
92 + 92 +
helium-3 helium-4
3 4
2 He 2 He uranium-235 uranium-238
235 238
92 U 92 U

FIGURE 38.1 Isotopes of a given element have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.

GOT IT? 38.1 Determine the number of protons and neutrons in these nuclei: (a) 126C;
(b) 158O; (c) 57 239
26Fe; (d) 94Pu.

The Nuclear Force

Given the electrical repulsion of the protons, there must be another force acting attrac-
tively to bind the nuclear constituents. Throughout much of the 20th century, this nuclear
force was considered fundamental, but we now recognize it as a manifestation of a more
fundamental force between the quarks that make up neutrons and protons. We’ll explore
quarks and their interactions in Chapter 39.
The attractive nuclear force acts between all nucleons—neutrons and protons, protons
and protons, neutrons and neutrons. It’s very strong at distances of less than a few fem-
tometers 110215 m2, but falls approximately exponentially with distance—more rapidly
682 Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics

than the inverse-square falloff of the electric force. The attractive nuclear force therefore
dominates between two neighboring protons, but electrical repulsion becomes dominant
for more widely separated protons. The structure of the nucleus is determined, to a first
approximation, by the interplay between the weaker but long-range electric force and the
stronger but shorter-range nuclear force.

Stable Nuclei
Not every combination of protons and neutrons will stick together indefinitely. Too many
protons, and electrical repulsion wins out; sooner or later the nucleus decays by emitting a
r r
chunk of nuclear material (more details in Section 38.2). In larger nuclei most protons are
F F far apart and therefore experience electrical repulsion more strongly than nuclear attrac-
+ +
tion (Fig. 38.2). To hold these nuclei together therefore requires more neutrons, which
contribute attractive nuclear force but not electrical repulsion. So larger nuclei tend to have
a higher ratio of neutrons to protons. Even this effect has its limits, though, and the result
is that there are no stable nuclei for Z . 83.
FIGURE 38.2 Two widely separated protons in a Too many neutrons also make a nucleus unstable. That’s because the exclusion princi-
large nucleus experience significant electrical ple requires extra neutrons to go into higher energy states, making individual particles
repulsion and negligible nuclear attraction. more likely to escape the nucleus. Furthermore, the neutron itself is an unstable particle;
an isolated neutron decays spontaneously into a proton, an electron, and an elusive parti-
cle called a neutrino. This decay is suppressed in stable nuclei, but occurs if there are too
many neutrons.
The delicate balance between neutrons and protons results in about 400 known stable
nuclei, collectively called nuclides. Figure 38.3 is a chart of the nuclides, showing the
stable nuclei, along with many unstable ones, on a chart of atomic number Z versus neu-
tron number N 5 A 2 Z. The chart shows that lighter nuclei tend to have equal numbers
of protons and neutrons, but that heavier nuclei invariably have more neutrons to compen-
sate for the increasing electrical repulsion of their widely separated protons.

110
More massive
100 nuclei
have N . Z .
90 Protons 5 Neutrons
Z5N
80

70
Atomic number, Z

60

50 Half-life
Stable
40 . 10 ky
1 y to 10 ky
30 1 day to 1 y
1 hour to 1 d
1 min to 1 h
20 1 s to 1 min
,1s
10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Number of neutrons, N 5 A 2 Z

FIGURE 38.3 A chart of the nuclides, color-coded by half-life.

Nuclear Size
Unlike atomic electrons in their widely separated orbitals, nucleons pack tightly into the
nucleus. Studies show that most nuclei are spherical, with the nuclear radius—defined as
the radius at which the density has fallen to half its central value—given approximately by
R 5 R0 A1/3 (38.1)
 38.1 Elements, Isotopes, and Nuclear Structure 683

where R0 5 1.2 fm and A is the mass number. This cube-root dependence is what we
should expect for a tightly packed sphere whose volume is proportional to the number A
of its constituent particles, as suggested in Fig. 38.2. This tight packing also suggests that
all nuclei have approximately the same density, on the order of 1017 kg/m3. A teaspoon of
nuclear matter has a mass roughly equal to the mass of the Rock of Gibraltar! That ab-
surdly high density reaffirms our picture of the complete atom as mostly empty space with
its mass concentrated in a tiny nucleus.

Nuclear Spin
In Chapter 36 we noted the important role of electron spin in atomic structure. Protons and
neutrons are, like electrons, spin-12 particles. The spins of individual nucleons, combined
with any angular momentum associated with their motions within the nucleus, give the nu-
cleus a quantized spin angular momentum I that obeys the same rules we’ve seen for other
quantized angular momenta:
I 5 2i1i 1 12" (38.2)
Here i, the nuclear spin quantum number, is a multiple of one-half. The component of I on
a given axis is also quantized, just like other angular momenta, according to Iz 5 mi ",
where mi ranges from 2i to i in steps of 1.
The spin quantum number i is an even or odd multiple of one-half depending on
whether the number of nucleons is even or odd. That makes even-A nuclei bosons, parti-
cles with integer spin that don’t obey the exclusion principle. Odd-A nuclei, in contrast,
have half-integer spin and are fermions that obey the exclusion principle. This distinction
can lead to profound differences in physical behavior between isotopes of the same ele-
ment. Helium-4, for example, becomes superfluid at low temperatures, meaning it flows
without any viscosity. That’s possible because helium-4 nuclei are bosons that can all oc-
cupy the same quantum state. Similar superfluidity doesn’t occur in fermionic helium-3,
although at extremely low temperatures He-3 nuclei themselves pair to form spin-1 parti-
cles that do make a superfluid.
The angular momentum of the nucleus results in a nuclear magnetic dipole moment,
usually expressed in units of the nuclear magneton, mN 5 e"/2mp 5 5.05310227 J/T,
where mp is the proton mass. The proton itself has a magnetic moment whose component
on a given axis takes either of the values 62.793 mN 5 61.41310226 J/T—a value that’s
usually listed as “the magnetic moment of the proton” although it’s actually the compo-
nent. Interaction of the nuclear magnetic moment with magnetic fields alters very slightly
the energy levels of the atom—although the effect is much smaller than with atomic elec-
trons because the higher proton mass makes for a much smaller magnetic moment. In hy-
drogen, for example, the proton can have either of two spin orientations relative to the
magnetic field due to the electron, and the result is hyperfine splitting of the ground state
into two levels a mere 5.9 eV apart (Fig. 38.4). Transitions between these levels result in
a spectral line at a radio wavelength of 21 cm. Radio astronomers use this line to detect
interstellar clouds of neutral hydrogen.

Proton magnetic moment

precesses about field. n52

m521
2
Energy

r
DE 5 10.2 eV
B

r r m511 n51 DE 5 5.9 eV

B50 B50 2
(a) (b)
!
FIGURE 38.4 (a) A nonzero magnetic field B splits the energy level of the spin-12 proton into two levels.
(b) The two possible orientations of the proton in the magnetic field of the electron split the hydro-
gen ground state into two levels 5.9 eV apart.
684 Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics

APPLICATION Nuclear Magnetic Resonance

Superconducting Superconducting exactly right. This condition of magnetic resonance then produces the up/down
coil coil spin flips that generate a signal in the receiver coil. Scanning the field through
Receiver
coil a range of values detects nuclei in different electron environments, and from
this information scientists can deduce the molecular structure.
Field- Nuclear magnetic resonance with protons (H nuclei) is the basis of
modifying magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), a widely used medical procedure. In
De-excitation coil MRI, a person is placed inside a large solenoid whose field varies slightly with
photons position. That makes the magnetic resonance frequency a function of position,
and thus the resonance signal can be used to localize the protons undergoing
magnetic resonance. A computer then uses the resonance information to con-
Sample struct an image. Most of the MRI signal comes from fat and water, making
MRI especially good at imaging soft tissue that doesn’t show well in X rays.
Incident The photo shows an MRI image of a human head and upper torso; soft-tissue
photons structures including the brain are clearly visible.

Transmitter
coil

High-frequency Field-sweeping
current current
(~100 MHz)

Putting nuclei in an external magnetic field creates two possible energy states,
as suggested in Fig. 38.4a, depending on whether the nuclear magnetic mo-
ments are more nearly parallel or antiparallel to the field. Applying electro-
magnetic radiation with the appropriate photon energy will flip nuclei into the
higher energy state. But because nuclei also experience magnetic fields from
the electrons moving around them, the exact energy required is extremely sen-
sitive to the details of the electron distribution—that is, to the surrounding
molecular structure.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) uses this nuclear spin flipping to deter-
mine the structure of chemical compounds. In an NMR spectrometer, shown in
the figure, the sample under analysis is placed in a uniform magnetic field B, usu-
ally from superconducting coils. A smaller coil carries AC current at a frequency f
corresponding to photon energy hf that would flip the spin of an isolated nucleus
in the field B. The coil emits electromagnetic waves, and if the nuclei absorb the
associated photons, then they flip into their higher states and drop back, emitting
radiation of frequency f in the process. A receiver coil detects this radiation.
Because of the extra magnetic effect of the surrounding electrons, nuclei
won’t generally flip at the exact frequency and field B. So the field is varied
until the superposition of the applied field and the electron-generated field is

EXAMPLE 38.1 Nuclear Spins: Finding the MRI Frequency

!
The MRI solenoid of Example 26.9 produces a 1.5-T magnetic field. magnetic moment m along the field, so our two energies become
What frequency should be used to drive the transmitter coil in this U 5 6mpB, where the signs correspond to the two possible spin ori-
MRI device? entations. A spin flip changes a proton’s energy from 1mpB to 2mpB,
so our plan is to find the energy difference between these levels,
INTERPRET MRI is an implementation of nuclear magnetic resonance equate it to the photon energy hf, and solve for f.
using protons (see the Application), so we’re being asked for the fre-
quency corresponding to photons that will flip a proton in a 1.5-T EVALUATE We have E 5 mpB 2 12mpB2 5 2mpB, so
magnetic field. 2mpB 12211.41310226 J/T211.5 T2
E
f5 5 5 5 63.8 MHz
DEVELOP We need to calculate the necessary photon energy and then h h 6.63310234 J # s
use E 5 hf to find the corresponding frequency. We’ve just seen that
the proton acts like a magnetic dipole whose component along the ASSESS This frequency is in the radio region of the electromagnetic
field is mp 5 61.41310226 J/T. Equation 26.16 gives the energy of a spectrum, consistent with the diagram in the Application showing
! !
magnetic dipole: U 5 2m # B. Here we’re given the component of the the use of coils and currents, and the approximate transmitter coil
frequency of 100 MHz. ■
 38.2 Radioactivity 685

Models of Nuclear Structure

We’ve seen how the right ratio of neutrons to protons is essential for stable nuclei, and
why that ratio increases for larger nuclei. Figure 38.3, the chart of the nuclides, summa-
rizes this information. But take a closer look at that figure: There are more stable nuclei
for even values of Z, and some—those with the so-called magic numbers 2, 8, 20, 28, 50,
82, and 126 protons or neutrons—have many more stable nuclei. Why?
Answering this question and explaining the decay mechanisms and lifetimes of unsta-
ble nuclei require a theory of nuclear structure. There still is no complete nuclear theory,
analogous to the atomic theory of Chapter 36, that explains all aspects of all nuclei. Our
still-imperfect knowledge of the nuclear force, and the tight packing of nucleons, render
useless a simple two-particle model like the one we used for hydrogen. Instead, nuclear
physicists resort to several models to explain different aspects of nuclear structure.
Together, these models provide a good understanding of the nucleus and accurately pre-
dict nuclear properties, although not with the precision available in atomic physics.
The liquid-drop model provides a reasonable approximation for heavier nuclei, whose
many nucleons behave somewhat like the molecules in a drop of liquid. A liquid-drop nu-
cleus can rotate, vibrate, and change shape as long as its volume doesn’t change, and the
resulting quantized energy levels predict nuclear gamma-ray spectra that are in good
agreement with observation. The liquid-drop model also helps explain nuclear fission, as
we’ll explore in Section 38.4. But it can’t account for the dramatic effects of small
changes in nucleon number, particularly the role of the magic numbers.
The nuclear shell model, advanced in the late 1940s by physicists Maria Goeppert
Mayer and J. Hans Jensen, gives the nucleus a shell structure similar to that of atoms. The
shells occur because neutrons and protons obey the exclusion principle, and the magic num-
bers correspond to closed-shell configurations analogous to the electronic structure of inert
gases. Closed-shell nucleons are tightly bound, making a magic nucleus particularly stable.
Additional nucleons beyond a closed shell stay largely on the outskirts of the nucleus, where
they’re more readily excited to higher energy levels. Neutrons and protons behave independ-
ently in the shell model, and each has its own set of quantum numbers. Closed-shell struc-
ture therefore occurs with magic numbers of either protons or neutrons. Some nuclei, like
20Ca 1Z 5 20, N 5 202, are “doubly magic” and show exceptional stability.
40

The collective model, advanced by Niels Bohr’s son Aage, combines aspects of the liquid-
drop and shell models, emphasizing the collective quantum-mechanical behavior of the
nucleons. One remarkable prediction of the collective model is that larger, nonmagical
nuclei may be more stable if they take nonspherical shapes.
Active areas of nuclear-structure research involve the creation and exploration of ex-
ceptionally heavy or neutron-rich nuclei. The creation of elements 115 and 116 in the
early 2000s suggests that physicists are approaching a region of longer-lived nuclei
dubbed the “island of stability,” which may be associated with a new magic neutron num-
ber of 184. And experiments in 2005 created silicon-42, whose relative stability implies
that its atomic number Z 5 14 becomes magic in this neutron-bloated 1N 5 282 species.
Until we have a complete nuclear theory, experiments like these will continue to challenge
physicists with nuclear surprises.

38.2 Radioactivity
In 1896 Henri Becquerel of Paris noticed that a photographic plate stored near uranium
compounds became fogged, as though exposed to invisible rays. Becquerel had discov-
ered radioactivity, wherein some substances spontaneously emit high-energy particles or
photons. Marie and Pierre Curie promptly began a thorough exploration of the phenome-
non, for which Marie Curie coined the name “radioactivity.” The Curies shared the 1903
Nobel Prize in physics with Becquerel, and Marie Curie won the 1911 Nobel Prize in
chemistry for her discovery of polonium and radium.

Decay Rate and Half-Life

Radioactivity results from the decay of unstable nuclei, a process that occurs at vastly dif-
fering rates in different isotopes. The number of decays per unit time is the activity of a
686 Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics

radioactive sample; the SI unit of activity is the becquerel (Bq), equal to one decay per
second. An older unit, the curie (Ci), is 3.731010 Bq and is approximately the activity
of 1 gram of radium-226. For a given isotope, activity is proportional to the number N of
nuclei present. N decreases as nuclei decay, so we can write
dN
5 2lN
dt
where l is the decay constant. As we’ve seen with discharging capacitors and decaying
inductor currents, this differential equation is a prescription for exponential decay. We
solve it the same way, multiplying both sides by dt/N and integrating:
N t
dN
3 N 5 2l 3 dt
N0 0

N0
where N0 is the initial number of nuclei at time t 5 0. Evaluating the integrals gives
ln1N/N02 5 2lt or, exponentiating each side and using eln x 5 x:
1
2 left after N 5 N0 e2lt (38.3a)
Nuclei remaining

one half-life
Equation 38.3a shows that the decay constant l is a measure of the exponential decay rate.
1
2 N0
1
left after We can also interpret l as the probability that a given atom will decay in a 1-s time inter-
4
two half-lives val. Another convenient measure of exponential decay is the half-life, t1/2, defined as the
1
8 left after
time for half the nuclei in a given sample to decay. If we start with N0 nuclei at time t 5 0,
1
4 N0 three half-lives then at a later time t the number of nuclei remaining will be
1
8 N0
N 5 N02 2t/t1/2 1radioactive decay2 (38.3b)

1 2 3 4 You can quickly show that t1/2 and l are related by t1/2 5 ln 2/l . 0.693/l (see Prob-
Time (half-lives) lem 48). Figure 38.5 is a graph of Equation 38.3b. Since activity and number of nuclei
FIGURE 38.5 Exponential decay of a radioactive are proportional, both decline with the same half-life, as described in Equation 38.3b.
sample. Table 38.1 lists some significant radioisotopes and their half-lives.

Table 38.1 Selected Radioisotopes

Isotope Half-life Decay Mode Comments

Carbon-14 1146C2 5730 years b2 Used in radiocarbon dating

Iodine-131 1131
53 I2 8.04 days b2 Fission product abundant in fallout from nuclear
weapons and reactor accidents; damages thy-
roid gland
Oxygen-15 1158O2 2.03 minutes b1 Short-lived oxygen isotope produced with cyclo-
trons and used for medical diagnosis in PET
Potassium-40 140
19K2 1.253109 years b2 Comprises 0.012% of natural potassium; domi-
nant radiation source within the normal
human body; used in radioisotope dating
Plutonium-239 1239
94Pu2 24,110 years a Fissile isotope used in nuclear weapons;
produced by neutron capture in 23892U
Radium-226 1226
88Ra2 1600 years a Highly radioactive isotope discovered by Marie
and Pierre Curie; results from decay of 238
92U
Radon-222 1222
86Rn2 3.82 days a Radioactive gas formed naturally in decay of
226
88 Ra; seeps into buildings, where it may
cause serious radiation exposure
Strontium-90 190
38Sr2 29 years b2 Fission product that behaves chemically like
calcium; readily absorbed into bones
Tritium 131H2 12.3 years b2 Hydrogen isotope used in biological studies and
to enhance yields of nuclear weapons
Uranium-235 1235
92U2 7.043108 years a Fissile isotope comprising 0.72% of natural
uranium; used as reactor fuel and in simple
nuclear weapons
Uranium-238 1238
92U2 4.463109 years a Predominant uranium isotope; cannot sustain a
chain reaction
 38.2 Radioactivity 687

EXAMPLE 38.2 Radioactive Decay: Fallout from Chernobyl

The 1986 nuclear accident at Chernobyl in Ukraine spread radioactive EVALUATE Inverting our expression 1/2 n 5 185/2900 and taking loga-
fallout over Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. Iodine-131 was of great rithms of both sides give
concern, since it’s absorbed by the thyroid gland and can cause thyroid ln12 n2 5 ln12900/1852
cancer. Following the accident, I-131 levels in Romanian milk rose to
But ln12 2 5 n ln 2, so
n
2900 Bq per liter. How long did Romanians have to wait before I-131
levels were below their government’s 185-Bq/L safety standard? ln12900/1852
n5 5 3.97 half-lives
ln 2
INTERPRET This is a problem about radioactive decay. We’re given
the initial activity per liter of milk, and we need to find how long it With t1/2 5 8.04 days, this amounts to 32 days.
takes for that to decay to the given safety level. Using Table 38.1, we
ASSESS A quick check shows that our answer is about right: After
identify I-131’s half-life as 8.04 days.
one half-life the activity has dropped in half, to 2900/2 5 1450 Bq/L.
DEVELOP Equation 38.3b, N 5 N02 2t/t1/2, describes equally well the
Another half-life, and it’s half of this, or 725 Bq/L. A third, and it’s
decline in the number of radioactive nuclei and their activity. The about 360 Bq/L. A fourth, and it’s down to about 180 Bq/L. So to
equation shows that after n half-lives, activity drops to 1/2 n of its orig- reach 185 Bq/L must take just under 4 half-lives. Romania’s 32-day
inal level. So our plan is to find the number of half-lives n that will wait time was dependent on both the government safety standard and
lower the milk’s I-131 activity from 2900 Bq/L to 185 Bq/L. Mathe- the initial contamination level. Problem 49 explores the situation in
matically, we want 1/2 n 5 185/2900. We’ll solve for n and then use three other affected countries. ■
the known half-life to get an actual time.

✓TIP Half-Life and Powers of 2

After n half-lives, activity has dropped by a factor of 1/2 n. When we estimate activity lev-
els, it’s useful to note that 2 10 5 1024, or very nearly 1000. Thus activity drops by a fac-
tor of about 1000 every 10 half-lives—and therefore by about 1 million in 20 half-lives.

GOT IT? 38.2 A PET-scan patient is injected with radioactive oxygen-15, whose half-
life is 2 min. Approximately what fraction of the original 15O remains undecayed an hour later?

APPLICATION Radiocarbon Dating

Carbon-14 formed in the Archaeologists, art historians, geologists, and others use radioactive decay to
atmosphere is incorporated date ancient objects. For ages up to a few tens of thousands of years, the 5730-
into a living organism through year isotope carbon-14 is especially useful. 14C forms continuously in the at-
the food chain. At death, 14C uptake ceases. mosphere through reactions of cosmic rays with nitrogen. Living things take in
14
C and maintain a steady concentration through the balance between uptake
Cosmic rays and radioactive decay. At death, uptake ceases and the level of 14C begins to
14CO
2 drop. Measuring the ratio of 14C to stable 12C in a sample of once-living matter
and comparing with the ratio found in living material then provides the age
(see the figure and Example 38.3).
The cosmic-ray flux at Earth varies with solar activity, and so, therefore,
(b)
does the atmospheric 14C/12C ratio. Scientists correct for this effect with data
from growth rings in ancient trees, which provide an independent measure of
age. Measuring the actual radioactivity takes a fairly large sample, so today the
most sophisticated dating is done instead by counting individual C-14 atoms,
(a)
separating them from ordinary C-12 using a mass spectrometer—a device we
described in Example 26.2.
Radiocarbon dating is quite accurate to about 20,000 years and can be used
back to about 50,000 years. For longer time spans, up to the billions of years
characterizing the ages of rocks, ratios of longer-lived isotopes provide age in-
formation. Much knowledge of our own past, and our planet’s and our solar
(c) (d) system’s, comes from radioisotope dating.
Much later, 14C activity has Archaeologists excavate the long-
decayed considerably. dead remains. By measuring 14C
activity, they can infer the time since
death. Note that the archaeologists,
with their active 14C intake, are more
radioactive than their ancient ancestor.
688 Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics

EXAMPLE 38.3 Radioactive Decay: Archaeology

Archaeologists unearth charcoal from an ancient campfire and find its carbon-14 activity per unit
mass to be 7.4% of the activity measured in living wood. Find the charcoal’s age.

INTERPRET This is a problem about using the decay of carbon-14 to date a once-living material. We
want the time it takes for 14C activity to decline to 7.4% of its original level. From Table 38.1, we
identify the half-life of 14C as 5730 years.

DEVELOP Equation 38.3b, N 5 N02 2t/t1/2, shows that activity drops by 1/2 n in n half-lives, so our
plan is to find the number of half-lives that makes the factor 1/2 n equal to 0.074. Then we can multi-
ply by the half-life to get the actual time.

EVALUATE Solving as we did in Example 38.2 gives

n ln 2 5 ln11/0.0742
which gives n 5 3.76 half-lives.With t1/2 5 5730 y, the age is then 21,500 years.

ASSESS Again a quick check suffices: One half-life drops activity to 50%; two half-lives to 25%,
three to 12.5%, and four to just over 6%. So it must take a little less than four half-lives to get down
to 7.4% of the original activity level. ■

Types of Radiation
r
B Passing nuclear radiation through a magnetic field shows that there are three types: one
positively charged, one negative, and one neutral (Fig. 38.6). Early researchers named
a these alpha, beta, and gamma radiation, respectively. Today we know that alpha radiation
consists of He-4 nuclei, beta radiation consists of high-energy electrons (or positrons), and
g gamma rays are high-energy photons. They differ in penetrating power: A sheet of paper
can stop alpha particles, several centimeters of matter stop most betas, and gamma rays
Radioactive b
can penetrate substantial thicknesses of concrete or lead. Different radioisotopes emit not
source
only different types of radiation but also radiation of different energies.
Film or
detector

FIGURE 38.6 The three types of radiation go Alpha Decay

separate ways in a magnetic field. Alpha emitters are nuclei with too much positive charge. They shed charge, and mass,
by emitting a bundle of two protons and two neutrons—an alpha particle, 42He. Symbol-
ically,
A
ZX ¡ A24
Z22Y 1 42He 1alpha decay2 (38.4)

Here X is the original or parent nucleus, and Y is the daughter. Note that the sums of the
atomic numbers on both sides of this equation are equal, as are the mass numbers. Most of
the energy released in the reaction appears as kinetic energy of the alpha particle. The alpha
particle actually emerges with less energy than needed to overcome the nuclear potential bar-
rier, and this provides one of the most direct confirmations of quantum tunneling—which is
the only way the alpha particle can escape the nucleus.

Beta Decay
Beta emitters have too many neutrons, one of which decays into an electron, a proton, and
an elusive neutral particle called a neutrino (symbol n). The electron exits at high energy
to form beta radiation, leaving a nucleus with essentially the same mass but its atomic
number increased because it has one more unit of positive charge:
A
ZX ¡ A
Z11Y 1 e2 1 n 1beta decay2 (38.5a)

In ordinary beta decay the neutrino is, in fact, an antineutrino—hence the bar over its
symbol n.
 38.2 Radioactivity 689

Beta decay is a manifestation of the weak nuclear force, and in the Sun it produces a
steady stream of neutrinos that provide direct information on conditions in the solar core.
That’s because neutral, nearly massless neutrinos interact only rarely with matter; for ex-
ample, they pass through the entire Earth with little probability of interaction. We’ll see in
Chapter 39 how neutrinos nonetheless are opening a new window on distant astrophysical
events and the early universe.
A second type of beta decay converts a proton into a neutron, emitting both a positron
(an anti-electron, e1) and a neutrino:
A
ZX ¡ A
Z21Y 1 e1 1 n 1beta decay, positron emission2 (38.5b)
This reaction occurs in some short-lived isotopes of lighter elements like carbon and oxy-
gen, and gamma rays from the subsequent annihilations of positrons are used in the med-
ical imaging procedure known as positron emission tomography (PET).
A third beta-decay process is electron capture, in which a nucleus captures an inner-
shell atomic electron, converting a proton to a neutron and ejecting a neutrino:
A
ZX 1 e2 ¡ A
Z21Y 1n 1electron capture2 (38.5c)

Gamma Decay
A nucleus in an excited state decays by emitting a photon, just like an atom. But the much
146
higher energy associated with nuclear processes puts such photons in the gamma-ray re- 145
Start: 4.46 3 109y 238U

gion of the spectrum. Since the gamma-ray photon is neutral and massless, it doesn’t uranium-238 234Th
144 24.1 d
change the type of nucleus; therefore, we write 143 234Pa
6.75 h
142
A *
ZX ¡ A
ZX 1g 1gamma decay2 (38.6) 141 2.45 3 105y
234U

140
where X* designates the excited state.
230 Th

139 7.54 3 104y

138 226Ra

2Z
1.6 3 103y
Decay Series and Artificial Radioactivity 137

Neutron number, A
136 222Rn
3.82 d
A few radioisotopes, like 40K and 238U, have half-lives comparable to Earth’s age, so it’s 135
not surprising to find these in nature. But we also find shorter-lived species. Some, like 134
3.11 min 218Po

cosmic-ray-produced 14C, result from naturally occurring nuclear reactions. Many others 133
214Pb
132
arise in the decay of long-lived isotopes, while some we produce in particle accelerators, 131 27 m 214Bi
a decay
nuclear reactors, and nuclear explosions. 130
19.9 m 214Po

Figure 38.7 shows the decay series for uranium-238, whose 4.46-billion-year half- 129 1.6 3 102 4s
b decay
210Pb
life ensures that there’s still plenty of it around. The shorter-lived daughter products 128
22.3 y 210Bi
127
in this series are present wherever there’s natural uranium. A balance between forma- 5.01 d
126 210Po
tion and decay establishes the abundance of each product in the decay series. One of 125 138 d
End point:
the uranium daughters is radon-222, a radioactive gas that can be a serious health haz- 206Pb stable lead-206
124 Z
80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93
ard in closed spaces. Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn Fr Ra Ac Th Pa U Np
In 1930 Marie Curie’s daughter Irène and her husband Frédéric Joliot-Curie were the Atomic number, Z

first to induce artificial radioactivity, by bombarding stable isotopes with alpha particles. FIGURE 38.7 The decay of uranium-238 results
Today we produce radioisotopes with particle beams or with neutrons from nuclear reac- in a series of shorter-lived nuclei. Times shown
tors, or by extracting them from the by-products of nuclear fission. are half-lives.

Uses of Radioactivity
Nuclear radiation has numerous beneficial uses in our technological society. Here we sur-
vey just a few:
● Radioactive Tracers “Tagging” molecules with radioactive atoms makes it easy to
trace their flows through biological and physical systems. Biologists use radioactive
tracers routinely to study the uptake and distribution of chemicals. Engineers use ra-
dioisotopes to study wear in mechanical parts. Physicians “tag” bone-seeking com-
pounds with radioisotopes to image the skeletal system; the resulting “bone scans”
reveal cancer and other diseases.
690 Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics

● Cancer Treatment Radiation destroys living cells, especially fast-dividing cancer

cells. Early radiation treatment used gamma radiation; today, particle beams deliver
radiation with less effect on surrounding tissue. Alternatively, radioisotope “seeds”
are embedded directly into a tumor.
● Food Preservation High radiation doses destroy bacteria and enzymes that cause
food spoilage, providing longer shelf life and a safer food supply. Though contro-
versial, food irradiation is becoming increasingly common.
● Insect Control Radiation preferentially damages reproductive cells and can therefore
cause sterility. Sterilizing large numbers of pest insects with radiation causes popula-
tions to collapse when the sterile insects mate with normal ones. The Mediterranean
fruit fly, a serious pest of citrus crops, has been controlled in this way.
● Fire Safety Common smoke detectors contain americium-241, whose alpha radia-
tion ionizes air, allowing it to carry electric current. Smoke particles interfere with
the current, triggering the alarm. Exit signs containing radioactive tritium 13H2
glow without the need for electricity, providing another measure of fire safety in
public buildings.
● Activation Analysis Bombarding materials with neutrons or other particles
results in excited states or the production of unstable isotopes. Analyzing the
resulting radiation helps identify unknown materials. Art historians use this
technique to detect forgeries; environmental scientists identify the constituents
of pollution; and airport luggage scanners search for the radiation “fingerprint”
of chemical explosives.

Biological Effects of Radiation

Nuclear radiation has sufficiently high energy to ionize or otherwise disrupt biological
molecules. Results include cell death, loss of biological functions, and mutations that lead
to cancer or to genetic changes in future generations. Many early nuclear scientists, in-
cluding Marie Curie and her daughter Irène, succumbed to leukemia and other cancers that
undoubtedly resulted from radiation exposure.
The energy absorbed in a radiation dose is a rough measure of its biological danger.
The SI unit of absorbed dose is the gray (Gy), defined as 1 J of energy per kg of absorb-
ing material. A more appropriate measure is the sievert (Sv), which is weighted by the bi-
ological effectiveness of particular radiation types. Alpha particles, for example, cause
more damage per unit energy than do gamma rays, so 1 Gy of alpha radiation is more
harmful than 1 Gy of gamma radiation. But 1 Sv of alphas and 1 Sv of gammas cause
essentially the same damage.
Other ,1% The biological effects of high radiation doses are well known; exposure to 4 Sv, for ex-
Consumer products 3% ample, causes death in about half its human victims. But doses in the 0.1-Sv range and
Medical 15%
lower are more controversial. There are only a few cases of well-quantified exposures to
populations large enough that small effects can be determined accurately. Even less cer-
tain are the effects of very low doses, such as the 1025-Sv average dose to people living
Internal body near the 1979 Three Mile Island nuclear accident. On the one hand, biological repair
sources 11% Radon 55% mechanisms may limit damage at low doses. On the other, even low doses may dispropor-
tionately affect the young and the unborn. A 2005 study by the U.S. National Academy of
Sciences (NAS) suggests that the risk of cancer—the dominant health effect of low-level
Cosmic rays 8% radiation—should scale linearly with dose. For a one-time dose of 1 mSv, the NAS study
Rocks & soils 8% estimates a lifetime cancer risk of 1 in 10,000. This compares with a 42% lifetime chance
of developing cancer from all causes.
FIGURE 38.8 Natural (gray) and artificial (color) The average U.S. citizen receives about 3.6 mSv of radiation per year, most of it from
sources of radiation, as percentages of the
U.S. average yearly dose of 3.6 mSv. “Other”
natural sources (Fig. 38.8). The dominant source, at 55%, is the uranium decay product
includes nuclear power, radioactive waste, radon-222, which seeps into buildings from the decay of naturally occurring uranium in
and weapons tests. the ground and in building materials. Our own bodies account for some 11%, mostly from
 38.3 Binding Energy and Nucleosynthesis 691

natural potassium-40. About 19% of our average exposure in the United States comes
from artificial sources, mainly medical procedures.
Consumer products—mostly tobacco, drinking water, and building materials—account
for about 3%. Less than 1% of our yearly radiation dose is from nuclear power and
weapons. Radiation doses vary greatly with location and occupation; for example, resi-
dents of high-altitude Denver have greater exposure to cosmic rays, and airline flight
crews’ cosmic-radiation dose often exceeds the allowed dose for nuclear-plant workers.
No matter what your exact dose, though, the risks to your health from radiation exposure
pale compared with other risks you knowingly take.

38.3 Binding Energy and Nucleosynthesis

Disassembling a nucleus requires energy to overcome the strong nuclear force. The more
tightly bound the nucleus, the higher this binding energy. The energies involved in nu-
clear interactions are high enough that Einstein’s mass–energy equivalence is clearly evi-
dent, so accounting for energy conservation requires us to consider the rest energy of the
particles. Then we can write
mNc2 1 Eb 5 Zmpc2 1 1A 2 Z2mnc2 (38.7)
where the terms on the left are the rest energy of the nucleus, whose mass is mN, and the
binding energy Eb. The terms on the right are the rest energies of the Z individual protons
and A 2 Z neutrons that make up the nucleus. So Equation 38.7 shows that we can disas-
semble a nucleus into its constituent nucleons if we supply additional energy equal to
the binding energy. Equivalently, Eb is the energy released if we assemble a nucleus from
isolated nucleons.
Equation 38.7 shows that the nuclear mass mN is not the sum of the constituent par-
ticles’ masses; rather, it’s less by the amount Eb /c2. This is clear evidence for
mass–energy equivalence. Again, as in Chapter 33, we emphasize that there’s nothing
uniquely nuclear about this so-called mass defect. The mass of a water molecule is
also less than the sum of its constituent hydrogen and oxygen atoms—but with chemi-
cal binding the effect is so small as to be virtually immeasurable. It’s the strength of
the nuclear force that makes mass–energy equivalence more obvious in nuclear inter-
actions.
It’s convenient to measure nuclear and particle masses in unified mass units, u, de-
fined as one-twelfth the mass of a neutral carbon-12 atom. The unified mass unit is very
nearly 1.66054310227 kg, slightly less than the mass of the proton or neutron. High-
energy physicists, ever cognizant of mass–energy equivalence, often express masses in
MeV/c2—a value numerically equal to the rest energy in MeV. Table 38.2 lists selected
particle masses in kg, u, and MeV/c2. In practice one often knows atomic rather than nu-
clear masses, but the difference is generally negligible because the extra mass of the elec-
trons is so small.

Table 38.2 Selected Masses

Mass (kg) Mass (u) Mass (MeV/c 2)

Electron 9.109 39310231 0.000 548 579 0.510 999
Proton 1.672 62310227 1.007 276 938.272
Neutron 1.674 93310227 1.008 665 939.566
1
1H atom 1.673 53310227 1.007 825 938.783
a particle 142He nucleus2 6.644 66310227 4.001 506 3727.38
12
6C atom 1.992 65310226 12 11 177.9
Unified mass unit (u) 1.660 54310227 1 931.494
692 Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics

EXAMPLE 38.4 Mass Defect in Helium: Powering the Sun

Use the appropriate masses from Table 38.2 to find the binding energy of 42He.

INTERPRET This is a question about binding energy—the energy difference between separate
constituents of helium-4 and the helium-4 nucleus. We identify the constituent particles from the
symbol 42He: Z 5 2 protons and N 5 A 2 Z 5 2 neutrons.

DEVELOP Equation 38.7 determines the binding energy in terms of the various masses:
Eb 5 Zmpc2 1 1A 2 Z2mnc2 2 mNc2

EVALUATE Using our values for Z and N 5 A 2 Z, along with the proton, neutron, and alpha-
particle (He-4 nucleus) masses from Table 38.2, gives
Eb 5 21938.272 MeV/c22c2 1 21939.566 MeV/c22c2
2 13727.38 MeV/c22c2 5 28.3 MeV

ASSESS Notice how easy it was to work with mass in units of MeV/c2; the factor c2 canceled and
we didn’t need to use the speed of light explicitly. The formation of helium through a sequence
of nuclear reactions is what powers the Sun, and our 28.3-MeV result is very close to the actual
26.7 MeV released for each He-4 nucleus formed through the solar process. ■

The Curve of Binding Energy

Binding energy plays a crucial role in the formation of the elements and in nuclear en-
ergy. Figure 38.9 shows the curve of binding energy, a plot of binding energy per nu-
cleon as a function of mass number A. The higher this quantity, the more tightly
bound is the nucleus. The broad peak in the vicinity of A 5 60 shows that nuclei with
mass numbers around this value are most tightly bound. That means it’s energetically
favorable for two lighter nuclei to join through the process of nuclear fusion, making
a middle-weight nucleus. But heavier nuclei can reach a lower energy state if they
split or fission into two middle-weight nuclei. We’ll discuss fission and fusion later in
the chapter.

26
56Fe
9
238U
8 92
Binding energy per nucleon (MeV)

4
Fission
7 2He

5
Fusion

2
2H
1
1

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Mass number, A

FIGURE 38.9 The curve of binding energy, showing how fusion and fission can
result in the release of nuclear energy.
 38.4 Nuclear Fission 693

H
GOT IT? 38.3 Rank order these nuclei from the most to the least tightly bound: 42He,
238 57 2 132 He
92U, 26Fe, 1H, 54Xe.
C
O
Si

Nucleosynthesis and the Origin of the Elements Fe

Since it’s energetically favorable for light nuclei to fuse together, they’ll do so if they have
enough energy to overcome their electrical repulsion. This condition held in the high-
temperature early universe, particularly from about 1 minute to 30 minutes after the start of
the Big Bang. During that time, protons fused to form helium, leaving the universe with ap-
proximately its present composition of about 75% hydrogen and 25% helium, with traces
of deuterium, lithium, beryllium, and boron. Hundreds of millions of years later the first
stars formed, and in the interiors of more massive stars conditions were ripe for a two-step FIGURE 38.10 Onionlike structure of a massive star
process that fused three helium nuclei to make carbon-12. From there fusion reactions led before it goes supernova. Successive stages of
to the formation of isotopes up to those near the A 5 60 peak in the curve of binding en- fusion reactions produce the elements shown,
ergy. In fact, the nuclei of essentially all the elements with A , 60—including most of the which accounts for their relative abundance.
materials in our own bodies—were formed in the interiors of massive stars (Fig. 38.10).
Time
Some nuclei with A . 60 also formed inside massive stars; others formed in the violent su-
pernova explosions that end such stars’ lives. Those explosions spewed fusion-synthesized +
elements into the interstellar medium where, eons later, they’re incorporated into new stars,
planets, and even living things.

38.4 Nuclear Fission

+
Neutrons, first discovered in 1932, make excellent probes of the nucleus because they
don’t have to overcome electrical repulsion. In 1938 the German chemists Otto Hahn and
Fritz Strassmann bombarded uranium with neutrons. They were puzzled to find among the
reaction products radioactive versions of the much lighter elements barium and lan-
thanum. Physicist Lise Meitner and her nephew Otto Frisch interpreted these results to +
mean that uranium had split or, in their words, fissioned (Fig. 38.11). It was the eve of
World War II, and the military implications were obvious and ominous: Nuclear fission
+
represented an energy source orders of magnitude more potent than chemical reactions.
The race for nuclear weapons was on. With the help of the international physics commu-
nity, many of whom had fled fascism, the U.S. effort succeeded. A team led by the Italian
Enrico Fermi built the first nuclear reactor under the stands of the University of Chicago
stadium; it became operational in 1942. Three years later came the first nuclear weapons +
test, at Trinity Site in New Mexico, followed quickly by the nuclear destruction of Hi-
roshima and Nagasaki.
Although fission can occur spontaneously, it’s much more likely when a neutron
+
strikes a nucleus. Figure 38.11 shows U-235 absorbing a neutron to become U-236.
This unstable nucleus undergoes dumbbell-shaped oscillations until electrical repul-
sion tears it apart. The resulting fission products are generally a pair of middle-
weight nuclei with unequal masses; typically two to three neutrons are also released in
fission. Skipping the intermediate U-236 nucleus, neutron-induced fission of U-235 +
takes the form

0n
1
92 U ¡ X 1 Y 1 b 0n
1 235 1
1fission2 (38.8)
+
Here 10n is the neutron, with 0 charge and 1 mass unit; X and Y are the fission products; and
b is the number of neutrons released immediately. A specific example of Equation 38.8 is
235
U fission that produces barium and krypton: 10n 1 235 92 U ¡ 56 Ba 1 36Kr 1 3 0n.
141 92 1
FIGURE 38.11 Neutron-induced fission of 235U,
Note how the equation balances: The total charge (subscripts) is the same on both sides, showing three neutrons (gray) released in the
and the mass numbers (superscripts) also agree. process.
694 Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 38.1 Radioactive Waste!

