FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

Part 1: DC CIRCUITS

Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

I. Introduction.

II. Linearity property.

III. Superposition.

VI. Source transformation.

V. Thevenin’s theorem.

VI. Norton’s theorem.

VII. Maximum power transfer

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

I. Introduction

 Chapter 3 presented some analysis method using Kirchhoff’s laws

 Advantage: Analyze a circuit without changing the its configuration.

 Disadvantage: For a large, complex circuit  it’s hard to compute, and

solve the set of equations.

 For complex circuits, it need to develop some theorems to simplify circuit

analysis, such as Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorems (applicable only to linear
circuits).

 This chapter presents:

 Concept of circuit linearity.

 Circuit theorems.

 Concept of superposition, source transformation, maximum power transfer.

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

II. Linearity property

 Linearity is the property of an element describing a linear relationship between
cause (input, excitation) and effect (output, response)
 Linearity property combines:
 Homogeneity (scaling) property: v  iR  kiR  kv
v1  i1R i1 i2
 Additivity property:   v  (i1  i2 ) R  i1R i2 R  v1  v2
v2  i2 R
Ex: Resistor is a linear element because the voltage-current relationship satisfies
both the homogeneity and additivity properties.

A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or directly

proportional) to its input.

 A linear circuit consists of only linear elements, linear dependent sources, and
independent sources.
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 Chapter 4: Methods of analysis

II. Linearity property R2 2Ω R4 8Ω

+ v -
x
Ex 4.1: Find i0 when vs = 12V and vs = 24V.
R3 R4
4Ω 4Ω
 Applying KVL to the 02 loops gives: R1 i2
6Ω i1
Vs -
 12i1  4i 2  vS  0 vx  2i1  12i1  4i2  vS  0 +
   3vx
4i1  16i2  3vx  vS  0 10i1  16i 2  vS  0
 Solving the set of equations gives:
i1  6i2
 vs 12 V 12
 vS  i0  i2   0.158A
 i2  76 76

 Because, this circuit is linear circuit  applying the linearity property gives:
vS  24V  i0  i 2  2.0,158  0,316A

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

III. Superposition
 If circuit has two or more independent sources, there several ways to determine
the value of a specific variable (voltage, current):

 Use nodal or mesh analysis.

 Superposition approach: Determine the contribution of each independent
source to the variable, and then add them up.

The superposition principle states that the voltage across (or current through)
an element in a linear circuit is the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or
currents though) that element due to each independent source acting alone.

 Superposition is not limited to circuit analysis but is applicable in many field

where cause and effect bear a linear relationship to one another.
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

III. Superposition
 Step to apply superposition principle:

 Turn off all independent sources except one source (dependent sources
are left intact):
 Replace voltage source by short circuit
 Replace current source by open circuit

 Find the output (voltage or/and current) due to that active source (using
nodal or mesh analysis)

 Repeat step 1 & 2 for each of the other independent sources.

 Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all the contributions due to
the independent sources.

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

R2 3Ω R4 5Ω
III. Superposition
Ex 4.2: Using the superposition theorem, find v0. +
v0 R1 20V
- 2Ω 8A
 Since there are two sources, let: v0  v01  v02
 To obtain v01, set the current source to zero
R2 3Ω R4 5Ω
 Applying KVL to the loop gives:
+ R1 20V
(3  5  2)i  20  i  2A  v01  2.2  4V v0
- 2Ω
 To obtain v02, set the voltage source to zero

 Using current division gives R2 3Ω R4 5Ω

8
i R1  5  4 A  v02  2.4  8V + R1
2  3 5 v0 8A
- 2Ω
 Finally, we find: v0  v01  v02  8  4  12V
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

III. Superposition R4 2Ω

Ex 4.3: Using the superposition theorem, find i0. R1

3Ω
 In this circuit, there is a dependent source, we left
R3 1Ω 5i0
intact. We let: i0  i01  i02 i0
+ -
4A
R2 R5
 To obtain i01, turn off the 20-V source to zero 5Ω 4Ω
20V

