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CHAPTER 7

RIGGING SYSTEMS

7-1 INTRODUCTION

In virtually all salvage operations, wire rope, chain, and fiber-line systems transmit pulling and lifting forces. Engineered systems, such as beach
gear, salvage ship bow lift gear, and shipboard cranes and booms, are designed for specific operating conditions. Operating the systems outside
of their design conditions reduces safe working capacity. Often, systems are designed or modified for a particular salvage operation.
Parbuckling systems, for example, are almost always designed for a specific operation. Typical rigging engineering tasks include:
• Ensuring that engineered systems are safe and effective.
• Calculating the capacity of systems which are employed outside their nominal design parameters.
• Designing systems or modify existing systems to suit a particular operation.
The following paragraphs address general considerations for rigging systems on salvage operations.

7-2 WIRE ROPE

Wire rope is a highly specialized, complex machine. It consists of wires twisted together to form strands, which are wound helically around a core.
Different types and constructions of rope have been developed to meet specific applications. Wire ropes are classified by size and construction.
A full rope description includes length, size (diameter), type of core, construction, whether the wire is preformed, direction and type of lay, and grade
of wire. In the United States, wire rope size is specified in inches by its largest diameter. In the United Kingdom, wire rope size is specified in
millimeters by circumference. In most other countries, wire rope size is given in millimeters as diameter. The following paragraphs discuss wire
rope characteristics and their effect on strength, flexibility, and other performance factors. The information presented is drawn from a number of
sources, including the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) Wire Rope User’s Manual (see Bibliography for additional references).
7-2.1 Core. Strands of a wire rope are laid
up around fiber or metal cores that support WIRE STRAND
the rope strands under normal bending and
loading. Fiber cores consist of either hard
vegetable or synthetic fibers. A metal core CORE
is either an additional wire strand (WSC) or
an independent wire rope (IWRC). A lubri-
cated fiber core provides lubrication to rope
and increases flexibility, but adds no real
strength and is sensitive to high temperatures. ORDINARY CONSTRUCTION
A metal-cored rope is 7 to 10 percent strong-
er, with greater resistance to crushing than an
equivalent fiber-cored rope. When running,
metal-cored rope wears more quickly than
fiber-cored rope.
7-2.2 Construction. Construction is the
arrangement of wires and strands in the
rope, described first by the number of
19-WIRE WARRINGTON 25-WIRE
strands, then by the number of wires in a 7-WIRE STRAND 19-WIRE SEALE
FILLER WIRE
strand, such as 6 × 7, 6 × 19, 8 × 91, etc. BASIC STRAND PATTERNS
When the strands contain wires of different
sizes, names as well as numbers describe
construction. Four primary constructions Figure 7-1. Wire Rope Construction.
are illustrated in Figure 7-1:
• Basic Construction – Each strand has a center wire wound helically, with one or more layers of wire of the same diameter.
• Seale (S) – Each strand has a center wire surrounded by two layers of wire. The wires of the first layer have a smaller diameter
than the center and outer layer wires.
• Warrington (W) – Each strand has two layers of wire around a center wire. The outer layer has alternating large and small wires.
• Filler Wire (FW) – Small-diameter wires fill the voids between the large wires in the strand.

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When strands have many wires (6 × 26, 6 × 31, etc.), there are more than two layers of wire around the center wire of each strand. Combination
constructions, where there are different basic constructions in successive layers, are common. Typical combination constructions are Warrington
Seale (WS), Seale filler wire (SFW), filler wire Seale (FWS), and Seale Warrington Seale (SWS).

7-2.2.1 Construction Classes. The number of strands and the nominal number of wires in each strand are the basis of wire rope construction
classes:

• 6 × 7 – 6 strands of 3 to 14 wires, with no more than 9 outside wires.

• 6 × 19 – 6 strands of 15 to 26 wires, with no more than 12 outside wires.

• 6 × 37 – 6 strands of 27 to 49 wires, with no more than 18 outside wires.

• 6 × 61 – 6 strands of 50 to 74 wires, with no more than 24 outside wires.

• 6 × 91 – 6 strands of 75 to 109 wires, with no more than 30 outside wires.