Use Figure 38.3 to explain why fission products are necessarily
235
radioactive. MAKING THE CONNECTION Neutron-induced fission of U
102
yields 42 Mo,three neutrons, and another fission product. What’s
EVALUATE Figure 38.3 shows that more massive nuclei need higher ra- that product?
tios of neutrons to protons in order to overcome the protons’ electrical re-
pulsion. When uranium fissions, the resulting nuclei have the same EVALUATE This reaction is a specific instance of Equation 38.8:
Z
0n 1 92 U S 42 Mo 1 AX 1 3 0n, with X being the unknown fission
1 235 102 1
neutron-to-proton ratio as the original uranium. But that gives them way
too many neutrons, making them highly radioactive via beta decay. Fig- product. Balancing atomic and mass numbers gives A 5 131 and
ure 38.12 shows a simplified chart of the nuclides to help make this point. Z 5 50. The periodic table shows that Z 5 50 is iodine, so X is I-131,
a dangerous contaminant discussed in Example 38.2.
ASSESS Highly radioactive materials decay rapidly, giving them rela-
tively short half-lives. The longer-lived fission products have half-
lives measured typically in decades.

100

U-235
Nuclides below the
curve of stable nuclei
Number of protons, Z

have too many neutrons.

50 Nuclides on this
line have U-235’s
neutron-to-proton
Fission ratio.
products

0
0 50 100 150
Number of neutrons, N

FIGURE 38.12 This chart of nuclides, simplified from Fig. 38.3, shows that fission
products lie below the stable nuclei because they have too many neutrons.

Energy from Fission

Delayed radiation Fission of a uranium nucleus releases about 200 MeV of energy, as shown in Fig. 38.13.
20 MeV Spontaneous fission is rare because of the energy barrier associated with forces on the out-
Gamma rays
7 MeV ermost nucleons; rather, fission usually results when a nucleus absorbs a neutron, ini-
Neutron KE tiating the process shown in Fig. 38.11. Many heavy nuclei, including 238U and 235U, are
5 MeV fissionable, meaning they can undergo neutron-induced fission. Fissile nuclei will fission
with neutrons of any energy, including thermal energy. The three important fissile nuclei
are uranium-233, uranium-235, and plutonium-239.
KE of fission products Uranium-235 presently constitutes only about 0.7% of natural uranium; nearly all the rest
165 MeV
is 238U. For most uses, uranium must be enriched in 235U, to several percent for commercial
power reactors and 80% or more for weapons. Uranium enrichment is difficult and expen-
sive; since the isotopes 235U and 238U are chemically similar, enrichment techniques make
FIGURE 38.13 Fission energy is distributed among use of their very slight mass difference. The technique of choice today involves spinning ura-
fission products, neutrons, and radiation.
nium hexafluoride gas in a sequence of high-speed centrifuges. Enrichment technology is
highly sensitive because a nation possessing it can produce weapons-grade uranium.
Plutonium-239, with a 24,110-year half-life, does not occur in nature. It’s produced by
neutron bombardment of 238U. The reaction forms 239U, which undergoes two beta decays
to produce first 239Np and then the fissile 239Pu:

0n 92 U ¡
1
1 238 239
92 U

92 U ¡ 93 Np 1 e 1 n
239 239 2

93 Np ¡ 94 Pu 1 e 1 n
239 239 2
 38.4 Nuclear Fission 695

Although 239Pu is produced copiously in nuclear reactors (see Problem 74), reprocessing
spent reactor fuel to extract plutonium is difficult and dangerous. Contamination with
other plutonium isotopes further complicates the process. Like uranium enrichment, plu-
tonium reprocessing is a sensitive technology, and the decision of several European coun-
tries and Japan to engage in commercial reprocessing for reactor fuel has made Pu-239 a
commercial commodity.

EXAMPLE 38.5 Nuclear Fission: Comparing with Coal

Assuming 200 MeV per fission, estimate the amount of pure 235U that Then we need a total of
would provide the same energy as 1 metric ton (1000 kg) of coal. 29 GJ/3.2310211 J/fission 5 9.131020 fission events
INTERPRET We’re asked to compare the energies of nuclear fission Each of the 9.131020 U-235 nuclei has a mass of approximately
and the chemical burning of coal. 235 u, so the total mass required is
19.131020 nuclei21235 u211.66310227 kg/u2 5 0.35 g
DEVELOP For coal, we can look up the energy released per unit mass
in Appendix C’s “Energy Content of Fuels” table. We can then find ASSESS That’s about one one-hundredth of an ounce of 235U, packing
the number of fission events, at 200 MeV per fission, needed to re- as much energy as a ton of coal! Our result shows that U-235 contains
lease the same energy as 1000 kg of coal. Finally, we’ll use the mass about three million times as much energy as the same amount of coal.
of a U-235 nucleus to find the corresponding mass of uranium. That’s the reason nuclear power plants are fueled only about once a
year, with a truckload or so of nuclear fuel, while coal-burning plants
EVALUATE Appendix C gives an energy content of 29 MJ/kg for coal, burn many 110-car trainloads of coal each week. It’s also the reason
so burning 1000 kg of coal releases 29 GJ of energy. With for the immense destructive power of nuclear weapons. ■
1.6310219 J/eV, each 200-MeV fission releases about 3.2310211 J.

The Chain Reaction

Neutrons induce fission, and fission itself releases more neutrons. This makes possible a
chain reaction, in which each fission event results in more fission. To sustain a chain re- For each fission,
two more fissions
action, each nucleus that fissions must, on average, cause at least one more fission event; follow.
otherwise, the reaction will fizzle to a halt. In a piece of material that’s too small, most
neutrons will escape without causing additional fission. For that reason there’s a critical
mass of nuclear fuel necessary to sustain a chain reaction. More than that amount is
supercritical and results in an exponentially growing chain reaction (Fig. 38.14).
The size of the critical mass depends on the purity of the fissile material, its configura-
tion, and surrounding materials. For plutonium it can be less than 5 kg, and as low as 15 kg
for uranium. Those numbers are frighteningly small, and they show why we worry about
city-destroying “suitcase bombs.”
The multiplication factor, k, is the average number of neutrons from a fission event that
cause additional fission. A critical mass has k 5 1, and a supercritical mass has k . 1. The
average time between successive fissions is the generation time. In a supercritical mass
this can be as short as 10 ns, leading to the entire mass fissioning in about 1 s.

Fission Weapons
A rapidly fissioning supercritical mass is a nuclear explosive. The major technological dif-
ficulty in producing a fission weapon is to assemble a supercritical mass so rapidly that
the chain reaction consumes enough fissile material before it blows apart. With highly en-
riched uranium that’s not an insurmountable challenge. The crude bomb that destroyed FIGURE 38.14 A supercritical chain reaction with
multiplication factor k 5 2.
Hiroshima contained about 50 kg of enriched uranium, of which only about 1 kg actually
fissioned. So confident were its developers that they never tested this design. Plutonium
weapons present a greater challenge; neutrons from spontaneous fission make it more
likely that the weapon will “pre-ignite” and blow itself apart.
Construction of a simple fission weapon is distressingly straightforward, but acquisi-
tion of weapons-grade fissile material is not. Again, that’s why uranium enrichment and
plutonium reprocessing technologies are so sensitive. We live in a dangerous and unstable
world, and it’s going to get more dangerous if fissile materials become widely available.
696 Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics

Nuclear Power
A nuclear reactor uses a controlled fission chain reaction with k 5 1 to release energy at
a steady rate. Since the average number of neutrons emitted in U-235 fission is about 2.5,
reactors require that most neutrons don’t cause fission. Commercial power reactors limit k
in part by keeping the concentration of fissile U-235 low—typically a few percent—so that
many neutrons are absorbed by U-238 instead of causing fission. Control rods made of
neutron-absorbing material provide additional control over k; these can be moved into and
out of the nuclear fuel to provide precise control of the power level. A small fraction—
about 0.65%—of fission-produced neutrons are emitted with delays from about 0.2 s to
1 min, and these delayed neutrons allow for relatively slow mechanical control of nuclear
reactors. The next example explores this point.

EXAMPLE 38.6 Nuclear Fission: Delayed Neutrons and Reactor Control

A change in operating conditions makes a nuclear reactor slightly is to find the number n of generations that gives kn 5 2. Then we can
supercritical, with k 5 1.001. Determine the time it would take the multiply by the two different t values to find the actual times: t 5 nt.
reactor power to double (a) if delayed neutrons establish a genera-
tion time t 5 0.1 s, and (b) if prompt neutrons—those released EVALUATE We set kn 5 2 and take the logarithm of both sides. With
immediately—sustain the reaction to give t 5 1024 s. ln1kn2 5 n ln k, we have n ln k 5 ln 2, or n 5 ln 2/ln k 5 693 with
k 5 1.001. With t 5 0.1 s that gives t 5 nt 5 69.3 s or just over
INTERPRET We’re asked to calculate the time until the reaction rate 1 min, but with t 5 1024 s it’s only 0.07 s.
doubles, given the multiplication factor k and two different values for
the generation time. ASSESS With delayed neutrons the doubling time is long enough for
the reactor operators and their mechanical controls to take corrective
DEVELOP A multiplication factor k 5 1.001 means the rate of fis- action; with prompt neutrons there isn’t time to prevent a serious nu-
sioning increases by a factor of 1.001 with each generation time; after clear accident. Delayed neutrons are crucial to reactor control! Loss
two generations it will have increased by k2, and so forth. So our plan of control to a reaction governed by prompt neutrons alone was a key
factor in the 1986 Chernobyl nuclear accident. ■

Reactor vessel High-energy fission neutrons aren’t very effective at causing additional fission events, so
Steam to in most reactor designs they must be slowed to roughly the mean thermal speed. A substance
turbine called the moderator effects this slowing through elastic collisions between neutrons and the
moderator nuclei. In Chapter 9 we found that the maximum energy transfer occurs when col-
Water coolant/ liding particles have equal mass; therefore, the best moderators have low-mass nuclei. The
moderator choice of moderator is among the most significant distinguishing features of different reactor
designs. Another important choice is the coolant, which carries off fission-generated heat.
Uranium Power reactors in the United States are light-water reactors (LWRs), using ordinary wa-
fuel rods ter with the protons of its hydrogen serving as the moderator nuclei. The same water acts as
coolant and circulates through a pressure vessel containing uranium fuel rods and control
rods. About one-third of the United States’ roughly 100 power reactors are boiling-water re-
Water in actors (BWRs), in which water boils in the reactor vessel to make steam that drives a turbine-
generator (Fig. 38.15). The remainder are pressurized-water reactors (PWRs), in which
Control rods liquid water under pressure transfers its energy to a secondary loop where water boils to make
FIGURE 38.15 A boiling-water reactor, steam (Fig. 38.16). An advantage of this more complex system is that the steam loop doesn’t
one of two types commonly used in
the United States. Pressure Secondary loop Turbine
vessel Generator
Primary loop

Heat
exchanger
Electricity
Core Condenser
Pump

FIGURE 38.16 A complete power plant using a

pressurized-water reactor, the most common In Out
type of power reactor in the United States. Cooling water
 38.4 Nuclear Fission 697

become radioactive. Both types of light-water reactors have an intrinsic safety feature, in that
a loss of coolant also means loss of moderator, and that brings the chain reaction to a halt. But
light water has the disadvantage that 11H readily absorbs neutrons, and therefore light-water
reactor fuel must be enriched in 235U in order to sustain the chain reaction. Refueling a LWR
is also a big operation: The reactor must be shut down and the lid removed from the pressure
vessel—a process that can take a month or longer.
The Canadian CANDU design uses heavy water (21H 2O, or deuterium oxide) as moder-
ator and coolant. Low neutron absorption means CANDU reactors can operate on natural
uranium, eliminating the need for sensitive enrichment technology. And the CANDU
design allows continuous refueling, although that increases another proliferation risk
by making it easier to extract plutonium.
An older Soviet-era design is the graphite-moderated, water-cooled RBMK reactor. Of-
ten built to provide both electric power and plutonium for weapons, this design suffered
from the safety defect that loss of coolant not only didn’t shut down the chain reaction but
could actually accelerate it due to loss of neutron-absorbing hydrogen in the H 2O coolant.
The disastrous 1986 Chernobyl accident involved an RBMK reactor. During a test of the
emergency cooling system, operators inadvertently put the reactor in an unstable state
where an increase in power boiled away more cooling water, resulting in a further in-
crease. The power level soared by a factor of 4000 in 5 seconds, causing a steam explo-
sion that blew the top off the reactor and ignited the flammable graphite moderator. Heavy
smoke carried radioactive materials into the atmosphere, resulting in widespread contami-
nation, which we explored in Example 38.2. Today, thousands of square miles surrounding
Chernobyl remain officially uninhabitable.
Other reactor designs include gas-cooled reactors that can operate at higher tempera-
tures and therefore greater thermodynamic efficiencies, and breeder reactors designed
specifically to “breed” plutonium from U-238 and therefore turn most of the nonfissile
U-238 into fissile Pu-239. Breeders have no moderator, use liquid sodium coolant, and are
critical with fast neutrons alone. Breeders are therefore less stable than so-called thermal
reactors using slow neutrons, and widespread adoption of breeder technology entails in-
ternational trafficking in fissile plutonium.

Nuclear Waste
We’ve seen that fission products are highly radioactive because they contain too many
neutrons for stable middle-weight nuclei. Because of their high activity, fission products
have relatively short half-lives, typically measured in decades. That makes fission-product
waste dangerous for centuries to a few millennia. However, neutron absorption in fission
reactors also produces plutonium and a host of other transuranic isotopes—those heavier
than uranium—with much longer lifetimes. It’s these substances that mean we’ll have to
safeguard nuclear waste for tens of thousands of years.
As fission proceeds, the concentration of fission products in the fuel increases. Be-
fore a reactor’s 235U is exhausted, fission products begin absorbing enough neutrons to
interfere with the chain reaction. In U.S. LWRs, that requires about one-third of the fuel
rods to be replaced annually. Older fuel is also rich in fissile plutonium, and at the end
of a fuel rod’s 3 years in the reactor, more than half the energy generation comes from
fissioning plutonium rather than uranium. Figure 38.17 shows the evolution of nuclear
fuel in a U.S. LWR.

Initial fuel (1000 kg) Spent fuel (1000 kg)

Assorted fission Other uranium

235 235 products (35 kg) and transuranic
U (33 kg) U (8 kg)
isotopes (5.3 kg)
Three
years
+
238 238
U (967 kg) U (943 kg)
Plutonium isotopes (8.9 kg) FIGURE 38.17 Evolution of 1000 kg of 3.3%
enriched uranium over its 3-year stay in a
light-water reactor.
698 Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics

The disposal of nuclear waste is a thorny issue, mixing political and scientific consid-
erations. To date, the United States has no repository for commercial nuclear waste,
which continues to accumulate at reactor sites. Lest you picture mountains of nuclear
garbage, however, remember that factor-of-107 difference between nuclear and chemical
energy sources. That translates into far less fuel needed for nuclear power plants, and far
less waste produced. A 1-GW power reactor produces some 20 tons of high-level nuclear
waste annually, while a comparable coal plant produces 1000 tons of carbon dioxide and
30 tons of solid waste every hour.

GOT IT? 38.4 Transportation and mining accidents involving coal are much more
frequent than those involving uranium fuel. What’s the fundamental reason for this?

Prospects for Nuclear Power

Today, nuclear power supplies some 15% of the world’s electrical energy; in nuclear-
intensive France the figure is nearly 80%, and in the United States it’s 20%. Dozens of
new reactors are under construction, predominantly in Asia; most use advanced versions
of light-water reactor designs. Recently, the United States has seen nuclear-plant license
applications for the first time in 30 years. But worldwide, hundreds of older reactors are
nearing the end their lifetimes, and without massive new construction, nuclear’s share of
the world’s energy supply is unlikely to increase significantly.
Concern over climate change from fossil-fuel combustion has spurred a renewed in-
terest in nuclear power, even among some environmentalists. New reactor designs prom-
ise greater reliability, economic viability, and, most important, safety based on intrinsic
reactor design rather than complicated safety systems. Most physicists agree that the pub-
lic’s concern over nuclear power is exaggerated. We regularly accept much greater risks
from other technologies—for example, some 24,000 premature deaths each year in the
United States due to pollution from coal-fired power plants. Comparable estimates for
nuclear plants range from about 10 to fewer than 1000 from even the most vigorously an-
tinuclear groups.
Nevertheless, ongoing uncertainties about the risk of catastrophic nuclear accidents,
long-term waste storage, terrorism, and weapons proliferation continue to haunt the nu-
clear power industry. Proliferation, especially, is a very real concern. Although nuclear
power and weapons development are different enterprises, they share infrastructure and an
educated technological elite that can be put to either purpose. If nuclear power is to ad-
vance, it will need to do so under strict international guarantees against diversion of mate-
rials and expertise to weapons production.

38.5 Nuclear Fusion

The curve of binding energy (Fig. 38.9) shows that fusion of light nuclei provides an-
other approach to nuclear energy production. The curve is steepest at its left end, indi-
cating that the most energy per nucleon comes from the fusion of hydrogen. Indeed,
the fusion reactions powering the Sun and many other stars begin with the fusion of
hydrogen to form deuterium. Also emitted in the process are a positron, a neutrino,
and 0.42 MeV of energy:
1
1H 1 11H ¡ 21H 1 e1 1 n 10.42 MeV2 (38.9a)
Deuterium then fuses with hydrogen to form helium-3 and a gamma ray:
2
1H 1 11H ¡ 32He 1 g 15.49 MeV2 (38.9b)
 38.5 Nuclear Fusion 699

Two helium-3 nuclei then react to form helium-4 and a pair of protons 111H2, releasing
12.86 MeV:
3
2He 1 32He ¡ 42He 1 2 11H 112.86 MeV2 (38.9c)
In addition, the positron from reaction 38.9a annihilates with an electron, forming two
gamma rays with a total energy of 2mc2 or 1.022 MeV. Together, these reactions consti-
tute the proton–proton cycle. In the full cycle, reactions 38.9a and b occur twice for each
occurrence of reaction 33.9c. The net effect is to convert four protons and two electrons to
a single He-4, releasing 26.7 MeV (Fig. 38.18). In massive stars, 42He then becomes a
building block for still heavier elements, as we discussed earlier.

+ 26.7 MeV

411H + 2e– 4
2 He + 26.7 MeV
FIGURE 38.18 Net result of the proton–proton cycle of Equations 38.9.

Reaction 38.9a does not occur readily, and terrestrial fusion research has therefore fo-
cused on reactions involving the heavier hydrogen isotopes. Of immediate interest are
deuterium–tritium (D-T) and deuterium–deuterium (D-D) reactions, listed below with the
energy released in each:
2
1H 1 31H ¡ 42He 1 10 n 117.6 MeV; D-T reaction2 (38.10a)
2
1H 1 21H ¡ 32He 1 10 n 13.27 MeV; D-D reaction2 (38.10b)
2
1H 1 21H ¡ 31H 1 11H 14.03 MeV; D-D reaction2 (38.10c)
The two outcomes of the D-D reaction have nearly equal probability.
The electrical repulsion between nuclei makes it difficult to get them close enough
D-T
to fuse. Although quantum tunneling helps, it still takes very high nuclear speeds—
corresponding to high temperatures—to initiate fusion. At fusion temperatures, atoms are
stripped of their electrons and the fusing material constitutes a plasma. It’s necessary
somehow to contain this hot plasma. Stars achieve both ends with their immense gravity, D-D
which compresses stellar material to fusion temperatures and simultaneously provides
confinement. In the Sun’s core, for example, the temperature is some 15 MK, and fusing Radiation loss
Power

nuclei approach with energies on the order of 1 keV—although even under these condi-
tions the process isn’t particularly efficient.
Terrestrial fusion requires still higher temperature, as high-energy particles undergo
large accelerations that result in the plasma losing energy by radiation. The temperature at D-T ignition
which fusion-generated power exceeds radiation loss is the critical ignition temperature.
For the D-D reactions of Equations 38.10b and c, Fig. 38.19 shows that the ignition tem- D-D ignition
perature is about 600 MK; for D-T it’s a lower 50 MK. Net fusion-energy production re-
quires not only high temperature but also confinement for long enough that the fusion
energy produced exceeds the energy required to heat the plasma. The heat required de-
pends on the number of nuclei or, on a volume basis, on the number density n. However, 107 108 109 1010
the rate of fusion-energy production depends on the square of the density. That’s because Temperature (K)
doubling n doubles both the number of nuclei available to strike other nuclei and the num- FIGURE 38.19 Power loss by radiation and power
ber of nuclei available to be struck; the result is a quadrupling of the fusion rate. The total produced by D-D and D-T fusion reactions, as
energy released therefore scales as n2t, where t is the confinement time. Meanwhile the functions of temperature on a log-log plot.
700 Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics

radiation energy loss depends linearly on n, and as a result there’s a minimum value of the
product nt necessary in an energy-producing fusion device. This condition is the Lawson
criterion, given approximately by
nt . 1022 s/m3 1Lawson criterion, D-D fusion2
(38.11)
nt . 10 s/m
20 3
1Lawson criterion, D-T fusion2
The factor-of-100 difference here shows that D-T fusion will be much easier to achieve.
Fusion technologies use two distinct approaches to the Lawson criterion. Inertial
confinement strives for very high densities with short confinement times—so short that
the particles’ inertia alone is sufficient to prevent them from leaving the fusion site dur-
ing the brief time needed. Magnetic confinement holds lower-density plasma in a
“magnetic bottle” whose magnetic-field configuration minimizes the chance of escape
during a relatively long confinement time. Neither approach has yet produced a sus-
tained energy yield from fusion.

Inertial Confinement Fusion

Although peaceful fusion devices still elude us, inertial confinement has been used suc-
cessfully since the 1950s in thermonuclear weapons—often called “hydrogen bombs”
to distinguish them from fission explosives (incorrectly called “atomic bombs”). Ther-
monuclear weapons aren’t pure fusion devices, though. They use a fission explosion to
achieve the high temperatures needed to ignite fusion, and a clever arrangement for fo-
cusing the fission energy on a mixture of lithium deuteride and plutonium-239. The
mixture is compressed to fusion temperatures, and fission neutrons convert lithium to
helium and tritium. D-T fusion then occurs, providing the device with approximately
half its explosive yield. The remainder comes from fission in an outer layer of natural
uranium, whose nonfissile U-238 nevertheless fissions under the bombardment of high-
energy neutrons. There’s essentially no limit to the yield of a thermonuclear weapon,
and devices as large as 58 megatons (Mt) TNT equivalent have been tested. That’s 5000
times the energy of the fission bomb that destroyed Hiroshima. Today’s missile-based
thermonuclear weapons range from 40 kt to about 1 Mt, and there are still thousands of
them in the world’s arsenals.
Inertial confinement schemes for controlled fusion focus high-power laser beams on
tiny deuterium–tritium targets, producing sequences of miniature thermonuclear explo-
sions. Most advanced is the National Ignition Facility (NIF) at California’s Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratory, which began experiments in 2009. NIF uses 192 laser
beams to focus a 1.8-MJ pulse of several nanoseconds duration on the millimeter-
diameter D-T target (Fig. 38.20). During this brief interval the laser power—energy per
time—is about 500 TW, or 1000 times the output of all U.S. electric power plants.
Fusion energy is only one of NIF’s three broad purposes; the others are to explore mat-
ter under extreme conditions, and to simulate nuclear weapons explosions without car-
rying out actual nuclear tests.

Magnetic Confinement Fusion

In Chapter 26 we saw how charged particles in highly conducting plasma are essentially
FIGURE 38.20 Target chamber of the National Ig- “frozen” to the magnetic field lines. Trapping of charged particles on magnetic field lines
nition Facility is 11 m in diameter and weighs
130 tonnes. Holes are ports for the 192 laser
is the essence of magnetic confinement fusion schemes. The first job of magnetic con-
beams that converge on the millimeter-size finement is to create a magnetic configuration that keeps plasma away from the relatively
target. cool walls of the device. Plasma can escape to the walls in three general ways, as shown
in Fig. 38.21.
The most promising magnetic fusion device is the tokamak, a Russian invention now
used worldwide in fusion research. The tokamak has a toroidal configuration whose mag-
netic field lines never penetrate the walls, eliminating the end loss shown in Fig. 38.21a.
Making the machine larger reduces field-line curvature, and with it the cross-field drift
of Fig. 38.21b. Additional field components enhance confinement and suppress the
 38.5 Nuclear Fusion 701

Wall

r
B
vdrift
r
r
B
B

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 38.21 Plasma loss in magnetic confinement. (a) End losses occur when field lines intersect device
walls. (b) Curvature of field lines results in cross-field drifts. (c) Instabilities distort the plasma and magnetic
field. In (a) and (b) the spiral represents the path of a charged particle.

instabilities of Fig. 38.21c. After smaller tokamaks paved the way, an international con-
sortium is constructing the ITER device in France for operation in about 2019 (Fig. 38.22).
ITER is expected to be the first magnetic fusion system to produce net energy exceeding
the energy used for plasma heating. ITER will operate at a plasma temperature higher
than 100 MK and should generate 400 MW of fusion power from its 840 cubic meters of
D-T plasma. ITER will use deuterium and lithium as fuel, with tritium 131H2 “bred” right
in the reactor by neutron bombardment: 63Li 1 10n ¡ 42He 1 31H.

Prospects for Fusion Energy

When work on controlled fusion began in the 1950s, scientists confidently predicted that
limitless fusion energy would be available in a few decades. More than half a century later,
controlled fusion still appears decades away. But it’s a goal worth pursuing: Problem 66
shows that with D-D fusion, a gallon of seawater is equivalent to some 300 gallons of
gasoline, and Problem 67 shows that fusion energy resources could last far longer than the FIGURE 38.22 Cutaway diagram of the ITER
Sun will continue to shine! fusion reactor. D-shaped structures are cross
Once controlled fusion proves scientifically feasible, there will be formidable engineer- sections of the toroidal plasma chamber.
ing challenges in the design of a practical fusion power plant. Intense neutron fluxes from
D-T fusion degrade materials that form the reaction chamber. Neutron-capture reactions
produce radioactive isotopes within the walls, although the associated radioactivity and
that of the tritium fuel are much less than the radioactivity of fission waste.
The first practical fusion plants will likely use D-T fusion because its ignition tem-
perature and Lawson criterion are lower than for D-D fusion; the resulting energy will
probably run a conventional steam cycle. But the D-D reaction promises cleaner and
more efficient power production. Because D-D reaction 38.10c produces charged pro-
tons 111H2 rather than neutral neutrons, there’s the possibility of using a magnetohydro-
dynamic (MHD) generator, in which electromagnetic induction converts charged-particle
kinetic energy directly to electricity. MHD generators would bypass the conventional
steam cycle and greatly increase the thermodynamic efficiency of a fusion power plant.
There’s one caveat to this rosy fusion future: Although fusion itself is relatively clean
and produces no greenhouse gases, the availability of unlimited cheap energy would likely
spur industrial growth at a level our planet might not tolerate. And ultimately, if fusion
energy use grew exponentially, the waste heat from fusion power could itself have climate-
changing consequences.
CHAPTER 38 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is that the tiny but massive atomic nucleus is a repository of vast energy—on the order of 107 times the Helium
energy released in chemical reactions. The protons and neutrons that make up the nucleus can take many configurations, isotopes
with the atomic number, Z, determining the element and the mass number, A, determining the particular isotope. We +
write AZX to describe the isotope with mass number A of the element whose atomic number is Z and whose symbol is X. + + +
helium-3 helium-4
3 4
2 He 2 He

Stable isotopes require a delicate balance between protons and neu- 26

56Fe
trons, with near equal numbers for lighter stable nuclei and more neu- 9

Binding energy per nucleon (MeV)

238U
trons for heavier nuclei. Unstable isotopes are radioactive and decay 8 92
by shedding particles. The curve of binding energy shows that Fission
7 4
energy can be released by either fusion of lighter nuclei or fission 2He

of heavier nuclei. 6
5

Fusion
4
3
2
2H
1
1
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
Mass number, A

Key Concepts and Equations

Radioactive isotopes decay with a characteristic half-life, t1/2: N 5 N02 2t/t1/2. Alpha decay emits a helium-4 nucleus:
A A24
N0 ZX ¡ Z22Y 1 42He
Beta decay emits an electron or a positron and an antineutrino
1
left after or a neutrino:
Nuclei remaining

2
A A
ZX ¡ Z11Y 1 e2 1 n
one half-life
1
1 4 left after Gamma decay emits a high-energy photon (gamma ray) as an
2 N0 two half-lives
excited nucleus drops to a lower energy state:
1
8 left after
1 three half-lives X* ¡ X 1 g
4 N0
1
8 N0

1 2 3 4
Time (half-lives)

Applications
Radioactivity is measured in becquerels, with 1 Bq equal to one decay per second. Sieverts (Sv) measure the biological effects of radiation. Resi-
dents of the United States receive an average yearly radiation dose of about 3.6 mSv from both natural and artificial sources.

For fission, the most important isotopes are the fissile 235 239
92U and 94Pu, Fusion powers the Sun and stars but has proved elusive on Earth except
which can fission when struck by low-energy neutrons: in thermonuclear weapons. Inertial confinement or magnetic confine-
ment fusion may one day provide us with nearly limitless energy.
0n 92U ¡ X 1 Y 1 b 0 n
1
1 235 1

The extra neutrons produced in fission can sustain a chain reaction

provided there’s a critical mass of fissile material. Exponentially
growing chain reactions power fission weapons, while controlled fis-
sion occurs in nuclear reactors used for power generation.
+
 Exercises and Problems 703

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion 25. Determine the nuclear mass of nickel-60, given that its binding
energy is very nearly 8.8 MeV/nucleon.
1. Why do nuclei contain neutrons? 26. Find the nuclear mass of plutonium-239, given its atomic mass
2. Why are there no stable nuclei for sufficiently high atomic numbers? of 239.052157 u.
3. Why might future archaeologists have problems dating samples 27. The mass of a lithium-7 nucleus is 7.01435 u. Find the binding
from the second half of the 20th century? energy per nucleon.
4. Beta decay by positron emission is soon followed by a pair of
Section 38.4 Nuclear Fission
511-keV gamma rays. Why? 235
5. Why would it have been easier to make bombs fueled with 28. A U nucleus undergoes neutron-induced fission, yielding
141
uranium-235 a few billion years ago? Cs, three neutrons, and another nucleus. What’s that nucleus?
6. Why are iodine-131 and strontium-90 particularly dangerous 29. Neutron-induced fission of 235U yields fission products iodine-
radioisotopes? 139 and yttrium-95. How many neutrons are released?
7. Which model, liquid-drop or nuclear shell, does a better job ex- 30. Write a complete equation for neutron-induced fission of pluto-
plaining (a) nuclear fission and (b) gamma-ray spectra? nium-239 that yields barium-143, two neutrons, and another
8. On an energy-release-per-unit-mass basis, by approximately nucleus.
what factor do nuclear reactions exceed chemical reactions? 31. Assuming 200 MeV per fission, determine the number of fission
9. Explain and distinguish the roles of the control rods and modera- events occurring each second in a reactor whose thermal power
tor in a nuclear reactor. output is 3.2 GW.
10. Why is a water-moderated reactor intrinsically safer in a loss-
of-coolant accident than a graphite-moderated reactor? Section 38.5 Nuclear Fusion
11. Is 238U fissionable? Is it fissile? Explain the distinction. 32. Verify from Equations 38.9 that the proton–proton cycle yields
12. Why are fission fragments necessarily radioactive? net energy of 26.7 MeV.
33. In a magnetic-confinement fusion device with confinement time
Exercises and Problems 0.5 s, what density is required to meet the Lawson criterion for
D-T fusion?
Exercises 34. Inertial confinement schemes generally involve confinement
times on the order of 0.1 ns. What’s the corresponding density
Section 38.1 Elements, Isotopes, and Nuclear Structure
needed to meet the Lawson criterion for D-T fusion?
13. Three radon isotopes have 125, 134, and 136 neutrons. Write the 35. What confinement time is required for the D-T Lawson criterion
symbol for each. in the ITER fusion reactor, given its plasma density of 1019 parti-
14. Write the symbol for the germanium isotope with 44 neutrons. cles per cubic meter?
15. How do (a) the number of nucleons and (b) the nuclear charge
compare in the two nuclei 35 35
17Cl and 19K? Problems
16. Compare the radius of the proton (the A 5 1 nucleus) with the
Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom. 36. To what diameter would Earth have to collapse to be at nuclear
17. A uranium-235 nucleus splits into two roughly equal-size frag- density?
ments. Find their common radius. 37. Find the energy needed to flip the spin state of a proton in Earth’s
magnetic field, whose magnitude is about 30 T.
Section 38.2 Radioactivity 38. An NMR spectrometer is described as a “300-MHz instrument,”
18. How many half-lives will it take for the activity of a radioactive meaning 300 MHz is the frequency supplied to its transmitter
sample to diminish to 10% of its original level? coil to flip the spin states of bare protons. What’s the strength of
19. Copper-64 can decay by any of the three beta-decay processes. its unperturbed magnetic field?
Write the equation for each decay. 39. Iron-56, with nuclear mass 55.9206 u, is among the most tightly
20. Referring to Fig. 38.7, write equations describing the decays of bound nuclei. Find the binding energy per nucleon, and check
(a) radon-222 and (b) lead-214. your answer against Fig. 38.9.
21. A milk sample shows iodine-131 activity of 450 pCi/L. What’s 40. Find the atomic mass of iridium-193, whose binding energy is
its activity in Bq/L? 7.94 MeV/nucleon.
22. Carbon-11–labeled acetate shows promise in PET scans for 41. As a geologist, you’re assessing the feasibility of determining the
BIO determining the extent of metastasized prostate cancer. (a) Given ages of Earth’s earliest rocks using radioactive dating. You esti-
C-11’s 20.4-min half-life, how long will it take an initial dose mate the number of half-lives that have passed for three different
of 2.03109 Bq to decay to 7 kBq (roughly the natural radioactiv- isotopes during Earth’s 4.5-billion-year lifetime, and from that
ity of the human body)? (b) What nucleus remains after C-11 you determine the number of atoms remaining today from 106
decays by positron emission? atoms present at Earth’s formation. The isotopes you consider are
23. Nuclear bomb tests of the 1950s deposited a layer of strontium- carbon-14, uranium-238, and potassium-40. What are your esti-
90 over Earth’s surface. How long will it take from the time of mates, and which isotopes do you conclude are suitable for
the bomb tests for (a) 99% and (b) 99.9% of this radioactive con- radioactive dating?
taminant to decay? 42. You measure the activity of a radioactive sample at 2.4 MBq.
Thirty minutes later, the activity level is 1.9 MBq. Find the mate-
Section 38.3 Binding Energy and Nucleosynthesis rial’s half-life.
24. Find the total binding energy of oxygen-16, given its nuclear 43. You’re a home inspector, and you find radon-222 activity of
mass of 15.9905 u. 23 pCi/L in the air inside a house, well above the EPA’s “action”
704 Chapter 38 Nuclear Physics

limit of 4 pCi/L. If radon infiltration were stopped but there were 56. Oxygen-15 1t1/2 5 2.0 min2 is produced in a hospital’s cyclotron.
no significant ventilation, how long would it take for the radon BIO What should the initial activity concentration be if it takes
activity to drop below the action limit? 3.5 min to get the O-15 to a patient undergoing a PET scan
44. Nitrogen-13 is a 10-min-half-life isotope used to “tag” ammonia requiring 0.5 mCi/L of activity?
BIO for PET scans, including quantification of myocardial infarction. 57. How much 235U would be needed to fuel the reactor of Exercise
Consider an intravenous injection incorporating 20 mCi of N-13. 31 for 1 year? (Note: Your answer is an overestimate because fis-
Plot a graph of N-13 activity versus time, with your vertical axis sion of 239Pu also contributes to the power output.)
logarithmic and your horizontal axis linear. Why is the graph a 58. How much uranium-235 would be consumed in a fission bomb
straight line? What’s the significance of its slope? with a 20-kt explosive yield?
45. Thorium-232 is an a emitter with 14-billion-year half-life. 59. A neutron collides elastically head-on with a stationary deuteron
Radium-228 is a b2 emitter with 5.75-year half-life. Actinium-228 in a reactor moderated by heavy water. How much of its kinetic
is a b2 emitter with 6.13-hour half-life. (a) What’s the third daugh- energy is transferred to the deuteron? (Hint: Consult Chapter 9.)
ter in the thorium-232 decay series? (b) Make a chart similar to 60. A buildup of fission products “poisons” a reactor, dropping the
Fig. 38.7 showing the first three decays in the thorium series. multiplication factor to 0.992. How long will it take the reactor
46. How much cobalt-60 (t1/2 5 5.24 years) must be used to make a power to decrease by half, assuming a generation time of 0.10 s?
laboratory source whose activity will exceed 1 GBq for 2 years? 61. The total thermal power generated in a nuclear power reactor is
47. Archaeologists unearth a bone and find its carbon-14 content is 1.5 GW. How much U-235 does it consume in a year?
34% of that in a living bone. How old is the archaeological find? 62. New Hampshire’s Seabrook nuclear power plant produces elec-
48. Show that the decay constant and half-life are related by trical energy at the rate of 1.2 GW and consumes 1311 kg of
t1/2 5 ln 2/l . 0.693/l. U-235 each year. Assuming the plant operates continuously, find
49. The table below lists reported levels of iodine-131 contamination (a) its thermal power output and (b) its efficiency.
in milk in three countries affected by the 1986 Chernobyl acci- 63. In the dangerous situation of prompt criticality in a fission reac-
dent, along with each country’s safety guideline. Given I-131’s tor, the generation time drops to 100 s as prompt neutrons alone
half-life of 8.04 days, how long did each country have to wait for sustain the chain reaction. If a reactor goes prompt critical with
I-131 levels to decline to a level deemed safe by its standards? k 5 1.001, how long does it take for a 100-fold increase in reac-
tor power?
64. How much heavy water (deuterium oxide, 2H 2O or D2O) would be
Level (Bq/L)
needed to fuel a 1000-MW D-D fusion power plant for 1 year?
Country Reported Safety Guideline 65. The proton–proton cycle consumes four protons while producing
about 27 MeV of energy. (a) At what rate must the Sun consume
Poland 2000 1000 protons to produce its power output of about 431026 W? (b) The
Austria 1500 370 present phase of the Sun’s life will end when it has consumed about
Germany 1184 500 10% of its original protons. Estimate how long this phase will last,
assuming the Sun’s 231030-kg mass was initially 71% hydrogen.
50. How many atoms are in a radioactive sample with activity 12 Bq 66. You’re enthusiastic about fusion energy, and you want to con-
and half-life 15 days? vince others of the enormous fuel resource represented by the
51. Analysis of a Moon rock shows that 82% of its initial K-40 has 0.015% of hydrogen nuclei that are actually deuterium. Using an
decayed to Ar-40, a process with a half-life of 1.23109 years. average of 7.2 MeV per deuteron, you calculate the energy that
How old is the rock? would be released if all the deuterium in a gallon of seawater un-
52. You’re assessing the safety of an airport bomb-detection system derwent fusion, and you compare your result with the energy in a
in which neutron activation of the stable nitrogen isotope 157N gallon of gasoline (see Appendix C). What do you find for the
turns it into unstable 167N. The N-16 decays by beta emission with gasoline equivalent of a gallon of seawater?
7.13-s half-life. How long after activation will the N-16 activity 67. In a further effort to convince others of the benefits of fusion en-
have dropped by a factor of 1 million? ergy, you use the data from Problem 66 to estimate how long the
53. Brachytherapy is a cancer treatment involving implantation of ra- deuterium in the world’s oceans (average depth 3 km) could sup-
dioactive “seeds” at the tumor site. Iridium-192, often used for ply humanity’s energy needs at the current consumption rate of
BIO
cancers of the head and neck, undergoes beta decay by electron about 15 TW. You then compare this with the Sun’s remaining
capture with 74.2-day half-life. Inner-shell electrons drop to the lifetime, about 5 billion years. What do you find?
orbital occupied by the captured electron, resulting in emission 68. The atomic masses of uranium-238 and thorium-234 are
of gamma rays that kill surrounding tumor cells. What percent- 238.050784 u and 234.043593 u, respectively. Find the energy
age of initial Ir-192 activity will remain one year after implant? released in the alpha decay of U-238.
54. Today, uranium-235 comprises only 0.72% of natural uranium; 69. Bismuth-209 and chromium-54 combine to form a heavy nucleus
essentially all the rest is U-238. Use the half-lives in Table 38.1 plus a neutron. Identify the heavy nucleus.
to determine the percentage of uranium-235 when Earth formed 70. It’s possible, though difficult, to realize alchemists’ dreams of
about 4.5 billion years ago. synthesizing gold. One reaction involves bombarding mercury-
55. You’re a geologist assessing underground sites for nuclear waste 198 with neutrons to produce, for each neutron captured, a gold-
storage. A recent ruling by the U.S. Environmental Protection 197 nucleus and another particle. Write the equation for this
Agency suggests that waste-storage facilities should be designed reaction.
for a million years of radiation protection. You’re asked for the 71. Nickel-65 beta decays by electron emission with decay constant
fraction of plutonium-239 initially in nuclear waste that would l 5 0.275 h21. (a) Identify the daughter nucleus. (b) In a sample
remain after that time. Your answer? of initially pure Ni-65, find the time when there are twice as
many daughter nuclei as parents.
 Answers to Chapter Questions 705