 Applying mesh analysis, we have:

 Loop 1: i1  4 A R4 2Ω

 Loop 2: 3i1  6i2  i3  5i01  0 R1

i2
3Ω
 Loop 3:5i1  i 2  10i3  5i01  0
R3
i1 + -
 Applying KCL at node 0: i3  i1  i01  4  i01 4A i01 1Ω 5i01
R2 R5
i3
 From the four equations, we have: i01  3,06 A 5Ω 4Ω

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

III. Superposition R4 2Ω

Ex 4.3: Using the superposition theorem, find i0. R1

3Ω
 To obtain i02, turn off the 4-A source to zero R3 1Ω 5i0
+ -
i0
 Applying KVL, we have: 4A
R2 R5
5Ω 4Ω
 Loop 4: 6i 4  i 5  5i02 0 20V

 Loop 5: i 4  10i5  20  5i02  0 R4

2Ω
 In loop 5, we have: i5  i02 R1
3Ω i4
 From the four equations, we have: i02  3,53A
R3 5i02
+ -
i02 1Ω
 Finally, when there are the both sources in the
R2 i5 R5
circuit, we find: i0  i01  i02  0,47A 5Ω 4Ω
20V

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

24V
III. Superposition R4 8Ω

Ex 4.4: Using the superposition theorem, find i.

R1 4Ω R2 4Ω
 The circuit has three sources, let: i  i1  i2  i3
i
 Getting i1, turn off 3-A source, 24-V source 12V R3
12 12 3Ω
3A
i1    2A
 R1 / /( R2  R4 )  R3 6
24V
R4 8Ω R4 8Ω
 Getting i2, turn off 3-A
source, 12-V source
R1 4Ω R2 4Ω R1 4Ω R2 4Ω
24
i R4   1,75A i2 i1
( R1 / / R3 )  R2  R4
R3 12V R3
Ri1 3Ω 3Ω
i2   1A
R1  R3
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

24V
III. Superposition R4 8Ω

Ex 4.4: Using the superposition theorem, find i.

 To get i3, turn off 24-V and 12-V sources R1 4Ω R2 4Ω

i
 Using nodal analysis: R3
12V
3Ω
 1 1 1 3A
  8  4  v2  4 v1  3 2v1  3v2  24
  
 
 1  1  1  v  1 v  0  v2  3,33v1 R4 8Ω

 4 4 3  1 4 2
R1 4Ω v1 R2 4Ω v2
 Solving the set of equations gives:
i3
v1  3V  i3  1A
R3
3Ω
 Thus: i  i1  i 2  i3  2  1  1  2 A 3A

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

R2 2Ω
III. Superposition
R1 6Ω R3 8Ω
Ex 4.5: Using the superposition theorem, find i.
i
16V 12V
 The circuit has three sources, let: i  i1  i2  i3 4A

 Getting i1, turn off 4-A source, 12-V source

R2 2Ω
16
i1   1A R1 6Ω R3
6 28 8Ω
i1
 Getting i2, turn off 16-V, 12-V source 16V
4
i2  2  0,5A
6 28 R2 2Ω

 Getting i3, turn off 16-V, 4-A source R1 6Ω R3 8Ω

12 i1
i3   0,75A
6 28
 Thus: i  i1  i2  i3  0,75A
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

IV. Source transformation

 Similar to the series-parallel combination and wye-delta transformation, source

transformation is using to simplify circuits that bases on the concept of
equivalence.

 An equivalent circuit is one whose v - i characteristics are identical with the

original circuit.

A source transformation is the process of replacing a voltage source vs in

series with a resistor R by a current source is in parallel with a resistor
R, or vice versa.

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

IV. Source transformation

R a a

iS R
vS

b b
vS
R vS  Ri S iS 
a R a

+ iS R
- vS

b b
 Notes:

 The arrow of the current source is directed toward the positive terminal of
the voltage source.

