INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHODS

Introduction

The managers of tomorrow will need to know more than any managers in history. Research
will be a major contributor to that knowledge. Managers will find knowledge of research
methods to be of value in many situations. Business research has an inherent value to the
extent that it helps the management make better decisions. Interesting information about
consumers, employers or competitors might be pleasant to have but its value is limited if the
information cannot be applied to a critical decision. If a study does not help the management
to select more efficient, less risky, or more profitable alternatives than otherwise would be
the case, its use should be questioned. The important point is that research in a business
environment finds its justification in the contribution it makes to the decision maker’s task
and to the bottom line. At the minimum, one objective of this study material is to make you
a more intelligent consumer of research products prepared by others, as well as be able to do
quality research for your own decisions and those of others to whom you report.
Why Study Research

The study of research methods provides you with knowledge and skills you need to solve
problems and meet the challenges of a fast-paced decision-making environment. Business
research courses are recognition that students preparing to manage businesses, not-for-profit
and public organizations in all functional areas – need training in a disciplined process for
conducting an inquiry related to a management dilemma. These factors stimulate an interest
in a scientific approach to decision making:

 The Manager’s increased need for more and better information

 The availability of improved techniques and tools to meet this need, and
 The resulting information overload if disciplined is not employed in the process
During the last two decades, we have witnessed dramatic changes in the business
environment. Emerging from a historically economic role, the business organization has
evolved in response to the social and political mandates of natural public policy, explosive
technology growth, and continuing innovations in global communications. These changes
have created new knowledge needs for the Manager and new publics to consider when
evaluating any decision. Other knowledgeable demands have arisen from problems with
mergers, trade policies, protected markets, technology transfers, and macroeconomic savings
– investment issues.

Meaning of research and business research

Kerlinger Fred N. has defined scientific research as a systematic, controlled, empirical and
critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by theory and hypothesis about the
presumed relations among such phenomena.
The terms systematic and controlled in this definition refer to the degree to which the
observations are controlled and alternative explanations of the outcome are ruled out. The
terms empirical and critical permit to the requirements for the researcher to test subjective
beliefs against objective reality and have the findings open to further scrutiny and testing.
These qualities are what the author means by scientific.

C. C Crawford defines research as a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing

specialized tools, instruments and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution to
a problem.

Generally speaking, research can be defined as a careful and systematic means of solving a
problem. It is a careful and systematic attempt to provide answers to questions and these
answers may be abstract or general or highly concrete and specific. Research is directed
towards a specific area for the purpose of discovering, interpreting or applying facts,
principles or theories. As a scientific study, research calls for careful observations of
phenomenon, recording and analyzing of data in order to reach sound and tenable conclusion
on the basis of available evidence.
The systematic and scholarly application of scientific methods interpreted in its broadcast
sense to the solutions of business enterprises can be considered as business research.
Therefore business research can be defined as a systematic, scientific enquiry that provides
information to guide business decisions.
Business research could encampus the study of human resource management, marketing
research, entrepreneurship etc. for example, in marketing research we could address issues
pertaining to product image, advertising, sales promotions, packaging and branding, pricing,
new product development.

How scientific is Business Research?

The development of scientific method in business research lags behind similar developments
in the physical sciences. Physical scientists have been more vigorous in their concepts and
research procedures. They are much more advanced in their theory development than
business scientists. The public domain has sponsored much physical research, some of it for
hundreds of years.
Governments have allocated billions of dollars to support such research, driven by motivation
to overcome disease or to improve the human condition. Nations driven by threat of war and
national pride have also played a major role in the advance of physical science. Much of the
findings of their research are in the public domain.
Business research is of much more recent origin and is largely supported by business
organizations that hope to achieve a competitive advantage. Research methods and findings
cannot be patented, and sharing findings often results in a loss of competitive advantage;
“The more valuable the research result is, the greater the value in keeping it secret.” Under
such conditions, access to findings is obviously restricted. Even though there is a growing
amount of academic business research it receives meager support when compared to
research in the physical sciences.
Business research operates in a less favorable environment in other ways too. Physical
research is normally conducted under controlled laboratory conditions, business research
seldom is. Business research normally deals with topics such as human attitudes behavior,
and performance. People think they already know a lot about these topics and do not really
accept research findings that differ from their opinions.