72. The dominant naturally occurring radioisotopes in the typical hu- Moon rocks to be constant throughout the solar system. Further analy-
BIO man body include 16 mg of 40K and 16 ng of 14C. Using half- sis showed the presence of isotopes that would result from the decay
lives from Table 38.1, estimate the body’s natural radioactivity. of fission products. Scientists drew the remarkable conclusion that a
73. A laser-fusion fuel pellet has mass 5.0 mg and consists of equal natural nuclear fission reaction had occurred some 2 billion years ago,
parts (by mass) of deuterium and tritium. (a) If half the deuterons lasting for about 100,000 years. Water, mixing with rich uranium ore,
and an equal number of tritons participate in D-T fusion, how provided the moderator that made the chain reaction possible. More
much energy is released? (b) At what rate must pellets be fused significantly, U-235’s 700-million-year half-life means that 2 billion
in a power plant with 3000-MW thermal power output? (c) What years ago there was a higher abundance of U-235 in natural uranium.
mass of fuel would be needed to run the plant for 1 year? Com- 80. At the time of the Oklo fission reaction, the actual amount of
pare your answer with the 3.63106 tons of coal needed to fuel a U-235 present was
comparable coal-burning power plant. a. about the same as today.
74. Of the neutrons emitted in each fission event in a light-water re- b. about twice as much as today.
actor, an average of 0.6 neutron is absorbed by 238U, leading to c. about four times as much as today.
the formation of 239Pu. (a) Assuming 200 MeV per fission, how d. about eight times as much as today.
much 239Pu forms each year in a 30%-efficient nuclear plant
81. Given U-238’s 4.5-billion-year half-life, the percentage of U-235
whose electric power output is 1.0 GW? (b) With careful design,
in natural uranium 2 billion years ago was
a fission explosive can be made from 5 kg of 239Pu. How many
a. about 1%.
potential bombs are produced each year in the power plant of
b. about 4%.
part (a)?
c. about 10%.
75. In the liquid-drop model, the mass of a nucleus with mass
d. nearly 100%.
number A can be expressed as a quadratic in Z: M1A, Z2 5
c1A 2 c2Z 1 1c2A21 1 c3A21/32Z2, where the cs are constants 82. The power output of the fission reactions at Oklo was 10 to
determined from experimental data. Show that the value of Z that 100 kW. If at some point that power had been sufficient to boil
gives the minimum mass (not necessarily an integer) is Z min 5 away the water at the reaction site, the chain reaction would have
1A/22/31 1 1c3/c22A2/34. (Note: A plot of Zmin versus N 5 A 2 Z a. ceased.
gives the line of greatest nuclear stability in Figs. 38.3 and 38.12.) b. continued, but more slowly.
76. The probability that a radioactive nucleus will have lifetime t is c. been unaffected.
the probability that it will survive from time 0 to time t multiplied d. sped up.
by the probability that it will decay in the interval from t to 83. At the Oklo site today, you would expect to find measurable
t 1 dt. Use this to show that the average lifetime of a nucleus is amounts of
equal to the inverse of the decay constant in Equation 38.3a. a. strontium-90.
77. Nucleus A decays into B with decay constant lA and B decays b. cesium-137.
into a stable product C with decay constant lB. A pure sample c. plutonium-239.
starts with N0 nuclei A at t 5 0. Find an expression for the total d. none of the above.
activity of the sample at time t.
78. (a) Example 38.6 explains that the number of fission events in a
chain reaction increases by a factor k with each generation. Show
Answers to Chapter Questions
that the total number of fission events in n generations is
N 5 1kn11 2 12/1k 2 12. (b) In a typical nuclear explosive, k is
Answer to Chapter Opening Question
about 1.5 and the generation time is about 10 ns. Use the result PET imaging “sees” the gamma rays produced in electron–positron an-
from (a) to calculate the time for all the nuclei in a 10-kg mass nihilation, using multiple detectors to locate the annihilation site pre-
235
U to fission. (Hint: Sum a series in part (a), and neglect 1 com- cisely. The positrons themselves are emitted by short-lived radioactive
pared with N in part (b).) isotopes of elements such as carbon, oxygen, or fluorine. Because the
79. A family member is about to have a brain scan using technetium- lifetimes are so short (typically minutes), the isotopes must be made on
BIO 99*, an excited isotope with 6.01-hour half-life. The hospital makes site. Particles accelerated in the cyclotron slam into target materials,
Tc-99* from the decay of molybdenum-99 1t1/2 5 2.7 days2, causing nuclear reactions that produce the desired isotopes.
then delivers it to the nuclear medicine department. You’re told Answers to GOT IT? Questions
that the Tc-99* will arrive 90 minutes after production, and that
38.1. (a) Z 5 6, N 5 6; (b) Z 5 8, N 5 7; (c) Z 5 26, N 5 31;
there must be 10 mg of it. The technician says she will produce
(d) Z 5 94, N 5 145.
12 mg of Tc-99*. Is that sufficient?
38.2. About one-billionth.
Passage Problems 38.3. 57 132 238 4 2
26Fe, 54Xe, 92U, 2He, 1H.
38.4. There is a much higher concentration of energy in nuclear fuels
In 1972, a worker at a nuclear fuel plant in France discovered that ura-
(by a factor of around 107), which means far less nuclear fuel is
nium from a mine in Oklo, in the African Republic of Gabon, had less
mined and transported.
U-235 than the normal 0.7%—a quantity known from meteorites and
 39 From Quarks to
the Cosmos
New Concepts, New Skills
By the end of this chapter you should
be able to
■ Tell how particles mediate forces in the
quantum description of force (39.1).
■ Evaluate conserved quantities in
particle interactions (39.2).
■ Describe the standard model of
particles and fields (39.3).
■ Determine the quark composition
of baryons and mesons (39.3).
■ Describe the current status of
physicists’ attempts to unify the
fundamental forces (39.4).
■ Use Hubble’s law to find cosmic
distances and times (39.5).
■ Give evidence for the Big Bang,
describing especially the importance A collision between two high-energy protons creates a
of the cosmic microwave background spray of particles in the Large Hadron Collider. How do
radiation (39.5). such experiments help us understand the origin of the
■ Outline the overall history of the universe?
universe (39.5).

Connecting Your Knowledge

This chapter is necessarily more descrip-
tive than earlier chapters and introduces
T he past five chapters have extended the realm of physics to the scales of atoms and mole-
cules and then down to the atomic nucleus. Here we go further still, probing the structure of
nucleons themselves and trying to make sense of the host of subatomic particles nature reveals.
a host of new ideas at the forefront of We’ll be asking questions about the ultimate nature of matter at the smallest scales, but in the
physics. It builds on a range of earlier process we’ll find a remarkable connection with questions of the largest scale—questions about
concepts, including: the origin and ultimate fate of the entire universe.
■ The fundamental forces: the strong
force, the electroweak force, and
gravity (4.3) 39.1 Particles and Forces
■ Photons (34.3) By 1932 four “elementary” particles of matter were known: the electron, the proton, the
■ The uncertainty principle (34.6) neutron, and the neutrino. In addition, there were the positron, antiparticle to the electron,
■ Blackbody radiation (34.2) and the photon of electromagnetic radiation. There were also the seemingly fundamental
■ The Doppler effect (14.8) forces—gravity, the electromagnetic force, the nuclear force, and the weak force that man-
■ Gravitational potential energy (8.4) ifests itself in beta decay.
In Chapter 34 we saw how the interaction of electromagnetic waves with matter ulti-
mately involves individual photons—the quanta of the electromagnetic field. In the quan-
tum-mechanical view of electromagnetism, the force between two charged particles also
involves photons, now exchanged between the interacting particles. Imagine two astronauts

706
 39.2 Particles and More Particles 707

tossing a ball back and forth (Fig. 39.1a). Catching or throwing the ball, one astronaut gains
momentum in a direction away from the other, so the exchange results in a net average re-
pulsive force. If the two astronauts struggle for possession of the ball, then the ball mediates
what appears as an attractive interaction (Fig. 39.1b). Figure 39.1 gives classical analogs for
the attractive and repulsive electrical interactions involving photon exchange.
We know that photons are emitted when a particle jumps into a lower energy state, with
the photon carrying off energy equal to the energy difference between the two states. The
process obviously conserves energy. But now we’re saying that a single, free electron
emits photons that it exchanges with another particle to produce what we call the electro-
magnetic force. How can that process conserve energy? The energy–time uncertainty rela-
tion (Equation 34.16) says that an energy measured in a time Dt is necessarily uncertain
by an amount DE $ "/Dt. The photon exchanged by two particles lasts only a short time,
and therefore its energy is uncertain. So we can’t really say that energy conservation is vi-
(a)
olated. A photon created in this way and lasting for only the short time it takes to exchange
with another particle is called a virtual photon. We never “see” the virtual photon, since
it’s emitted by one particle and absorbed by the other.
The quantum theory of the electromagnetic interaction is called quantum electrody-
namics (QED). Although begun by Paul Dirac, it was brought to consistent form in 1948
by Richard Feynman, Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, and Julian Schwinger. The fundamental event
in QED is the interaction of a photon with an electrically charged particle. Two such
events joined by a common virtual photon give the quantum electrodynamical description
of the electromagnetic force (Fig. 39.2). The predictions of quantum electrodynamics have
been confirmed experimentally to a remarkably high precision, and today QED is our
best-verified theory of physical reality.

Mesons
In 1935 the Japanese physicist Hideki Yukawa proposed that the nuclear force should, like (b)
the electromagnetic force, be mediated by exchange of a particle. Yukawa called his hypo-
thetical particle a meson. Because the range of the nuclear force is limited, Yukawa ar- FIGURE 39.1 Analogs for particle-mediated
forces: (a) repulsive and (b) attractive. Ball
gued, the meson should have nonzero mass. The reason for this connection between mass represents a photon.
and range again lies in the energy–time uncertainty relation.
The electromagnetic force falls off as 1/r2 and thus has an infinite range. Two particles
can be very far apart and still interact electromagnetically. Since photons travel at the fi-
nite speed of light, the time Dt for a photon interaction can be arbitrarily long. The en-
ergy–time uncertainty relation DE Dt $ " thus shows that the energy uncertainty DE can e– e–
be arbitrarily small. Thus, the possible energies for virtual photons must extend downward
toward zero—and that can happen only if photons have zero rest energy.
Time

The nuclear force, in contrast, has a finite range of about 1.5 fm. At close to the speed of
light, the longest a particle mediating this force would need to exist is a time Dt given by Virtual photon
Dx 1.5310215 m
Dt 5 5 5 5.0310224 s
c 3.03108 m/s e– e–

Then energy–time uncertainty gives

" 1.05310234 J # s
DE $ 5 5 2.1310211 J 5 130 MeV FIGURE 39.2 A Feynman diagram, showing the
Dt 5.0310224 s interaction of two electrons through the
exchange of a virtual photon. The diagram
Yukawa therefore proposed a new particle with mass 130 MeV/c2, about 250 times that of
provides a quantum description of the
the electron. Yukawa’s prediction was eventually confirmed—but not before physicists electrons’ Coulomb repulsion.
found yet another particle.

39.2 Particles and More Particles

In the 1930s the most available source of high-energy particles was cosmic radiation—
high-energy protons and other particles of extraterrestrial origin. In 1937 the American
physicist Carl Anderson (who had earlier discovered the positron) and his colleagues
identified in cosmic rays a particle with a mass 207 times that of the electron. Now called
708 Chapter 39 From Quarks to the Cosmos

the muon, this particle had the same charge and spin as the electron and seemed to behave
much like a heavier version of the electron. Two muons were found: the negatively
charged m2 and its antiparticle m1. Although the muon mass was close to Yukawa’s
prediction, the muon interacted only weakly with nuclei and, therefore, could not be the
mediator of the nuclear force.
The real Yukawa particle was discovered 10 years later in 1947, again in cosmic rays,
and turned out to have a mass about 270 times that of the electron. This time there were
three related particles, now called pions: positive p1, negative p2, and neutral p0.
The new particles are all unstable, undergoing decays that ultimately result in well-
known stable particles. The negative pion, for example, decays with a mean lifetime of
26 ns to a negative muon and an antineutrino:
p2 ¡ m2 1 n
The muon then decays with a 2.2-s lifetime to an electron and a neutrino–antineutrino pair:
m2 ¡ e2 1 n 1 n

APPLICATION Particle Detection

Despite their small size, we can, remarkably, follow the trajectories of in-
dividual subatomic particles. Early particle detectors included the cloud
chamber and the bubble chamber, in which particles ionize vapor or liq-
uid, causing visible condensation or bubble formation along the particle
tracks. More recent is the multiwire proportional chamber, in which
crisscrossed wire grids record current pulses from electrons liberated as
particles pass through a gas-filled chamber (see the photo, which shows a
multiwire chamber at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center). Analyzing
the pulse distribution then reveals particle trajectories. Applying a mag-
netic field in a particle detector curves the trajectories, enabling scientists
to determine the particles’ charge-to-mass ratios. Scintillation detectors
give off light flashes as particles pass through them, and the flash intensity
provides a measure of particle energy. Calorimeters, consisting of layers
of scintillators and energy-absorbing material, analyze the showers of sec-
ondary particles produced by a single high-energy particle to determine the
original particle’s energy. Modern detectors are huge agglomerations
of several basic detector types, arranged to extract the maximum informa-
tion from particle interactions. Computer analysis of detector output allows
the identification of events so rare they may occur only once in a million
interactions.

Classifying Particles
The availability of increasingly powerful particle accelerators led to an upsurge in particle
discoveries. By 1980 there were more than 100 “elementary” particles. Early attempts to
classify particles distinguished them by mass, but a more enlightening approach is based
on the fundamental forces. We’ll now use this approach to outline three particle classes.
Leptons are particles that don’t experience the strong force. They include the familiar
electron, the muon, a more massive particle called the tau, and three types of neutrinos,
one associated with each of the charged leptons. The neutrinos were long thought to be
massless, but recent experiments show that neutrinos have small nonzero mass and that
they “oscillate” among the three types. Each of the leptons has an antiparticle as well.
There are thus a total of six lepton–antilepton pairs, and experimental evidence strongly
suggests that no others can exist. The leptons all have spin 12 and are therefore fermions,
which obey the Pauli exclusion principle. Leptons are believed to be true elementary point
particles with zero size and no internal structure.
 39.2 Particles and More Particles 709

Hadrons are particles that do experience the strong force. They fall into two subclasses:
mesons and baryons. Mesons have integer spin and are therefore bosons that don’t obey
the exclusion principle. Mesons include Yukawa’s pions and a host of others; all are unsta-
ble. Baryons have half-integer spins and are therefore fermions. They include the familiar
proton and neutron and similar but more massive particles. The baryons are grouped into
pairs, triplets, and higher-multiple groupings of closely related particles. The neutron and
proton, for example, form a pair that differ in charge and very slightly in mass. Each baryon
has an antiparticle, as do most mesons, but some neutral mesons are their own antiparticles.
The third class of particles comprises the field particles or gauge bosons, quanta of the
different force fields and “carriers” of those forces. These include the familiar photon for the
electromagnetic force; three particles called the W1, W2, and Z for the weak force; a particle
called the gluon; and a hypothetical graviton that would carry the gravitational force in an as
yet incomplete theory of quantum gravity. All the field particles are bosons, carrying spin 1
or, for the graviton, spin 2. You might think Yukawa’s meson should be in this category in its
role as carrier of the nuclear force. That it doesn’t appear here is a hint that the nuclear force
isn’t really fundamental; as we’ll soon see, it’s the gluon that plays the more fundamental role.
Table 39.1 lists some of the particles known even before full confirmation of today’s
elementary particle theories.

Table 39.1 Selected Particles*

Symbol Baryon Lepton

Category/ (Particle/ Mass Number, Number, Strangeness, Lifetime
Particle Antiparticle) Spin (MeV/c2) B L s (s)
Field particles
Photon g, g 1 0 0 0 0 Stable
Z 0
Z ,Z 0 0
1 91,188 0 0 0 ,10225
Leptons
Electron e2, e1 1 0.511 0 11 0 Stable
2
2 1
Muon m ,m 1 105.7 0 11 0 2.231026
2
Tau t2, t1 1 1777 0 11 0 2.9310213
2
Electron neutrino ne, ne 1 ,331026 0 11 0 Stable
2
Muon neutrino nm, nm 1 ,0.19 0 11 0 Stable
2
Tau neutrino nt, nt 1 ,18.2 0 11 0 Stable
2
Hadrons
Mesons
Pion p1, p2 0 139.6 0 0 0 2.631028
0 0
Pion p ,p 0 135.0 0 0 0 8.4310217
Eta h0, h0 0 547.8 0 0 0 ,5310219
Rho r ,r 0 0
1 775.8 0 0 0 ,4310224
Kaon K1, K2 0 493.7 0 0 1 1.231028
Kaon K ,K 0 0
0 497.6 0 0 1 0.895310210
5.1831028†
Baryons
Proton p, p 1 938.3 1 0 0 Stable
2
Neutron n, n 1 939.6 1 0 0 885.7
2
0 0
Lambda L ,L 1 1115.7 1 0 21 2.6310210
2
Sigma S1, S2 1 1189.4 1 0 21 0.80310210
2
0 0
Sigma S ,S 1 1192.6 1 0 21 7.4310220
2
Sigma S2, S1 1 1197.4 1 0 21 1.5310210
2
Omega V ,V 2 1 3 1672.45 1 0 23 0.82310210
2

*Does not include any hadrons with c, b, or t quarks.

†The neutral kaon exists as a quantum-mechanical superposition of states with two different lifetimes.
710 Chapter 39 From Quarks to the Cosmos

Particle Properties and Conservation Laws

Many new particles can be characterized by known properties such as mass, spin, and
electric charge. Of these, spin and charge are associated with important conservation
laws—conservation of angular momentum and conservation of electric charge. Allowed
interactions among particles must conserve these quantities. The annihilation of an
electron–positron pair, for example, is allowed because the initial particles have no net
charge and neither do the resulting photons. Similarly, beta decay of the neutron pro-
duces an electron, a proton, and a neutral antineutrino and thus conserves charge:
n ¡ p 1 e2 1 ve
Here the subscript on the antineutrino indicates that it’s an electron antineutrino, as
opposed to the muon or tau variety.
Other particle properties appear to be conserved as well. Associated with each baryon
or antibaryon is its baryon number, assigned the value 11 for a baryon and 21 for an
antibaryon. All experimental evidence to date points to conservation of baryon number: In
all observed particle reactions, the sums of the baryon numbers before and after the reac-
tion are equal. An example is, again, beta decay of the neutron: The process starts with a
neutron of baryon number B 5 1 and ends with a proton 1B 5 12, an electron, and an an-
tineutrino. The last two are leptons, so their baryon numbers are zero, and thus baryon
number is conserved. Some theories, which we describe shortly, suggest that baryon num-
ber is only approximately conserved. If that’s so, then the proton itself is an unstable parti-
cle with a mean lifetime in excess of 1035 years.
Lepton number seems also to be conserved. Again, beta decay provides an example:
The neutron and proton, being baryons, have lepton number zero, while the resulting elec-
tron and antineutrino have lepton numbers 11 and 21, respectively.
In the late 1950s particles called K, L, S, and J were discovered. Strange characteristics
of these particles’ decays could be explained by introducing a new fundamental property,
called strangeness, with the new particles having s 5 61 or 62. Strangeness is conserved
in strong and electromagnetic interactions, but in weak interactions its value can change.
We’ll soon see that several other new properties are needed to characterize matter fully.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 39.1 Conservation Laws: Evaluating a Particle Interaction

A pion collides with a proton to produce a neutral kaon and a lambda strangeness (0), and baryon number (1). But it wouldn’t conserve lep-
particle: ton number, which was originally 0 but would become 1.
p2 1 p ¡ K0 1 L0 ASSESS This example shows how conservation laws restrict the pos-
(a) Which of the following are conserved: electric charge, baryon sible outcomes of particle interactions.
number, lepton number, strangeness? (b) Could another possible re-
sult of a pion–proton collision be an electron and a proton?
MAKING THE CONNECTION What minimum kinetic energy is
EVALUATE (a) Table 39.1 shows that all the particles are hadrons, so required for the pion and proton together in order for this reaction to
the lepton number is zero on both sides of the equation. On the left occur?
we have a positive and a negative particle and on the right two neu-
EVALUATE Table 39.1 gives the rest masses of the pion as
trals, so the electric charge is zero on both sides. The pion is a meson
139.6 MeV/c2 and the proton as 938.3 MeV/c2; therefore, their rest en-
and the proton a baryon, so the baryon number on the left is 1; simi-
ergies mc2 are 139.6 MeV and 938.3 MeV, for a total of 1078 MeV.
larly, the kaon is a meson and the L0 a baryon, so the baryon number
But the tabulated masses of the K0 and L0 show that their total rest en-
is conserved. Finally, neither pion nor proton is strange, so the total
ergy is 1613 MeV, so we need an additional 1613 2 1078 5 535 MeV
strangeness on the left is zero. Table 39.1 lists the K0 with s 5 11
of energy to drive the reaction. This is the minimum kinetic energy for
and the L0 with s 5 21, so strangeness, too, is conserved. (b) Having
the pion and proton together.
an electron and a proton as the final state would conserve charge (0),

Symmetries
Watch a physical process in a mirror, and you expect the image to be a possible physical
process; that is, the laws of physics should exhibit symmetry with respect to mirror re-
flection. At the subatomic level, the statement that a process and its mirror image are
 39.3 Quarks and the Standard Model 711

r r
equally likely is called conservation of parity. Mathematically, a system has parity 11 if B Mirror B
its wave function is unchanged on reflection through the origin—that is, on a coordinate
change x S 2x, y S 2y, z S 2z. If the wave function changes sign, then the parity 60Co 60Co
is 21. Parity is conserved if its value is unchanged in a particle interaction.
In 1957 theoretical physicists Tsung-dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang pointed out that parity
conservation had not been tested for the weak force. They made the revolutionary sugges- (a)
tion that parity need not be conserved—tantamount to suggesting that nature can distinguish
right- from left-handed systems that are otherwise identical. A group led by Chien-Shiung r Mirror r
B B
Wu took up the challenge. Wu studied the beta decay of cobalt-60 in a magnetic field that
established a left–right symmetry. Her experiments showed a preferential beta emission op-
60Co 60Co
posite the field direction—a clear violation of parity conservation (Fig. 39.3).
Although parity might not be conserved, theorists held that a combination of parity re-
versal (P) and charge conjugation (C)—changing particles into antiparticles—would re-
sult in indistinguishable physical behavior. But in 1964 a violation of this CP conservation (b)
was found in a rare decay of the neutral kaon to a pion–antipion pair. The Russian physi-
FIGURE 39.3 Experimental evidence for noncon-
cist Andrei Sakharov suggested that this asymmetric decay might account for the prepon- servation of parity. At left of the mirror, a 60Co
derance of matter over antimatter in today’s universe. nucleus has its spin aligned with a magnetic
It still appears that CPT conservation holds; that is, a combination of mirror reflection, field. (a) Reflected in the mirror, the spin vector
charge conjugation, and reversal of the time coordinate makes a new physical process in- still points to the right, even though the mag-
distinguishable from the original. There may be a deep philosophical connection here with netic field is reversed. If the mirror image were
equally likely, beta emission (arrows) would oc-
the direction of time, but the full implications of CPT symmetry and the failure of its indi- cur with equal probability along and opposite
vidual components aren’t fully understood. the spin direction. (b) Experiment shows that
beta emission occurs preferentially opposite
the spin direction, so the mirror-image situa-
39.3 Quarks and the Standard Model tion at the right in (b) does not occur.

The proliferation of particles distressed physicists used to finding an underlying simplicity

in nature. Were all those particles really “elementary,” or was there a more fundamental,
simpler level? In 1961 physicists Murray Gell-Mann and Yuval Ne’eman independently no- u u
+ 32 e + 32 e
ticed patterns in the then-known particles. They called their patterns the Eightfold Way,
after Buddhist principles for right living. An empty spot in one pattern led Gell-Mann to d
predict a new particle with strangeness 23. Experimentalists soon found the particle, now – 31 e
known as the V2, in bubble-chamber photographs from earlier experiments.
Proton
Quarks
Success of the Eightfold Way convinced physicists that many “elementary” particles
weren’t really elementary. In 1964 Gell-Mann and his colleague George Zweig independ- u d
ently proposed a set of three particles called quarks that combined to form the then- + 32 e – 31 e
known hadrons. These became known as the up quark, the down quark, and the strange
d
quark. For each there was a corresponding antiquark.
– 31 e
One surprising thing about quarks is that they carry fractional electric charges. The
two least massive quarks, the up and the down, carry 123 e and 213 e, respectively; their an-
tiparticles have the opposite charges. The quarks combine in pairs or triplets to make the Neutron
two classes of hadrons. Baryons, like the proton and the neutron, consist of three quarks FIGURE 39.4 Protons and neutrons consist of the
(Fig. 39.4). Mesons contain quark–antiquark pairs (Fig. 39.5). The quarks all have spin 12, quark combinations uud and udd, respectively.
which explains why the three-quark baryons all have odd half-integer spin, and why the
two-quark mesons have integer spin.
The Pauli exclusion principle precludes three particles having the same quantum num-
bers, so there must be an additional property distinguishing quarks. Called color, this
–
property is a kind of “charge”—not to be confused with electric charge—that can take on u d
any of three values called, whimsically, red, green, and blue. The force binding quarks of + 32 e + 31e
different colors is the strong force, and the quark theory is known as quantum chromo-
dynamics (QCD). In QCD, gluons are the field particles that play the role of photons in
quantum electrodynamics, binding particles subject to the strong force. Particles formed
from quarks—the mesons and the baryons—are always colorless. This is true of mesons FIGURE 39.5 Mesons consist of a quark and an
because they contain a quark of one color and another of its anticolor. It’s true of baryons antiquark. The meson here is the p1, made
because they contain three quarks of different colors, which combine to give the baryon from an up quark and a down antiquark.
712 Chapter 39 From Quarks to the Cosmos

zero net color charge. The nuclear force, once thought to be fundamental, is actually a
residual manifestation of the strong force, acting between the quarks in colorless particles—
in much the same way that the van der Waals force between neutral gas molecules is a
“residue” of the stronger electric force among the particles that make up the molecules.
Photons mediate the electromagnetic force between charged particles but are them-
selves uncharged. In contrast, gluons, like the quarks they bind, carry color charge. There
are eight different gluons; six carry combinations like red–antiblue 1RB2, green–antired
1GR2, and so on; the other two are colorless. Exchange of a colored gluon, unlike photon
exchange in quantum electrodynamics, thus changes the colors of the particles involved.
Another surprising aspect of quarks is that the strong force doesn’t decrease with sepa-
ration. For that reason it appears impossible to isolate a single quark (Fig. 39.6). As a re-
sult we never see individual free particles with fractional electric charge.

_ _
G G G G

(a) (b)

_ _
G G G G

(c)

FIGURE 39.6 Quark confinement in a meson consisting of a green quark G and its antiquark G. (a) Field
lines represent the “color field” that joins the two. (b) The field remains confined as the quarks are
moved apart, so the field strength stays essentially constant. (c) Pulling the quarks far apart builds
up enough energy to create another quark–antiquark pair, rather than isolating individual parts.

The up, down, and strange quarks soon proved insufficient to account for all the ob-
served particles. Theorist Sheldon Glashow argued for a fourth quark, called the charmed
quark. Ten years later, following intensive searches, experimental teams at Brookhaven
National Laboratory and the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center announced the discovery
of a particle that implies the existence of the charmed quark. The charmed and strange
quarks form a related pair, similar to the up/down quark pair.
There’s still one more quark pair. A 1977 experiment confirmed the existence of the
bottom quark, and in 1995 Fermilab announced the discovery of the top quark. The
more exotic quarks are more massive, and therefore, through mass–energy equivalence,
it takes more energy to produce particles containing them. This need for higher energy
is what drives the push for ever more powerful and expensive particle accelerators. (See
Application, p. 715.) Table 39.2 lists some properties of the six quarks.

Table 39.2 Matter Particles of the Standard Model

Approximate Corresponding Leptons

Quark Name Symbol Mass (MeV/c 2) Charge (Symbol, Mass in MeV/c 2)

Down d 6 213 e Electron 1e, 0.5112,

electron neutrino 1ne2
Up u 3 123 e
Strange s 100 213 e Muon 1m, 1062,
muon neutrino 1nm2
Charmed c 1300 123 e
Bottom b 4300 213 e Tau 1t, 17772, tau neutrino 1nt2
Top t 1.7310 5
123 e
 39.3 Quarks and the Standard Model 713

EXAMPLE 39.1 Quarks: Particle Composition and Properties

Given that the strange quark has strangeness s 5 21, find the EVALUATE Table 39.2 gives the charges of the u, d, and s quarks
charge and strangeness of the L0 particle, which has quark compo- as 123 e, 213 e, and 213 e, respectively. These sum to zero net charge, so
sition uds. the L0 is electrically neutral. The up and down quarks aren’t strange,
so they have s 5 0. With s 5 21 for the strange quark, the L0 must
INTERPRET We’re asked to find how the charge and strangeness of have strangeness 21.
three individual quarks combine in a composite particle, the L0.
ASSESS Table 39.1 shows we’re right about the strangeness of the L0,
DEVELOP Our plan is to sum the values of the quark’s charge and and its superscript 0 implies that this is a neutral particle, as we’ve
strangeness to get the parameters of the L0. found. ■

The Standard Model

We now have six flavors of quarks—up, down, strange, charmed, top, bottom—that seem
to be truly elementary constituents of matter. Quarks join to form the hadrons—baryons
and mesons. But other particles—namely, leptons and field particles—aren’t made from
quarks. They, like quarks, seem to be truly indivisible, elementary particles.
In this “zoo” of elementary particles, physicists recognize three distinct “families.” The
up and the down quarks make the neutron and proton; together with the electron and its
related neutrino, they account for the properties of ordinary matter. A second family con-
sists of the strange and charmed quarks, the electron-like muon, and the muon neutrino.
The quarks of this family are more massive than the up and down quarks, and the muon is
more massive than the electron. More massive still are the particles of the third family,
consisting of the top and bottom quarks, the electron-like tau particle, and the tau neutrino.
Table 39.2 shows these three families, from which all known matter is constructed.
You may be expecting that future editions of this book will tell of additional quarks, and
thus of additional families of matter. Whether such additional families exist was an open
question until physicists at the Large Electron Positron Collider in Geneva, Switzerland,
examined more than half a million particle-decay events and concluded that the number of
different types of neutrinos that can exist is 2.99 6 0.06. Since there’s presumably a neu-
trino type for each family, this result seems to preclude the existence of additional families.
The theory that currently describes elementary particles and their interactions is called
the standard model. In addition to the particles shown in Table 39.2, the standard model
includes the photons that mediate the electromagnetic interaction, the gluons of the strong
force, the W and Z particles that mediate the weak force, and an as yet undetected particle
called the Higgs boson, believed responsible for other particles’ masses (Table 39.3). The
standard model is successful in explaining the phenomena of particle physics, but it leaves
many fundamental questions unanswered. Why, for example, do the quarks and leptons

Table 39.3 Field Particles and Forces

Approximate Strength at 1 fm
Particle Mass (GeV/c 2) Electric and Color Charges* Force Mediated Range (Relative to Strong Force)

Graviton 0 0, 0 Gravity Infinite 10238

W6 80.2 61, 0 Weak ,2.4310218 m 10213
Z0 91.2 0, 0
Photon, g 0 0, 0 Electromagnetic Infinite 1022
Gluon, g 0 0, 6 color–anticolor
(8 varieties) combinations,
2 colorless Strong Infinite† 1
Higgs boson, H 0
114–185? 0, 0 The Higgs boson is an as yet undetected particle needed to account for
the masses of the other particles.
*Color is a quark property analogous to, but more complicated than, electric charge.
†The nuclear force is the residual strong force between colorless particles and has a range of about 1 fm 110215 m2.
714 Chapter 39 From Quarks to the Cosmos

have the particular masses they do? Why are there only three families of elementary parti-
cles? Why are leptons and quarks distinct? Are these particles really elementary, or are
there even smaller structures at hitherto unexplored scales? Continuing theoretical work
and experiments at ever-higher energies may someday answer these questions.

39.4 Unification
We introduced the fundamental forces of nature in Chapter 4: gravity, the electroweak
force, and the strong force. It was not always that simple, though. In Chapters 20–29 we
studied the electric and magnetic forces, first separately but then with the realization that
they fall under the single umbrella of electromagnetism. The unification of electricity and
magnetism was a major step forward in our understanding of physical reality. Physicists
continue to strive for further unification, with the ultimate hope that someday all the forces
will be understood as a manifestation of a single common interaction.

Electroweak Unification
In the 1960s and early 1970s, a century after Maxwell formalized the unification of elec-
tromagnetism, physicists Steven Weinberg, Abdus Salam, and Sheldon Glashow proposed
that the electromagnetic force and the weak force are really aspects of the same thing.
Their theory predicted the existence of the particles W1, Z0, and W2, the “carriers” of the
unified electroweak force. In 1983 a huge international consortium headed by Carlo Rub-
bia discovered the W and Z particles, using advances in accelerator technology developed
by Simon van der Meer (Fig. 39.7). That discovery confirmed the electroweak unification,
FIGURE 39.7 Particle tracks from the decay and Rubbia and van der Meer joined a long list of physicists who had won the Nobel Prize
of a Z particle help confirm electroweak for contributions to our understanding of the structure of matter.
unification.

Further Unification
Electroweak unification led to the present situation in physics, with the strong force, the
electroweak force, and gravity comprising the fundamental forces that describe all interac-
tions of matter. A further step, the grand unification theories (GUTs), attempts to merge
the electroweak and strong forces. Some versions of GUT predict that the proton should de-
cay on the very long timescale of some 1036 years. We can’t wait that long, but we can put
1034 protons together in the form of tens of thousands of tons of water and watch for proton
decay (Fig. 39.8). Such experiments have not found the predicted decays, but another GUT
prediction—that neutrinos have mass—was verified, also in the device of Fig. 39.8. Many
physicists believe that some form of grand unification will soon be achieved.
Even grand unification would still leave two forces, one of them gravity. Attempts to
reconcile our current theory of gravity—Einstein’s general theory of relativity—with quan-
tum mechanics have so far made little progress. Yet such a reconciliation is a necessary pre-
requisite for a final unification of all known forces. A possible candidate is string theory,
which pictures elementary particles as vibration modes on stringlike structures that may
be as short as 10235 m (Fig. 39.9). String theory is set not in the four-dimensional space-
time to which we’re accustomed, but in a spacetime with 10 or more dimensions. The

FIGURE 39.8 Japan’s Super Kamiokande experi-

ment consists of 50,000 tons of pure water in
an underground chamber, surrounded by
some 10,000 photomultiplier tubes to detect
flashes from rare nuclear reactions including
neutrino interactions and hypothetical proton
decays. FIGURE 39.9 (a) A particle decay involving
point particles in the standard model.
(b) A similar decay in string theory. Note
that there’s no single point in spacetime
at which the decay takes place. (a) (b)
 39.5 The Evolving Universe 715

extra dimensions are “compactified” in a way that makes them undetectable in normal in- The ball sits atop a
teractions. To some physicists, string theories hold the promise of a “theory of everything,” potential hill; the
explaining all our observations about the behavior of the universe. To others they’re another situation is symmetric.
in a long line of unsuccessful attempts at a comprehensive explanation of physical phenom-
ena. Only further research will tell.

Symmetry Breaking
Unification theories predict that phenomena that appear distinct under normal conditions
will be seen as one at sufficiently high energies. The observed unification represents a When the ball drops
kind of symmetry that’s “broken” as the energy level drops. Figure 39.10 shows a mechan- to a low-energy state,
ical analogy for such symmetry breaking. With high energy, a ball sits atop a potential it ends up in a
particular location.
“hill,” and the situation is symmetric. But when the ball drops to a low-energy state, it Now the symmetry
ends up at a particular angular position, and the symmetry is broken. Analogously, at en- is broken.
ergies above 100 GeV, what we call the electromagnetic and weak forces are one and the
same. But at lower energies the symmetry is broken, and we see two distinct forces. Parti-
cle accelerators now being planned will exceed the energy of electroweak symmetry
breaking, allowing us to explore that interaction in its fundamental simplicity. But the en-
ergy at which symmetry breaking occurs increases to some 1015 GeV as we move from
electroweak to grand unification, making it unlikely that we’ll achieve that energy in the FIGURE 39.10 A mechanical analogy for symme-
foreseeable future. And the energy at which gravity, too, would join a single unified force try breaking, showing a ball subject to a hat-
is an even more remote 1019 GeV. shaped potential-energy curve.

APPLICATION Particle Accelerators

The earliest accelerators were electrostatic devices that established large

potential differences between conducting electrodes, and they used the asso-
ciated electric field to accelerate charged particles. But such accelerators are
limited to maximum energies of about 20 MeV because of the difficulties of
handling high voltages. We saw in Chapter 26 how this problem is cleverly
circumvented in the cyclotron, an accelerator that uses a magnetic field to
keep particles in circular orbits so they can gain energy on each orbit from a
modest electric field. But cyclotrons work for only nonrelativistic particles,
for which the cyclotron frequency is independent of particle energy. Today’s
high-energy experiments call for ultrarelativistic particles, whose speeds dif-
fer only minutely from the speed of light. As a result, today’s accelerators are
primarily variations on the synchrotron, a device in which the magnetic field
increases with the particle energy to maintain particles in a circular orbit of
fixed radius. An alternative to the synchrotron is the linear accelerator, the
largest of which is the 3-km-long Stanford Linear Accelerator.
A head-on collision between two cars is much more damaging than a colli-
sion of a moving car with a stationary one, since in the former case all the en-
Aerial view showing the location of the 4.3-km-diameter Large Hadron ergy goes into damaging the cars while in the latter a great deal of energy goes
Collider on the Swiss–French border. The accelerator itself is in a tunnel into accelerating the initially stationary “target” car. For the same reason head-
50–175 m below ground. The device accelerates protons to 7 TeV. The on collisions of high-energy particles make much more energy available for
smaller ring accelerates the protons to 450 GeV before they’re injected creation of new particles. As a result, most of the highest-energy accelerators
into the main accelerator. today are colliders, with particle beams accelerated in opposite directions and
brought to collide inside elaborate detectors. The largest accelerator today is
Most particles are more massive than the proton, and some, like the weak-force the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN, the European Laboratory for Par-
mediators W6 and Z, are extremely massive. Since the more massive particles are ticle Physics, at Geneva, Switzerland. With a 27-km circumference, LHC col-
all unstable, discovering them involves first creating them—and that requires en- lides proton beams at energies up to 14 TeV. Both LHC and the Relativistic
ergy of at least mc2, with m the particle mass. That energy requirement, along Heavy Ion Collider at Brookhaven National Laboratory in the United States
with the hint of new phenomena such as force unification, drives particle physi- create conditions that existed when the universe was only 10212 s old; more on
cists’ seemingly insatiable desire for particle accelerators of ever-higher energies. this in the next section.