 The source transformation is not possible when R = 0 (ideal voltage source)

or R = ∞ (ideal current source).
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

R2 2Ω R4 3Ω
IV. Source transformation
Ex 4.6: Use source transformation to find v0 R1 + R3 12V
v0
R5 R2 4Ω 3A - 8Ω

vs1 R3 R6

is1
R7 R3 R6
 12
vS1  3R1  12V i S1   4A is2 is1
 ;  R4
 R5  R1  4  R  R  3
 6 4  R7  R2  R5  6

 vS1
+  R8  R7 / / R6  2  i S2  R  2 A
v0 R3 R8
  7
- 8Ω
is3  i S3  i S1  i S2  2 A R8.R3 2.8
 v0  i S3 2  3,2V
R3  R8 10
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

R4 1Ω
IV. Source transformation
5V i0
Ex 4.7: Use source transformation R1 R2 R3 R5
6Ω 3Ω 7Ω
to find i0 5A 3A 4Ω

 R6  R1 / / R2  2  R7  R4  R5  5 5V R7
vS2
 ;  R6 R3
 vS1  5R6  10V  vS2  3R7  15V
vS1

 vS1  5
i S1  R  7,5A  i S3  i S1  i S2  10,5A
 6  R6 R3 R7
  R6 R7
 i  vS2  3A  8 R  R  1,43
R  iS1 iS2
 S2 R7  6 7

i0
R8 R3 R8
 i0  i S3  1,78A
R8  R3 iS3
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

R3
IV. Source transformation 4Ω
0,25vx
R1 2Ω
Ex 4.8: Use source transformation to find vx
 We transform: +
6V vx R2 18V
6 - 2Ω
 6-V independent voltage source:  3A iS 
2 R3
 Dependent current source: vS1  0,25vx .R3  vx 4Ω
R1 R2
vS1
+
 iS independent current source and R1, R2 2Ω 2Ω -
iS 18V

 R4  R1 / / R2  1
 R4 R3

 vS2  i SR4  3V + 4Ω
vx
 Applying KVL: vx +
-
vS2
18V
 The largest loop: 3  5i  vx
 18  0 -
 Loop containing vS2 and R4: 3  i  vx  0 i  4,5A

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits – Viet Son Nguyen - 2013 vx  7,5V 17
 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

R2 5Ω
IV. Source transformation
ix
Ex 4.9: Use source transformation to find ix R1 -
+
4A 10Ω 2ix
 We transform:
2i x
 Dependent voltage source: iS   0,4i x
5
ix
 Applying KCL gives: 4A iS
R1 R2
R2 4 0,4i x
i x   4  0,4i x    10Ω 5Ω
R1  R2 3 3
4
 3,4i x   i x  0,39A
3

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

V. Thevenin’s theorem a
Linear +
 In practice, a particular element in a I
two-terminal V Load
circuit is variable (called load) while other circuit -
b
elements are fixed.
RTh a
 Each time the variable element is changed, need +
I
to be analyzed all over again  use Thevenin’s Load
VTh V
theorem to avoid this problem. -
 Thevenin’s theorem: A linear two terminal circuit can b

be replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a voltage source VTh in series

with a resister RTh where:

 VTh is the open-circuit voltage at the terminals

 RTh is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals when the

independent sources are turned off.
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

V. Thevenin’s theorem a
Linear +
 Finding VTh: VTh is the open-circuit voltage across two-terminal VTh  VOC
the terminals. circuit -
b
a
 Finding RTh: Linear circuit with
all independent
 Network has no dependent sources. sources set equal to RTh  Rin
zero
b
 Network has dependent sources.
i0
a a
Linear circuit with Linear circuit with +
all independent all independent
v0 v0 i0
sources set equal to sources set equal to
zero zero -
b b
v0 v0
RTh  RTh 
i0 i0
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

V. Thevenin’s theorem

 Thevenin’s theorem is very important in circuit analysis:

 Help simplify a circuit: Replace a large circuit by a single independent

voltage source and a single resistor.