Even with these hindrances, business researchers are making great strides in the scientific
arena. New techniques are being developed, and vigorous research procedures are advancing
rapidly. Computers and powerful analytical methods have contributed to this movement but
a greater understanding of the basic principles of sound research is more important. One
outcome of these trends is that research-based decision making will be more widely used in
the future than it has been in the past. Managers who are not prepared for this change will
be at a severe disadvantage.

Purposes|Aims of Scientific Research

a) Discover new Knowledge
The main purpose of research is to discover new knowledge. This involves the discovery of
new facts, their correct interpretation and practical application. Although there are other
sources of knowledge, research remains the most efficient and reliable source of knowledge.
It is the most accurate system of securing useful knowledge. Quite often, a scientist will take
an interest in a topic without having any other clear ideas about what to expect in the way of
relationship among variables. Initially, the relevant variables are not even clear. The initial
research, infact may have the identification of important variables on its primary purpose.
b) Exploration
Much of social research is conducted to explore a topic, to provide a beginning familiarity
with that topic. This purpose is typically when a researcher is examining a new interest or
when the subject of study is itself relatively new and unstudied.
Example, let’s suppose that widespread taxpayer dissatisfaction with the Government erupts
into a tax payer’s revolt. People begin refusing to pay their taxes and they organize
themselves around that issue. You might want to learn more about the movement. How
widespread is it?
What levels and degrees of support are there within the community? How is the movement
organized? What kinds of people are active in it? You might undertake an exploratory study
to obtain at least appropriate answers to some these questions.
Exploratory studies are also appropriate in the case of more persistent phenomena. Perhaps
a college student is unhappy with the college’s dormitory regulations and wants to work
towards changing them. Exploratory studies are more typically done for three purposes:
1. To satisfy the researcher’s curiosity and desire for better understanding

2. To test the feasibility of undertaking a more careful study; and

3. To develop the methods to be employed in a more careful study.
c) Description
A major purpose of many studies is to describe situations and events. Descriptive studies try
to discover answers to the questions; who, what, when, where and sometimes how. The
researcher observes and then describes what was observed. A census is an excellent example
of descriptive social research. The goal of the census is to describe accurately and precisely a
wide variety of characteristics of a population, as well as the population of smaller areas such
as towns and rural councils. Other examples of descriptive studies are the computation of
age-sex profiles of population done by demographers and the computation of crime rates for
different towns. A poll conducted during a political election campaign has the purpose of
describing the voting intentions of the electorate.

d) Explanation
Reporting the voting intentions of an electorate is a descriptive activity, but reporting why
some people plan to vote for candidate A and others for candidate B is an explanatory activity,
as reporting why some towns have higher crime rates that others.

A researcher has an explanatory purpose is if he/she wishes to know why a student’s

demonstration ended in a violent confrontation with police, as opposed to simply describing
what happened.

e) Prediction
Prediction is the ability to estimate phenomena A given B. If we can provide a plausible
explanation of an event after it has occurred, it is desirable to be able to predict when and in
what situations the event will occur. For example, the aviation industry may be interested in
explaining the radiation risks for flight crews and passengers from the sun and stars. The
variables might include attitude, proximity or air routes to the poles, time of year and aircraft
shielding. Perhaps the relations among the four variables explain the radiation risk variable.
This type of study often calls for a high order of inference making. Why, for example would a
flight at a specified attitude at one time of the year not produce so great a radiation risk to
the airliner’s occupants as the same flight in another season? The answer to such a question
would be valuable in planning air routes.
Characteristics (hallmarks) of scientific research
The main distinguishing characteristics of scientific research include:
i) Purposiveness
Any good scientific research must have a definite aim or purpose, ie, it must be focused;
otherwise it will fail to be systematic and directed. A statement of the purpose of study guides
in the achievement of the research objectives, a practical research design and valid reliable
results.
Without such a focus it will be difficult for the research to achieve its objectives or test
hypothesis.
ii) Rigor

Scientific research blends itself to testing logically developed hypothesis to see whether or
not the data supports the proposed hypothesis.