39.5 The Evolving Universe

We come at the end to the broadest possible questions about physical reality: How did
the universe begin? What is its overall structure? What will its future bring? Remarkably,
these cosmological questions are closely linked with the questions of particle physics.
716 Chapter 39 From Quarks to the Cosmos

Expansion of the Universe

Early in the 20th century, astronomers argued about the nature of certain fuzzy patches visi-
ble in telescope photographs. Many thought they were gas clouds scattered among the visible
stars, but others made a more radical proposal: that some of these “nebulae” were gravitation-
ally bound systems containing billions of stars and that they were almost inconceivably distant.
In the 1920s, the opening of the 2.5-m telescope at California’s Mt. Wilson Observa-
tory finally resolved the issue. There, astronomer Edwin Hubble proved that some nebulae
were indeed distant galaxies like our own Milky Way, each containing billions of stars.
Today cosmologists think of galaxies as individual “point particles” whose distribution
traces the overall structure of the universe.
Hubble continued to study the galaxies throughout the 1920s, and by analyzing their
spectra he made a remarkable discovery: Spectral lines from distant galaxies are shifted
toward the red, with the amount of shift dependent on the distance to the galaxies. The
most reasonable and widely held explanation is that the redshift is caused by the Doppler
effect (see Section 14.8). Then the implication of Hubble’s work is that the distant galax-
ies are receding from us at speeds proportional to their distances. This result is known as
Hubble’s law:
v 5 H0 d (39.1)
where v is the recession speed, d the distance, and H0 the Hubble constant, whose value
is now known to be very nearly 22.7 kilometers per second per million light years of dis-
tance. Astronomers now use the Hubble relation to find the distances to remote galaxies,
measuring their redshifts and using Equation 39.1 to infer their distances. Although
the Hubble relation is written in terms of velocity, a more sophisticated view describes the
Hubble expansion not as galactic motion but as a stretching of space itself—a process that
also stretches light waves, giving the observed wavelength increase.
It may sound like Hubble’s law puts us right in the center of things, in grotesque viola-
tion of modern science’s view that Earth and its inhabitants don’t occupy a favored posi-
tion in the universe. But actually the inhabitants of any other galaxy would observe the
same thing: All the distant galaxies would be receding from them at speeds proportional
to their distances. As long as the universe is infinite in extent, none can claim to be at the
center. And if it’s not infinite, then Einstein’s general theory of relativity gives it a closed-
curve shape that still has no center.
Extrapolating Hubble’s law backward in time suggests there was a time when all the
galaxies were together. This implies that the universe had a definite beginning, in the form
of a colossal explosion that flung matter into an expansion that continues today. Based on
FIGURE 39.11 A portion of the Hubble Deep
Field, a Hubble Space Telescope image show- additional evidence that we’ll describe shortly, scientists are quite certain that the universe
ing distant galaxies whose redshifts provide began with such a Big Bang. Some of that evidence comes from the Hubble Space Tele-
information about cosmic expansion. scope, named to honor Hubble’s pioneering studies (Fig. 39.11).

EXAMPLE 39.2 Hubble’s Law: Calculating the Age of the Universe

Using H0 5 22.7 km/s/Mly and assuming the expansion rate has been EVALUATE We have t 5 d/v 5 d/H0 d 5 1/H0. To evaluate this ex-
constant, find out how long the universe has been expanding. pression we need to convert from the mixed units used for the Hubble
constant:
INTERPRET We’re given the Hubble constant H0 and asked to extrapo-
1 1
late back in time until all the galaxies were together. t5 5 5 13.2 Gy
H0 122.7 km/s/Mly2/33.0031051km/s2/1ly/y24
DEVELOP If a galaxy has been moving with constant speed for time t,
then its distance from us today is d 5 vt. But Hubble’s law gives its ASSESS Our calculation shows that the universe is about 13 billion
speed in terms of distance: v 5 H0d. So our plan is to substitute H0d years old—on the assumption that the expansion rate hasn’t changed.
for v and solve for the time t. We’ll soon see that this assumption isn’t quite correct, but our result
remains a good estimate for the age of the universe (the actual number
is closer to 14 Gy). Note that we used c 5 3.003105 km/s in convert-
ing from km/s to ly/y so our answer would come out in years. ■
 39.5 The Evolving Universe 717

The Cosmic Background Radiation

In 1965 Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson at Bell Laboratories found a faint “noise” of mi-
crowave radiation in a satellite communications antenna they were testing. The noise
seemed to come from all directions in the sky. Theorists at Princeton identified Penzias and
Wilson’s “noise” as radiation dating to a much earlier era in the universe. This cosmic mi-
crowave background radiation is the strongest evidence yet for the Big Bang.
The Big Bang theory suggests that the universe started very hot and then cooled as it ex-
panded, doing work against its own gravitation. At first it was so hot that any atoms that
formed would be dashed apart by collisions at the high thermal energy prevailing. Thus, in
its early times the universe was populated by individual charged particles. These interacted
readily with electromagnetic radiation, making the universe opaque. But by about 400,000
years the temperature had dropped to some 3000 K, and at that point atoms of hydrogen
and helium could form. Since neutral atoms interact much more weakly with electromag-
netic radiation, the universe became transparent, and photons emitted as the atoms formed
could travel throughout the universe with little chance of being subsequently absorbed.
Those photons became the cosmic background radiation, permeating the entire universe.
Measurements of the cosmic microwave background show a near-perfect fit to a 2.7-K
blackbody spectrum (Fig. 39.12). Applying the “stretching of space” interpretation of the
Hubble expansion shows that the universe has expanded about 1000-fold since the back-

Radiance
ground radiation formed, dropping the temperature from 3000 K to about 3 K, and stretch-
ing the radiation’s wavelength by the same factor. That’s why radiation that initially had
m wavelengths now peaks in the microwave region with mm wavelengths. Thus the cos-
mic microwave background is a direct reflection of the conditions when it formed 400,000
years after the universe began.
The cosmic microwave background (CMB) is remarkably uniform, but not perfectly
4 2 1 0.5
so. Today, satellite instruments record minute spatial variations in the microwave back-
Wavelength (mm)
ground, and analysis of these variations reveals a wealth of information about the early
universe (Fig. 39.13). For example, the CMB variations are consistent with a universe FIGURE 39.12 Spectrum of the cosmic micro-
whose overall geometry is flat, and the variations themselves represent the “seeds” of wave background matches perfectly that of a
blackbody at 2.726 K.
galaxies, galaxy clusters, and even larger structures that dominate the universe today.

The Earliest Times

The cosmic microwave background shows us the universe as it was some 400,000 years
after the Big Bang. Nuclear physics takes us back even further, to the time from about
1 second to 30 minutes when the lightest nuclei were forming. The first composite nuclei
were the simplest: deuterium, consisting of a proton and a neutron. The rate of deuterium
formation is critically sensitive to the expansion rate of the universe. Measurements of
deuterium abundance, based on spectral lines from interstellar deuterium, therefore pro- FIGURE 39.13 All-sky map of the cosmic micro-
vide direct evidence for conditions early in the Big Bang. wave background shows minute spatial varia-
Evidence for still earlier times comes from particle physics, which predicts the interac- tions in the radiation intensity. Data were taken
tions and particle populations under the hot, high-energy conditions that existed a fraction with the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy
of a second after the Big Bang. In 2005, experiments using the Relativistic Heavy Ion Col- Probe (WMAP) satellite.
lider (RHIC) at Brookhaven National Laboratory produced a so-called quark–gluon
plasma similar to the state of the universe just microseconds after the Big Bang. Thus
RHIC and other high-energy particle accelerators can act as “time machines,” allowing us
to study conditions that prevailed in the very early universe. Figure 39.14 (next page) sum-
marizes our understanding of the universe’s evolution, showing that the phenomena of par-
ticle physics and unification are inextricably tied with cosmic expansion.

The Inflationary Universe

The original Big Bang theory has difficulty explaining several features of the observed
universe. Why, for example, do we find only matter but not antimatter? Why does the uni-
verse seem homogeneous and in thermodynamic equilibrium on the largest scales, when
the most distant regions are so far apart that light could not have traveled between them in
the time since the beginning? And why does the overall geometry of the universe appear
flat, when general relativity allows for curved space?
718 Chapter 39 From Quarks to the Cosmos

1037
Planck scale Electroweak transition
1034 Theory of everything Energy per particle of the Large
Quarks combine to make
Hadron Collider
1031 neutrons and protons
1028 Grand unified theory Neutrinos uncouple
from matter
1025
Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Temperature (K)

1022 (origin of helium-4, helium-3,

deuterium, and lithium-7)
1019
Neutral atoms form
1016 Photons uncouple from matter
Strong Origin of background radiation
1013
1010 Electr Existence
oweak of stars
107 Electromagnetic and
104 Gravity Weak galaxies
10
Today
0.01
10 – 43 10 –33 10 –23 10 –13 10 –3 107 1017
(~one year) (~1010 years)
Time (seconds)

FIGURE 39.14 Evolution of the universe from the earliest times to the present. Note the highly logarithmic scales.

The solution to these conundrums is inflation, an idea first advanced by Alan Guth of
Inflationary
universe MIT. Guth’s theory holds that the universe underwent a period of exponential expansion
beginning at about 10235 s and lasting until about 10232 s (Fig. 39.15). The expansion was
the result of a delay in the symmetry breaking that made the fundamental forces appear
Scale factor, R

distinct. Because of the tremendous expansion, now-distant locations would once have
Standard been close enough to reach the thermodynamic equilibrium that we now observe. Further-
Inflation Big Bang more, the inflationary expansion would “flatten out” any overall curvature, giving us the
model flat universe we see today.

Dark Matter, Dark Energy, and the Future of the Universe

10–35 10–32
Will the universe expand forever, or will the expansion eventually stop and reverse? That’s
Time (s) like asking whether a spacecraft will escape Earth forever or ultimately return, and the an-
swer is the same: If the system’s kinetic energy exceeds the magnitude of its (negative)
FIGURE 39.15 Expansion in the standard and potential energy, then expansion will proceed forever. Thus a single parameter—desig-
inflationary Big Bang theories. The scale factor
R measures the amount of expansion.
nated V (capital Greek omega)—determines the fate of the universe:
ƒpotential energy of the universeƒ
V5
kinetic energy of the universe
where V . 1 implies eventual collapse, and V , 1 means continued expansion. An alter-
native way of expressing the same dichotomy is in terms of the average density. A simple
Newtonian calculation based on kinetic and gravitational potential energies of particles in
an expanding universe gives V in terms of the average density r and the Hubble constant:
V 5 8pGr/3H 02—a result that turns out to be identical to the correct general relativistic
calculation. Setting V 5 1 gives the critical density that divides eternal expansion from
eventual collapse:
3H 02
rc 5 1critical density2 (39.2)
8pG
Analysis of the cosmic microwave background fluctuations strongly suggests that the
actual universe is at the critical density, with V 5 1. But when we total the visible matter
in the universe, we come up with far less than the critical density. Elementary particle the-
ories corroborate this observational result, suggesting that there can be only enough ordi-
nary matter—protons, neutrons, nuclei, and atoms—to make up about 4% of the critical
density. Furthermore, the motions of stars in galaxies and of galaxies in clusters suggest
the presence of a great deal more mass than is visible. All this implies the existence of
 39.5 The Evolving Universe 719

dark matter whose composition is unknown and which can’t be the sort of matter—made
mostly from quarks—with which we’re familiar.
Another approach to the cosmic density is to study the most distant galaxies, whose light
has taken so long to reach us that we’re seeing them as they were in the early universe. One
might expect that cosmic expansion was faster in earlier times, and slowed as the galaxies
did work against their mutual gravitational attraction. Comparing the recession speeds of an-
cient, distant galaxies with the speeds of nearer ones should then give the rate of cosmic de-
celeration—which, in turn, should depend on cosmic density. But observations in 1998 gave
a surprising and unexpected result: The cosmic expansion is actually accelerating!
Cosmic acceleration implies a kind of “antigravity” operating on the largest scales. Ironi-
cally, Einstein had proposed just such a phenomenon in his original formulation of general
relativity. Einstein needed this cosmological constant in his theory in order to keep the uni-
verse static—which, in 1916, astronomers thought it was. When Hubble then showed that
the universe is expanding, Einstein dropped the cosmological constant and called it “the
greatest blunder of my life.” Now it appears that Einstein had the right idea in the first place.
The source of the cosmic acceleration is dark energy, which may be just another name
for Einstein’s cosmological constant or may be a different phenomenon with the same “anti-
gravity” effect. At this point we don’t know quite what it is. But we do know how much of it
there is: Dark energy is fully 73% of the “stuff” that makes up our universe. Another 23% is
dark matter. That means only 4% of the universe is in the form of familiar matter made from
baryons and thus ultimately from quarks. These numbers come from a confluence of recent
observations of the cosmic microwave background, distant supernovae, and surveys of dis-
tant galaxies; together, they tightly constrain the relative amounts of matter and dark energy
(Fig. 39.16). Here, at the end of a long physics course, it’s sobering to realize that much of
our universe consists of “stuff” about which we know so very little!

Region of agreement
1.0

Supernovae
0.8
Fraction of dark energy

Cosmic microwave
background
0.6

0.4

0.2 Galaxy
surveys

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Fraction of matter

FIGURE 39.16 Constraints on the relative abundances of dark energy and of

matter in the universe, from three independent sets of observations. All three
converge to agreement on approximately 73% dark energy and 27% matter;
the latter includes 23% dark matter and 4% ordinary matter.

Understanding the Universe

With this chapter’s brief survey, we’ve reached the limits of present understanding of the
universe. On the way we’ve seen that particle physics and cosmology are inextricably
linked. To understand our universe, we need to understand all its aspects from the largest
to the smallest—and that means understanding all the forces, from gravity to the weak
force; all the physical laws, from Newton’s and Maxwell’s to the laws of quantum me-
chanics; and the nature of the elementary particles. In this text we’ve touched on all these
topics, and we hope we’ve given you a foundation for further understanding and apprecia-
tion of the richness and diversity of the physical universe.
CHAPTER 39 SUMMARY
Big Picture
The big idea here is that the structure of ordinary matter and its interactions can be explained in terms of a handful of particles: quarks, which make
up the familiar proton and neutron and a host of other hadrons; leptons, including the familiar electrons and elusive neutrinos; and gauge bosons,
which mediate the fundamental forces and include the photon for the electromagnetic force. The standard model describes these elementary parti-
cles and their interactions; it sheds light not only on the structure of matter we see today but on the early universe as well. But there’s a humbling
caveat: Only about 4% of the universe consists of familiar matter. The rest is dark energy and dark matter, about which we know very little.

Key Concepts and Equations

Quarks, which come in six flavors and three colors, join in threes to form baryons, including protons and neutrons, and in twos to form mesons.
Quarks carry fractional electric charges, but because the strong force between quarks doesn’t decrease with distance, it appears impossible to have
an isolated quark.

u u u d
–
+ 32 e + 32 e + 32 e – 31 e u d
+ 32 e + 31e
d d
– 31 e – 31 e

Proton Neutron Meson

Leptons are the other class of elementary matter particles, and include the electron and its more massive cousins, the muon and tau, and the three
types of neutrinos.

The three fundamental forces—strong, electroweak, and grav- Exchange of gauge bosons explains the forces between particles.
ity—are believed to be manifestations of the same fundamental Gauge Bosons
interactions that appear unified at high enough energies.
At typical energies in today’s universe, though, the electro-
Virtual Electromagnetic force: photon
weak force separates into the electromagnetic and weak forces.
gauge boson
The forces differ greatly in strength:
Weak force: W6, Z0
Force Relative strength at 1 fm (approximate)
Particle 1 Particle 2
Strong force: gluon (8 varieties)
238
Gravity 10
Weak 10213 Gravity: graviton
Electromagnetic 1022
Strong 1

Applications
Our knowledge of particles and their interac-
1037
tions, combined with general relativity and Quarks combine to make
1034 Theory of everything
with observations of the Hubble expansion neutrons and protons
1031
and the cosmic microwave background ra- 1028 Grand unified theory
Temperature (K)

diation, gives us a picture of the origin and 1025

structure of the universe. The universe began 1022 Big Bang nucleosynthesis
some 14 billion years ago in a hot Big Bang. 1019
1016 Origin of
The simplest nuclei formed within the first Strong
1013 background
half-hour, and the first atoms at about 10 10
Electrow
eak
radiation
400,000 years; at that point the universe be- 107 Gravit Electromagnetic
4 y
came transparent and the cosmic microwave 10 Weak
background formed. We’ve learned recently 10 Today
that the universe is overall flat and that its 0.01
expansion is accelerating under the influence 10 – 43 10 –33 10 –23 10 –13 10 –3 107 1017
(~one year) (~1010 years)
of mysterious dark energy. There’s still Time (seconds)
much that we don’t know!
 Exercises and Problems 721

For homework assigned on MasteringPhysics, go to www.masteringphysics.com BIO Biology and/or medical-related problems C Computer problems

For Thought and Discussion Section 39.3 Quarks and the Standard Model
26. Determine the quark composition of the p2.
1. Why did Yukawa conclude that the particle mediating the strong 27. The Eightfold Way led Gell-Mann to predict a baryon with
force should have nonzero mass? strangeness 23. Determine this particle’s quark composition.
2. How can we follow the tracks of individual particles? 28. The S1 and S2 have quark compositions uus and dds, respec-
3. How are baryons fundamentally different from leptons? tively. Are the S1 and S2 each other’s antiparticles? If not, give
4. What coordinates are changed under the inversion processes the quark compositions of their antiparticles.
P and T?
5. Why are we unlikely to observe an isolated quark? Section 39.4 Unification
6. Describe the relation between the strong force and the nuclear 29. Estimate the volume of the 50,000 tons of water used in the
force. Super Kamiokande experiment shown in Fig. 39.8.
7. What’s the role of gluons? 30. Estimate the temperature in a gas of particles such that the ther-
8. Classify (a) mesons and (b) baryons as fermions or bosons, and mal energy kT is high enough to make electromagnetism and the
relate your classification to the particles’ quark compositions. weak force appear as a single phenomenon.
9. Name the fundamental force involved in (a) binding of a proton 31. Repeat Exercise 30 for the 1015-GeV energy of grand unification.
and a neutron to make a deuterium nucleus; (b) decay of a neu-
tron to a proton, an electron, and a neutrino; (c) binding of an
Section 39.5 The Evolving Universe
electron and a proton to make a hydrogen atom.
10. What forces are unified in the electroweak theory? 32. Express the Hubble constant in SI units.
11. What forces would be unified by GUTs? 33. Find the distance to a galaxy that is receding from us at
12. Why do we need higher-energy particle accelerators to explore 23104 km/s.
fully the standard model? 34. Find the recession speed of a galaxy 300 Mly from Earth.
13. How can Hubble’s law hold without the universe having a center? 35. What would be the age of the universe, assuming constant expan-
14. Is it possible for a charged particle to be its own antiparticle? sion rate, if the Hubble constant were 25 km/s/Mly?
15. Describe the origin of the cosmic microwave background.
16. Explain how particle accelerators can help us understand the Problems
early universe. 36. The mass of the photon is assumed to be zero, but experiments
17. What medical diagnostic procedure makes use of the fact that put only an upper limit of 5310263 kg on the photon mass. What
BIO every particle has an antiparticle? What particle/antiparticle pair would the range of the electromagnetic force be if the photon
is involved? mass were actually at this upper limit?
18. The radiation that we observe as the cosmic microwave background 37. Which of the reactions (a) L0 S p1 1 p2 and (b) K0 S p1 1p2
started out largely as infrared. Why is it now the microwave back- is not possible, and why not?
ground? 38. Both the neutral kaon and the neutral r meson can decay to a
pion–antipion pair. Which of these decays is mediated by the
Exercises and Problems weak force? How can you tell?
39. Some grand unification theories suggest that the decay
Exercises p S p0 1 e1 may be possible, in which case all matter may
Section 39.1 Particles and Forces eventually become radiation. Are (a) baryon number and (b)
electric charge conserved in this hypothetical proton decay?
19. How long could a virtual photon of 633-nm red laser light exist
40. Consider systems described by wave functions that are proportional
without violating conservation of energy?
to the terms (a) xy2z, (b) x2yz, and (c) xyz, where x, y, and z are the
20. Some scientists have speculated on a possible “fifth force,” with
spatial coordinates. Which pairs of these systems could be trans-
a range of about 100 m. Following Yukawa’s reasoning, what
formed into each other under a parity-conserving interaction?
would be the mass of the field particle mediating such a force?
41. The J/c particle is an uncharmed meson that nevertheless in-
Section 39.2 Particles and More Particles cludes charmed quarks. Determine its quark composition.
21. Write the equation for the decay of a positive pion to a muon and 42. List all the possible quark triplets formed from any combination
a neutrino, being sure to label the type of neutrino. (Hint: The of up, down, and charmed quarks, along with the charge of each.
positive muon is an antiparticle.) 43. The Tevatron at Fermilab accelerates protons to energy of 1 TeV.
22. Use Table 39.1 to find the total strangeness before and after the (a) How much is this in joules? (b) How far would a 1-g mass
decay L0 S p2 1 p, and use your answer to determine which have to fall in Earth’s gravitational field to gain this much energy?
force is involved in this reaction. 44. (a) What’s the relativistic factor g for a 7-TeV proton in the
23. The h0 particle is a neutral nonstrange meson that can decay to a Large Hadron Collider? (b) Find an accurate value for the pro-
positive pion, a negative pion, and a neutral pion. Write the reac- ton’s speed.
tion for this decay, and verify that it conserves charge, baryon 45. How long, as measured in the lab frame, does it take a 7-TeV
number, and strangeness. proton to circle the 27-km circumference of the Large Hadron
24. Are either or both of these decay schemes possible for the tau Collider?
particle: (a) t2 S e2 1 ne 1 nt; (b) t2 S p2 1 p0 1 nt? 46. Estimate the critical density of the universe.
25. Is the interaction p 1 p S p 1 p1 allowed? If not, what con- 47. Estimate the diameter to which the Sun would have to be expanded
servation law does it violate? for its average density to be the critical density found in Problem 46.
722 Chapter 39 From Quarks to the Cosmos

48. A baryon called the neutral lambda particle has mass Passage Problems
1116 MeV/c2. Find the minimum speed necessary for the parti- Pions are the lightest mesons, with mass some 270 times that of the
cles in a proton–antiproton collider to produce lambda– electron. Charged pions decay typically into a muon and a neutrino or
antilambda pairs. antineutrino. This makes pion beams useful for producing beams of
49. A so-called muonic atom is a hydrogen atom with the electron re- neutrinos, which physicists use to study those elusive particles. In a
placed by a muon; the muon’s mass is 207 times the electron’s. medical application during the late 20th century, accelerator centers in-
Find (a) the size and (b) the ground-state energy of a muonic atom. stalled “biomedical beam lines” to test pions for cancer therapy. In
50. (a) By what factor must the magnetic field in a proton synchrotron these experiments, pions attached themselves to atomic nuclei within
be increased as the proton energy increases by a factor of 10? As- cancer cells. The nuclei would literally explode, delivering a “pion
sume the protons are highly relativistic, so g W 1. (b) By what star” of cancer-killing nuclear debris. Unfortunately, results were not
factor must the diameter of the accelerator be increased to raise as encouraging as hoped, and enthusiasm for this technique has waned.
the energy by a factor of 10 without changing the magnetic field?
51. A galaxy’s hydrogen-b spectral line, normally at 486.1 nm, ap- 58. The negative pion usually decays into a negative muon and one
pears at 495.4 nm. (a) Use the Doppler shift of Chapter 14 to find other particle. The other particle could be
the galaxy’s recession speed, and (b) infer the distance to the a. a proton.
galaxy. Is it appropriate to use Chapter 14’s nonrelativistic b. an antineutrino.
Doppler formulas in this case? c. a neutrino.
52. At the time the cosmic microwave background radiation origi- d. an up quark.
nated, the temperature of the universe was about 3000 K. What 59. In the cancer-treatment experiments described in the passage, for
were (a) the median wavelength of the newly formed radiation which pions is it energetically easiest to be captured by a nucleus?
(Equation 34.2b) and (b) the corresponding photon energy? a. p1
53. Many particles are far too short-lived for their lifetimes to be b. p0
measured directly. Instead, tables of particle properties often list c. p2
“width,” measured in energy units and indicating the width of the d. Energetically, capture is equally likely for all three pions.
distribution of measured rest energies. For example, the Z0 has 60. The lifetime of charged pions is 26 ns. The length of an accelera-
mass 91.18 GeV and width 2.5 GeV. Use the energy–time uncer- tor’s biomedical beam line, from the point where pions are cre-
tainty relation to estimate its corresponding lifetime. ated to the patient, could be at most about
54. A mix of particles starts with equal numbers of the three types of a. 800 m long.
sigma particles listed in Table 39.1. Find the relative portion of b. 80 m long.
each after (a) 5310220 s and (b) 5310210 s. Give your answer in c. 8 m long.
a reference frame in which the particles are at rest. d. 80 cm long.
55. You pick up an old astronomy book and read that the Hubble
61. The quark composition of the negative pion is
constant is 17 km/s/Mly. You know that today’s more accurate
a. uud.
value is 22.7 km/s/Mly. Use the simplified reasoning of Example
b. du.
39.2 to compare the ages for the universe implied by these two
c. ud.
values of H0.
d. cc.
56. A friend believes the universe is very young, less than 10,000 years
old. Based on Hubble’s law, how would you argue that the universe
is older? What would the Hubble constant be for a million-year-old Answer to Chapter Question
universe?
57. Your roommate is writing a science-fiction novel set very far in Answer to Chapter Opening Question
the future, 60 Gy after the Big Bang. One of the characters is a The Large Hadron Collider creates conditions similar to those in the
cosmologist, and your roommate wants to know what the cos- first microseconds of the universe, providing physicists a direct look
mologist will measure for the Hubble constant. What’s your an- at the behavior of matter in these early times.
swer, assuming a steady expansion rate?
PART SIX SUMMARY

Modern Physics
Modern physics, developed since the year 1900, contrasts with the The two big ideas in modern physics are relativity and quantum me-
classical physics that came before. Modern physics is essential in un- chanics. Relativity is based on a simple principle but drastically alters
derstanding physical reality at the atomic scale, at very low tempera- our commonsense notions of space and time, matter and energy, and
tures, at very high relative velocities, in regions of very strong gravity, the nature of gravity. Quantum mechanics replaces Newtonian deter-
and in the evolution and large-scale structure of the universe. minism with a statistical description in which matter and energy ex-
hibit both wave-like and particle-like behaviors.

Einstein’s special theory of relativity is based in the statement that the laws of physics are the same General relativity is Einstein’s theory
for all observers in uniform motion. Therefore, Maxwell’s prediction that there should be electromag- of gravity, which explains gravity as
netic waves propagating at the speed of light c is valid in all uniformly moving reference frames. So the geometric curvature of spacetime.
measures of space and time cannot be absolute, but depend on one’s reference frame. General relativity is central to modern
astrophysics and cosmology, describ-
C C vr ing phenomena from black holes to
vr the overall structure of the universe.

C1 C2

The time between two events is shortest in a ref- An object’s length is longest in a reference
erence frame where events occur at the same frame in which it’s at rest.
place; here that’s the reference frame of clock C.
Energy E, momentum p, and mass m in relativity are related by E 2 5 p2c2 1 1mc222.
For an object at rest with respect to an observer, this gives E 5 mc2, showing the relativistic equiva-
lence of mass and energy.

Quantum physics arose from attempts to explain several phenomena observed around the Quantum mechanics describes phenomena at the
turn of the 20th century. These include blackbody radiation from hot objects, the photoelec- atomic scale. The Schrödinger equation gives the
tric effect, and the existence and spectra of atoms. wave function, c, for a particle of mass m with po-
tential energy U and total energy E:
"2 d c1x2
2
Violet Increasing wavelength Red 2 1 U1x2c 5 Ec1x2
2m dx2
Hydrogen spectrum
c2 is the probability density for finding the par-
Wave–particle duality is at the heart of quantum physics. The energy in electromagnetic ticle. Application of the Schrödinger equation to
radiation of frequency f is concentrated in particle-like “bundles” called photons. Thus bound systems results in quantized energy levels.
electromagnetic energy is quantized, with each photon carrying energy E 5 hf, where
h 5 6.63310234 J # s is Planck’s constant. Conversely, matter exhibits wave-like behavior. ` ` 9_ hv
4 2
The de Broglie wavelength associated with a particle of momentum p is l 5 h/p. n53 3 7_
5_ 2 hv
2
n52
1 2 hv 3_
E50 n5q n51
n50 2 hv
n54
Infinite square well E 5 1_2 hv
n53
n52
Harmonic oscillator
a 121.6 nm
b 102.6 nm
g 97.3 nm

Quantization of atomic angular momentum leads to the

Bohr model for the atom, with quantized energy levels Application of the Schrödinger equation to atoms
that help explain atomic spectra. and molecules explains atomic and molecular
E 5 213.6 eV n51 structure, the organization of the chemical ele-
ments in the periodic table, and the behavior of
Hydrogen energy levels
crystalline solids.
Wave–particle duality is closely related to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, which
states that it’s impossible to measure a particle’s position and momentum simultaneously
with perfect accuracy. Rather, the uncertainties Dx and Dp in position and momentum must
obey the inequality
Dx Dp $ " (uncertainty principle), where " 5 h/2p
724 Part Six Summary

Nuclear physics plunges into the heart of the atom and shows that larger nuclei require more Applying the principles of physics from the
neutrons than protons in order for the strong nuclear force to overcome the repulsive electric in- subatomic scale of quantum and particle
teraction between protons. Nuclear physics describes such phenomena as radioactivity and the physics to the largest scales described by
production of energy by nuclear fission and fusion. general relativity gives us our modern-day
picture of the origin and evolution of the
26Fe
56 universe.
238U

Binding energy per

92
8

nucleon (MeV)
4
2He Fission
6
Curve of

Fusion
4 binding
2 energy
2H
1
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240
Mass number, A
The cosmic microwave background radia-
tion, shown here in an image from the
WMAP satellite.

Part Six Challenge Problem

Derive Equation 39.2 for the critical density of the universe on the assumption that the universe is spherically symmetric, is homogeneous, and
obeys Newton’s laws on large scales.
 Mathematics

APPENDIX
A-1 Algebra and Trigonometry
Quadratic Formula

A
2b 6 2b2 2 4ac
If ax2 1 bx 1 c 5 0, then x 5 .
2a

Circumference, Area, Volume

Where p . 3.14159 c:

circumference of circle 2pr

area of circle pr2 h
surface area of sphere 4pr2 b
4 3
volume of sphere 3 pr

2 bh
1 r
area of triangle
volume of cylinder pr 2l l

Trigonometry
s
definition of angle (in radians): u 5
r
2p radians in complete circle
1 radian . 57.3°

Trigonometric Functions
y
sin u 5
r
y
x r s
u y
cos u 5 x
r
sin u y
tan u 5 5
cos u x

A-1
A-2 Appendix A Mathematics

Values at Selected Angles

p p p p
6 4 3 2
uS 0 (30˚) (45˚) (60˚) (90˚)

1 12 13
sin u 0 2 1
2 2
13 12 1
cos u 1 2 0
2 2
13
tan u 0 1 13 `
3

Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

1 1

cos u
sin u

0 u 0 u
p p 3p 2p p p 3p 2p
2 2 2 2
21 21

Trigonometric Identities
sin12u2 5 2sin u

cos12u2 5 cos u

p
sin a u 6 b 5 6cos u
2

p
cos a u 6 b 5 7sin u
2

sin2 u 1 cos2 u 5 1

sin 2u 5 2 sin u cos u

cos 2u 5 cos2 u 2 sin2 u 5 1 2 2 sin2 u 5 2 cos2 u 2 1

sin1a 6 b2 5 sin a cos b 6 cos a sin b

cos1a 6 b2 5 cos a cos b 7 sin a sin b

sin a 6 sin b 5 2 sin C 121a 6 b2 D cos C 121a 7 b2 D

cos a 1 cos b 5 2 cos C 121a 1 b2 D cos C 121a 2 b2 D

cos a 2 cos b 5 22 sin C 121a 1 b2 D sin C 121a 2 b2 D

 Appendix A Mathematics A-3

Laws of Cosines and Sines

Where A, B, C are the sides of an arbitrary triangle and a, b, g the angles opposite those
sides:
Law of cosines
C 2 5 A2 1 B2 2 2AB cos g

A b
C
a
g
B

Law of sines
sin a sin b sin g
5 5
A B C

Exponentials and Logarithms

eln x 5 x, ln ex 5 x e 5 2.71828 c
ax 5 exln a ln1xy2 5 ln x 1 ln y
x
axay 5 ax1y ln a b 5 ln x 2 ln y
y
1
1ax2y 5 axy ln a b 5 2ln x
x
log x ; log 10 x 5 ln1102 ln x . 2.3 ln x

Approximations
For uxu V 1, the following expressions provide good approximations to common
functions:
ex . 1 1 x
sin x . x
cos x . 1 2 12 x2
ln11 1 x2 . x
11 1 x2p . 1 1 px 1binomial approximation2

Expressions that don’t have the forms shown may often be put in the appropriate form.
For example:
1 1 1 y 2 21/2 1 y2
5 5 a1 1 2 b . a1 2 b for y2/a2 V 1, or y2 V a2
2a2 1 y2 y2 a a a 2a
a 11
A a2

r
Vector Algebra B
r r r
B A3B
Vector Products
! ! (out of
A # B 5 AB cos u u r
A
page)
! ! ! ! r
uA 3 B u 5 AB sin u, with direction of A 3 B given by the right-hand rule: A
A-4 Appendix A Mathematics

Unit Vector Notation

!
An arbitrary vector A may be written in terms of its components A x , A y , A z and the unit
vectors ı^, ^/ , k^ that have length 1 and lie along the x-, y-, and z-axes:

z
r
Ay A 5 Ax iˆ 1 Ay jˆ

kˆ

Ax iˆ jˆ

x y

In unit vector notation, vector products become

! !
A # B 5 A xBx 1 A yBy 1 A zBz
! !
A 3 B 5 1A yBz 2 A zBy2 ı^ 1 1A zBx 2 A xBz2 ^/ 1 1A xBy 2 A yBx2 k^

Vector Identities
! ! ! !
A #B5B#A
! ! ! !
A 3 B 5 2B 3 A
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
A # 1B 3 C2 5 B # 1C 3 A2 5 C # 1A 3 B2
! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! !
A 3 1B 3 C2 5 1A # C2B 2 1A # B2C

A-2 Calculus
Derivatives
Definition of the Derivative
If y is a function of x, then the derivative of y with respect to x is the ratio of the change
Dy in y to the corresponding change Dx in x, in the limit of arbitrarily small Dx:
dy Dy
5 lim
dx Dx S 0 Dx
Algebraically, the derivative is the rate of change of y with respect to x; geometrically, it is
the slope of the y versus x graph—that is, of the tangent line to the graph at a given point:

Dy

Dx
x
 Appendix A Mathematics A-5

Derivatives of Common Functions

da d 1
50 1a is a constant2 tan x 5
dx dx cos2 x
dxn de x
5 nxn21 1n need not be an integer2 5 ex
dx dx
d d 1
sin x 5 cos x ln x 5
dx dx x
d
cos x 5 2sin x
dx

Derivatives of Sums, Products, and Functions of Functions

1. Derivative of a constant times a function
d df
3af1x24 5 a 1a is a constant2
dx dx
2. Derivative of a sum
d df dg
3 f1x2 1 g1x24 5 1
dx dx dx
3. Derivative of a product
d df dg
3f1x2g1x24 5 g 1f
dx dx dx
Examples
d 2 dx2 d
1x cos x2 5 cos x 1 x2 cos x 5 2x cos x 2 x2 sin x
dx dx dx
d dx d 1
1x ln x2 5 ln x 1 x ln x 5 1ln x2112 1 x a b 5 ln x 1 1
dx dx dx x
4. Derivative of a quotient
d f1x2 1 df dg
c d 5 2 ag 2f b
dx g1x2 g dx dx
Example
d sin x 1 d dx2 cos x 2 sin x
a 2 b 5 4 a x2 sin x 2 sin x b5 2 2
dx x x dx dx x x3
5. Chain rule for derivatives
If f is a function of u and u is a function of x, then
df df du
5
dx du dx
Examples
d
a. Evaluate sin1x22. Here u 5 x 2 and f1u2 5 sin u, so
dx
d d du dx2
sin1x22 5 sin u 5 1cos u2 5 2x cos1x 22
dx du dx dx
d d d
b. sin vt 5 sin vt vt 5 v cos vt 1v is a constant2
dt d vt dt
A-6 Appendix A Mathematics

d
c. Evaluate sin2 5x. Here u 5 sin 5x and f1u2 5 u2, so
dx
d d 2 du du d
sin2 5x 5 u 5 2u 5 2 sin 5x sin 5x
dx du dx dx dx
5 1221sin 5x21521cos 5x2 5 10 sin 5x cos 5x 5 5 sin 2x

Second Derivative
The second derivative of y with respect to x is defined as the derivative of the derivative:
d2y d dy
2
5 a b
dx dx dx

Example
If y 5 ax3, then dy/dx 5 3ax2, so
d2y d
5 3ax2 5 6ax
dx2 dx

Partial Derivatives
When a function depends on more than one variable, the partial derivatives of that func-
tion are the derivatives with respect to each variable, taken with all other variables held
constant. If f is a function of x and y, then the partial derivatives are written
'f 'f
and
'x 'y

Example
If f1x, y2 5 x3 sin y, then
'f 'f
5 3x2 sin y and 5 x3 cos y
'x 'y

Integrals
Indefinite Integrals
Integration is the inverse of differentiation. The indefinite integral, #f1x2 dx, is defined
as a function whose derivative is f1x2:

d
c f1x2 dx d 5 f1x2
dx 3

If A1x2 is an indefinite integral of f1x2, then because the derivative of a constant is zero,
the function A1x2 1 C is also an indefinite integral of f1x2, where C is any constant.
Inverting the derivatives of common functions listed in the preceding section gives the in-
tegrals that follow (a more extensive table appears at the end of this appendix).

3 a dx 5 ax 1 C 3 cos x dx 5 sin x 1 C

n
x n11 x x
3 x dx 5 1 C, n 2 21 3 e dx 5 e 1 C
n11

3 sin x dx 5 2cos x 1 C 3x dx 5 ln x 1 C
21
 Appendix A Mathematics A-7

Definite Integrals
In physics we’re most often interested in the definite integral, defined as the sum of a
large number of very small quantities, in the limit as the number of quantities grows arbi-
trarily large and the size of each arbitrarily small:
x2 N

3 f1x2 dx ; Dxlim
S0
a f1xi2 Dx
x1 i51
NS `

where the terms in the sum are evaluated at values xi between the limits of integration x1
and x2 ; in the limit Dx S 0, the sum is over all values of x in the interval.
The key to evaluating the definite integral is provided by the fundamental theorem
of calculus. The theorem states that, if A1x2 is an indefinite integral of f1x2, then the
definite integral is given by
x2 x2

3 f1x2 dx 5 A1x22 2 A1x12 ; A1x2 `

x1 x1

Geometrically, the definite integral is the area under the graph of f1x2 between the limits
x1 and x2:

f (x)

x2
f (x)dx
x1

x
x1 x2

Evaluating Integrals
The first step in evaluating an integral is to express all varying quantities within the integral
in terms of a single variable; Chapter 9 outlines a general strategy for setting up an integral.
Once you’ve set up an integral, you can evaluate it yourself or look it up in tables. Two com-
mon techniques can help you evaluate integrals or convert them to forms listed in tables:
1. Change of variables
An unfamiliar integral can often be put into familiar form by defining a new variable.
For example, it is not obvious how to integrate the expression
x dx
3
2a2 1 x2
where a is a constant. But let z 5 a2 1 x 2. Then
dz da 2 dx2
5 1 5 0 1 2x 5 2x
dx dx dx
so dz 5 2x dx. Then the quantity x dx in our unfamiliar integral is just 12 dz, while the
quantity 2a2 1 x2 is just z1/2. So the integral becomes
2z
1 1/2
1 21/2
32 z dz 5 1
5 1z
2

where we have used the standard form for the integral of a power of the independent
variable. Substituting back z 5 a2 1 x2 gives
x dx
3 5 2a2 1 x2
2a 1 x
2 2
A-8 Appendix A Mathematics

u 2. Integration by parts
The quantity #u dv is the area under the curve of u as a function of v between speci-
fied limits. In the figure, that area can also be expressed as the area of the rectangle
shown minus the area under the curve of v as a function of u. Mathematically, this re-
vdu lation among areas may be expressed as a relation among integrals:

3 u dv 5 uv 2 3 v du 1integration by parts2
udv
This expression may often be used to transform complicated integrals into simpler ones.
v
Example
Evaluate #x cos x dx. Here let u 5 x, so du 5 dx. Then dv 5 cos x dx, so we have
v 5 #dv 5 #cos x dx 5 sin x. Integrating by parts then gives

3 x cos x dx 5 1x21sin x2 2 3 sin x dx 5 x sin x 1 cos x

where the 1 sign arises because #sin x dx 5 2cos x.