 Easily to determine the current and voltage on the load

a a
IL IL
Linear RL VTh RL
circuit

b b

VTh RL
IL  VL  RL I L  VTh
RTh  RL RTh  RL
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

R1 4Ω R3 a
V. Thevenin’s theorem
1Ω
Ex 4.10: Find the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the i
R2 2
i1
12Ω RL
circuit. Find the current through RL = 6, 16, 36Ω 32V 2A
b
R1R2
 Calculating RTh: RTh   R3  4
R1  R2
32  VTh VTh
 Calculating VTh: Applying nodal analysis gives 2  VTh  30V
R1 12
VTh 30
 The current through RL : I L  
RTh  RL 4  RL
30 30
 When RL = 6Ω: IL   3A  When RL = 36Ω: IL   0,75A
10 40
30
 When RL = 16Ω: IL   1,5A
20
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

R1 6Ω R2 6Ω a
V. Thevenin’s theorem
i
Ex 4.11: Find i by using the Thevenin’s theorem R3 R4
4Ω 1Ω
12V 2A
 Calculating RTh:
12.4 b
RTh  ( R1  R2 ) / / R3   3
12  4
 Calculating VTh: Applying nodal analysis gives:

12  V V V 15
 2   V  15V  VTh  R3  .4  6V
6 10 R2  R3 6 4
 The current through R4 :
VTh 6
i   1,5A
RTh  R4 1  3

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

V. Thevenin’s theorem 2vx

- +
Ex 4.12: Find the equivalent of the circuit
R2 2Ω R4 2Ω a
 To find RTh, set the independent source equal
to zero, but leave the dependent source alone 5A +
R3
 Connect to the terminal a voltage source v0 = 4Ω vx 6Ω
-
1V, and we find i0 through the terminal. b
v0 1
RTh   2vx
i0 i 0 - +
i1
 Applying mesh analysis to loop 1, 2, 3: R2 2Ω R4 2Ω

 The current through R4 : + i3

i2 R3
1 4Ω vx 6Ω
 2 v x  2( i1  i 2 )  0  i 0  A - v0 = 1V
 6
4i2  2(i 2  i1 )  6(i2  i3 )  0
 6(i  i )  2i  1  0 1
 3 2 3
 R Th   6
i0
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

V. Thevenin’s theorem
a
Ex 4.12: Find the equivalent of the circuit ix
2ix
R1 R2
 Since the circuit has no independent sources VTh = 0 4Ω 2Ω
b
 In order to find RTh , apply a current source i0 at the terminal
v0
 Applying nodal analysis gives: i0  i x  2i x  v0 a

0  v0 v0 4 ix i0
 Applying Ohm’s law: i x  2ix
 R1 R2
2 2 4Ω 2Ω
 From these two equations, we have:
v v v v v b
i0  i x  0   0  0   0  v0  4i0  RTh  0  4
4 2 4 4 i0
 Note that:
 The negative value of RTh means that the circuit is supplying power by the
dependent source.
 This example shows how a dependent source and resistors could be used
to simulated negative resistance.
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

VI. Norton’s theorem a

Linear
 Norton’s theorem: A linear two terminal circuit can be two-terminal
circuit
replaced by an equivalent circuit consisting of a current
b
source IN in parallel with a resistor RN, where:
a
 IN is the short circuit current through the terminals
RN
 RN is the input or equivalent resistance at the terminals IN
b
when the independent sources are turned off.
a

 Finding RN: RN  RTh Linear

isc = IN
two-terminal
circuit
 Finding IN: I N  i sc b
 Source transformation: Relationship between Norton’s and Thevenin’s theorems:
VTh
IN 
RTh
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

VI. Norton’s theorem

 In order to determine the Thevenin or Norton equivalent circuit, we need to find:

 The open-circuit voltage voc across terminals a and b

 The short-circuit current isc at terminals a and b

 The equivalent or input resistance Rin at terminals a and b when all

independent sources are turned off.