This means that the hypothesis must be developed after a careful study of the problem.
Hypothesis is tested by applying certain statistical tests to the data collected for that purpose.
If the hypothesis developed is not quite testable, it weakens a scientific investigation. This
happens when the variables developed are too abstract and difficult to measure or observe
ie personality, obedience, understanding, job interest, commitment, tempremence etc.

iv) Replicability
Replicability in scientific research cohorts that the results of the research or the tests of the
hypothesis should be supported again and again when the research is repeated in other
similar circumstances, the Replicability gives confidence in our research design and hence
makes it scientific.

v) Precision and confidence

Precision refers to how close the findings based on a sample are to the reality. Precision
reflects the degree of exatitude of the results based on the sample to the phenomena studies
on they exist in the universe or the actual population. The closer your results are to the
expected or predicted phenomena the higher the precision.
Confidence refers to the probability that our estimates are correct. It is not merely enough to
be precise but that it is important to be 95% sure or confident that our estimates are correct
and that there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong. This is also known as the confidence
level that given perfection we would like to be 100% correct, imaging that if you have too
much error for someone who has to take a rocket to the moon, then your research leaves a
lot to be desired.
The narrower the gap within which we can estimate the range of our predictions, and the
greater the confidence we have in our research results, the more useful and scientific the
findings become. Precision and confidence can therefore be obtained by only appropriate
scientific sampling designs.
vi) Objectivity
The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the results of our data analysis should
be objective and based on facts resulting from the actual data and not from our own
subjective or emotional values. The more objective the interpretation of the data, the more
scientific the research investigation
vii) Generalisability
This refers to the (scope) of applicability of the research findings. The wider the range of
applicability of the solutions generated by research the more useful the research is.
Generalisability will depend on how elaborate the sampling design was. The kind of
instruments used in data collection and objectivity shown in the interpretation of data.
viii) Parsimony

This refers to the simplicity of explaining the phenomena or problems that occur and in the
applications of solutions to the problems. Being simple in explaining the outcomes of the
research is always preferred to complex research frameworks that consider an imaginable
number of factors. Being scientific does not mean that we have to be complicated, we come
up with too many variables that cannot be analyzed and thus end up making the whole
research invalid.

General Characteristics of good research

Good research generates dependable data, being derived by practices that are conducted
professionally that can be used reliably for management decision making. Good research
differs from poor research that is carelessly planned and conducted resulting in data that a
manager can’t use to reduce his or her decision-making risks. Good research follows the
standards of the scientific methods. These include:

i) Purpose clearly defined

The purpose of the research the problem involved or the decision to be made should be
clearly defined and sharply delineated in terms as unambiguous as possible. The statement
of the decision problem should include its scope, limitations and precise specifications of the
meanings of all words and terms significant to the research. Failure of the researcher to do
this adequately may raise legitimate doubts in the minds of research report readers as to
whether the researcher has sufficient understanding of the problem to make a sound
proposal to attack it. This characteristic is comparable to developing a strategic plan before
developing a tactical plan or an action map for achieving an objective.
ii) Research process detailed
The research procedures used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research. Except when secrecy is imposed, research reports should
reveal with candor the sources of data and the means by which they were obtained.
Omissions of significant procedural details make it difficult or impossible to estimate the
validity and reliability of the data and justifiably weaken the confidence of the reader in the
research and any recommendations based on the research. This characteristic is comparable
to developing a tactical plan.
iii) Research design thoroughly planned
The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that are as
objective as possible. When a sampling of the population is involved the report should include
evidence concerning the degree of representatives of the sample. A survey of opinions or
recollections ought not to be used when more reliable evidence is available from
documentary sources or by direct observation.
Bibliographic searches should be as thorough and complete as possible. Experiments should
have satisfactory controls. Direct observations should be recorded in writing as soon as
possible after the event. Efforts should be made to minimize the influence of personal bias in
selecting and recording data. This characteristic is comparable to developing detailed action
plans for each tactic.
iv) High ethical standards applied

Researchers often work independently and have significant latitude in designing and
executing research projects. A research design that includes safeguards against causing
mental or physical harm to participants and makes data integrity a first priority should be
highly valued. Ethical issues in research reflect important moral concerns about the practice
of responsible behavior in society. Researchers frequently find themselves precariously
balancing the rights of their subjects against the scientific dictates of their chosen method.
When this occurs, they have a responsibility to guard the welfare of the participants in the
studies, and also the organizations to which they belong, their clients, colleagues and
themselves.
Careful consideration must be given to research situations when there is a possibility for
physical or psychological harm, exploitation, invasion of privacy, and loss of dignity. The
research need must be weighed against the potential for adverse effects. Typically you can
redesign a study, but sometimes you cannot. The researcher should be prepared for this
dilemma.
v) Limitations frankly revealed