Table of Integrals
More extensive tables are available in many mathematical and scientific handbooks; see,
for example, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (Chemical Rubber Co.) or Dwight,
Tables of Integrals and Other Mathematical Data (Macmillan). Some math software,
including Mathematica and Maple, can also evaluate integrals symbolically. Wolfram
Research provides Mathematica-based integration at http://integrals.wolfram.com.
In the expressions below, a and b are constants. An arbitrary constant of integration
may be added to the right-hand side.
ax eax dx 1 21 x
3 e dx 5 a 3 x2 1 a2 5 a tan a a b

cos ax x dx
3 sin ax dx 5 2 a 3 5 2 2a2 2 x2
2a2 2 x 2
sin ax x dx
3 cos ax dx 5 a 3 5 2x 2 6 a2
2x2 6 a2
1 dx 6x
3 tan ax dx 5 2 a ln1cos ax2 3 5
1x 6 a 2
2 2 3/2
a 2x2 6 a2
2

x sin 2ax eax

3 xe dx 5 a2 1ax 2 12
ax
3 sin ax dx 5 2 2 4a
2

x sin 2ax x2eax 2 eax

3 cos ax dx 5 2 1 4a
2 2 ax
3 x e dx 5 2 c 2 1ax 2 12 d
a a a

1 1 dx 1
3 x sin ax dx 5 a2 sin ax 2 a x cos ax 3 a 1 bx 5 b ln1a 1 bx2

1 1 dx 1
3 x cos ax dx 5 a2 cos ax 1 a x sin ax 3 1a 1 bx22 5 2 b1a 1 bx2

dx x
3 5 sin21 a b 3 ln ax dx 5 x ln ax 2 x
2a 2 x
2 2 a

dx
3 5 ln A x 1 2x2 6 a2 B
2x2 6 a2
 The International
System of Units (SI)

APPENDIX
his material is from the U.S. edition of the English translation of the seventh edition of
T “Le Système International d’Unités (SI),” the definitive publication in the French
language issued in 1991 by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM).
The year the definition was adopted is given in parentheses.
length (meter): The meter is the length of the path traveled by light in vacuum during a
time interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second. (1983)
mass (kilogram): The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype of the

B
kilogram. (1889)
time (second): The second is the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corre-
sponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the
cesium-133 atom. (1967)
electric current (ampere): The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in
two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and
placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to
231027 newton per meter of length. (1948)
temperature (kelvin): The kelvin, unit of thermodynamic temperature, is the fraction
1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the triple point of water. (1967)
amount of substance (mole): The mole is the amount of substance of a system that con-
tains as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of carbon-12. (1971)
luminous intensity (candela): The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction,
of a source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 54031012 hertz and that has
a radiant intensity in that direction of 11/6832 watt per steradian. (1979)

SI Base and Supplementary Units SI Prefixes

SI Unit Factor Prefix Symbol

Quantity Name Symbol 1024 yotta Y
1021 zetta Z
Base Unit
1018 exa E
Length meter m
1015 peta P
Mass kilogram kg
1012 tera T
Time second s
109 giga G
Electric current ampere A
106 mega M
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
103 kilo k
Amount of substance mole mol
102 hecto h
Luminous intensity candela cd
101 deka da
Supplementary Units 100 — —
Plane angle radian rad 1021 deci d
Solid angle steradian sr 1022 centi c
1023 milli m
1026 micro m
1029 nano n
10212 pico p
10215 femto f
10218 atto a
10221 zepto z
10224 yocto y

A-9
A-10 Appendix B The International System of Units (SI)

Some SI Derived Units with Special Names

SI Unit
Expression in Expression in
Terms of Terms of SI
Quantity Name Symbol Other Units Base Units
Frequency hertz Hz s21
Force newton N m # kg # s22
Pressure, stress pascal Pa N/m2 m21 # kg # s22
Energy, work, heat joule J N#m m2 # kg # s22
Power watt W J/s m2 # kg # s23
Electric charge coulomb C s#A
Electric potential, potential
difference, electromotive
force volt V J/C m2 # kg # s23 # A21
Capacitance farad F C/V m22 # kg 21 # s4 # A2
Electric resistance ohm V V/A m2 # kg # s23 # A22
Magnetic flux weber Wb V#s m2 # kg # s22 # A21
Magnetic field tesla T Wb/m2 kg # s22 # A21
Inductance henry H Wb/A m2 # kg # s22 # A22
Radioactivity becquerel Bq 1 decay/s s21
Absorbed radiation dose gray Gy J/kg, 100 rad m2 # s22
Radiation dose equivalent sievert Sv J/kg, 100 rem m2 # s22
 Conversion Factors

APPENDIX
he listings below give the SI equivalents of non-SI units. To convert from the units
T shown to SI, multiply by the factor given; to convert the other way, divide. For
conversions within the SI system, see the table of SI prefixes in Appendix B, Chapter 1, or
the inside front cover. Conversions that are not exact by definition are given to, at most,
four significant figures.

Length
ⴰ
1 inch 1in2 5 0.0254 m 1 angstrom 1A2 5 10210 m

C
1 foot 1ft2 5 0.3048 m 1 light year 1ly2 5 9.4631015 m
1 yard 1yd2 5 0.9144 m 1 astronomical unit 1AU2 5 1.531011 m
1 mile 1mi2 5 1609 m 1 parsec 5 3.0931016 m
1 nautical mile 5 1852 m 1 fermi 5 10215 m 5 1 fm

Mass
1 slug 5 14.59 kg 1 unified mass unit 1u2 5 1.661310227 kg
1 metric ton 1tonne; t2 5 1000 kg
Force units in the English system are sometimes used (incorrectly) for mass. The units
given below are actually equal to the number of kilograms multiplied by g, the accelera-
tion of gravity.
1 pound 1lb2 5 weight of 0.454 kg 1 ounce 1oz2 5 weight of 0.02835 kg
1 ton 5 2000 lb 5 weight of 908 kg

Time
1 minute 1min2 5 60 s 1 day 1d2 5 24 h 5 86 400 s
1 hour 1h2 5 60 min 5 3600 s 1 year 1y2 5 365.2422 d* 5 3.1563107 s
Area
1 hectare 1ha2 5 104 m2 1 acre 5 4047 m2
1 square inch 1in22 5 6.45231024 m2 1 barn 5 10228 m2
1 square foot 1ft22 5 9.29031022 m2 1 shed 5 10230 m2
Volume
1 liter 1L2 5 1000 cm3 5 1023 m3 1 gallon 1U.S.; gal2 5 3.78531023 m3
1 cubic foot 1ft32 5 2.83231022 m3 1 gallon 1British2 5 4.54631023 m3
1 cubic inch 1in32 5 1.63931025 m3
1 fluid ounce 5 1/128 gal 5 2.95731025 m3
1 barrel 5 42 gal 5 0.1590 m3
Angle, Phase
1 degree 1°2 5 p/180 rad 5 1.74531022 rad
1 revolution 1rev2 5 360° 5 2p rad
1 cycle 5 360° 5 2p rad

* The length of the year changes very slowly with changes in Earth’s orbital period.

A-11
A-12 Appendix C Conversion Factors

Speed, Velocity
1 km/h 5 11/3.62 m/s 5 0.2778 m/s 1 ft/s 5 0.3048 m/s
1 mi/h 1mph2 5 0.4470 m/s 1 ly/y 5 3.003108 m/s

Angular Speed, Angular Velocity, Frequency, and Angular Frequency

1 rev/s 5 2p rad/s 5 6.283 rad/s 1s212 1 rev/min 1rpm2 5 0.1047 rad/s 1s212
1 Hz 5 1 cycle/s 5 2p s21
Force
1 dyne 5 1025 N 1 pound 1lb2 5 4.448 N
Pressure
1 dyne/cm2 5 0.10 Pa 1 lb/in2 1psi2 5 6.8953103 Pa
1 atmosphere 1atm2 5 1.0133105 Pa 1 in H 2O 160°F2 5 248.8 Pa
1 torr 5 1 mm Hg at 0°C 5 133.3 Pa 1 in Hg 160°F2 5 3.3773103 Pa
1 bar 5 105 Pa 5 0.987 atm
Energy, Work, Heat
1 erg 5 1027 J 1 Btu* 5 1.0543103 J
1 calorie* 1cal2 5 4.184 J 1 kWh 5 3.63106 J
1 electronvolt 1eV2 5 1.602310219 J 1 megaton (explosive yield; Mt)
1 foot-pound 1ft # lb2 5 1.356 J 5 4.1831015 J

Power
1 erg/s 5 1027 W 1 Btu/h 1Btuh2 5 0.293 W
1 horsepower 1hp2 5 746 W 1 ft # lb/s 5 1.356 W
Magnetic Field
1 gauss 1G2 5 1024 T 1 gamma 1g2 5 1029 T
Radiation
1 curie 1ci2 5 3.731010 Bq 1 rad 5 1022 Gy
1 rem 5 1022 Sv
Energy Content of Fuels

Energy Source Energy Content

Coal 29 MJ/kg 5 7300 kWh/ton 5 253106 Btu/ton

Oil 43 MJ/kg 5 39 kWh/gal 5 1.33105 Btu/gal
Gasoline 44 MJ/kg 5 36 kWh/gal 5 1.23105 Btu/gal
Natural gas 55 MJ/kg 5 30 kWh/100 ft3 5 1000 Btu/ft3
Uranium (fission)
Normal abundance 5.831011 J/kg 5 1.63105 kWh/kg
Pure U-235 8.231013 J/kg 5 2.33107 kWh/kg
Hydrogen (fusion)
Normal abundance 731011 J/kg 5 3.03104 kWh/kg
Pure deuterium 3.331014 J/kg 5 9.23107 kWh/kg
Water 1.231010 J/kg 5 1.33104 kWh/gal 5 340 gal gasoline/gal
H 2O
100% conversion, matter
to energy 9.031016 J/kg 5 931 MeV/u 5 2.531010 kWh/kg

*Values based on the thermochemical calorie; other definitions vary slightly.

 The Elements

APPENDIX
he atomic weights of stable elements reflect the abundances of different isotopes; values
T given here apply to elements as they exist naturally on Earth. For stable elements,
parentheses express uncertainties in the last decimal place given. For elements with no
stable isotopes (indicated in boldface), at most three isotopes are given; for elements 99
and beyond, only the longest-lived isotope is given. (Exceptions are the unstable elements
thorium, protactinium, and uranium, for which atomic weights reflect natural abundances
of long-lived isotopes.) See also the periodic table inside the back cover.

D
Atomic Number Names Symbol Atomic Weight
1 Hydrogen H 1.00794 (7)
2 Helium He 4.002602 (2)
3 Lithium Li 6.941 (2)
4 Beryllium Be 9.012182 (3)
5 Boron B 10.811 (5)
6 Carbon C 12.011 (1)
7 Nitrogen N 14.00674 (7)
8 Oxygen O 15.9994 (3)
9 Fluorine F 18.9984032 (9)
10 Neon Ne 20.1797 (6)
11 Sodium (Natrium) Na 22.989768 (6)
12 Magnesium Mg 24.3050 (6)
13 Aluminum Al 26.981539 (5)
14 Silicon Si 28.0855 (3)
15 Phosphorus P 30.973762 (4)
16 Sulfur S 32.066 (6)
17 Chlorine Cl 35.4527 (9)
18 Argon Ar 39.948 (1)
19 Potassium (Kalium) K 39.0983 (1)
20 Calcium Ca 40.078 (4)
21 Scandium Sc 44.955910 (9)
22 Titanium Ti 47.88 (3)
23 Vanadium V 50.9415 (1)
24 Chromium Cr 51.9961 (6)
25 Manganese Mn 54.93805 (1)
26 Iron Fe 55.847 (3)
27 Cobalt Co 58.93320 (1)
28 Nickel Ni 58.69 (1)
29 Copper Cu 63.546 (3)
30 Zinc Zn 65.39 (2)
31 Gallium Ga 69.723 (1)
32 Germanium Ge 72.61 (2)
33 Arsenic As 74.92159 (2)
(continued)

A-13
A-14 Appendix D The Elements

Atomic Number Names Symbol Atomic Weight

34 Selenium Se 78.96 (3)
35 Bromine Br 79.904 (1)
36 Krypton Kr 83.80 (1)
37 Rubidium Rb 85.4678 (3)
38 Strontium Sr 87.62 (1)
39 Yttrium Y 88.90585 (2)
40 Zirconium Zr 91.224 (2)
41 Niobium Nb 92.90638 (2)
42 Molybdenum Mo 95.94 (1)
43 Technetium Tc 97, 98, 99
44 Ruthenium Ru 101.07 (2)
45 Rhodium Rh 102.90550 (3)
46 Palladium Pd 106.42 (1)
47 Silver Ag 107.8682 (2)
48 Cadmium Cd 112.411 (8)
49 Indium In 114.82 (1)
50 Tin Sn 118.710 (7)
51 Antimony (Stibium) Sb 121.75 (3)
52 Tellurium Te 127.60 (3)
53 Iodine I 126.90447 (3)
54 Xenon Xe 131.29 (2)
55 Cesium Cs 132.90543 (5)
56 Barium Ba 137.327 (7)
57 Lanthanum La 138.9055 (2)
58 Cerium Ce 140.115 (4)
59 Praseodymium Pr 140.90765 (3)
60 Neodymium Nd 144.24 (3)
61 Promethium Pm 145, 147
62 Samarium Sm 150.36 (3)
63 Europium Eu 151.965 (9)
64 Gadolinium Gd 157.25 (3)
65 Terbium Tb 158.92534 (3)
66 Dysprosium Dy 162.50 (3)
67 Holmium Ho 164.93032 (3)
68 Erbium Er 167.26 (3)
69 Thulium Tm 168.93421 (3)
70 Ytterbium Yb 173.04 (3)
71 Lutetium Lu 174.967 (1)
72 Hafnium Hf 178.49 (2)
73 Tantalum Ta 180.9479 (1)
74 Tungsten (Wolfram) W 183.85 (3)
75 Rhenium Re 186.207 (1)
76 Osmium Os 190.2 (1)
77 Iridium Ir 192.22 (3)
78 Platinum Pt 195.08 (3)
79 Gold Au 196.96654 (3)
80 Mercury Hg 200.59 (3)
81 Thallium Tl 204.3833 (2)
82 Lead Pb 207.2 (1)
83 Bismuth Bi 208.98037 (3)
 Appendix D The Elements A-15

Atomic Number Names Symbol Atomic Weight

84 Polonium Po 209, 210
85 Astatine At 210, 211
86 Radon Rn 211, 220, 222
87 Francium Fr 223
88 Radium Ra 223, 224, 226
89 Actinium Ac 227
90 Thorium Th 232.0381 (1)
91 Protactinium Pa 231.03588 (2)
92 Uranium U 238.0289 (1)
93 Neptunium Np 237, 239
94 Plutonium Pu 239, 242, 244
95 Americium Am 241, 243
96 Curium Cm 245, 247, 248
97 Berkelium Bk 247, 249
98 Californium Cf 249, 250, 251
99 Einsteinium Es 252
100 Fermium Fm 257
101 Mendelevium Md 258
102 Nobelium No 259
103 Lawrencium Lr 262
104 Rutherfordium Rf 263
105 Dubnium Db 268
106 Seaborgium Sg 266
107 Bohrium Bh 272
108 Hassium Hs 277
109 Meitnerium Mt 276
110 Darmstadtium Ds 281
111 Roentgenium Rg 280
112 Copernicium Cn 285
113 — — 284
114 — — 289
115 — — 288
116 — — 292
117 — — 294
118 — — 294
E Astrophysical Data
Sun, Planets, Principal Satellites

Sidereal
APPENDIX

Mean Radius Surface Escape Rotation Mean Distance Orbital

Mass (106 m Except Gravity Speed Period* from Central Orbital Speed
Body (1024 kg) as Noted) (m/s2) (km/s) (days) Body† (106 km) Period (km/s)
Sun 1.993106 696 274 618 36 at poles 2.631011 200 My 250
27 at equator

Planets
Mercury 0.330 2.44 3.70 4.25 58.6 57.6 88.0 d 48

Venus 4.87 6.05 8.87 10.4 2243 108 225 d 35

Earth 5.97 6.37 9.81 11.2 0.997 150 365.3 d 30

Moon 0.0735 1.74 1.62 2.38 27.3 0.385 27.3 d 1.0

Mars 0.642 3.38 3.74 5.03 1.03 228 1.88 y 24.1

Phobos 9.631029 9–13 km 0.001 0.008 0.32 9.431023 0.32 d 2.1
Deimos 231029 5–8 km 0.001 0.005 1.3 2331023 1.3 d 1.3

Jupiter 1.90 3103 69.1 26.5 60.6 0.414 778 11.9 y 13.0
Io 0.0888 1.82 1.8 2.6 1.77 0.422 1.77 d 17
Europa 0.479 1.57 1.3 2.0 3.55 0.671 3.55 d 14
Ganymede 0.148 2.63 1.4 2.7 7.15 1.07 7.15 d 11
Callisto 0.107 2.40 1.2 2.4 16.7 1.88 16.7 d 8.2
and 13 smaller satellites

Saturn 569 56.8 11.8 36.6 0.438 1.433103 29.5 y 9.65

Tethys 0.0007 0.53 0.2 0.4 1.89 0.294 1.89 d 11.3
Dione 0.00015 0.56 0.3 0.6 2.74 0.377 2.74 d 10.0
Rhea 0.0025 0.77 0.3 0.5 4.52 0.527 4.52 d 8.5
Titan 0.135 2.58 1.4 2.6 15.9 1.22 15.9 d 5.6
and 12 smaller satellites

Uranus 86.6 25.0 9.23 21.5 20.65 2.873103 84.1 y 6.79

Ariel 0.0013 0.58 0.3 0.4 2.52 0.19 2.52 d 5.5
Umbriel 0.0013 0.59 0.3 0.4 4.14 0.27 4.14 d 4.7
Titania 0.0018 0.81 0.2 0.5 8.70 0.44 8.70 d 3.7
Oberon 0.0017 0.78 0.2 0.5 13.5 0.58 13.5 d 3.1
and 11 smaller satellites

Neptune 103 24.0 11.9 23.9 0.768 4.503103 165 y 5.43

Triton 0.134 1.9 2.5 3.1 5.88 0.354 5.88 d 4.4
and 7 smaller satellites

Dwarf Planets
Ceres 0.00095 0.487 0.27 0.51 0.38 416 4.60 y 17.9

Pluto 0.013 1.15 0.58 1.2 26.39 5.923103 248 y 4.7

Charon 0.001 0.6 26.39 0.018 6.39 d 0.2
and 2 smaller satellites, Nix and Hydra
Eris 0.0167 1.2 0.8 1.3 0.3 1.03104 557 y 3.44
and 1 small satellite, Dysnomia
* Negative rotation period indicates retrograde motion, in opposite sense from orbital motion. Periods are sidereal, meaning
the time for the body to return to the same orientation relative to the distant stars rather than the Sun.
†Central body is galactic center for Sun, Sun for planets, and planet for satellites.
A-16
 Answers to Odd-
Numbered Problems

Chapter 1 51. (a) 28.1 m/s (b) 22.5 m/s2 65. Yes
11. 105 (c) 9.38 m/s (d) 11.3 m/s2 67. 66°
13. T 5 108.783 ps 53. 55% 69. 2.3 km
15. 108 55. (a) 0.014 s (b) 51 cm 71. 2h
17. 0.62 rad 5 35° 57. 0.89 km 73. 19 m
19. 30 g 59. (a) 25 m/s (b) 180 m 75. dx/du0 5 2v02 /g cos12u02 5 0 1
21. 106 61. 0.0051 m/s2 u0 5 45°.
23. 8.6 m2/L 63. 11 m/s 79. 21 cos 2111/11 1 v02/gh22
25. 3.6 km/h 65. 270 m 81. c
27. 57.3°C 67. 212 1hg 83. c
31. 43106 69. (a) 27.67 m/s (b) 0.162 s
33. 41 m 71. 3.9 s, 6.2 m/s Chapter 4
35. (a) 5.18 (b) 5.20 73. 36 km/h 13. (a) 2.0 m/s2 (b) 0.082 m/s2
37. 33106 75. (a) v 5 1v1 1 v22/2 15. 213 kN
39. ,0.15% (b) v 5 12v1v22/1v1 1 v22 17. 2.03106 m/s2
41. (a) ,33103 m3 (b) ,100 days 77. 70.7 % 19. 4.1 cm
43. 105 79. 20.3 m/s 23. 210 kg
45. ,250 mm h 2h gDt2 2
25. 9000 kg
81. a 2b a
2 1b
47. (a) 0.1 mm (b) 23105 calculations 4 gDt 2h 27. 490 N
per second 83. 15 s21 29. 380 N
49. D 5 100160.05/N2% 87. c 33. 55 kN
51. 12¢ more in Canada than in the U.S. 89. c 35. 130 N
53. (a) 1.0 m (b) 0.001 m2 37. 1.2 cm
(c) 0.0 m (d) 1.0 Chapter 3 39. 122.94 m/s22ı^
57. c 11. 270 m, 150° 41. 4.9 m/s2
59. c 13. 700 km, 110° 43. 0.53 s
15. 105ı^ 1 58/^ km 45. 6.0 N to the right
Chapter 2 17. 1.414, u 5 45° 47. (a) 5.263103 N (b) 121.083103 N2ı^
13. (a) 372 yd/min (b) 5 min, 46 s 19. 1214 m/s, 212 m/s2 (c) 12494 N2ı^ (d) 1590 N2ı^
15. 21 h 21. 3ct2 ı^ 49. 680 m
!
17. (a) 3.03104m/s (b) 19 mi/s 23. (a) v 5 122.231026 m/s2^/ 51. 0.96 m
!
21. (a) v 5 b 2 2ct (b) 8.4 s (b) a 5 123.2310210 m/s22ı^ 53. 950 N
!
23. 0.35 m/s2 25. v 2 5 11.3 m/s2^ı 1 12.3 m/s2^/ 55. (a) 20.40 mg (b) 2.40 mg
25. Falling: 9.82 m/s2, stopping: 284.0 m/s2 33. (a) 1.3 s (b) 15 m (c) 1.40 mg
27. 17 m/s2 35. 34 nm 57. F-16: yes, at 1.2 m/s2; A-380: no
29. v 5 dx/dt 5 d/dt1x0 1 v0t 1 at2/22 37. 1090 m 61. 1.96 m/s2
5 v0 1 at 39. 2.8 mm/s2 63. 11.8 m/s2
31. (a) 46 m/s2 (b) 61 s 41. (a)! A15 (b) A110 65. 0.92 kg, 1.4 kg
33. 27 ft/s2 43. C 5 215ı^ 1 9/^ 2 18k^ 67. vF0 /M
35. 1 3 104 m/s 45. (a) 4c/3d (b) c/3d 69. a
37. 95 m 47. 25.7 m/s2 71. b
39. (a) 250 m (b) 39 m/s, 40 m 49. (a) 0.22ı^ 1 0.13/^ m/s
(c) 9.8 m/s, 100 m; (b) 124.4ı^ 1 7.6/^2 31024 m/s2 Chapter 5
(d) 220 m/s, 100 m 51. A5B 13. 14.0 N2ı^ 1 11.7 N2^/
41. 11 m/s 53. 0.50 m/s2 15. 26 s
43. 48 mi/h 55. 5.7 m/s 17. 6.4 kN in each muscle
45. (a) 80 km/h (b) 50 h 57. (a) x1 5 x2 implies 19. mR /mL 5 2.5
47. 2.6 h, 2800 km from San Francisco or gh 21. (a) 3.9 m/s2 (b) 530 N
y1 5 h a 1 2 2 b 5 y2 (b) v0 $ 1gh
2000 km from New York v0 25. The train exceeded the speed limit by
49. v 5 Dx/Dt 5 bt4/t 5 bt3 5 v1t2/4 59. 8.3 m/s, 61° 22 km/h.
A-17
A-18 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems

27. 490 km/h 75. Wx1 Sx2 5 2b1 1x2 2 1x12, 4p2L3
43. T2 5
29. 0.18 W1x1 5 02 5 2b1x2 3GM
31. 0.53 77. (a) 12 kL02 1 13 bL03 1 14 cL04 1 15 dL05 45. 2.47 AU
33. 0.43 m (b) 12 kJ 47. 4.48 km/s
35. T 5 530 N , 3 times the monkey’s 81. Stopping force is 35 times the 51. The comet is going faster than the escape
weight weight of leg velocity from the Sun, so it will not
37. T 5 m2g, t 5 2p 11m1R2/1m2g2 83. c return to Earth’s vicinity.
39. 310 N downward (b) 2mSBv2/R 85. c 55. (a) 2.063106 m (b) 0.8053106 m
(c) nothing 57. (a) 4.59 km/s (b) 14.2 km/s
41. 8.5 km Chapter 7 59. 4.17 km/s
43. 0.21 11. Wa 5 Wb 5 2mgL 61. 4.6031010 m
45. 25 s 13. (a) 1.3 MJ (b) 259 kJ 63. 1.423103 km
47. Yes 15. 840 m 65. 41.9 cm/c
49. 0.23 # ms # 0.30 17. 55 cm 67. No danger, since the puck needs at least
51. 4.2 m/s2 19. 622 m/s, 635 m/s 6100 km/h to go into orbit.
53. 0.62 21. 92 m/s 69. 1.53106 km
55. (a) 10 cm (b) no 23. 2.3 kN/m 71. d
57. 100 km/h 25. 62.0 m 73. d
61. 17 min21 27. (a) 67 N (b) 0.0 N (c) 45 N
63. Brake, don’t swerve 29. Wa 5 0; Wb 5 F0a Chapter 9
65. 28 cm 31. (a) 1.07 J (b) 1.12 J 13. 2m
67. T9 5 uk/ 21 1 mk2 33. 778 J, 4.90% 15. 10, 0.289L2
!
71. Yes 35. 2.5 J 17. v 2 5 1267 cm/s2ı^
!
73. 7.6 km 37. U1x2 5 213 ax3 2 bx 19. v U235 5 122.683105 m/s2ı^
75. a kx2 21. 1.21 J
77. c 39. r5 23. The impulse imparted by gravity is
2mg sin1u2
43. (a) 211 cm (b) 64 m/s 0.08% of the collision impulse.
Chapter 6 45. h $ 5R/2 25. 41.8 s
11. 900 J a b 31. 46 m/s
13. 150 kJ 49. (a) U1x2 5 2 x2 1 x4 33. 11 Mm/s and 211 Mm/s
2 4
15. 190
! MN ! ! 35. 10, 0.115a2
(b) 0.7 and 2 m !
17. A # 1B 1 C2 5 AB cos1uAB2 1 37. r cm 5 A t2 1 103 t 1 73 B ^ı 1 A 23 t 1 83 B ^/;
! ! ! ! 51. 20 m/s, 30 m/s ! !
AC cos1uAC2 5 A # B 1 A # C 53. 1.4 m v cm 5 A 2t 1 103 B ı^ 1 A 23 B ^/; a cm 5 122ı^
19. 1.9 m 55. 62.5 cm 39. mb 5 4mm
21. (a) 1 J (b) 3 J 57. 2.9 m 41. 10, 0, h/42
23. 30 cm 59. 14 m 43. (a) 0.99 m (b) 3.9 m/s
25. 7.5 GJ a ! v0 dm
61. v 5 2x3/4 45. (a) a c 5 a b ı^ (b) v0
27. 6120 km/h A 3m M dt
29. 110 m/s 63. Yes, the block reaches top with 1.6 J of 49. (a) (0, 0, 13 m) (b) (0, 0, 11 m)
!
31. 5.53 W kinetic energy. 51. v 3 5 14.4 m/s2^ı 1 13.0 m/s2^/
33. (a) 60 kW (b) 1 kW 65. 2.63107 N/m 53. 9.3 m/s
kx22 1 12 ka1x22 2 x122
(c) 41.7 W 1 2 7
67. 2
55. 5 v; 5 v
35. 9.43106 J 69. d 57. (a) 37.7° (b) 265.8 cm/s
37. 0W 71. b 59. 5.8 s
39. 22 s 61. 0.92 m/s
41. (a) 400 J (b) 31 kg Chapter 8 65. 120°
43. (a) 76,000 (b) 14 kW 11. RP 5 RE/12 67. 5.83
45. 25° 13. 57.5% 71. 18.6%
47. (a) 0 (b) 90° 15. 8.6 kg 73. J 5 2F0/a
49. 622 J 17. 442 m 75. (a) 8.10 m (b) 212.6 m/s
51. kB 5 8kA 19. 3070 m/s 77. v1 5 v/6, v2 5 5v/6
x2 L02 21. 1.77 d 79. 8.3 kg
53. W 5 F0 a x 2 1 2 L0 b
2L0 L0 1 x 23. 0.283106 m 81. The peak force of 327 kN occurs at
55. v2 5 62v1 25. 3.17 GJ 165 ms.
57. W 5 F0x0/2 27. 4.29 km/s 85. The center of mass lies along line
59. 70.5° 29. 22.6431033 J through the middle of the slice, at a
61. 49031012 gal/day 31. (a) 2.44 km/s (b) 2.103108 m/s distance of 14R/3u2 sin A 12 u B from the tip.
63. 26 m/s 33. 10 m/s2 87. 3.75 min
65. 0.60 35. g1h2/g102 5 0.414 M 11a
89. (a) ; (b) L (c) M and 12L
67. 8.0 kJ 37. 2.7331023 m/s2, ac/g 5 2.7831024 11a 21a
69. 42 kJ 39. 60.5 min 91. b
71. 6.0 years 41. 2.631041 kg 93. a
 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-19

Chapter 10 45. (a) dv A 12 2 I/2md2 B (b) dv 55. 0.147%

25 21
13. (a) 7.27310 s (b) 1.75310 s 23 21
(c) dv12 1 I/md22 57. (a) 1.3 N/m (b) 0.80 kg
(c) 1.4531024 s21 (d) 31.4 s21 47. 2.8%, orbital angular momentum 59. v 5 21k1 1 k22/m
15. (a) 75 rad/s (b) 2.431024 rad/s 49. (a) 140 rpm (b) 27% 65. 34
(c) 63103 rad/s (d) 231027 rad/s 2Rv0 67. (a) 6.5 cm (b) 0.51 s
17. 731022 s21 51. (a) 2v0/7 (b) t 5 1
mkg 69. f5 12a/m
19. (a) 0.16 rev (b) 0.07 rad/s 55. d 2p
21. 1.2 m 57. d 71. (a) E1 5 4E2 (b) amax,1 5 4amax,2
23. 7.931022 N # m 73. 27°
25. (a) 2mL2 (b) mL2 Chapter 12 75. T 5 2p17/110ga2
27. (a) 4.431024 kg # m2 (b) 1.531023 N # m 17. (a) t 5 mgL/2 (b) t 5 0 77. 0.54 Hz; 22 cm; 20.11 rad
1 (c) t 5 2mgL/2 83. 2.1 m/s2
29. (a) mL2 (b) mL2 19. 16 m relative to the wall
2 85. c
31. (a) 131038 kg # m2 (b) 2631033 N # m 21. (a) 0.61 m from left end 87. c
33. 20 min (b) 1.42 m from left end
35. 750,000 y 23. 480 N Chapter 14
37. (a) 1.63108 J (b) 16 MW 25. 20.797 m, unstable; 1.46 m, stable 17. (a) 0.19 s (b) 6.5 cm
39. 1/2 27. (a) 40 N # m (b) 1.3 kN 19. (a) 300 m (b) 1.58 m (c) 3.0 cm
41. (a) 6.9 rad/s (b) 3.7 s 31. 79 kg (d) 8 mm (e) 500 nm (f) 3.0 Å
43. (a) 1.1 rad/s (b) 1.1 m/s 33. 1.4 W 21. (a) 0.19 mm (b) 0.43 mm
45. (a) 170 s22 (b) 2.9 m/s2 37. 1.03103 kg 23. (a) 1.3 cm (b) 9.1 cm (c) 0.20 s21
(c) 150 revolutions 39. 63.4°, unstable (d) 45 cm/s (e) 2x direction
47. 570 rev 41. Slide 25. (a) 14 s21 (b) 0.39 cm21
49. (a) 2ML2/3 (b) 2ML2/3 (c) 4ML2/3 43. 74 kg (c) 12.5 cm2cos310.39 cm212x 1
51. Ma2/3 45. 0.366 mgs 114 s212t4
53. 33 pN 49. Fapp 5 Mg tan1u/22 27. 250 m/s
55. (a) 7.2 h (b) 1900 rev 51. ms , tan a 5 1/2 29. 7.6 N
57. 0.36 tan u 31. 9.9 W
55. m $
59. 62.1 rad/s 2 1 tan2 u 33. 343 m/s
61. v 5 265gd sin u 57. 840 N 35. 420 m/s
63. 17% MEm 37. 940 Hz
61. (a) F 5 G 2 11.2292, 21.3°
65. 0.494 MR2 RE 39. 5.4 m
67. 33 m MEm 41. (a) 280 Hz (b) 70 Hz (c) 210 Hz
2pr0wR2 (b) t 5 G 120.03562 43. 14 cm
RE
69. (a) M 5 (b) I 5 3MR2/5 45. 93 Hz
3 63. The tie beam will not hold under the
73. 3MR2/10 10 kN of tension. 47. Galaxy receding
1 65. a 49. 30 m/s
75. t 5 MGL sin u 4p2FA2
2 67. b 51. E 5
77. The specs are incorrect. The storage ca- l
pacity is 3 MJ below what’s claimed. Chapter 13 53. 1.03102 W
79. a 17. 2.2731023 s kL1L 2 L02
57. v 5
81. b 19. (a) x1t2 5 110 cm2 cos 3110ps212t4 A m
83. c (b) x1t2 5 12.5 cm2 sin 315 s212t4 59. 10 m.
21. 22 ms 61. L0 5 5L1/7
Chapter
!
11 23. 0.59 Hz; 1.7 s 63. 440 mph
13. v 5 63 s21 west 25. (a) 4.3 s21 (b) 0.92 N/m (c) 0.82 m 67. 6.3 m
15. (a) 1.13106 s22 (b) 237° 27. (a) 2.2 rad/s (b) 2.8 s (c) 0.63 m 73. 90 km/h
17. (a) 1212 N # m2k^ (b) 136 N # m2k^ 29. 1.21 s 75. 7.3 km
(c) 112 N # m2^ı 1 136 N # m2^/ 31. 1.6 s 77. 41 m/s
19. 3.1 N # m, out of the page 33. 7 oscillations in x direction for 4 oscilla- 81. Not sufficient: The minimum measurable
21. 4.1 kg # m2 # s21 tions in the y direction speed is 5.4 km/h.
23. 2.3 J # s along axis 35. 61.7 rad, 615 rad/s 83. 3.9 kg
25. 17.4 rpm 37. 0.25 s 85. a
27. 2.5 days. 39. 65 km/h 87. d
29. 129.0 N # m2k^ 41. 0.70 s
31. 1600 N # m 43. (a) t 5 p1m/k (b) A 5 v0 1m/k Chapter 15
33. 37 J # s 45. 50 min 15. 1.2 kg
35. 3.1310216 J # s 47. (a) 67 mN/m (b) 3.4310210 kg 17. (a) 180 kg/m3 (b) 7.3 m3
37. 0.21 kg # m2 51. 800 kg
!
19. 249 kPa
39. 63% 53. (a) ƒr ƒ 5 A 21. 600 kPa
!
41. 5.5 m/s (b) v 5 vA cos vtı^ 2 vA sin vt/^. 23. 1.73103 kg/m3
!
43. 3.1 rpm (c) ƒv ƒ 5 vA (d) v 25. 92 m
A-20 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems

27. 7.4 kPa 59. The house will remain at a comfortable 37. (a) 300 kPa (b) 240 J
29. 46 kg 19°C 39. 440°C
31. 0.75% 61. (a) 1200 K (b) 700 K 41. (a) 810 K (b) 25.8 atm
33. 2.8 m/s 63. 24°C 43. (a) 21.5 kJ, 300 K (b) 0 J, 336 K
35. (a) 1.83104 m3/s (b) 1.5 m/s 65. 1200 K (c) 430 J, 326 K
37. 1.8 cm/s 67. (a) $200/month (b) $24/month 45. (a) 40 kPa (b) 83 kPa (c) 80 kJ
39. 830 cm2 69. 44 K 47. 930 J
41. (a) 620 Pa (b) 1.2 kPa 71. The solar increase accounts for only 4% 51. The temperature rises 75°C, missing the
43. 3.6 mm of recent warming. criteria.
45. 8100 kg 73. The hutch temperature will be 22.5°C, 53. 57 kJ
47. The accused apparently drank 51 oz. so the water will freeze. 55. 330 K
49. 27 m 77. 37°F for min; 60°F for max 57. (a) 202 J (b) 500 J transferred out of
51. (a) 49 kg (b) 2500 kg 79. c the gas
53. 14 kPa 81. c 59. 20 mol
55. 14 m 61. 140 atm
57. (a) 1.5 m/s (b) 0.47 L/s
Chapter 17 67. 2.0 MJ
17. 1.8 m3
59. 70% 69. 4p1V1/3
19. 1.83106 Pa
61. (a) 98% less (b) 17 cm 71. Yes
21. (a) 27 L (b) 330 K
63. 15 kg 73. d
23. 3.16 km/s
65. Yes, the wind farm could produce 1-GW 75. d
25. 22 kJ
of power.
A 0 2h 27. 3.9 kg Chapter 19
67. t5 29. 6.0 MJ 13. (a) 26.8% (b) 7.05% (c) 77.0%
A1A g 31. 0.987 L
69. (b) 5.8 km 15. 0.948 K
33. 263°C 17. 9.10
70. (a) p1r, 02 5 pa 1 rgh0 1 rv2r2/2 35. 131015 m23, which is over 10 billion
(b) h1r2 5 h0 1 v2r2 5 2g 19. No
times less dense than Earth’s
73. 2.131012 N # m atmosphere
21. 8.8 kJ/K
75. Yes 23. 21.9 kg
37. (a) 235 mol (b) 5.65 m3 25. (a) 1/64 (b) 20/64
u
77. rH2OL tan 1h02 2 h122 39. (a) 1.27 atm (b) 0.980 mol 27. 52.1% (winter), 47.7% (summer)
2 (c) 0.786 atm 29. (a) 1.75 GW (b) 43.0%
79. c 41. 27.6 min (c) 232°C
81. e 43. 14 min 31. 231011 kg/s
45. 43.9 min 33. (a) 8.53 (b) 1.103103 kg
Chapter 16 47. 10°C 35. $58
15. 20°C 49. 46.1°C 37. 2.83
17. 240°C 5 240°F 51. 177 g 39. (a) 5.7 (b) 3.5 kW (c) pump: 54¢/h;
19. 102°F 53. 4.9°C oil furnace; $1.73/h
21. 32 kJ 55. 19 kW 41. (a) 17.4% (b) 83.3%
23. 100 W 57. 56 min 43. 140 MJ/K
25. (a) 170 J/K (b) 480 J/1kg # K2 59. 251 K 47. (a) 53 J/K (b) 74 J/K (c) 28.5 J/K
27. 0.293 W 61. 307 K 51. 160 J/K
29. 55 kW L0 63. 36.2 J/K
63. d5 22aDT 1 a2DT2
31. 4W 2 65. d
33. Rair 5 0.98 m2 # K/W, 65. (a) 61 h (b) 52 h 67. b
Rconcrete 5 0.03 m2 # K/W, 67. 3.97°C
Rfiberglass 5 0.60 m2 # K/W, 69. 34.1 km Chapter 20
Rglass 5 0.03 m2 # K/W, 73. b 13. 3 C, or about 0.05 C/kg
RStyrofoam 5 0.88 m2 # K/W, 75. a 15. (a) uud (b) udd
Rpine 5 0.23 m2 # K/W 17. (a) ^/ (b) 2ı^ (c) 0.316ı^ 1 0.949/^
35. 2.2 kW Chapter 18 19. (a) ^/ (b) 2ı^ (c) 0.316ı^ 1 0.949/^
37. 231025 m2 15. 18 kJ 21. 3.83109 N/C
39. (a) 138 kPa (b) 33.4 kPa (c) 233 kPa 17. 250 J 23. (a) 2.23106 N/C (b) 77 N
41. 263 K 5 210°C 19. 214 kW 25. 21.6ı^ pN
43. 364 g 21. 2p1V1 27. (a) 122.6 GN/C2ı^ (b) 10.52 GN/C2ı^
45. (a) 23.2 kJ (b) 337 kJ (c) 65.2 kJ 23. (a) 4/3 (b) 220 J (c) 125.8 GN/C2ı^
47. 138 s 25. 0.177 29. 1.1 kN/C
49. 0.56 kg 27. 57.7% 31. E 5 kQ/1 18a22
51. 1.8 kg 29. (a) 200 K (b) 120 K 33. 5.13104 N/C
53. 9.2 K 31. 380 W 35. 980 N/C
55. 0.20 kg 33. (a) 1.49 mm (b) 10.7 mJ 37. 622 mC
57. 2.03102 W 35. 1.35 39. 16ı^ 2 9.0/^ N
 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-21