voc
VTh  voc ; I N  isc ; RTh   RN
isc

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

R2
VI. Norton’s theorem 8Ω a
R1
Ex 4.13: Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit. 4Ω
R4
2A 5Ω
 Finding RN in the same way RTh 12V

5(4  8  8) R3 8Ω b
RN  ( R1  R2  R3 ) / / R4   4
5 4  8 8 R2

 Finding IN by shortening circuit terminals a and b R1

i1
 i1  2 A i2
  i2  isc  I N  1A 2A
20i2  4i1  12  0 12V

 By another way, we can find IN by the source transform R3

equation: R2
+
a
 i3  2 A
 i 4  0,8A  voc  VTh  5i 4  4V
R1
 i3
25i 4  4i3  12  0
R4 VTh = voc
2A i4
VTh 12V
 IN   1A
RN R3 b
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

VI. Norton’s theorem R1 3Ω R2 3Ω a

Ex 4.14: Find the Norton equivalent circuit for the circuit. 15V R3
4A 6Ω
 Finding RN b
6.6
RN  ( R1  R2 ) / / R3   3
6 6 R1 3Ω R2 3Ω

15V R3
i1 4A 6Ω
 Finding IN by shortening circuit terminals a and b  i2

applying the mesh analysis gives:

 i1  4 A 27
  6i2  27  i 2  isc  I N   4,5A
3(i1  i 2 )  3i2  15  0 6

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

VI. Norton’s theorem

2Ix
Ex 4.15: Using Norton’s theorem, find RN and IN at terminals a-b ix R2

5Ω a
 Finding RN: set the independent voltage source equal to R1 10V
zero and connect a voltage source of v0 = 1V to a-b 4Ω
v b
ix  0  0, 2 A  i0  i x  2i x  3i x  0,6 A
5
v0 1 2Ix
 RN    1, 67 ix R2
i0 0, 6 5Ω i0
R1 1V
4Ω
 Finding IN: Shorting – circuit terminals a and b

10 10
ix    2A 2Ix
R2 5  I N  i SC  6 A ix R2
5Ω
i SC  i x  2i x  2  4  6 A R1 10V iSC = IN
4Ω

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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

VII. Maximum power transfer

 In many practical situations, a circuit is designed to provide power to a load:
 Electric utilities: Minimizing power losses in the process distribution
 Communications: Maximize the power delivered to a load. a I
L
 Problem: Delivering pmax to a load when given a system with Linear RL
circuit
known internal losses. b
 Assuming that the load resistance RL can be adjusted
 Replacing entire circuit by Thevenin equivalent circuit RTh a i
2 VTh
 VTh  RL  RTh
p  i RL  
2
R
 L  p  pmax RL
 RTh  RL  b

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load

resistance equals the Thevenin resistance as seen from the
load (RL = RTh). 2
VTh
pmax 
4RTh
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

VII. Maximum power transfer

Ex 4.16: Finding the value of RL for maximum power transfer. Find the maximum
power.
R1 6Ω R3 3Ω R4 2Ω

RTh   R1 / / R2   R3  R4  9
a
 Finding RTh:
12V i1 R2 2A
i2 RL
12Ω
 Finding VTh: b
 2
6i1  12(i1  i 2 )  12 i1  A
  3
 i 2  2 A  i2  2 A

 Applying KVL around the outer loop to get VTh: 6i1  3i 2  VTh  12  VTh  22V

 For maximum power transfer: RL  RTh  9

VTh2 222
 The maximum power is: pmax    13,44W
4.RL 4.9
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 Chapter 4: Circuit theorems

VII. Maximum power transfer

Ex 4.17: Finding the value of RL for maximum power transfer. Find the maximum
R1 2Ω R3
power.
+ vx - 4Ω
R2
 Finding RTh: 1Ω
9V
RL
3vx
 Finding VTh: +
-

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Fundamentals of Electric Circuits – Viet Son Nguyen - 2013