The researcher should report, with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effect on the findings. There are very few perfect research designs. Some of
the imperfections may have little effect on the validity and reliability of the data. Others may
invalidate them entirely. A competent researcher should be sensitive to the effects of
imperfect design and his or her experience in analyzing the data should provide a basis for
estimating their influence. As a decision maker, you should question the value of research
where no limitations are reported.
vi) Adequate analysis for decision makers need
Analysis of the data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the methods
of analysis is used should be appropriate. The extent to which this criterion is met is frequently
a good measure of the competence of the researcher. Adequate analysis of the data is the
most difficult phase of research for the novice. The validity and reliability of data should be
checked carefully. The data should be classified in ways that assist the researcher to reach
pertinent conclusions and clearly reveal the findings that lead to those conclusions. When
statistical methods are used the probability of error should be estimated and the criteria of
statistical significance applied.
vii) Findings presented unambiguously
Language that is restrained clear and precise; assertions that are carefully drawn and hedged
with appropriate reservations and an apparent effort to achieve maximum objectivity tend to
leave a favorable impression of the researcher with the decision maker. Generalizations that
outrun the evidence on which they are based, exaggerations and unnecessary verbiage tend
to leave an unfavorable impression. Such reports are not valuable to managers wading
through the minefields of business decision making. Presentation of data should be
comprehensive easily understood by the decision maker, and organized so that the decision
maker can readily locate critical findings.
viii) Conclusions justified
Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and limited to
those of which the data provided an adequate basis. Researchers are often tempted to
broaden the basis of induction by including personal experiences and their interpretations-
data not subject to the controls under which the research data were gathered.
Equally undesirable is all too frequent practice of drawing conclusions from a study of a
limited populations and applying them universally. Researchers may also be tempted to rely
too heavily on data collected in a prior study and use it in the interpretation of a new study.
Such a practice is sometimes prevalent among research specialists who confine their work to
clients in a small industry. These actions tend to decrease the objectivity of research and
weaken confidence in the findings. Good researchers always specify the conditions under
which their conclusions seem to be valid.
ix) Researcher’s experience reflected
Greater confidence in the research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a good
reputation in research, and is a person of integrity. Were it possible for the reader of a
research report to obtain sufficient information about the researcher, this criteria perhaps
would be one of the best bases for judging the degree of confidence a piece of research
warrants and the value of any decision on which it rests. For this reason, the research report
should contain information about the qualifications of the researcher.

General Significance|Importance of Research

(1) To gather useful information
Research provides information necessary for the progression of various fields of work, study
or operation. For example, most companies do research before beginning projects in order to
get ideas about the things they will need to do to achieve successful projects. Research also
helps them get acquainted with the processes and resources involved in the project and its
market reception.

(2) To institute helpful changes

Sometimes, there are in-built problems in a process or a project that are difficult to resovle
without careful investigation. Research helps find the root cause(s) of practical problems and
reveals the elements associated with processes in various field so that they can be improved.
Such research often invokes demands for helpful change(s) and sometimes research is
successful in instituting changes. For example, many UN researches have paved way for
changes in policies.
(3) Improving standard of living

Inventions and discoveries come to life through research. For example, it was C.V. Raman’s
research that prompted invention of radio communication. Without Graham Bell’s invention
of the telephone communication today would be much harder and life more inconvenient. All
the luxuries and the amenities that are now available to man are the result of research. And
with new crises, research has become indispensable for the evolution of new solutions.
(4) For improved health and safety
Groundbreaking discoveries and developments in the fields of health, nutrition, food
technology and medicine have been achieved through research. These have improved the life
expectancy of the human race in all parts of the world and helped eradicate diseases like polio
and smallpox completely.
Diseases that were untreatable are now history, as new inventions and research in the field
of medicine have led to the advent of drugs that not only treat the once-incurable diseases,
but also prevent them from recurring.
(5) To know the truth
Over time many established truths have been refuted with the evidence adduced from
research.
Research, by it objectivity and elevation of generalizable knowledge has led to the
investigation and establishment of new principles, laws, theorems and the continual testing
of the validity of hypotheses.
(6) To explore history
Researches on world history and human history have enabled us learn and understand the
lives of our ancestors. Such researches have helped us learn from mistakes made in history
so that we can keep the good and discard the unhelpful or harmful. Research about the
planet’s history and existence has helped foretell the things that will shape the world in years
to come including how man needs to take care of planet earth and work closely together to
stop global warming and other scenarios of destruction.

(7) Understanding arts

Research has aided man in developing an understanding of the work of artists in literature,
fine arts and music. If no research were conducted into works of art, contemporary man
would loose connection toartist and artistic imagination over the ages. Great artistic work is
hidden in the shadows of history has been drawn out, thanks to research