41. 4q 5 12a, 02, 2q 5 10, 02, 4q 5 1a, 02 Chapter 22 59. 24 mJ

43. (a) 20 mC (b) 121.62^ı N 15. 15 mJ 61. U 5 kQ2/12R2
! ^ MN/C (b) 0.82ı^ 1 0.82/^ MN/C
45. (a) 2.3ı 17. 3.0 kV 63. 6.031024 J
(c) E 5 0.30ı^ 2 0.89/^ MN/C 19. 910 V 65. 13 min
47. 24e 21. Proton, ionized He atom: 1.6310217 J, 1
67.
49. (a) (8.0 GN/C)^/ (b) (190 MN/C)^/ proton: 3.2310217 J 6
(c) (220 kN/C)^/ 23. 2E0y k11
69. (a) C0 (b) C0V02/1k 1 12
51. 0 25. 53 nC 2
53. q1 5 640 mC, q2 5 76.9 mC 27. (a) 440 kV, 9.23106 m/s 2C0V021k 2 12
57. The device doesn’t work because its two 31. (a) 4 V (b) Ex 5 1 V/m, (c)
L1k 1 122
halves depend on charge-to-mass ratio in Ey 5 212 V/m, Ez 5 3 V/m b 2 a 21
the same way. 33. 3 kV 71. CL 5 pP0 ln a b
a
59. 214 mC/m 35. 5.6 kV/m
73. (a) Q2x/12AP02 (b) 2Q2/12AP02
61. 1.3 3 10230 C # m 37. 4.5 V
75. d
63. (a) 2kQqa/x2 (b) 2kQqa/x3 41. 6.1 mC
77. d
(c) upward 43. 12keQ/1mR2
65. 0.4 e, 0.03 e 45. kQ/R
! 13x2 2 a22 47. 2ax2/2 Chapter 24
67. (a) E1x2 5 2kqa2 2 2 1ı^2 13. 9.431018
x 1x 2 a22 49. 252 nC/m
51. 2a/2, a/4 15. 1.931011
! 6kqa2
(b) E1x2 < 1ı^2 53. (a) 2.6 kV (b) 1.8 kV (c) 0 17. 3.23106 A/m2
x4 19. 6.8 cm
55. V 5 2kQ/R
69. (a) 2.5 μC/m (b) 300 kN/C
57. 2pks1 2x2 1 b2 2 2x2 1 a22 21. (a) 5.9531071V # m221
(c) 1.8 N/C
61. 1V/R2r^ (b) 4.55 1V # m221
75. y 5 a/12 23. 360 V
63. (a) 43 kV (b) 1.7 MN/C (c) 540 V
kl0^ı 1 25. 32 mV
77. E 5 2 c 1 2 ln122 d (d) 0
L 2 65. 2E0R/3 27. 4R
79. mdv2/qL2 67. (a) 7.2 kV (b) 14 kV 29. (a) 6.0 V (b) 8.0 V
81. a 69. 14 cm, 1.7 nC 31. 230 V
83. a kl0 2x 2 L 33. 300 V
73. 2 2 c Lx 1 x2 ln a bd 35. (a) 0.12 mA (b) no
Chapter 21 L 2x 1 L
37. (a) 420 A/mm2 (b) 0.24 A/mm2
17. 3 mC 75. 8.0 mm
39. (a) 7.6 (b) 4
19. QC 5 2Q 5 2QB. 77. a
41. 9.7 mC
21. 650 kN/C 79. b
43. (a) 5.8 MA/m2 (b) 97 mV/m
23. 61.5 kN # m2/C 45. Ge
25. (a) 2q/P0 (b) 22q/P0 (c) 0 (d) 0 Chapter 23 47. 50 ft
27. 49 kN # m2/C 13. 4.9 kJ 49. R1 5 388 mV, R2 5 0.971 mV,
29. (a) 1.2 MN/C (b) 2.0 MN/C 15. 0 and R3 5 0.243 mV.
(c) 503104 N/C 17. 248.5 eV 51. d1 5 12d2.
31. Line symmetry 19. (a) 1.4 J (b) 4.2 J 53. 0.63 A
33. 493103 N/C 21. 22 nF 55. Aluminum at $3.30/m is more economi-
35. (a) 5.13106 N/C (b) 34 N/C 25. 740 pF cal than copper at $14/m.
37. (a) 2.03106 N/C (b) 7.23103 N/C 27. 1.5 J 57. 2.5 A
39. (a) 0 (b) 4.031023 C/m2 29. 3.0 mF, 2/3 mF 59. 250°C
41. 1.8 MN/C 31. (a) 0.012 mF 63. 2pJ0a2/3
43. 6E0a2/2 (b) Q1 5 0.12 mC, Q2 5 0.040 mC, 65. 19°
45. 7.0 MN/C; 17 MN/C Q3 5 0.080 mC 67. a
47. (a) 2.8 cm (b) 3.5 nC (c) V1 5 60 V, V2 5 V3 5 40 V 69. c
51. (a) (3.6 MN/C)r^ (b) (3.8 MN/C)r^ 33. 8.23105 V/m
(c) (7.8 MN/C)r^ 35. No Chapter 25
53. (a) (20 kNC)r^ (b) (1.7 kN/C)r^ 37. Qy 5 4Q0/1 12 1 12 < 1.66Q0 17. 1.4 h
55. 6.3 mC/m3 39. 2.8 mC 19. 43 kV
57. (a) rx/P0 (b) rd/2P0 4pP0ab 21. 10 V
41. C5
59. 18 N/C b2a 23. 50 V
61. (b) 2Q 43. (a) 2.5 mJ (b) 8.0 mF 25. I1 5 2 A, I2 5 0.2 A, I3 5 2 A
65. (a) Q 5 pr0a3 (b) E1r2 5 r0r2/14P0a2 45. 50 V 27. 0A
67. a 5 5r0/13R22 47. (a) 4.4 kV (b) 120 kW 29. 20.66%
r0 49. 5C/3 35. PR2/1R1 1 R22
69. R3 1e 2 22
P0 51. 6/7 mF 37. 1.5 A
71. a 55. (a) 4.1 nF (b) 1.3 kV 39. 30 A
73. b 57. 2.7 nm 41. 14 W
A-22 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems

43. 120 mA, so yes, possibly fatal 77. Since t ~ 1/N, more torque from a 35. 4.8 kW, 4.5 kW
45. (a) ER1/1R 1 2R12 1-turn loop. 39. (a) 80 Hz (b) 2.0 H (c) XL 5 4XC
47. 2W 81. m0nIl/ 2l2 1 4a2 41. 145 mV2 sin 3163 s212t4
49. 7R/5 83. 0.64 T 43. 3.2 kHz
51. (a) 48 V (b) 57 V (c) 60 V 85. The hall potential is 10,000 times smaller 45. (a) 52 nF (b) 350 Hz
53. (a) 0.992 A (b) 0.83% than bioelectric potentials. 47. 0.199 mH
55. 360 mF; 1200 V 87. d 49. (a) 1/12 (b) 1/2 (c) 21/12 (d) 1/2
57. 3.4 mJ 89. d 51. 50
59. (a) VC 5 0, I1 5 25 mA, I2 5 0 53. 6.2 V
(b) VC 5 60 V, I1 5 I2 5 10 mA Chapter 27 55. (a) Above resonance
(c) VC 5 60 V, I1 5 0, I2 5 10 mA 13. 1.431024 Wb 57. (a) 0.333 (b) 4.00 W
(d) VC 5 0, I1 5 I2 5 0 15. 160 T/s 59. (a) 5.5% (b) 9.1%
61. 4.51 V, 35.2 V 17. 3.2 mH 61. 3.7 mF
62. 12 kV 19. 40 kV 63. 2.7 V
63. 80 ms 21. 220 mH 65. 1620 Hz
65. 8 V; 89 W 23. 3.1 kJ 67. 12 and 36 nF
67. (a) R1 (b) R1 (c) R1 25. 57 mJ 71. R 5 400 W, L 5 68 mH, C 5 94 nF
71. (a) 9 V (b) 1.5 ms (c) 0.3 mF 29. 4.4 T 1 R2
75. v5 2 2
73. 220 mV 31. 2rb/2 A LC 4L
R1R2C 33. (a) 20.30 A (b) 20.20 A 77. Yes
75. t5
R1 1 R2 35. 15 mT 79. a
77. Yes 37. (a) 3 s (b) clockwise 81. d
79. a 39. (a) 18 mA (b) 40 mA
81. b 41. 242 mA, clockwise Chapter 29
43. 130 13. 1.3 nA
Chapter 26 45. (a) Upper bar (b) 0 15. 2k^
15. (a) 16 G (b) 23 G 47. (a) 25 mA (b) 1.331023 N 19. 7.5 km
17. (a) 2.0310214 N (b) 1.0310214 N (c) 2.5 mW (d) 2.5 mW 21. 2.57 s
(c) 0 49. 58 T/ms 23. 5.003106 m
19. 400 km/s 53. 0.76 s 25. k^
21. 360 ns 55. 20 s 27. 12%
23. (a) 86 mT (b) 1.0 keV 57. (a) 5 V (b) 500 J 29. 131010 W/m2
25. 0.38 N 59. (a) 1.0 A (b) 0.43 A (c) 21.7 A 31. The radio has a minimum intensity of
27. 12,000 lb, so clamping down the bar is a 61. 190 mV 0.27 nW/m2, so it will work at the cabin.
good idea. 63. 3.431021 J/m3 33. 20 kW
m0I 2
29. 12 cm
65. 35. (a) 7.231011 V/1m # s2 (b) increasing
31. 1.2 mT 16p 37. 0.9421.0 PHz
33. 5 mN/m 67. 33108 m/s (speed of light) 39. 1.07 pT
35. 1.131023 A # m2 (b) 1.031023 N # m pb2ha4 41. 91%
37. 7.0 A 69. (a) 2br/12r2 (b) 5
8r 43. 19%
39. (a) 4.0 G (b) 20 G FR B2l2 45. 0.00004%
41. 17 T 71. v1t2 5 2 2 c 1 2 exp a 2 tb d
Bl Rm 47. 431010
43. 2.331027A # m2 49. (a) 4.6 kW (b) 53 mV/m
m0
45. 3.8 GA 73. ln1b/a2 51. (a) 1/r (b) 1/r2
49. (a) 71 mm (b) 440 mm 2p
77. c 53. (a) 8.9310s W/m2 (b) 583103 V/m
51. 0.53 A 55. 6.23103 y
53. 8.531022 cm23 79. a
57. 2.52 kPa
55. (a) 0.35 A # m2 (b) 4.231022 N # m
Chapter 28 59. (a) 1.0 MV/m (b) 4.3 mm (c) 64 mJ
57. 0.021 N, 45° above horizontal
15. (a) 294 V (b) 2.513103 s21 (d) 2.1310210 kg # m/s (e) 64 W
m0I
59. 11 1 p2 k^ 17. (a) V102 < Vp/12, 45° 61. 6
2pa (b) V102 5 0, fb 5 0 65. 2.75 m
m0I (c) V102 5 Vp, fc 5 90°
61. k^ 67. 2.2 km
4a (d) V102 5 0, fd 5 6p 69. b
63. 7.131026 N (e) V102 5 2Vp, fe 5 290° 71. d
65. (a) 0 (b) B 5 m0I/12pr2 19. IR,rms 5 13 mA, IC,rms 5 24 mA,
67. (a) 2.33103 (b) 3.3 kW IL,rms 5 22 mA Chapter 30
71. (a) 8.0 mT (b) 4.0 mT (c) 0 21. (a) 250 V (b) 15 V 11. 15°
m0I m0I 23. 16 kHz 13. 0.5°
73. (a) B < (b) B <
2w 2pr 25. 8.1 H 15. Ice
m0J0R2 27. (a) 32 mH (b) 1.0 V 17. 77.7°
75. (a) pR2J0/3 (b) B 5
6r 29. (a) 79 nF (b) 300 V 19. 14.2°
m0J0r 2r 31. (a) 95 Hz (b) 18 kV 21. 1.9
(c) B 5 a1 2 b
2 3R 33. 500 W 23. 79.1°
 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems A-23

25. 1.66 27. 29° 29. (a) 3.7310263 m (b) 73 nm

27. 6.41° 29. 1.62% 31. The electron moves 1836 times faster
29. (a) 18° (b) 390 nm 31. 36 cm than the proton.
31. Ethyl alcohol 33. 331024 rad 33. 63107 m/s
33. 1.83 35. 94° 35. 130 nm
35. 5.1 m 37. (a) 38 (b) 3 37. 23 keV
37. 139 nm 39. 44 mm 39. 5.431022
39. 35° 43. 2 41. (a) 4.393103 K (b) 0.474
41. Diagonal face, 23° 45. Not feasible because a 2-km-wide 43. (a) 1.731028 s21 (b) 3.231015 s21
43. 1.07 telescope is needed (c) 1.331018 s21
47. 53.5° 47. 3.3 Å 45. (a) 1.1231015 Hz (b) 2.79 eV
49. 36.9° 49. 5 47. (a) 2.9 eV and 1.9 eV
51. 2.7 m 51. 236 (b) Plants absorb blue and red, reflect
53. 1.9 m 53. 128.8 mm green.
57. (c) 50.9° 55. 1 1 2.9331024 49. 440 nm
d 2 1 57. 34 m 51. (a) 154 pm (b) 222 eV
61. a n1 1 n2 b
c 3 3 59. 2.0 mm 53. No
63. a 61. 6.9 km 55. (a) 26.4 cm (b) 4.70 meV
65. c 63. Yes, since the resolution size scales with 57. 229
the wavelength. 59. 3.40 eV
Chapter 31 ml 61. (a) 0.0265 nm (b) 40.8 eV
65. ngas 5 1 1
17. 35° 2L 63. 1.62 km/s
19. (a) 21/4 (b) real, inverted 67. Dy 5 Dl/2d 65. 2.9 km/s
21. (a) 2f (or R) (b) real 69. 92 67. 1 ps
23. 22 71. c 71. E0 5 12mec231g 2 121
25. 21 cm 73. a 11g 2 121g 1 324
27. 27 cm 79. c
29. 40 cm Chapter 33 81. d
31. 0.86 mm 13. (a) 4.50 h (b) 4.56 h (c) 4.62 h
33. 2.2 diopters 15. 33 ly Chapter 35
35. 21.3 diopters 17. 40 m 11. (a) 0 (b) 6a1 ln 2/2
37. 2200 19. 0.14c 13. 5
39. (a) 224 cm (b) 29 mm 21. (a) 2.0 (b) 2.5 15. 3.8 meV
(c) virtual, upright, enlarged 23. 0.14c 17. (a) 0.38 eV (b) 1.5 eV
41. 18 cm 25. (a) 2.1 MeV (b) 1.6 MeV 19. Electron
43. 7.4 cm 29. (a) 0.86c (b) 9.7 min 21. 0.2 MeV
45. 7.59 cm 31. c/12 23. 33 eV
47. 12 cm 33. Twin A 5 83.2 years old, twin B 5 39.7 25. 8.0 eV
51. 29 or 41 cm years old 27. E S E/4
53. 11 cm 35. 0.96c 29. 930 pm
55. s9 5 1.1 m, inverted image, real image 39. Civilization B, 3.53105 y 33. (a) 2.2 eV (b) 570 nm
57. 268 cm 41. v 5 0.50c 35. 21 mm
59. 2.0 45. 0.94c 37. 2.2 nm, 4.7 nm, 6.6 nm, 2.8 nm, 4.1 nm,
61. 2 47. (a) 10 ly, 13 y (b) 0 ly, 7.5 y 11 nm
63. Choose plastic, because it meets require- 51. (a) 4.2 ly (b) 22.4 ly 2 npx9
39. (a) cn2odd1x92 5 cos a b,
ments and is cheaper. 53. (a) 0.758c (b) 1.09 GeV/c AL L
65. 22.8 cm 55. 25 h 2 npx9
67. 3.3 diopters cn2even1x92 5 sin a b
57. (a) 0.26 eV (b) 1.3 keV AL L
69. 0.3° (c) 3.1 MeV (b) En 5 n h /18mL 2
2 2 2

71. 72 cm 63. 0.866c 41. 0.759 nm

81. 0.025 cm 65. 0.95c 43. 2.5310217 eV; quantization is
83. b 71. 0.31 c; 27 kV insignificant
85. b 73. a 45. (a) 0.30 (b) 0.15
75. a 51. 4
Chapter 32 53. (c) A 0 5 1a2/p21/4
11. 1.7 cm Chapter 34 55. b
13. 420 nm 15. 16 57. a
15. 4 17. lpeak 5 10.1 mm, lmedian 5 14.3 mm
17. (a) 4.8°, 9.7° (b) 2.9°, 6.8° 19. (a) 500.0 nm (b) 708.6 nm Chapter 36
19. (a) 2 (b) 1 21. 2.8310219 J to 5.0310219 J 15. 3
21. 103 nm 23. 1.44 17. d
23. 594 nm, 424 nm 25. 122 nm, 103 nm, 97.2 nm 19. 5
25. The top 1.5-cm of the film 27. 91.2 nm 21. 3d
A-24 Answers to Odd-Numbered Problems

23. 2.58310234 J # s 55. 1.8 kA 71. (a) 65

29Cu (b) 4 h
25. 3/2, 5/2 57. 508 nm 73. (a) 1.1 GW (b) 2.8 s21
27. 11.5"v 59. I 5 m1m2R2/1m1 1 m22; 0.128 nm (c) 0.45 metric tons
29. 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d1 63. (a) 12 9/2pm3/2L3/3h32E 3/2
65. 64 kA 77. R1t2 5 lAN0e2lAt
33. 1.137 meV
lBlAN0 2l t
35. n 5 4, l 5 3 67. a 1 1e A 2 e2lBt2
37. 2.6731068 69. a lB 2 lA
39. 90°, 65.9°, 114°, 35.3°, 145° 79. Yes
81. b
41. 0, 61, 62, 63 Chapter 38
1 83. d
45. (a) E1/16 (b) 112 " (c) 135 " 13. 211 220 222
86 Ra, 86 Ra, and 86 Ra.
2 15. (a) A 5 35 for both (b) ZK 5 ZCl 1 2
47. (a) 16 "v (b) 4 "v
49. 2 2 6 2 6 1
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 10 17. 5.9 fm Chapter 39
29Cu S 30Zn 1 b 1 n;
19. 64 64 2 19. 0.336 fs
51. 3.031017
53. 0.1
64
29 Cu S 64
28Ni 1 b 1
1 n; 21. p 1 S m 1 1 nm
55. 3", 6h 29Cu 1 e
64 2
S 64
28Ni 1 n 23. h S p 1 1 p2 1 p0
57. (a) 0.966 (b) 0.0595 21. 17 Bq/L 25. No, violates conservation of baryon num-
59. P1r2dr 5 4pr2c2s2 dr, 3 1 15 23. (a) 193101 y (b) 293101 y ber and angular momentum
61. (b) 54.4 eV, 870 eV, 91.4 keV, 115 keV 25. 59.930 u 27. sss
63. (b) 141 eV, 65.8 eV, 47.0 eV, 28.2 eV 27. 5.612 MeV 29. 4.543107 L
65. 3a0/2 29. 2 31. 1028 K
69. b 31. 1.031020 s21 33. 900 Mly
71. d 33. 231020 m23 35. 12 Gyr
35. 103 s 37. Reaction (a) is not possible because it
Chapter 37 37. 5.3310212 eV violates conservation of baryon number
17. 3.48 mm 39. 8.80 MeV and angular momentum.
19. 9.41310246 kg # m2 41. 0 atoms; 53105 atoms; 83104 atoms; 39. (a) No (b) yes
21. 7.0831013 Hz U-238 and K-40 are suitable 41. cc
23. 181 kcal/mol 43. 9.6 d 43. (a) 0.16 μJ (b) 0.02 mm
25. 549 nm 45. (a) 228
90 Th 45. 90 μs
27. 3.54 mm 47. 8.93103 y 47. 313 ly
29. 1.25 meV 49. Poland: 8.04 d; Austria: 16.2 d, 49. (a) 256 fm (b) 22.81 keV
31. l"2/I Germany: 10.0 d 51. (a) 5.7403103km/s (b) 253 Mly
33. 0.121 nm 51. 3.03109 y 53. 2.6310225 s
35. (a) 0.179 eV (b) 0.358 eV 53. 3.31% 55. 13.6 Gy, 17.6 Gy
37. 14.95 mm 55. 3310213 57. 5.0 km # s21 # Mly
39. 15 meV 57. 1.33103 kg 59. c
41. 35.8 mm 59. 88.9% 61. b
43. 10.2 61. 580 kg
45. 28.40 eV 63. 0.461 s
49. 4.68 eV 65. (a) 431038 s21 (b) 73109 y
51. 6.363104 K, ,200 times room 67. 831017s, which is about 20 billion years
temperature longer than the sun will shine
53. 709 nm, no 69. Borhium-262 1262 107Bh2
 Credits
Front Matter Chapter 11
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Chapter 1 Chapter 12
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Figure 3.11: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs. 238: Figure 14.29: Michael Freeman. Page 245, Figure
Page 39: Preston Wilson/Getty Images. 14.38: David Rydevik via Wikipedia.

Chapter 4 Chapter 15
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stice Photography/Getty Images. Page 54, Figure 4.8: NASA. Automobili s.p.a. Page 256, Figure 15.16: Courtesy Columbia
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Chapter 5
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Chapter 6 tion. Page 272, Figure 16.10: Manuel G. Velarde. Page 281,
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Chapter 7 Chapter 17
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Erik Borg/Addison Wesley Longman. Image Collection. Page 294, Figure 17.12: Shutterstock.

Chapter 8 Chapter 18
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Courtesy Northrup Grumman. Page 119, Figure 8.2: Arnold/AGEfotostock.
Lowell Observatory. Page 123, Figure 8.6: David
Hardy/Photo Researchers. Chapter 19
Page 312: James Hardy/AGEfotostock. Page 318: Peter
Chapter 9 Bowater/Photo Researchers.
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MacNamee/Corbis. Page 142: NASA Headquarters. Page 154, Chapter 20
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Photodisc Red/Getty Images. Page 333, Figure 20.1: Richard
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Flynn/University of Texas-Austin. State University.
C-1
C-2 Credits

Chapter 21 Figure 31.4: Courtesy of the Space Telescope Institute/NASA.

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Fox Photos/Hulton/Getty Images. Page 370, Figure 21.36: Eric Page 547, Figure 31.9: Scott Leigh/iStockphoto. Page 549,
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Chapter 23 Chapter 32
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Borg/Pearson Education. Page 395: Cindy Charles/PhotoEdit. Researchers. Page 566, Figure 32.3: M. Cagnet et al. Atlas of
Page 401, Figure 23.18: National Ignition Facility. Optical Phenomena Springer-Cerlag, 1962. Page 569, Figure
32.8: Chris Jones. Page 572, Figure 32.13: Courtesy of Jay M.
Chapter 24 Pasachoff. Page 573, Figure 32.14: Richard Megna/Fundamental
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ure 24.15: Erik Borg/Addison Wesley Longman. 573, Figure 32.16: NASA/Ames Research Center/Ligo Project.
Page 577, Figure 32.22: Courtesy of Cagnet Atlas. Page 577,
Chapter 25 Figure 32.23: Courtesy of Cagnet Atlas. Page 578, 32.26: Chris
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Addison Wesley Longman. Page 580: Chris Jones.
Chapter 26 Chapter 33
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ure 26.36: Richard Megna/Fundamental Photographs. Researchers.
Chapter 27 Chapter 34
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NASA. Page 485, Figure 27.34: Milt and Joan Mann/ Syred/Photo Researchers. Page 621, Figure 34.13: Millie
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Chapter 28 Chapter 35
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terstock. Figure 28.21 TM: Shutterstock. Figure 28.21 TR: Page 643, Figure 35.19: Stefan Diaz.
Larry Lawhead/iStockphoto. Figure 28.21 ML: Jonathan
Nourak/PhotoEdit. Figure 28.21 BL: Robert Robinson/ Chapter 36
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Chapter 29
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Chapter 38
Chapter 30 Page 680: WDCN/Univ. College London/Photo Researchers.
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Corporation. Page 536, Figure 30.9: Richard Megna/ Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory/Photo Researchers.
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Researchers. Page 539, Figure 30.13: Courtesy of R. Giovanelli Chapter 39
and H. R. Gillett/CSIRO National Measurement Laboratory, Page 706: CERN/European Organization for Nuclear
Australia. Page 541, Figure 30.15: Library of Congress. Research. Page 714, Figure 39.7: CERN/European Organiza-
tion for Nuclear Research. Page 714, Figure 39.8: ICRR Insti-
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 Index
A Alpha radiation, 688 Astronauts
Aberration of starlight, 588, 589 Alternating current (AC), 491–492, 505 escape speed of, 126, 129
Aberrations, 555 Alternating-current circuits (AC circuits), 491–505 orbital motion of, 122
astigmatism, 555 circuit elements in, 492–496 space maneuvers, 127
chromatic aberrations, 539, 555, 559 electric power in, 502 weightlessness, 54–55, 58
of lenses, 539, 555, 559 high-Q circuit, 500 Astrophysics
of mirrors, 546 LC circuits, 496–499, 505 Big Bang theory, 716, 720
spherical aberration, 546, 555 RLC circuits, 499–501, 505 cosmic rays, 707, 708
of starlight, 588, 589 See also Electric circuits double-star system, 570
ABS (antilock braking system), 77 Aluminum expansion of the universe, 716
Absolute motion, 587, 590 electrical properties of, 406 Hubble’s law, 716
Absolute temperature, 267 thermal properties of, 268, 270, 289 neutron star, 651
Absolute zero, 266, 670, 676 work function of, 613 nucleosynthesis, 693
Absorption spectra, 616 Aluminum oxide, dielectric constant of, 393 pulsars, 178
AC circuits. See Alternating-current circuits Ammeters, 429, 434 in sun’s core, 699
Acceleration Amorphous solids, 667 supernova explosions, 597–598
angular acceleration, 157–158, 169 Ampere (A), 3, 403 telescopes, 546, 549, 558–559, 560, 578
average, 17 Ampère, André Marie, 403 white dwarf, 651
average acceleration vector, 33 Ampère’s law, 453–459, 460, 530 See also Telescopes; Universe
centripetal, 42 ambiguity in, 511–512 Asymmetric decay, 711
constant acceleration Biot-Savart law and, 454 Atmosphere (atm), 247
in one dimension, 19–22, 25 electromagnetic waves, 516–517 Atmosphere (of earth), 521–522
in two dimensions, 35–36 in magnetic fields, 455–459, 510, 511, 513, 526, 530 Atom. See Atomic physics; Atoms; Nuclear physics
defined, 18, 44 Ampèrian loop, 455 Atomic bomb, 700
force and, 51 Amplifier, transistor as, 409 See also Nuclear weapons
gravitation and, 54 Amplitude Atomic clock, 3, 24
of gravity, 119–120 oscillatory motion, 205, 207 Atomic energy, 622
constant acceleration, 22–24, 25 waves, 225 Atomic number, 652, 680, 702
near Earth’s surface, 22–24, 119–120 Anderson, Carl, 707 Atomic physics, 644–658
in Space, 119–120 Angle, units of, 3, 9, 156 classical model of atom, 452
instantaneous, 17, 33 Angle of incidence, 532, 540, 545 electron spin, 639, 648–651
instantaneous acceleration vector, 33 Angle of reflection, 532, 540, 545 exclusion principle, 651–652, 658, 711
mass and, 51–53, 55 Angular acceleration, rotational motion, 157–158, 169 hydrogen atom, 644–648
in one dimension, 17–21 Angular displacement, 156 isotopes, 681, 686–687, 702
radial, 43, 157 Angular frequency, 218, 226, 242 magnetic moment of electrons, 649
simple harmonic motion and, 208 Angular magnification, 557, 560 nuclear force, 53, 681–682
straight-line motion, 17–22, 25 Angular momentum, 177–180, 182 periodic table, 652–655
tangential, 43, 157 calculation of, 177 spin-orbit coupling, 650–651
in two dimensions, 33–36 conservation of, 178–179, 182, 710 Stern-Gerlach experiment, 649
uniform circular motion and, 41–42 gyroscopes, 180 total angular momentum, 650–651, 658
Acceleration vectors, 33–34, 41, 42 of the nucleus, 683 Atomic spectra, 616, 624, 655–656
Acceptor levels, 672 orbital, 647–648 hydrogen spectrum, 616, 624
Acousto-optic modulators (AOMs), 571 quantization of, 676 sodium doublet, 656
Actinide series, 655 space quantization, 648 Atoms
Action-at-a-distance forces, 53, 127 spin angular momentum, 649, 658 Bohr model, 618, 619, 624
Activation analysis, radioactivity for, 690 total, 650 ground state, 645–646
Activity, of radioisotopes, 686–687 See also Spin monatomic structure, 305
Addition Angular momentum coupling rules, 650–651 multinuclear, 652
scientific notation and, 5, 6 Angular speed, 156, 169 See also Atomic physics; Elements; Hydrogen atom;
of vectors, 31, 33 Angular velocity, rotational motion, 156, 169 Nuclear physics; Nucleus
Adiabat, 301 Annihilation, 601, 710 Audiotapes, 452
Adiabatic compression, heat engine, 314 Anti-electron, 689 Automobiles. See Cars
Adiabatic equation, 301 Antibaryons, 710 Average acceleration, 17
Adiabatic expansion, heat engine, 314 Anticolor, 711 Average acceleration vector, 33
Adiabatic free expansion, 322 Antineutrinos, 688, 710 Average angular velocity, 156
Adiabatic path, 301 Antinodes, 237 Average motion, 13–14
Adiabatic processes, 300–302, 303, 307, 330 Antiparticles, 639, 711 Average speed, 13–14
Aerodynamic lift and airflow, 256 Antiquarks, 711 Average velocity, 14, 15, 17
Air Antireflection coatings, 533 Average velocity vector, 33
dielectric constant of, 393 AOMs. See Acousto-optic modulators
optical properties of, 534 Aphelion, 123 B
thermal properties of, 270 Apparent weight, 61, 62 Back emf, 477, 478
Air resistance, acceleration of gravity and, 22 Apparent weightlessness, 55, 62 Ballistic pendulum, 145
Aircraft Archimedes’ principle, 250–251, 258 Balmer, Johann, 616
aerodynamic lift and airflow, 256 Argon Balmer series, 616
motion of, 15, 21, 35 electronic structure of, 654 Band gaps, 669
Alkali metals, electronic structure of, 656 specific heat of, 305 Band theory, 676
Allowed transitions, 656 Aristotle, 48 Bands, 669, 676
Alpha decay, 637, 688, 702 Artificial radioactivity, 689 Bandwidth, 537
Alpha particle, properties of, 691 Astigmatism, 555 Bar magnet, 452
I-1
I-2 Index

Bardeen, John, 675 Caloric, 267 of arbitrary charge distributions, 362–363

Barometers, 248, 249 Calorie (cal), 93, 268 with line symmetry, 360–361, 367
Bartholdi, Frédéric-Auguste, 191 Calorimeters, 708 with plane symmetry, 361, 367
Baryon number, 710 Cameras, 395, 432, 521, 557 with spherical symmetry, 357–359, 367
Baryons, 709, 710, 711–712, 713, 720 Cancer electrical potential of, 375
Baseball, 39, 48, 256 from radiation exposure, 690 Charged capacitors, 391
Batteries, 407, 421, 422 radiotherapy for, 690 Charged conductors, 363–364
BCS theory, 675 Candela (cd), 3 Charged particles
Beam splitter, 573 CANDU design, 697 electromagnetic force on, 441
Beats, 233–234 Capacitance, 390–391 in magnetic field, 441–444
Becquerel (Bq), 686, 702 Capacitive reactance, 493, 505 trajectories in three dimensions, 443
Becquerel, Henri, 685 Capacitors, 390–391, 398 See also Point charge
Benzene, optical properties of, 534 in AC circuits, 493 Charmed quarks, 712, 713
Bernoulli effect, 255–256, 258 displacement current, 512 Chart of the nuclides, 682
Bernoulli’s equation, 253–254, 255, 256, 258 in electric circuits, 429–433, 434 Chemical elements. See Elements
Beryllium, electronic structure of, 654 energy storage in, 390–391, 398 Chemical properties, 654
Beta decay, 688–689, 702, 710, 711 equivalent capacitance, 395 Chemical reactions, energy of, 389
Beta radiation, 688 in LC circuits, 497 Chernobyl accident, 687, 697
Bicycling, 181 in parallel, 393–394, 398 Chlorine, electronic structure of, 654
Big Bang theory, 716, 720 parallel-plate capacitor, 390, 398, 512 Chlorine atom, ionization energy of, 663
Binding energy, 691–692 practical version of, 392–393 Chromatic aberrations, 539, 555, 559
Binnig, Gerd, 637 reactance, 493, 505 Chromium, electronic structure of, 655
Biot-Savart law, 446–447, 460, 530 in series, 394, 398 Circular motion
Ampere’s law and, 454 ultracapacitors, 395 constant acceleration and, 42
Birds, aerodynamic lift and airflow, 256 working voltage, 393 forces involved in, 71
Blackbody, 273, 610 Carbon-14, 686 harmonic motion and, 212–213
radiance of, 610, 612, 624 Carbon-14 dating, 686, 687 Newton’s second law and, 71, 202
Blackbody radiation, 610–612, 624, 628 Carbon dioxide, optical properties nonuniform, 43
Blu-ray discs, 579, 673 of, 534 uniform, 41–43, 44
Bohr, Aage, 685 Carnot, Sadi, 315 See also Rotational motion
Bohr, Niels, 616, 623, 634, 685 Carnot cycle, 315, 321 Circular orbits, 121–122, 123, 126, 129
Bohr atom, 616–619, 620, 624 Carnot efficiency, 317, 330 Classical physics, 609, 619, 632, 670
Bohr magneton, 649, 658 Carnot engine, 314, 315–316, 326 Clausius statement, 316
Bohr model, of hydrogen atom, 618, 619, 624 Carnot’s theorem, 316 Cliff diving, 22
Bohr radius, 617, 624, 645 Cars Closed circuits, induced current in, 475
Boiling point, 267 ABS brakes in, 77 Closed orbits, 123
Boiling-water reactors (BWRs), 696 acceleration of, 93 Closed-shell nuclear structure, 685
Boltzmann’s constant, 291, 611 on a curve, 51 Cloud chamber, 708
Bonding, 662–664, 676 banked curve, 43 CMB. See Cosmic microwave background
covalent bonding, 663–664 changing a tire, 159 Coal energy plants, 695
hydrogen bonding, 664 crash tests, 143 Coaxial cable, 366
ionic bonding, 663–664 Doppler effect, 240 Cobalt-60, beta decay of, 711
metallic bonding, 664, 676 engines, 319 Coefficient of kinetic friction, 75, 80
van der Waals bonding, 664 flywheel-based hybrid vehicles, 166 Coefficient of linear expansion, 291
Bone scans, 689 friction in engine, 75 Coefficient of performance (COP), 319, 326
Born, Max, 630 frictional forces in stopping, 76–77 Coefficient of static friction, 75, 80
Bose, Satyendra Nath, 652 hybrid cars, 451, 473 Coefficient of volume expansion, 289, 291
Bose-Einstein condensate, 652, 656, 658 lightning and, 366 Coherence, waves, 565
Bosons, 652, 658, 709 physics of, 2 Coherence length, 565
Bottom quarks, 712, 713 regenerative braking, 473 Cohesive energy, ionic, 668
Bound state, 637, 640 shock absorbers, 215, 216 Collective model, 685
Bound system, 111 speed traps, 21 Collisions, 150
Boundary conditions, 632 starting a car, 411, 423 center-of-mass frame, 149
Bragg condition, 571 Cartesian coordinate system, 31 defined, 142, 150
Brahe, Tycho, 119 Cavendish, Henry, 121 elastic, 143, 145–149, 150
Brain, 7 Cavendish experiment, 121 energy in, 143
Brass, thermal properties of, 289 CDs, 535, 566, 571, 579, 673 impulse, 143
Breeder reactors, 697 Cell membrane, 405, 427 inelastic, 143–145
Brewster angle, 536 Cell phones, 525 kinetic energy and, 145
Bridges, 186, 187, 217 Celsius temperature scale, 266, 277 momentum and, 142, 145
Btu (British thermal unit), 93, 268 Center of gravity, 188, 195 in systems of particles, 142–149
Bubble chamber, 708 Center of mass, 133–138, 150 totally inelastic, 143–145, 150
Buckminsterfullerene, 664 of continuous distribution, 136–137 Color charge (quarks), 711, 712, 713
Buildings, 209, 217 finding location of, 135–136 Colorless particles, 711
cogeneration, 320 kinetic energy of, 142 Combined cycle power plant, 318
energy-saving windows, 274 motion of, 133, 138 Comets, orbits of, 123
household voltage, 492 Center-of-mass frame, 149 Complementarity, 623, 624
household wiring, 406 Centripetal acceleration, 42 Compound microscope, 558, 560
insulating properties of building materials, 271 Centripetal force, 71 Compressibility, of gases and liquids, 247, 258
solar greenhouse, 275 Ceramics, electrical properties of, 406 Compression force, 52–53
water heater, 275, 320 Cesium, work function of, 613 Compton, Arthur Holly, 614
Bungee jumping, 90 Cesium chloride, crystal structure of, 667 Compton effect, 614–615, 624, 629
Buoyancy Chain reaction, 695, 702 Compton shift, 615
center of, 251 Charge. See Electric charge Compton wavelength, 615
of fluids, 250–251 Charge conjugation, 711 Computer disks, 452, 474
BWRs. See Boiling-water reactors Charge distributions, 335–336 Concave lenses, 550, 552
continuous, 341 Concave meniscus lenses, 554
C electric dipole, 339–340 Concave mirrors, 548, 549
Calatrava, Santiago, 186 electric field lines of, 352 Concrete, thermal properties of, 268, 270
Calculations. See Problem solving of electric fields, 338–339, 341 Condenser, 317
 Index I-3

Conditionally stable equilibrium, 192 CP conservation, 711 Diffraction, 574–577, 580, 584, 621
Conduction CPT conservation, 711 See also Interference
in electric fields, 405–410, 670, 671 CPT symmetry, 711 Diffraction gratings, 568–571, 584
in ionic solution, 407, 415 Crash tests, 143 Diffraction limit, 577–579, 580, 584
in metals, 407, 415 Credit cards, 452, 474 Diffuse reflection, 533
in plasma, 408, 415 Critical angle, 536, 540 Diodes, 505
in semiconductors, 408, 415 Critical damping, 218, 499 Diopter, 556
in superconductors, 409–410, 415, 485 Critical density, 718 Dipole moment, 346
of heat, 269–272, 277 Critical field, 674, 676 electric, 340, 346
Conduction band, 671 Critical ignition temperature, 699 induced, 340
Conductivity, electrical, 406, 415 Critical mass, 695, 702 magnetic, 449, 683
See also Conductors; Superconductivity Critical point, 288, 291 nuclear magnetic, 683
Conductors, 344, 415 Croquet, 148–149 Dipoles. See Electric dipoles; Magnetic dipoles
charged, 363–364 Cross product, 176, 182 Dirac, Paul, 630
electric field at conductor surface, 365–366 Crossover network, 496 Dirac equation, 639
Gauss’s law, 363–366, 367 Crystal structure, 667–669 Direct current (DC), 504
magnetic force between, 448 Crystalline solids, 667–669 Disk, rotational inertia by integration, 162, 163
mechanism of conduction in, 405–410 Curie (Ci), 686 Disorganized states, 313
See also Conductivity; Electric current Curie, Irene, 689 Dispersion
Confinement time, 699 Curie, Marie, 685 of light, 538–539, 540
Conservation of angular momentum, 178–179, Curie, Pierre, 685 in wave motion, 232–233
182, 710 Curie temperature, 453 Displacement
Conservation of baryon number, 710 Current. See Electric current angular displacement, 156
Conservation of electric charge, 333, 710 Current density, 405, 415 coordinate systems, 14
Conservation of energy, 101–113 Ohm’s Law, 406, 410, 411, 412, 415, 425, 530 defined, 14
in fluid flow, 253–254 Current loops, 447, 449, 451, 460 Displacement current, 512
gravitational potential energy, 125 Curve of binding energy, 692, 702 Displacement vector, 31
mechanical energy, 106–109, 113 Curved mirrors, 545–547, 560 Dissociation energy, 663
nonconservative forces, 106, 109 Cyclic processes, thermodynamics, 303–304 Diverging lenses, 550
rolling downhill, 168 Cyclotron frequency, 443, 460 Division, scientific notation and, 5, 6
Conservation of mass, in fluid flow, 252–253 Cyclotrons, 442–443 DNA, bonding in, 664
Conservation of momentum, 139–140, 202 Donor levels, 672
angular momentum, 178–179, 182 D Doping, 408, 672, 676
fusion, 144 D-D reaction (deuterium-deuterium reaction), 699, 701 Doppler, Christian Johann, 239
Conservation of parity, 711 D-T reaction (deuterium-tritium reaction), Doppler effect (Doppler shift), 239–241, 242
Conservative electric field, 484 699, 701 light, 241
Conservative forces, 101, 102, 106 Damped harmonic motion, 215–216, 218 redshift and, 716
See also Potential energy Damping, 499 Dot product. See Scalar product
Constant acceleration, 19–22, 25 Dark energy, 719, 720 Double concave lenses, 554
angular, 169 Dark matter, 719, 720 Double convex lenses, 554
circular motion and, 42 Daughter nucleus, 688 Double-slit interference, 566–568
in two dimensions, 35–36 Davisson, Clinton, 621 Double-star system, 570
Constant of universal gravitation, 119 DC. See Direct current Doublet, 651
Constant-volume gas thermometers, 266 de Broglie, Louis, 619, 620 Down quarks, 711, 712, 713
Constant-volume processes, 299–300, 303, 307, 330 de Broglie wavelength, 620, 624 Drag forces, 79
Constructive interference, 232, 564, 567, 580, 584 de Broglie’s wave hypothesis, 621, 629, 630, 632 Drift velocity, 404, 407, 415
Contact forces, 53 Decay Driven oscillations, 215
Continuity equation, 252–253, 258 asymmetric decay, 711 DVDs, 1–2, 155–156, 571, 579, 673
Continuous charge distributions, 341 radioactive See Radioactive decay Dynamics, 48, 49
Continuum state, 638 string theory, 714 rotational dynamics, 163–165
Control rods, 696 Decay constant, 686 See also Motion
Controlled fusion, 701 Decay rate (radioactivity), 685–691 Dynodes, 615
Convection, 272, 277 Decay series, 689
Converging lenses, 550, 551 Deceleration, 18 E
Convex lenses, 552 Decibel (dB), 231 Earth
Convex meniscus lenses, 554 Defibrillator, 389, 395, 413 atmosphere, 521–522
Convex mirrors, 547, 548, 549 Definite integral, 89 climate of, 272, 276
Coolant, for nuclear power reactors, 696 Degenerate electron pressure, 651 convection and solar heat, 272
Cooper, Leon, 675 Degenerate states, 638 ether concept and motion of, 587, 605
Coordinate systems, 14 Degree of freedom, 305, 307 global warming, 276
vectors and, 31 Delayed neutrons, 696 greenhouse effect, 276
COP. See Coefficient of performance Democritus, 610 Greenland ice cap, 251
Copernicus, Nicolaus, 119 Density, of fluids, 247 interior structure of, 236
Copper Density of states, 670 magnetic field of, 449
electrical properties of, 406 Derivative, 16, 17 ocean waves, 2, 232, 234
electronic structure of, 655 Descartes, René, 534 precession of, 180–181
thermal properties of, 268, 270, 287, 289 Destructive interference, 232, 564, 580, 584 pressure at ocean depths, 248
work function of, 613 Deuterium, 681, 698 rainbow, 538, 540
Corner reflector, 533 Deuterium-deuterium reaction. See D-D reaction seasons on, 174
Corona discharge, 383 Deuterium oxide, 697 smog, 302
Corrective glasses, 556, 557 Deuterium-tritium reaction. See D-T reaction tides, 128
Correspondence principle, 623, 634 Deuteron, 147 Eddy currents, 474
Cosmic microwave background (CMB), 717, 720 Diamagnetism, 453, 460, 485, 486, 674 Efficiency
Cosmic rays, 707, 708 Diamond, 534, 664 of Carnot engine, 315
Cosmological constant, 719 Diatomic molecule, 305 of engine, 314
Coulomb (C), 333 Dielectric breakdown, 345 thermodynamic efficiency, 317
Coulomb, Charles Augustin de, 333, 334 Dielectric constant, 392, 393, 398 Eightfold Way, 711
Coulomb’s law, 333–335, 346, 355, 362, 530 Dielectrics, 345, 346, 392, 398 Einstein, Albert, 49, 54
Gauss’s law and, 454 Diesel engine, 302 photoelectric effect, 613, 624
Covalent bonding, 663–664, 676 Differential equation, 431 relativity and, 586, 589, 594, 719
I-4 Index

Einstein cross, 604 Electric field lines, 351–352, 367 Electromagnetic waves, 224, 237, 514, 526, 530, 706
Elastic collisions, 143, 145–149, 150 of charge distribution, 352 Ampere’s law, 516–517
in one dimension, 145–148, 150 Electric flux, 353–354, 367 Doppler effect, 241
in two dimensions, 145, 148–149 Electric force, 332, 346, 372, 530 electromagnetic spectrum, 521–522, 526
Elastic potential energy, 105 gravity and, 335 Faraday’s law, 515–516
Electric charge, 332–333, 346, 710 superposition principle, 336, 338, 346 Gauss’s laws, 515
charge distribution, 335–336 Electric generators, 2, 473, 474, 486 in localized sources, 524
conservation of, 333, 710 Electric motors, 2 momentum, 525
Coulomb’s law, 333–335, 346, 355, 362, 530 Electric potential, 372, 384, 644 photons in, 629
magnetism and, 440 of charge distribution plane electromagnetic wave, 514–515
moving, 530 charged disk, 380 polarization, 519–520, 526
point charges, 335 charged ring, 379–380 producing, 522
quantity of, 333 charged sheet, 375 properties of, 517–520
quantization of, 333, 610 continuous, 379–380 radiation of, 273, 277
source charge, 334 curved paths, 375 radiation pressure, 525
superposition principle, 336, 338, 346 dipole potential, 378–379 in vacuum, 514, 526
test charge, 337 nonuniform fields, 375 wave amplitude, 518
units of, 333 point charge, 376 wave fields, 517
See also Charge distributions; Charged particles with superposition, 378 wave intensity, 523–524
Electric circuits, 418–434 charged conductors, 382 wave speed, 517–518
AC circuits, 491–505 electric field and, 380–382 See also Light; Photons
capacitors in, 429–433, 434 electric field from, 380–382 Electromagnetism, 2, 53, 331–346, 530
electromotive force (emf), 420 zero of, 376 four laws of, 454, 510, 511, 513, 526
high-Q circuits, 500 See also Electromotive force (emf); Voltage Maxwell’s equations, 513, 526, 530, 574, 587,
inductors in, 478–479 Electric potential difference, 373, 384, 530 605, 629
Kirchoff’s laws, 426, 434 calculating, 375–382 quantization and, 610, 624
LC circuits, 496–499, 505 high-voltage power line, 377 quantum-mechanical view of, 706–707
multiloop circuits, 426–427 units of, 374 relativity and, 587, 589, 603–604
parallel circuits, 530 using superposition, 378 See also Electromagnetic force; Electromagnetic
RC circuits, 430–433, 495 Electric power, 412, 415 waves
resistors, 420–425, 434 in AC circuits, 502 Electromotive force (emf), 420, 434
RL circuits, 480, 495 fusion energy, 701 back emf, 477, 478
RLC circuits, 499–501, 505 nuclear power, 698 induced emf, 468, 469
with series and parallel components, 424–425 nuclear reactors, 695, 696 motional emf, 472
series circuits, 530 pumped storage of, 105 Electron capture, 689
symbols used, 419 See also Electric generators; Electric power lines; Electron diffraction, 621
See also Alternating-current circuits Electric power plants Electron microscope, 620
Electric current, 344, 403–405, 415, 530 Electric power lines, 412 Electron neutrinos, 709
ammeters, 429 magnetic force and, 445 Electron-positron pair, annihilation of, 710
current density, 405 potential relative to ground, 377–378 Electron spin, 639, 648–651
induced currents, 466–467, 470 Electric power plants Electron-volt (eV), 93, 374
magnetic force and, 444–445 combined cycle power plant, 318 Electronic scales, 61
Ohm’s Law, 406, 410, 411, 412, 415, 425, 530 steam system, 317 Electrons
units of, 3, 403 thermodynamics of, 317–318 Bohr atom, 620, 624
See also Conductors See also Nuclear power; Nuclear reactors Compton effect, 614–615, 624, 629
Electric dipole moment, 340 Electric power supply discovery of, 610
Electric dipole potential, 384 direct current (DC), 504 exclusion principle, 651–652, 658, 711
Electric dipoles, 339–340, 344, 346 transformers and, 412, 503, 505 magnetic moment of, 649
in electric fields, 344, 346, 362 See also Electric power; Electric power lines; photoelectric effect, 613, 624, 628, 629
oscillating, 522 Electric power plants; Nuclear power properties of, 691, 709
point charge, 362 Electric shock, 414 relativistic electron, 602
Electric eels, 407 Electrical conduction. See Conduction split, 649
Electric field, 336–338, 346, 373, 530 Electrical conductivity, 406, 415 Electronvolt (eV), 374
of arbitrary charge distributions, 362–363 Electrical energy. See Electric power; Electrostatic analyzer, 345
of charge distributions, 338–339 Electrostatic energy Electrostatic energy, 389, 390
charged ring, 341 Electrical measurements, 428–429 Electrostatic equilibrium, 363
continuous, 341 Electrical meters, 428–429 Electrostatic precipitators, 383
or charge distributions, linear, 342, 346 Electrical resistance. See Resistance, electrical Electroweak forces, 53
conduction in, 405–410 Electrical resistivity. See Resistivity Electroweak unification, 714
in ionic solutions, 407, 415 Electrical safety, 413–414, 415 Elementary charge, 333
in metals, 407, 415 Electrocution, 414 Elementary particles. See Particles
in plasmas, 408, 415 Electromagnetic force, 441, 530, 720 Elements
in semiconductors, 408, 415 electroweak unification, 714 chemical behavior and, 654
in superconductors, 409–410, 415, 485 quantum electrodynamical description isotopes, 681, 702
at conductor surface, 365–366 of, 707 origin of, 693
conductors, 344 Electromagnetic induction, 466–486, 530 periodic table, 652
conservative/nonconservative, 484 defined, 467 radioisotopes, 681, 686–687
corona discharge, 383 eddy currents, 474 See also Atomic physics; Nuclear physics
dielectrics, 345, 346 energy and, 471 Elevators, 55, 56–57, 104
electric dipoles in, 344, 346 Faraday’s law, 468–470, 472, 477, 483, 486, 510, Elliptical orbits, 123
electric field lines, 351–352 511, 513, 526, 530 emf. See Electromotive force
energy in, 396–397 induced currents, 466–467, 470 Emission spectra, 616
Gauss’s law, 355–362, 367, 453, 510, 511, 513, induced electric fields, 483–485 Emissivity, 273
526, 530 inductance, 476–480 Energy, 202
insulators, 344–345 Lenz’s law, 471–472, 486 of chemical reactions, 389
magnetic field and, 457–458 See also Inductance; Inductors in circular orbits, 126
Ohm’s Law, 406, 410, 411, 412, 415, 425, 530 Electromagnetic radiation, blackbody radiation, in collisions, 143
of point charge, 338, 346 610–612, 624 conservation of, 101–113
point charges in, 342–344, 346 Electromagnetic spectrum, 521–522, 526 in fluid flow, 253–254
solenoids, 458–459, 460 Electromagnetic systems, 2 consumption by society, 95
 Index I-5

in electric field, 396–397 Fermilab, 712 normal, 59–60

electromagnetic induction and, 471 Fermions, 652, 658, 708, 709 potential energy and, 112
energy-momentum relation, 602, 605 Ferromagnetism, 452–453, 460 strong, 53, 711, 712, 720
energy-time uncertainty, 622–623 FET. See Field-effect transistor tension, 53
fusion energy, 701 Feynman, Richard, 707 of massless rope, 70–71
magnetic, 481–482 Fiberglass, thermal properties of, 270 of spring, 60–61
mass and, 600–602, 605 Fiberoptics, 537 unification of, 53, 714–715
mass-energy equivalence, 600–602 Field-effect transistor (FET), 409 units of, 51, 54
from nuclear fission, 694–695 Field particles, 709, 713 varying with position, 88–92
quantization and, 610, 624 Field point, 339 weak, 53
in simple harmonic motion, 213–215, 218 Films, thin films, 572–573 work, 86–88
units of, 93, 97, 267 Filtering (electrical), 504 See also Electric force; Gravity; Magnetic force
wind energy, 257 Fine structure, 651, 658 Forward bias, 672
work and, 397 Finite potential wells, 637–638, 640 Four-vectors, 599–600, 605
work-energy theorem, 93, 97, 106, 113, 253 Fire safety, radioactivity for, 690 Fourier, Jean Baptiste Joseph, 232
See also Heat; Kinetic energy; Potential energy First law of thermodynamics, 295–297, 307, 312, 330 Fourier analysis, 232
Energy density, 396, 398 Fissile nuclei, 694, 702 Frames of reference, 34
Energy-level diagram, 618 Fission, nuclear. See Nuclear fission inertial, 52, 589, 605
Energy levels, in molecules, 664–666 Fission products, 693, 697 Franklin, Benjamin, 332
Energy-momentum 4-vector, 600 Fissionable nuclei, 694 Free-body diagram, 55, 62
Energy-momentum relation, 602 Fitzgerald, George F., 594 Free expansion, 322
Energy quality, 321 Flash camera, 395, 432 Free fall, 22–24, 25, 54, 55, 60
Energy storage, 389 Floating objects, Archimedes’ principle, 251 Frequency, 225
in capacitors, 390–391, 398 Flow tube, 252, 253 angular frequency, 218, 226, 242
in flywheels, 165 Fluid dynamics, 252–257, 263 oscillatory motion, 205, 207, 218
Energy-time uncertainty, 622–623 aerodynamic lift and airflow, 256 units of, 205
English system, 4, 93 applications of, 254–257 Friction
Enrichment of uranium, 694, 695 Bernoulli’s equation, 253–254, 255, 256, 258 kinetic, 75, 80
Entropy, 320–325, 326, 330 conservation of energy, 253–254 Newton’s first law and, 75–79, 80
availability of work, 322 conservation of mass, 252–253 static, 75, 80
second law of thermodynamics and, 324–325 continuity equation, 252–253, 258 Frictional forces, 53, 75–79
statistical interpretation of, 323 turbulence, 257 Frisch, Otto, 693
Entropy change, 321–322 See also Fluids. Fuel cells, 407
Equations of motion, 20–21 Fluid flow Fuel rods (nuclear reactor), 697
Equilibrium Bernoulli’s equation, 253–254, 255, 256, 258 Fundamental forces, 53, 714, 720
conditionally stable, 192 viscosity, 257, 258 Fusion
conditions for, 186 Fluid friction. See Viscosity conservation of momentum, 144
electrostatic, 363 Fluid motion, 246–258 heat of, 286
hydrostatic, 247–250, 258, 263 steady flow, 252 nuclear. See Nuclear fusion
metastable, 192, 195 unsteady flow, 252
neutrally stable, 192, 195 Venturi flowmeters, 255 G
potential energy and, 192, 195 See also Fluid dynamics; Fluid flow Galaxies, Hubble’s law and, 716
stable, 191–194, 195 Fluid point, 339 Galilean relativity, 587
static equilibrium, 186–195 Fluid speed, 255 Galileo, 22, 48–49, 54, 119
thermodynamic, 266, 288 Fluids, 246–258 Gallium, electronic structure of, 655
unstable, 191, 192, 195 Archimedes’ priciple, 250–251, 258 Gamma decay, 689, 702
Equilibrium temperature, 269, 277 buoyancy, 250–251 Gamma rays, 521, 522, 688
Equipartition theorem, 305–306, 307 density, 247 Gas. See Gases
Equipotentials, 380–381, 384 hydrostatic equilibrium, 247–250, 258, 263 Gas-cooled nuclear reactors, 697
Equivalent capacitance, 395 Pascal’s law, 249 Gas-cylinder system, heat engine, 313
Erg, 93 pressure, 247, 258 Gas thermometers, 266
Escape speed, 126, 129 viscosity, 257, 258 Gas water heater, cogeneration, 320
Estimation, 7 See also Fluid dynamics Gases, 291
Eta particles, 709 Fluorine, electronic structure of, 654 adiabatic free expansion, 322
Ether concept, 587, 605 Flux. See Electric flux; Magnetic flux adiabatic processes, 300–302, 303, 307
Ethyl alcohol Flywheels, 166 constant-volume processes, 299–300,
optical properties of, 534 Focal length, 546, 548, 552, 556, 560, 584 303, 307
thermal properties of, 287 Focal point, 545, 550, 560 cyclic processes, 303–304
Events in relativity, 590–592, 595 Food preservation, radioactivity for, 690 distribution of molecular speeds, 285–286
Excimer laser, 556 Foot-pound, 93 equipartition theorem, 305–306, 307
Excited states, 617 Forbidden transitions, 656 ideal-gas law, 282–284, 291, 301
of hydrogen atom, 674 Force(s), 48, 49, 52–53, 62, 202 isobaric processes, 300, 303, 307
Exclusion principle, 651–652, 658, 711 action-at-a-distance, 53, 127 isothermal processes, 298–299, 303, 307
Expansion, thermal, 289–290, 291 buoyancy force, 250 microstates/macrostates, 323
External forces, 134, 141 centripetal, 71 phase changes, 286–289
External torque, 178, 180 compression, 52–53 plasmas, 408
Eye, 555–557 conservative, 101, 102 quantum effect, 306
Eyeglasses, 556, 557 contact forces, 53 real gases, 286
Eyepiece, of microscope, 558 drag forces, 79 specific heat of, 269
electroweak, 53 thermodynamics of, 297–298
F external/internal, 134, 141 universal gas constant, 283, 291
Fahrenheit temperature scale, 266, 277 frictional, 53, 75–79 van der Waals force, 286
Farad (F), 391 fundamental forces, 53, 714, 720 See also Ideal gases
Faraday, Michael, 319 grand unification theories (GUTs), 714, 720 Gasoline, thermal expansion of, 290
Faraday’s law, 468–470, 472, 473, 477, 483, 486, 510, gravitational, 52 Gasoline engine, 300, 319
511, 513, 526, 530 interaction forces, 49, 62 Gauge bosons, 709, 720
electromagnetic waves, 515–516 measurement of, 60–61 Gauge pressure, 249
Farsightedness, 556 momentum and, 50 Gauss’s law, 355–362, 367, 530
Fermi, Enrico, 693 net force, 49, 50 conductors and, 363–366, 367
Fermi energy, 670, 676 nonconservative, 101, 102–103 Coulomb’s law and, 454
I-6 Index

Gauss’s law (Continued) Green-antired, 712 Horsepower (hp), 94

for electric field, 355–362, 453, 510, 511, 513, Greenhouse effect, 217 Hubble, Edwin, 716
526, 530 Greenhouse gases, 276 Hubble constant, 716
for infinite line of charge, 360 Greenland ice cap, 251 Hubble Deep Field, 716, 720
with line symmetry, 360–361, 367 Ground fault circuit interrupter, 414 Hubble Space Telescope, 546, 549, 559, 578
with plane symmetry, 361, 367 Ground state, 617, 645–646 Hubble’s law, 716
for point charge within a shell, 359 Ground-state energy, 633 Human body
with spherical shell, 357–359 Ground-state wave function, 633 cardiac catheterization, 413
with spherical symmetry, 357–359, 367 Guth, Alan, 718 electric current, effects on, 413
for electromagnetic waves, 515 GUTs. See Grand unification theories electric shock, 414
experimental tests of, 364–365 Gyroscopes, 180 the eye, 555–557
hollow conductor, 364 radiation, effects of on, 690
for magnetism, 450, 453, 454, 460, 510, 511, H resistance of skin, 413
513, 526 Hadrons, 709, 711, 713, 720 sound and the ear, 231
Geiger, Hans, 616 Half-life, 686, 687, 702 static equilibrium, 190
Gell-Mann, Murray, 711 Hall coefficient, 445 See also Medical devices
General theory of relativity, 52, 118, 590, 603–604, Hall effect, 445 Huxley, Andrew F., 427
605, 719 Hall potential, 445 Huygens, Christian, 574
Generation time, 695 Hard ferromagnetic materials, 452 Huygens’ principle, 574, 580, 584
Generators, 2, 473, 474, 486 Harmonic oscillators, 635–636 Hybrid-car motor, 451
Geometrical optics, 532, 564, 584 quantum harmonic oscillator, 666 Hydraulic lift, 249
See also Light quantum mechanical, 635, 640 Hydrogen
Geosynchronous orbit, 122–123, 124, 129 selection rule for, 666 fusion of, 698
Gerlach, Walther, 649 See also Oscillatory motion isotopes of, 681, 686
Germer, Lester, 621 Harmonics, 237 tritium, 686
Giant Magellan Telescope, 559 Head-on collisions, 145–148 Hydrogen atom, 644–648
Glashow, Sheldon, 712, 714 Heat, 277, 330 Bohr model, 618, 619, 624
Glass defined, 267 excited states of, 674
dielectric constant, 393 phase changes and, 286 fine structure of, 651
dielectric constant of, 393 units of, 268 ground state, 645–646
electrical properties of, 406 Heat capacity, 267, 277 potential-energy curve for, 676
optical properties of, 534 specific heat and, 267–268 Hydrogen bomb, 700
thermal properties of, 268, 270, 289 Heat conduction, 269–272, 277 Hydrogen bonding, 664, 676
Global positioning system. See GPS Heat engine Hydrogen spectrum, 616, 628
Global warming, 276 adiabatic compression, 314 Hydrostatic equilibrium, 247–250, 258, 263
Gluons, 709, 711, 712, 713 adiabatic expansion, 314 Hyperfine splitting, 683
Glycerine, optical properties of, 534 isothermal compression, 314 Hyperfine structure, 651
Gold, electrical properties of, 406 isothermal expansion, 314
Goltzmann’s constant, 273 Heat engines, 313–315 I
Goudsmit, Samuel, 649 limitations of, 316–319 Ice
GPS (global positioning system), 118, 539, 604 Heat loss, thermal-energy balance, 274–275, 277 boiling point of, 267
Grand unification theories (GUTs), 714, 720 Heat of fusion, 286 bonding in, 664
Graphite moderators, 697 nuclear power plant meltdown, 287 crystal structure of, 290
Grating spectrometer, 570 Heat of sublimation, 286 melting point of, 267
Gratings Heat of transformation, 286, 287, 291, 330 optical properties of, 534
acousto-optic modulators (AOMs), 571 Heat of vaporization, 286 thermal properties of, 268, 289
diffraction gratings, 568–571, 584 Heat pumps, 319–320, 326 See also Water
reflection gratings, 569 Heat transfer, 269–273, 330 Ice skating, 178
resolving power of, 570 conduction, 269–272, 277 IDEA strategy, 8, 9
transmission gratings, 569 convection, 272, 277 See also Problem solving
X-ray diffraction, 571 first law of thermodynamics, 295–297, 307, 312 Ideal emf, 420
Gravitation radiation, 273, 277 Ideal gas law, 282–284, 291, 301, 330
center of gravity, 188, 195 Heavy water, 147, 697 Ideal gases, 283–285, 291, 330
universal, 119–121, 129, 202 Heisenberg, Werner, 621, 623, 630 adiabatic processes, 300–302, 303, 307
See also Gravity Helicopters aqdiabatic free expansion, 322
Gravitational field, 127–128, 129, 336 aerodynamic lift and airflow, 256 constant-volume processes, 299–300, 303, 307
Gravitational force, 52 weight in, 61 cyclic processes, 303–304
Gravitational potential energy, 104, 113, 124–126, 129 Helium equipartition theorem, 305–306, 307
Gravitons, 709, 713 atomic structure of, 681 internal energy of, 300
Gravity, 53–55, 118–128, 720 mass defect in, 692 isobaric processes, 300, 303, 307
acceleration and gravitation, 54 specific heat of, 305 isothermal processes, 298–299, 303, 307
Cavendish experiment, 121 thermal properties of, 270 quantum effect, 306
center of gravity, 188, 195 Helium-3, 683 specific heats of, 304–306
electric force and, 335 Helium-4, 683, 688, 692 Ideal spring, 60, 62, 107, 206
escape from, 125–126, 129 Helium atom, electronic structure of, 653 Image distance, 548, 552, 560
historical background, 119 Henry (H), 477 Images, 544, 560
hydrostatic equilibrium with, 247–248, 258, 263 Henry, Joseph, 466, 477 with lenses, 550–552
inertia and, 54 Hertz (Hz), 205 with mirrors, 545–549
inverse square feature of, 120 Hertz, Heinrich, 205, 521, 612 real images, 544, 546, 547, 548, 552, 584
near Earth’s surface, 120 Higgs bosons, 713 virtual images, 544, 546, 547, 548, 552, 554, 584
free fall, 22–24, 25, 54, 55, 60 High-energy particles, 707–714 See also Lenses; Mirrors
projectile motion, 121 High-Q circuit, 500 Impact parameter, 148
work done against, 91–92, 97, 108 High-temperature superconductors, 675 Impedance, 500, 505
orbital motion and, 119, 121–123 Hiroshima bomb, 693, 695, 700 Impulse, 143
quantum physics and, 714 Hockey, 144 Incandescent lightbulbs, 612
third-law pair, 60 Hodgkin, Alan L., 427 Incompressibility, of liquids, 247, 258
universal law of, 119–121, 129 Holes (semiconductors), 672 Index of refraction, 534, 584
weight and, 53–54 Holograms, 656 Induced current, 466–467, 470
work done against, 91–92 Hooke’s law, 60–61, 62 closed and open circuits, 475
Gray (Gy), 690 Horizontal range, 40 eddy currents, 474
 Index I-7

Induced dipole moments, 345 Iron Lawson criterion, 700

Induced electric fields, 483–485 electrical properties of, 406 LC circuits, 496–499, 505
Induced emf, 468 thermal properties of, 268, 270 LCDs (Liquid crystal displays), 520
Faraday’s law and, 469, 472, 477, 483, 486, 510, Irreversible/reversible processes, 298–299, 313, 321, Lead, thermal properties of, 287
511, 513, 526, 530 322, 330 LEDs (light emitting diodes), 673
Inductance, 476–480, 486 Isobaric processes, 300, 303, 307 Lee, Tsung-dao, 711
mutual inductance, 476 Isochoric processes, 299 Length, units of, 3, 4
self-inductance, 476–477 Isometric processes, 299 Length contraction, 594–595, 605
Induction. See Electromagnetic induction Isotherm, 298–299 Lens equation, 551–552
Inductive reactance, 494, 505 Isothermal compression, heat engine, 314 Lenses, 550, 584
Inductive time constant, 479, 480, 486 Isothermal expansion, heat engine, 314 aberrations of, 539, 555, 559
Inductors, 476, 486 Isothermal processes, 298–299, 303, 307, 330 antireflection coatings, 533
in AC circuits, 493–494, 495–496 Isotopes, 681, 702 astigmatism, 555
in electric circuits, 478–479 radioisotopes, 681, 686–687 chromatic aberration, 539, 555, 559
magnetic energy in, 481–482 transuranic isotopes, 697 concave lenses, 550, 552
reactance, 494, 505 Isovolumic processes, 299 contact lenses, 556, 557
Inelastic collisions, 143–145 ITER fusion reactor, 701 converging lenses, 550, 551
Inert gases convex lenses, 552
electronic structure of, 654 J corrective glasses, 556, 557
specific heat of, 305 Jensen, J. Hans, 685 diverging lenses, 550
Inertia, 51 Joliot-Curie, Frédéric, 689 image formation with, 550–552, 560
gravitation and, 54 Jordan, Pascal, 630 lens equation, 551–552
rotational, 160–163, 169, 177, 218 Joule (J), 86, 93, 97, 267 magnifying glass, 552
Inertial confinement, 700 Joule, James, 86, 267 optics of, 554–555
Inertial confinement fusion, 700, 702 refraction in, 552–555
Inertial reference frames, 52, 589, 605 K thin lenses, 550
Infinite square well, 632–635, 640 Kaon particles, 709, 710 See also Refraction
Infinitessimals, 16, 25 Kayaking, 140 Lensmaker’s formula, 554, 555, 560
Inflation (of universe), 717–719 Keck Telescopes, 559 Lenz’s law, 471–472, 486
Infrared cameras, 521 Kelvin (K), 3, 266 Lepton-antilepton pairs, 708
Infrared frequency range, 521, 522 Kelvin-Planck statement, 313 Lepton number, 710
Insect control, radioactivity for, 690 Kelvin temperature scale, 266, 267, 277 Leptons, 708, 713–714, 720
Instantaneous acceleration, 17 Kepler, Johannes, 119, 123 Lever arm, 159
Instantaneous acceleration vector, 33 Kepler’s third law, 122 Levitation, magnetic, 485, 674, 675
Instantaneous angular velocity, 156 Kilocalorie, 268 LHC. See Large Hadron Collider
Instantaneous power, 94 Kilogram (kg), 3 Light
Instantaneous speed, 15 Kilowatt-hours (kWh), 93 Compton effect, 614–615, 624, 629
Instantaneous velocity, 15–17 Kinematics, 13, 25 diffraction, 574–577, 580, 584
Instantaneous velocity vector, 33 See also Motion diffraction limit, 577–579, 580, 584
Insulators, 344–345, 406, 670, 671 Kinetic energy, 92–93, 97 dispersion of, 538–539, 540
Integrals of center of mass, 142 Doppler effect, 241
definite integral, 89 collisions and, 145 double-slit interference, 566–568
line integral, 91, 97 of composite object, 167 as electromagnetic phenomenon, 518
setting up, 137 defined, 92, 97 interference, 232, 234, 565, 566, 580, 584
Integration, rotational inertia, 161–162 internal, 142 laser light, 519, 567
Intensity, waves, 229–230, 242 of mass element, 165 Michelson-Morley experiment, 588–589,
Interaction force pair, 58 relativistic, 600–602 590, 605
Interaction forces, 49, 62 rotational, 165 multiple-slit interference, 568–571, 580
Interference, 232, 234, 263, 565, 566, 580 of systems of particles, 142 photoelectric effect, 612–614, 624, 629
constructive interference, 232, 564, 567, work and, 92, 93 photons, 612–615
580, 584 Kinetic friction, 75, 80 polarization of, 519–520, 526, 536
destructive interference, 232, 564, 580, 584 Kirchoff’s laws, 426, 434 rainbow, 538, 540
double-slit interference, 566–568 Krypton, electronic structure of, 655 reflection of, 532–533, 536, 584
interferometry, 571–574 refraction of, 534–536, 584
multiple-slit interference, 568–571, 580 L Snell’s law, 534, 535, 584
in two dimensions, 234 Ladders, 189–190 speed of, 3, 611
waves, 232, 234 Lakes total internal reflection of, 536–537, 540
X-ray diffraction, 571 heat conduction in, 270–271 visible light, 521
See also Diffraction turnover, 290 wave/particle duality, 614, 623, 624, 629–630
Interference fringes, 566, 584 wave motion in, 237 See also Electromagnetic waves; Images; Lenses;
Interference pattern, intensity in, 567–568 Lambda particles, 709, 710 Light; Optical instruments; Photons
Interferometry, 571–574, 580, 588 Lanthanide series, 655 Light emitting diodes See LEDs
Internal energy, 267, 295, 296, 300 Lanthanum, electronic structure of, 655 Light-water reactors (LWRs), 696, 697, 698
Internal kinetic energy, 142 Large Electron Positron Collider, 713 Lightbulbs, 612
Internal resistance, 422, 434 Large Hadron Collider (LHC), 706, 715 Lightning, 338, 345, 366
International Space Station, 43, 122, 127, 135 Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Observatory LIGO. See Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave
Invar, thermal properties of, 289 (LIGO), 573–574 Observatory
Invariants, relativistic, 599–600, 605 Laser light, 519, 567 Line charge density, 341
Inverse Compton effect, 615 Laser printer, 383 Line integral, 91, 97
Inverse square force laws, gravity as, 120 Lasers, 652, 656 Line symmetry, charge distributions, 360–361, 367
Inversion (of atmosphere), 302 CDs or DVDs, 1, 2, 673 Linear accelerators, 715
Inverted image, 544, 546, 547, 548, 552 excimer laser, 556 Linear-expansion coefficient, 289, 291
Iodine-131, 686 laser light, 519, 567 Linear momentum
Ionic bonding, 663–664, 676 vision correction with, 556 conservation of, 139–140
Ionic cohesive energy, 668 LASIK, 556 defined, 139
Ionic conduction, 407, 415 Law of conservation of mechanical energy, 106, 113 Linear speed
Ionic solutions, electrical conduction in, Law of inertia, 51 vs. angular speed, 156–157
407, 415 Law of Malus, 520 See also Speed
Ionization, 619 Law of universal gravitation, 129 Liquid crystal displays. See LCDs
Ionization energy, 619 Laws of motion. See Newton’s laws of motion Liquid-drop model, 683
I-8 Index

Liquids Mass-energy equivalence, 600–602 Millikan, Robert A., 333, 610, 613
optical properties of, 534 Mass flow rate, 253 Mirrors, 545–549, 584
phase changes, 286–289 Mass number, 681, 702 aberrations of, 546
Liter (L), 4 Mass spectrometers, 442 concave, 548, 549
Lithium atom, electronic structure of, 653–654 Mass-spring system convex mirrors, 547, 548, 549
Longitudinal waves, 225, 242 harmonic motion in, 209, 213–214, 216, 635 curved mirrors, 545–547, 560
Lorentz, H.A., 594 vertical, 209 magnification, 547, 560
Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction, 594 wave propagation in, 225 mirror equation, 547–548
Lorentz transformations, 596–597, 605 Matter parabolic mirrors, 545–546
Loudspeaker systems, 496, 501 annihilation, 601, 710 plane mirrors, 545
Luminosity, units of, 3 antiparticles, 639 See also Reflection
LWRs. See Light-water reactors Bose-Einstein condensate, 652, 656, 658 Mode number, 237
Lyman series, 616 in electric fields, 342–345 Moderator (nuclear power reactor), 147, 696
electromagnetic waves in, 518–519 Modern physics, 2, 585
M matter-wave interference, 621 See also Quantum chromodynamics; Quantum
Mach angle, 241 phase changes in, 286–289 electrodynamics; Quantum mechanics;
Mach number, 241 quantization of, 610, 624 Quantum physics; Relativity
Macrostates, 323 relativistic particles, 602 Modes, 237
Madelung constant, 668 thermal behavior of, 282–293 Molar specific heat at constant pressure, 300
Magic numbers, 685 wave-particle duality, 614, 623, 624, 629–630 Molar specific heat at constant volume, 299–300
Magnetic confinement, 700 See also Gases; Liquids; Particles; Solids Mole (mol), 3
Magnetic confinement fusion, 700–701, 702 Matter-wave hypothesis, 620 Molecular bonding. See Bonding
Magnetic dipole moment, 449, 683 Matter-wave interference, 621 Molecular spectra, 666
Magnetic dipoles, 448–451 Matter waves, 619–621 Molecular speed, 285
Magnetic domain, 452 Maxwell, James Clerk, 286, 512, 518, 521 Molecules
Magnetic energy, 481–482 Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, 286, 305 as electric dipoles, 339
Magnetic-energy density, 481, 486 Maxwell’s equations, 513, 526, 530, 573 energy levels in, 664–666
Magnetic field, 439–440, 530 relativity and, 587, 605, 629 equilibrium states of, 194
Ampere’s law, 453–459, 510, 511, 513, 526, 530 Mayer, Maria Goeppert, 685 potential-energy curve for, 111
Biot-Savart law, 446–447, 460, 530 Measurement resonance in, 217
charged particles in, 441–444 prefixes for units, 4, 9 spectra of, 666
electric field and, 457–458 units of, 3–4 See also Bonding
Gauss’s law, 450, 453, 454, 460, 510, 511, 513, Mechanical energy Moment of inertia, 160
526, 530 conservation of, 106–109, 113 Momentum, 138–141, 202
induced currents, 466–467, 470 defined, 106 in collisions, 142, 145
Maxwell’s equations, 526, 530 Mechanical waves, 224, 225 conservation of, 139–140, 202
origin of, 446–448 Mechanics, 2, 12, 587, 609 defined, 50, 62, 138
solenoids, 458–459, 460 Medical devices and procedures electromagnetic waves, 525
superposition principle, 454 bone scans, 689 energy-momentum relation, 602, 605
toroids, 459 defibrillator, 389, 395, 413 forces and, 50
units of, 441 laser vision correction, 556 relativistic, 600, 605
Magnetic flux, 450, 468–469 lasers, 556, 656 uncertainty principle, 621–623, 624
Magnetic force, 440, 460, 530 MRI, 180, 217, 410, 441, 482, 673, 684 viscosity and, 257, 258
between conductors, 448 PET, 601, 687, 689 See also Angular momentum
electric current and, 444–445 radioactivity used in, 689–690 Monatomic structure, 305
Hall effect, 445 Medium, 224 Moon
See also Electromagnetic force Meissner effect, 485, 676 circular orbit of, 122
Magnetic levitation, 485, 674, 675 Meitner, Lise, 693 gravity and, 119, 120
Magnetic matter, 452 Melting point, 267 Morley, Edward W., 588
Magnetic moment, of electrons, 649 Mendeleev Dmitri, 652 Motion
Magnetic monopoles, 450 Mercury Aristotle on, 48
Magnetic permeability, 453 electrical properties of, 406 average motion, 13–14
Magnetic recording, 474 thermal properties of, 268, 287 of center of mass, 133, 138
Magnetic resonance imaging. See MRI Mercury barometers, 248 changes in, 49
Magnetic torque, 450–451 Merry-go-rounds, 179 equations of motion, 20–21
Magnetism, 439–440, 460 Mesons, 707, 709, 711, 713, 720 ether concept and, 587, 605
diamagnetism, 453, 460, 485, 486, 674 Metal detectors, 475 kinematics and, 25
ferromagnetism, 452–453, 460 Metallic bonding, 664, 676 mechanics and, 2
Gauss’s law for, 450, 453, 454, 460, 510, 511, 513, Metallic conductors, 670–671 relative motion, 34–35
526, 530 Metals straight-line motion
magnetic matter, 452 electrical conduction in, 407, 415 acceleration, 17–22
paramagnetism, 453, 460 thermal conduction in, 270 velocity in, 15–17
superconductivity and, 574 Metastable equilibrium, 192, 195 in three dimensions, 44
Magnets, 452 Metastable states, 656 in two dimensions
Magnification, 547, 560 Meter (m), 3 circular, 41–43
Magnifiers, 552, 557 Metric system, 3–4 with constant acceleration, 35–36, 42
Malus, law of, 520 Michelson, Albert A., 573, 588 projectile, 37–41, 44
Manometers, 248, 249 Michelson interferometer, 573–574, 580, 588 relative motion, 34–35
Marconi, Guglielmo, 521 Michelson-Morley experiment, 588–589, 590, 605 vector description, 30–34
Marsden, Ernest, 616 Microamperes, 403 uniform motion, 50
Mass Microelectronics, 622 See also Circular motion; Fluid motion; Newton’s
acceleration of, 51–53, 55 Microgravity, 55 laws of motion; Oscillatory motion; Projectile
center of mass, 133–138 Microscopes, 558, 560 motion; Rotational motion; Wave motion
conservation of, in fluid flow, 252–253 electron microscope, 620 Motional emf, 472
energy and, 600–602, 605 scanning tunneling microscope, 628, 637 Motors. See Electric motors
mass-energy equivalence, 600–602 Microstates, 323 MRI (magnetic resonance imaging), 180, 217, 410,
units of, 3 Microwave ovens, 237, 345 441, 482, 673, 684
vs. weight, 53, 54, 62 Microwaves, 521 Multimeters, 429
Mass defect, 691 cosmic microwave background, 717, 720 Multiple-slit diffraction systems, 576–577
Mass elements, 136 Milliamperes (mA), 403 Multiple-slit interference, 568–571, 580
 Index I-9

Multiplication nuclear power, 696–697 electron microscopes, 620

scientific notation and, 5, 6 radioactive waste, 694, 697–698 magnifiers, 552, 557
of vectors, 31, 33, 176 to trigger fusion reactions, 700 microscopes, 558, 560
Multiplication factor, 695 weapons, 693, 694, 695 telescopes, 546, 549, 558–559, 578
Multiwire proportional chamber, 708 Nuclear force, 53, 681–682, 707, 712 See also Images; Lenses
Muon neutrinos, 709, 713 Nuclear fuel, 6 Optical spectra, 656
Muons, 592, 708, 709, 713 Nuclear fusion, 692, 698–701, 702 Optics, 2, 532, 584
Music inertial confinement fusion, 700, 702 chromatic aberration, 539, 555, 559
CDs, 535, 566, 571, 579, 673 magnetic confinement fusion, 700–701, 702 focal length, 546, 548, 552, 556, 560, 584
loudspeaker systems, 496, 501 Nuclear magnetic dipole moment, 683 focal point, 545, 550, 560
sound waves, 233, 238 Nuclear magnetic resonance. See NMR geometrical, 532, 564, 584
Musical instruments Nuclear magneton, 683 lens equation, 551–552
standing waves in, 238 Nuclear physics, 680–702 lensmaker’s formula, 554, 555, 560
tuning a piano, 498 binding energy, 691–692 magnification, 547, 560
Mutual inductance, 476 nuclear structure, 681–685 mirror equation, 547–548
Myopia, 555 radioactivity, 685–691 physical, 564, 584
See also Nuclear fission; Nuclear fusion; Nucleus Snell’s law, 534, 535, 584
N Nuclear power, 696–697, 698 See also Images; Lenses; Light; Optical instruments
N-type semiconductor, 408, 672 Nuclear power plants Orbital angular momentum, 647–648
Nagasaki bomb, 693 elastic collisions in, 147 Orbital magnetic quantum number, 648, 658
Nanotube, 585 meltdown, 287 Orbital motion
National Ignition Facility (NIF), 700 thermal pollution, 297 circular orbits, 121–122, 123, 129
Natural frequency, oscillatory motion, 216 Nuclear radiation. See Radioactivity closed/open, 123
Natural greenhouse effect, 276 Nuclear radius, 682 elliptical orbits, 123
Near pint, 556 Nuclear reactors, 695, 696 geosynchronous orbits, 122–123, 124, 129
Nearsightedness, 555, 556 Nuclear shell model, 683 gravity and, 119, 121–123
Ne’eman, Yuval, 711 Nuclear spin, 683–684 precession, 180–181, 182
Negative work, 103 Nuclear structure, 681–685 Orbital period, 122
Neon Nuclear symbols, 681 Orbital quantum number, 647–648, 658
electronic structure of, 654 Nuclear waste, 694, 697–698 Orbitals, 652
specific heat of, 305 Nuclear weapons, 693, 694, 695, 700 Orbits, uniform circular motion, 41, 43
Net charge, 332 Nucleons, 680, 681, 683 Order (of dispersion), 567, 569
Net force, 49, 50 Nucleosynthesis, 693 Organized states, 313
Neutral buoyancy, 250 Nucleus (nuclei), 680, 681 Oscillating dipole, 522
Neutrally stable equilibrium, 192, 195 angular momentum of, 683 Oscillatory motion, 204–218, 263
Neutrinos, 688, 698, 708, 714 binding energy, 691–692 amplitude, 205, 207
Neutron star, 651 models of nuclear structure, 685 basic characteristics of, 205
Neutrons, 681, 689, 720 nuclear force, 53, 681–682 damped harmonic motion, 215–216, 218
beta decay of, 688, 710 size of, 682–683 driven, 215
high-energy fission, 696 spin of, 683–684 frequency, 205, 207, 218
properties of, 691, 709 stability of, 682 period, 205, 207, 218
Newton (N), 51 Nuclides, 682 phase, 207–208
Newton, Sir Isaac, 42, 48, 49, 118, 119, 121, 123, 538 Numbers resonance, 216, 218
Newton-meter (Nm), 86, 97 estimation, 7 simple harmonic motion, 205–208, 218
Newtonian mechanics, 12 prefixes, 4, 9 applications, 209–212
Newton’s laws of motion, 48, 80, 202 scientific notation, 5–6 circular motion, 212–213
first law, 49–50, 51, 62, 202 significant figures, 6–7 energy in, 213–215
friction and, 75–79, 80 pendulum, 210–212
uniform motion, 49–50 O potential-energy curves and, 215
rotational analogs of, 174, 175 Object distance, 548, 552, 560 tuned mass damper, 208, 209
second law, 50–52, 62, 150, 202 Objective lens, 558 universality of, 204, 205
applications, 55–57, 66–70, 80 Ocean waves, 2, 232, 234 in waves, 225
circular motion, 71–74 Oceans See also Harmonic oscillators
drag forces, 79 Archimedes’ principle, 251 Oscillatory system, 2
for multiple objects, 69–70 pressure at depths, 248 Oxygen
for rotational motion, 158, 160, 163 turnover, 290 isotopes of, 681
for systems of particles, 133, 134, 138 Ohm, 406 radioisotope of, 686
weight and, 53 Ohm, Georg, 406 thermal properties of, 287
third law, 57–61, 62, 150, 202, 256 Ohmic materials, 406 Oxygen-15, 686
Nickel, work function of, 613 Ohmmeters, 429 Ozone, 522
NIF. See National Ignition Facility Ohm’s law, 410–411, 412, 415, 425, 530
NIST-F1 clock, 24 macroscopic version of, 410, 411 P
Nitrogen dioxide, specific heat of, 305 microscopic version of, 406, 411 P-type semiconductor, 408, 672
NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), 217, 684 Oil drop experiment, 333, 610 Pair creation, 639
Nodal line, 234 Omega particles, 709 Paper, dielectric constant of, 393
Node, 237, 426 One dimension Parabolic mirrors, 545–546
Nonconservative electric field, 484 acceleration in, 17–21 Parallel-axis theorem, 163
Nonconservative forces, 101, 102–103, 106 collisions in, 145–148, 150 Parallel circuits, 530
conservation of energy, 106, 109 straight-line motion, 15–22 Parallel-plate capacitor, 390, 392, 398, 512
Nonlinear pendulum, 211 velocity in, 15–17 Parallel resistors, 420, 423–425, 434
Nonohmic materials, 406 Onnes, H. Kamerlingh, 409 Paramagnetism, 453, 460
Nonuniform circular motion, 43 Open circuits, 410, 475 Paraxial rays, 546
Normal force, 59–60 Open orbits, 123 Parent nucleus, 688
Normalization condition, 631–632, 634, 640, 646 Operational definition, 3 Parity, 711
North Star, 181 Optical fibers, 537, 540 Parity conservation, 711
Nuclear energy, 622 Optical instruments, 395, 432, 544, 555–560, 557 Parity reversal, 711
Nuclear fission, 692, 693–698, 702 cameras, 395, 421, 432, 557 Partial derivatives, 228, 516
chain reaction, 695, 702 contact lenses, 556, 557 Partial differential equation, 228
energy from, 694–695 corrective glasses, 556, 557 Partial reflection, 533
fission products, 693, 697 diffraction gratings, 568–571, 584 Particle accelerators, 712, 715
I-10 Index

Particles Planetary orbits, 119, 121, 123 Precession, 180–181, 182

classifying, 707–710 Plano-concave lenses, 554 Prefixes, 4, 9
conservation laws and, 710 Plano-convex lenses, 554 Presbyopia, 556
detection of subatomic particles, 708, 712 Plasmas, 699 Pressure, 247, 258
high-energy particles, 707–714, 720 electrical conduction in, 408, 415 barometers, 248, 249
particle accelerators, 712, 715 quark-gluon plasma, 717 hydrostatic equilibrium, 247–250, 258, 263
potential energy curve, 632–638 Plexiglas, dielectric constant of, 393 manometers, 248, 249
properties of, 709, 710, 720 Plutonium-239, 686, 694–695, 697 measuring, 248–249
quarks, 53, 333, 711–713, 714, 720 Plutonium weapons, 695 Pascal’s law, 249
spin-1/2 particles, 649, 658, 683 PN junction, 408, 409, 676 units of, 247
standard model, 713, 720 Point charges, 335 Pressure melting, 290
symmetries, 710–711 in electric field, 342–344, 346 Pressurized-water reactors (PWRs), 696
wave-particle duality, 614, 623, 624, 629–630 field of, 338, 346, 362 Priestley, Joseph, 334
See also Systems of particles See also Charged particles Primary coil, transformer, 503
Pascal (Pa), 247 Point of symmetry, 357 Principal quantum number, 647, 658
Pascal’s law, 249 Polaris, 181 Principle of complementarity, 623, 624
Paschen series, 616 Polarization, 519–520, 526, 536 Probability, 629, 631, 634
Pauli, Wolfgang, 648 Polarizing angle, 536, 540 radial probability distribution, 646, 647
Pauli exclusion principle. See Exclusion principle Polyethylene, dielectric constant of, 393 Probability density, 640
Peak radiance, 610, 624 Polystyrene Probability distribution
Peak-to-peak amplitude, 205 dielectric constant of, 393 hydrogen atom, 646
Pendulum, 210–212 electrical properties of, 406 radial, 646
ballistic pendulum, 145 optical properties of, 534 Problem solving
nonlinear, 211 Population inversion, 656 Ampere’s law, 455
physical, 212 Position checking answer, 8
simple, 210 angular position, 169 conservation of energy, 107
Perfect emitter, 273 with constant acceleration, 18, 19, 25 Coulomb’s law, 334
Perihelion, 123 uncertainty principle, 621–623, 624 estimation, 7
Period as vector, 30–31, 42 Faraday’s law and induced emf, 469
oscillatory motion, 205, 207, 218 Position-momentum uncertainty, 621–622, 623, 624 fluid dynamics, 254
waves, 225, 226, 242 Position vector, 30–31, 42 Gauss’s law, 356–357
Periodic table, 652 Positron emission tomography. See PET with IDEA strategy, 8, 9
Permeability constant, 446, 460 Positrons, 601, 639, 688, 689, 698, 707 Lorentz transformations, 597
PET (positron emission tomography), 601, 687, 689 Potassium motion with constant acceleration, 20
Phase electronic structure of, 655 multiloop circuits, 426
oscillatory motion, 207–208 radioisotope of, 686 multiple answers, 25
wave motion, 227 work function of, 613 Newton’s second law, 56, 62, 69
Phase changes, 286–289, 330 Potassium-40, 686 projectile motion, 38
critical point, 288, 291 Potential barrier, 110 significant figures, 6–7
heat and, 286 Potential difference. See Electric potential static equilibrium, 189
sublimation, 286, 288 Potential energy thermal-energy balance, 274
triple point, 289, 291 defined, 113 units or measurement and, 21
Phase constant, 208 elastic, 105 Projectile motion, 37–41, 44
Phase diagrams, 288–289, 291 equilibrium and, 192, 195 drag and, 79
critical point, 288, 291 force as derivative of, 112 flight times, 40
triple point, 289, 291 gravitational, 104, 113, 124–126, 129 range of projectile, 40
of water, 289, 290 stability and, 192 trajectories, 39, 41, 121, 123
Phasor diagrams, 495, 500 work and, 103–106 Projectiles, range of, 40
Phasors, 495, 505 Potential-energy curves, 105, 110–112, 113, 632–638 Propagation (wave), 224
Phipps, T.E., 649 for complex structures, 194 Proper time, 591
Phosphorescent materials, 656 finite potential wells, 637–638, 640 Proton-proton cycle, 699
Photocopier, 383 hat-shaped, 715 Protons, 681, 720
Photoelectric effect, 612–614, 624, 628, 629 for hydrogen atom, 676 electric field, 339
Photomultipliers, 613–614 infinite square well, 632–635, 640 grand unification theories (GUTs),
Photons, 612–615, 624, 652, 688, 707, 709 molecular, 111 714, 720
Compton effect, 614–615, 624, 629 simple harmonic motion, 215 properties of, 691, 709
energy states of, 707 symmetry breaking and, 715 Pulsars, 178
gamma decay and, 689 Potential-energy difference, 372–373 Pump (lasers), 656
in particle physics, 712 Potential-energy function, for ionic crystals, 668 Pumped-storage facilities, 105
properties of, 713 Potential well, trapping in, 110 Pumping, 656
virtual photon, 707 Pound (lb), 54 pV diagram
wave/particle duality, 614, 623, 624, 629–630 Power, 94–96 cyclic process, 303, 304, 307
waves and, 629 defined, 94, 97 isothermal processes, 298–299
See also Light energy storage, 166 PWRs. See Pressurized-water reactors
Physical optics, 564, 584 units of, 93, 97
Physical pendulum, 212 of waves, 229 Q
Physics work and, 96 QCD. See Quantum chromodynamics
problem solving with IDEA strategy, 8, 9 See also Electric power QED. See Quantum electrodynamics
realms of, 1–2, 9 Power factor, 502, 505 Quadratic potential-energy function, 635
simplicity of, 7–8 Power plants. See Electric power; Electric power Quanta, 63
Piano, 498 plants; Nuclear power; Nuclear power plants; Quantization, 609–610, 621, 624
Pions, 708, 709, 710 Nuclear reactors of angular momentum, 676
Piston-cylinder system, 298 Power supply Bohr atom, 616–619, 624
Planck, Max, 611 direct current (DC), 504 of orbital angular momentum, 648
Planck’s constant, 611, 624 transformers and, 412, 503, 505 space quantization, 658
Planck’s equation, 611 See also Electric power supply Quantized spin angular momentum, 649, 658, 683
Plane electromagnetic wave, 514–515 Power transmission, 412 Quantum chromodynamics (QCD), 711
Plane mirrors, 545 Powers, numbers, 5 Quantum effect, gases, 306
Plane symmetry, charge distributions, 361, 367 Poynting, J.H., 522 Quantum electrodynamics (QED), 707
Plane waves, 230 Poynting vector, 523 Quantum harmonic oscillator, 666
 Index I-11

Quantum mechanics, 628–640, 676, 719 Radius of curvature, 43 Resolving power of grating, 570, 580
Bose-Einstein condensate, 652, 656, 658 Radon-222, 686 Resonance, 216, 218
Dirac equation, 639 Rainbows, 538, 540 in RLC circuit, 499
electromagnetism and, 706–707 Range or projectile, 40 standing waves, 237
exclusion principle, 651–652, 658, 711 Rankine temperature scale, 266, 277 Resonance curves, 217
finite potential wells, 637–638, 640 Ray diagram Resonant frequency, 499, 505
harmonic oscillator, 635–636, 640, 666 for lens equation, 551 Rest energy, 601
infinite square wells, 632–635, 640 for lenses, 552 Restoring force, simple harmonic motion, 205–206
molecular energy levels, 664–666 mirrors, 548 Reverse bias, 672
orbital angular momentum, 647–648 Ray tracings Reversible engine, 315
orbital quantum number, 647–648 with lenses, 550–551 Reversible/irreversible processes, 298–299, 313, 321,
probability, 629, 631, 634, 646, 647 with mirrors, 546, 548 322, 330
radial probability distribution, 646, 647 Rayleigh criterion, 577, 578, 580 RHIC. See Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider
relativistic, 639 Rayleigh-Jeans law, 612 Rho particles, 709
Schrödinger equation, 630–632, 638, 640 Rays, 532 Right-hand rule, rotational motion, 174–175
space quantization, 648 RBMK reactors, 697 Rigid bodies, 16, 133
in three dimensions, 638 RC circuits, 430–433, 495 Ring, rotational inertia by integration, 162, 163
tunneling, 636–637, 640, 688 Reactance, 493, 494, 505 RL circuits, 480, 495
Quantum number, 633 Reactors. See Nuclear reactors RLC circuits, 499–501, 505
orbital magnetic quantum number, 648, 658 Real battery, 422 rms. See Root-mean-square
orbital quantum number, 647–648, 658 Real gases, 286 Rocket propulsion, 17, 41, 57, 125, 142, 150
principal quantum number, 647, 658 Real image, 544, 546, 547, 548, 552, 584 Rod, rotational inertia by integration, 161, 163
spin quantum number, 683 Rectangular coordinate system, 31 Rods, rotational inertia by integration, 161, 163
Quantum physics, 2, 628, 630 Red-antiblue, 712 Rohrer, Heinrich, 637
blackbody radiation, 610–612, 624, 628 Redshift, 716 Roller coaster, 66, 73–74, 110, 112
complementarity, 623, 624 Reference frames. See Frames of reference Rolling motion, 167–168, 169
gravity and, 714 Reflecting telescopes, 559 Root-mean-square (rms), 491
hydrogen spectrum, 616, 628 Reflection, 235–236 Roots, numbers, 5
matter waves, 619–621 diffuse reflection, 533 Rotational dynamics, 163–165
photoelectric effect, 612–614, 624, 628, 629 of light, 532–533, 536, 584 Rotational energy, 165–167, 676
quantization, 609–610, 621, 624 partial reflection, 533 Rotational energy levels, 664–665, 666
uncertainty principle, 621–623, 624 specular reflection, 533 Rotational inertia, 160–163, 169, 177, 218
wave-particle duality, 614, 623, 624, 629–630 total internal reflection, 536–537, 540 Rotational kinetic energy, 165
See also Quantum chromodynamics; Quantum electro- See also Mirrors Rotational motion, 155–169, 202
dynamics; Quantum mechanics; Relativity Reflection gratings, 569 angular acceleration of, 157–158, 175
Quantum state, 633 Reflectors, 558 angular momentum, 177–180, 182
Quantum tunneling, 636–637, 640, 688 Refracting telescopes, 558–559, 560 angular velocity of, 156, 169, 174
Quark-antiquark pairs, 711 Refraction, 236, 584 conservation of angular momentum, 178–179, 182
Quark-gluon plasma, 717 at aquarium surface, 553 direction of, 174
Quarks, 53, 333, 711–713, 714, 720 at curved surfaces, 552–553 energy of, 165–167
Quartz, dielectric constant of, 393 index of refraction, 534, 584 inertia, 160–163, 169, 177, 218
Quasi-static process, 297 of light, 534–536, 584 Newton’s law, analogs of, 174, 175
See also Lenses Newton’s second law for, 158, 160, 163, 202
R Refractors, 558 right-hand rule, 174–175
R-factor, 271, 274 Refrigerators, 316, 319, 324, 326 of rolling body, 167–168, 169
Radial acceleration, 43, 157 Regenerative braking, 473 torque, 158–159, 169, 175–176, 178, 182
Radial probability distribution, 646, 647 Relative motion, 34–35 See also Angular momentum; Circular motion;
Radian (rad), 3, 156, 206 Relative velocity, 34–35 Torque
Radiance, 610, 612, 624 Relativistic factor, 600 Rotational vectors, 174–180, 182
Radiation (heat), 273, 277 Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), 715, 717 Rubber, electrical properties of, 406
Radiation (nuclear). See Electromagnetic radiation; Relativistic invariants, 599–600, 605 Rubbia, Carlo, 714
Radioactivity Relativistic momentum, 600, 605 Rutherford, Ernest, 616, 680
Radiation pressure, electromagnetic waves, 525, 526 Relativistic particles, 602 Rutile, optical properties of, 534
Radio transmitter, 522 Relativistic quantum mechanics, 639 Rydberg atoms, 619
Radio waves, 521 Relativistic velocity addition, 598–599 Rydberg constant, 616
Radioactive decay, 685–688, 702 Relativity, 2, 586–604
conservation of momentum in, 140 electromagnetism and, 587, 589, 603–604 S
decay constant, 686 Galilean, 587 s states, 647
decay rate, 685–691 general, 590, 603–604, 605, 719 Safety
decay series, 689 invariants in, 599–600, 605 electrical, 413–414, 415
Radioactive isotopes, 681 length contraction, 594–595, 605 nuclear power plants, 698
Radioactive tracers, 689 Lorentz transformations, 596–597, 605 Sakharov, Andrei, 711
Radioactive waste, 694, 697–698 momentum and, 600 Salam, Abdus, 714
Radioactivity, 685–691 simultaneity, 595–596 Satellites
artificial, 689 special, 589–590, 605 de-spinning, 164
biological effects of, 690–691 time and, 590–594, 605 orbital motion of, 121–123
for cancer treatment, 690 twin paradox, 593–594 Scalar, vector arithmetic with, 33
Chernobyl disaster, 687, 697 velocity addition, 598–599 Scalar product, 87–88
decay rate, 685–688 See also Quantum mechanics; Quantum physics Scales, force measurement with, 61
decay series, 689 Reprocessing, of spent reactor fuel, 695 Scanning tunneling microscope (STM), 628, 637
decay types, 688–689, 702 Resistance, electrical Schrieffer, John Robert, 675
half-life, 686, 687, 702 in LC circuits, 499 Schrödinger, Erwin, 630
human body, effects on, 690–691 Ohm’s law and, 406, 410–411, 412, 415, 425, 530 Schrödinger equation, 630–632, 638, 640, 662
radiocarbon dating, 687, 688 of skin, 413 for crystals, 669
types of radiation, 688, 688–689 Resistance, thermal, 271 multielectron atoms, 652
units of, 702 Resistivity, 406 spherical coordinates, 645
uses of, 689–690 Resistors, 411, 412, 420–425 Schwinger, Julian, 707
Radiocarbon dating, 687, 688 in AC circuits, 492 Scientific notation, 5–6
Radioisotopes, 681, 686–687 parallel resistors, 420, 423–425, 434 Scintillation detectors, 708
Radium-226, 686 series resistors, 420, 421–422, 434 Scuba diving, 299
I-12 Index

Second (sec), 3 inductance, 477 Stable equilibrium, 191–194, 195

Second derivative, 19 magnetic flux, 468 See also Static equilibrium
Second law of thermodynamics, 313–320, Solids, 667–673 Standard model (particle physics), 713, 720
326, 330 band theory, 669–673 Standing waves, 236–238, 242, 263
applications of, 317–320 crystal structure of, 667–669 Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC), 594,
Clausius statement, 316 phase changes, 286–289 712, 715
entropy and, 324–325 semiconductors, 193, 408, 416, 671–673, 676 Starlight, aberration of, 588, 589
general statement, 324 superconductors, 409–410, 415, 485, 675 State variable, 321
heat engines, 313–315 Sound Static equilibrium, 186–195, 202
Kelvin-Planck statement, 313 human ear and, 231 center of gravity in, 188, 195
Secondary coil, transformer, 503 units of, 231 conditions for, 186–187
Selection rules, 656 Sound intensity level, 231 examples of, 189–191
Self-inductance, 476–477 Sound waves, 2 stability of, 191–194
Semiconductors, 671–673, 676 music, 233 See also Stable equilibrium
electric conduction in, 408, 415 musical instruments, 238 Static friction, 75, 80
stability analysis of, 193 wave motion, 231–232 Statistical mechanics, 265, 330
Series circuits, 530 Source charge, 334 Steady flow, fluid motion, 252
Series resistors, 420, 421–422, 434 Space quantization, 658 Steel, thermal properties of, 268, 270, 289
Shell of multinuclear atoms, 652 Spacecraft, 3, 48 Stefan-Boltzmann constant, 610
SHM. See Simple harmonic motion escape speed of, 126, 129 Stefan-Boltzmann law, 273
Shock absorbers, 215, 216 International Space Station, 43 Step-down transformers, 412, 503
Shock hazard, tools, 414 weightlessness, 54–55, 58 Step-up transformers, 503
Shock waves, 241, 242 Spacetime, 599, 604, 605 Steradian (sr), 3
Short circuit, 410, 414 Spatial frequency, wave motion, 227 Stern, Otto, 649
SI units, 3–4, 9 Special theory of relativity, 589–590, 605 Stern-Gerlach experiment, 649
of absorbed dose of radiation, 691 See also Relativity Stimulated absorption, 657, 658
of activity (radioactivity), 686 Specific heat, 267–268, 277, 307 STM. See Scanning tunneling microscope
of electric charge, 333 of gas mixture, 306 Stored energy. See Energy storage
of energy, 93, 267 of ideal gases, 304–306 Straight-line motion
prefixes for units, 4, 9 molar specific heat at constant pressure, 300 acceleration, 17–22
of R, 271 molar specific heat at constant volume, 299–300 velocity in, 15–17
of resistivity, 406 Spectra Strange quarks, 711, 712, 713
of specific heat, 267 atomic, 616, 624, 655–656 Strangeness, 710
of temperature, 266 molecular, 666 Strassmann, Fritz, 693
of thermal resistance, 271 optical, 656 Streamlines, 252, 258
Sievert (Sv), 690, 702 Spectral lines, 616 String, wave motion on, 228–230
Sigma particles, 709 Spectrometers, 570 String instruments, standing waves in, 238
Significant figures, 6–7 Spectroscopy, 539, 584 String theory, 714–715
Silicon Specular reflection, 533 Strong force, 53, 711, 712, 720
crystalline structure, 408 Speed See also Nuclear force
phosphorus-doped, 408 angular speed, 156, 169 Strontium-90, 686
work function of, 613 average speed, 13–14 Styrofoam, thermal properties of, 270
Silver in circular orbit, 126 Subatomic particles. See Particles; Systems of particles
electrical properties of, 406 instantaneous speed, 15 Sublimation, 288
work function of, 613 of light, 587 heat of, 286
Simple harmonic motion (SHM), 205–208, 218 linear speed vs. angular speed, 156–157 Subshells, 652
applications of, 209–212 terminal speed, 79 Subtraction
circular motion, 212–213 uniform circular motion and, 41–42 scientific notation and, 5, 6
energy in, 213–215, 218 units of, 4 of vectors, 33
mass-spring system, 209, 213–214, 216 as vector, 41 Sulfur, thermal properties of, 287
pendulum, 210–212 of waves, 226, 232, 242 Sulfur dioxide, specific heat of, 305
potential-energy curves and, 215 See also Acceleration; Velocity Sun
tuned mass damper, 208, 209 Speed limits, expressing, 4 beta decay in, 689
Simple harmonic wave, wave motion, 226, 242 Speed of light, 3, 611 magnetic field of, 449, 454, 481
Simple pendulum, 210 Speed traps, 21 nuclear fusion, 699
Simultaneity, 595–596 Spherical aberration, 546, 555 solar currents, 454–455
Single-slit diffraction, 575, 576 Spherical coordinates, Schrödinger equation, 645 solar energy, 524
Sinusoidal wave, wave motion, 226 Spherical symmetry, charge distributions, 357–359, 367 temperature of, 273
Skiing, 67, 68–69, 75, 80, 85, 133 Spherical waves, 230 as white dwarf, 651
Skyscrapers, 209 Spin, 639, 648–651, 710 Super Kamiokande experiment, 714
SLAC. See Stanford Linear Accelerator Center Spin-1/2 particles, 649, 658, 683 Superconductivity, 673–675, 676
Smog, 302 Spin angular momentum, quantized, 649, 658, 683 Superconductors
Snell, van Roijen, 534 Spin-orbit coupling, 650–651, 658 electric conduction in, 409–410, 415, 485
Snell’s law, 534, 535, 584 Spin-orbit effect, 651 at high temperatures, 675
Soap film, 572 Spin quantum number, 683 Supercritical mass, 695
Sodium, work function of, 613 Split, electrons, 649 Superfluidity, 683
Sodium atom Spontaneous emission, 656, 658 Supernova explosions, 597–598
band structure of, 670 Spring constant, 61, 62 Superposition principle
electronic structure of, 654, 656 Spring scale, 61 electric charge, 336, 338, 346, 564
ionization energy of, 663 Springs, 62 magnetic fields, 454, 564
Sodium chloride elastic potential energy, 105, 108, 113 wave motion, 232
cohesive energy of crystal, 668 forces exerted by, 60–61 Surface charge density, 341
optical properties of, 534 Hooke’s law, 60–61, 62 Surfing, 227
Soft ferromagnetic materials, 452 ideal, 60, 62, 107, 206 Symmetries, particles, 710–711
Solar currents, 454–455 mass-spring system, 209, 213–214, 216 Symmetry axis, 360
Solar energy, 524 simple harmonic motion, 206 Symmetry breaking, 715
Solar greenhouse, 275 stretching of, 89–90 Synchrotrons, 443, 715
Solenoids work done on, 89–90, 97 Systems of particles, 133–149
electric field and, 458–459, 460 Square wave, 232 centers of mass, kinetic energy of, 142
induced electric field in, 484 Square-well ground state, 634 collisions in, 142–149
 Index I-13

continuous distribution of matter, 136–137, 161 relativity and, 590–594, 605 Universe, 715–719, 720
equilibrium states of, 194 time dilation, 590–592, 605 Big Bang theory, 716, 720
kinetic energy of, 142 units of, 3 cosmic microwave background (CMB), 717, 720
momentum, 138–141 Time constant, 431 dark matter and dark energy, 718–719
Newton’s second law and, 133, 134, 138 Time dilation, 590–592, 605 electromagnetic spectrum, 522
Time-independent Schrödinger equation, expansion of, 716
T 630, 640 Hubble’s law, 716
Tangential acceleration, 43, 157 Tokamak, 700–701 inflationary universe, 717–718
Tantalum oxide, dielectric constant of, 393 Tomonaga, Sin-Itiro, 707 Unstable equilibrium, 191, 192, 195
Tau neutrinos, 709, 713 Tools, shock hazard, 414 Unstable isotopes, 702
Tau particles, 708, 709, 713 Top quarks, 712, 713 Unsteady flow, fluid motion, 252
Taylor, J.B., 649 Toroid, 459 Up-down quark pair, 712
Teflon, dielectric constant of, 393 Torque, 158–159, 169, 175–176, 182, 187 Up quarks, 711, 712, 713
Telescopes, 546, 549, 558–559, 578 angular momentum and, 178 Upright image, 544, 546, 547, 548, 552
Temperature, 266, 277 external, 178, 180 Uranium
absolute temperature, 267 on magnetic dipole, 450–451 enrichment of, 694, 695
absolute zero, 266, 670, 676 torsional oscillator, 209–210 isotopes of, 681, 686
defined, 267 Torsional oscillator, 209–210, 218 nuclear fission of, 693–698
equilibrium temperature, 269, 277 Total angular momentum, 650–651, 658 Uranium-233, 694
transition temperature, 673 Total energy, 601 Uranium-235, 686, 694
units of, 3, 266–267 Total internal reflection, 536–537, 540 Uranium-238, 686, 689, 693, 694, 697
Temperature scales, 266–267, 277 Totally inelastic collisions, 143–145, 150 Uranium dioxide, thermal properties of, 287
Tension forces, 53 Trajectory, of a projectile, 39, 41, 121, 123 Uranium enrichment, 694, 695
massless rope, 70–71 Transformation, heat of, 286, 287, 291, 330
spring, 60–61 Transformers, 503, 505 V
Terminal speed, 79 power supplies and, 503 Vacuum
Terminals, 420 step-down transformers, 412, 503 electromagnetic waves in, 514, 526
Tesla (T), 441 step-up transformers, 503 Maxwell’s equations in, 513
Tesla, Nikola, 441 Transistors, 409 Valence band, 671
Test charge, 337 Transition elements, 655 van der Meer, Simon, 714
Theory of everything, 720 Transition temperature, 673 Van der Waals bonding, 664, 676
Theory of relativity. See Relativity Transmission gratings, 569 Van der Waals force, 286
Thermal conductivity, 269, 271 Transuranic isotopes, 697 Vaporization, heat of, 286
Thermal contact, 255 Transverse waves, 225, 242 Variable of integration, 162
Thermal-energy balance, 274–275, 277 Trapping in potential well, 110 Vector cross product, 176, 182
Thermal expansion, 289–290, 291 Triple point, 289, 291 Vectors, 30–34, 44
Thermal noise, 407 of water, 266, 267 acceleration vectors, 33–34
Thermal pollution, 297 Tritium, 686 addition of, 31, 33
Thermal resistance, 271 Tsunamis, wave motion, 6 components of, 31–32
Thermal speed, 285 Tuned mass damper, 208, 209 cross product, 176
Thermally insulated, 266 Tunneling, 636–637, 640, 688 defined, 30
Thermochemical calorie, 268 Turbulence, 257 displacement vector, 31
Thermodynamic efficiency, 317 Tweeter, 496 four-dimensional, 599, 605
Thermodynamic equilibrium, 266, 277, 330 Twin paradox, 593–594 multiplication of, 31, 33, 176
Thermodynamic state variable, 296 Two dimensions position as, 30–31, 42
Thermodynamics, 2, 265, 330 acceleration in, 33–36 position vector, 30–31, 42
adiabatic processes, 300–302, 303, 307, 330 constant acceleration, 35–36, 42 rotational, 174–180, 182
constant-volume processes, 299–300, 303, circular motion in, 41–43 scalar product, 87–88
307, 330 collisions in, 145, 148–159 subtraction of, 33
cyclic processes, 303–304 interference in, 234 unit vectors, 32
entropy, 320–325, 326 projectile motion in, 37–41, 44 velocity vectors, 33–34, 41
equipartition theorem, 305–306, 307 relative motion, 34–35 Velocity
first law of, 295–297, 307, 312, 330 vector description, 30–34 angular, 156
isobaric processes, 300, 303, 307 velocity in, 33–34 average velocity, 14, 15, 17
isothermal processes, 298–299, 303, 307, 330 Two-source interference, 234 average velocity vector, 33
quantum effect, 306 Type I/II superconductors, 674, 676 defined, 18, 44
reversible/irreversible processes, 298–299, 313, 321, instantaneous velocity, 15–17, 33
322, 330 U instantaneous velocity vector, 33
second law of, 313–320, 324–325, 326, 330 U value, 271 power and, 96
state variable, 321 Uhlenbeck, George, 649 relative velocity, 34–35
work and volume changes, 298 Ultracapacitors, 395 relativistic addition of, 598–599
zeroth law of thermodynamics, 266, 330 Ultraviolet catastrophe, 612 simple harmonic motion and, 208
Thermometers, 266 Ultraviolet rays, 521, 522 in two dimensions, 33–34
Thermonuclear weapons, 700 Unbound states, 638, 640 uniform circular motion and, 41–42
Thin films, interferometry, 572–573 Uncertainty as vector, 33–34, 41
Thin lenses, 550 energy-time uncertainty, 622–623 See also Acceleration ; Speed
Third-law pair, 58, 60 position-momentum uncertainty, 621–622, Velocity addition, 598–599
Thompson, Benjamin, 267 623, 624 Velocity selectors, 441
Thomson, George, 621 Uncertainty principle, 621–623, 624 Venturi flow, Bernoulli effect and, 255–256, 258
Thomson, J.J., 610, 621 quantum tunneling, 636–637, 640 Venus, phases of, 119
Three dimensions Underdamped motion, 215 Vibrational energy, 676
charged particle trajectories in, 443 Unification, of forces, 53, 714–715 Vibrational energy levels, 665–666, 676
quantum mechanics in, 638 Unified electroweak force, 714 Videotapes, 452
Thunderstorms, 396 Unified mass units, 691 Virtual image, 544, 546, 547, 548, 552, 554, 584
Tidal force, 128 Uniform circular motion, 41–43, 44 Virtual photon, 707
Tides, 128 Uniform motion, 50 Viscosity, 257, 258
Time Unit vectors, 32 Visible light, 521
atomic clock, 3, 24 Units of measurement, 3–4 Vision
energy-time uncertainty, 622–623 Universal gas constant, 283, 291 astigmatism, 555
proper time, 591 Universal gravitation, 119–121, 129, 202 contact lenses, 556, 557
I-14 Index

Vision (Continued) spatial frequency, 227 Weinberg, Steven, 714

corrective glasses, 556, 557 speed of, 226 Wheel, rolling motion, 167–168
the eye, 555–557 on stretched string, 228–230, 236–237, 242 White dwarf, 651
laser vision correction, 556 superposition principle, 232 Wide-angle mirrors, 547
lenses, 550–555, 584 tsunamis, 6 Wien’s law, 610
Volt (V), 374 wave equation, 227–228 Wind energy, 257
Voltage, 374 wave number, 226, 242 Wind instruments, standing waves in, 238
household voltage, 92 waveforms, 225 Wind turbines, 155, 157, 158, 257
measuring, 428, 429 Wave number, 226, 242 Windsurfing, 36
Ohm’s Law, 406, 410, 411, 412, 415, 425, 530 Wave-particle duality, 614, 623, 624, 629–630 Wireless technologies, 2
working voltage of capacitor, 393 Wave speed, 226, 232, 242 Wollaston, William, 616
See also Electromotive force (emf) electromagnetic waves, 517–518 Wood
Voltage divider, 421 Waveforms, 225 electrical properties of, 406
Voltmeters, 428, 429, 434 Wavefronts, 230 thermal properties of, 268, 270
Volume, units of, 4 Wavelength, 225, 226 Woofer, 496
Volume charge density, 341 electromagnetic spectrum, 521–522 Work, 86–88, 96, 97, 202
Volume-expansion coefficient, 289, 291 Waves, 242, 263 against gravity, 91–92
Volume flow rate, 253 amplitude, 225 by conservative forces, 102–103, 106
von Fraunhofer, Josef, 616 beats, 233–234 energy and, 397
coherence, 565 by force varying with position, 88–92
W diffraction, 574–577, 580, 584 heat engine efficiency, 314
W particles, 713, 714 diffraction limit, 577–579, 580, 584 kinetic energy and, 92–93
Walking, 212 Doppler effect, 239–241, 242 negative work, 103
Water double-slit interference, 566–568 by nonconservative forces, 102, 106
dielectric constant of, 393 frequency, 225 potential energy, 103–106
optical properties of, 534 Huygens’ principle, 574, 580, 584 power and, 94–96
phase diagram, 289, 290 intensity, 229–230, 242 scalar product and, 88
phases of, 287 interference, 232, 234, 565, 566, 580, 584 thermodynamics, 296, 298, 307
thermal expansion of, 290 longitudinal, 225, 242 units of, 86, 97
thermal properties of, 268, 270, 287 matter-wave interference, 621 work-energy theorem, 93, 97, 106, 113, 253, 600
triple point of, 266, 267 multiple-slit interference, 568–580 Work-energy theorem, 93, 97, 106, 113, 253, 600
wave motion in, 237 period, 225, 226, 242 Work function, 613
See also Ice power of, 229 Working fluid, 315
Water heaters, 275, 320 reflection, 235–236 Working voltage, 393
Watt (W), 94, 97 refraction, 236 Wu, Chien-Shiung, 711
Watt, James, 94 shock waves, 241, 242
Wave. See Waves simple harmonic wave, 226, 242 X
Wave amplitude, electromagnetic waves, 518 sinusoidal, 226 X-ray diffraction, 571, 580
Wave equation, 227–228 square, 232 X rays, 521
Wave fields, 517 standing, 236–238, 242, 263 potential difference in X-ray tube, 374
Wave function, 630, 640 transverse, 225, 242
constraints on, 631–632 types, 225 Y
See also Schrödinger equation wave speed, 226, 232, 242 Yang, Chen Ning, 711
Wave intensity, electromagnetic waves, 523–524 wavelength, 225, 226 Yerkes Refractor, 559
Wave motion, 2, 224–242 See also Electromagnetic waves; Light; Young, Thomas, 518, 566
angular frequency, 226, 242 Sound waves Yukawa, Hideki, 707, 708
dispersion, 232–233 Weak force, 53, 720
mathematical description of, 226–228 electroweak unification, 714 Z
period, 225, 226, 242 Weight, 53–54, 62 Z particles, 709, 713, 714
phase, 227 apparent weight, 61, 62 Zeeman effect, 651
propagation, 224, 225 mass vs., 53, 54 Zeeman splitting, 651
simple harmonic wave, 226, 242 units of, 54 Zero of electrical potential, 376
sinusoidal wave, 226 Weightlessness, 54–55, 58, 62 Zeroth law of thermodynamics, 266, 330
sound waves, 231–232 Weightlifting, 135 Zweig, George, 711
GEOPHYSIC AL AND ASTROPHYSIC AL DATA
EARTH SUN
Mass 5.9731024 kg Mass 1.9931030 kg
Mean radius 6.373106 m Mean radius 6.963108 m
Orbital period 3.163107 s (365.3 days) Orbital period (about galactic center) 631015 s (200 My)
Mean distance from Sun 1.5031011 m Mean distance from galactic center 2.631020 m
Mean density 5.53103 kg/m3 Power output (luminosity) 3.8531026 W
Surface gravity 9.81 m/s2 Mean density 1.43103 kg/m3
Surface pressure 1.0133105 Pa Surface gravity 274 m/s2
Magnetic moment 8.031022 A # m2 Surface temperature 5.8 3 103 K
MOON
Mass 7.3531022 kg
Mean radius 1.743106 m
Orbital period 2.363106 s (27.3 days)
Mean distance from Earth 3.853108 m
Mean density 3.33103 kg/m3
Surface gravity 1.62 m/s2

P E R I O D I C TA B L E O F T H E E L E M E N T S
1 2
H He
1.008 4.003
3 4 Metals 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Atomic number
Li Be He Symbol Semimetals B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.012 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
4.003 Atomic mass (u)*
Nonmetals
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.99 24.31 26.98 28.09 30.97 32.07 35.45 39.95
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.88 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.69 63.55 65.39 69.72 72.61 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 (98) 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.75 127.60 126.90 131.29
55 5657–71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lanthanide Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 series 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.2 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 (209) (210) (222)
87 88 89–103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118
Fr Ra Actinide Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn
(223) (226) series (261) (268) (266) (272) (277) (276) (281) (280) (285) (284) (289) (288) (292) (294) (294)

57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Lanthanide
series La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 (145) 150.36 151.97 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Actinide
series Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
(227) 232.04 (231) 238.03 (237) (244) (243) (247) (247) (251) (252) (257) (258) (259) (260)

* Atomic mass is average over abundances of stable isotopes. For radioactive elements other than uranium and thorium, mass is in parentheses and is
that of the most stable important (in availability, etc.) isotope.

A list of the elements is given in Appendix D.