• 6 × 127 – 6 strands of 110 or more wires, with no more than 36 outside wires.

• 8 × 19 – 8 strands of 15 to 26 wires, with no more than 12 outside wires.

• 19 × 7 – 19 strands of 7 wires, made by covering an inner 7 × 7 wire strand core, left lang lay rope with 12 strands in right regular
lay, producing a torque-balanced, rotation-resistant rope.

• 18 × 7 – Same as 19 × 7, but with a fiber core.

Class and construction are different. A supplier may assume an order for 6 × 19 rope refers to class, and provide any of the constructions within
the 6 × 19 class.

Six by nineteen and 6 × 37 class ropes are very commonly used for general-purpose running rigging. Six by seven rope is used principally for
standing rigging. Six by sixty-one and higher classes are used in applications requiring extreme flexibility; 6 × 61 and 6 × 91 ropes are
commonly used in heavy salvage lifting.

7-2.2.2 Special Constructions. There are many specialized constructions, including:

• 3 × 19 slusher,

• 6 × 12 running rope,

• 5 × 19 and 6 × 19 marlin clad,

• 6 × 24 and 6 × 30 hawsers,

• 6 × 42 (6 × 6 × 7) tiller rope,

• 6 × 25B, 6 × 27H, and 6 × 30G flattened strand,

• 6 × 3 × 19 spring lay, and

• 8 × 19 Seale and 8 × 25 filler wire, rotation-resistant.

The most important of these constructions for salvage and marine use are spring lay, slusher, and rotation-resistant ropes. Spring lay has six
main strands around a fiber core. Each strand has three preformed wire strands and three fiber strands laid alternately around a fiber center.
The fiber parts provide cushioning for the wire and increase flexibility and elasticity. Spring lay is more flexible than wire rope of the same
strength, and much stronger and more abrasion-resistant than fiber line of the same size. The three-strand construction of slusher rope makes
it more flexible than other constructions, but the rope tends to rotate. Rotation-resistant ropes are often used in deep ocean operations where
torque generated by ordinary ropes is undesirable.

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7-2.3 Effects of Construction on Rope Properties. Construction affects a wire rope’s strength, handling characteristics, and relative resistance
to abrasion or bending fatigue. In general, increasing the number of strands or wires, or use of a fiber core, inceases flexibility. High flexibility
and abrasion resistance results from forming the strands of cable-laid rope with individual wire ropes. Usually, flexibility is gained at the
expense of strength. Running, tiller, and hawser constructions are the most flexible, but make the weakest ropes. Ropes clad with marline or
steel combine good flexibility with wear resistance. Flattened strand construction gives a large bearing surface and more even wear distribution
when ropes are run over sheaves. Ropes for severe corrosion conditions have galvanized wires; however, the constant flexing of running rigging
causes the zinc coating to flake off galvanized wire ropes. Teflon, vinyl, and other materials are used to coat wires for special service.

Flexibility does not always mean a rope has

high bending fatigue resistance, although it 6 6x7
may have both. Fiber core ropes are more
flexible than ropes with independent wire LE

NUMBER OF OUTSIDE WIRES PER STRAND

9 A 6x19S
rope cores (IWRC). However, an IWRC ST

ST
TE
rope performs better when bent over

EA
R
undersize sheaves at high loads because the 10 ES 6x21 FW

R
G
IS
firmer core allows the IWRC rope to keep TA
N

N
its roundness and freedom of internal C

O
10 E 6x26 WS

SI
movement. There is an inverse relationship TO

A
R
between a wire rope’s resistance to bending

B
B

A
12 EN 6x25 FW
fatigue and to abrasion. The X-chart in D
IN

TO
Figure 7-2 illustrates this relationship for G
12 FA 6x31 WS

E
the most widely used wire ropes.

C
TI

N
G

TA
U
E

IS
7-2.4 Type of Lay. The type of lay 14 6x36 WS

ES
G

R
describes the direction of twist of wires and R
EA
strands. Figure 7-3 illustrates several rope
ST
TE
lays. When viewed lengthwise, the strands 16 A
ST 6x41 SFW
LE

of right-laid rope are wound helically away

from the observer clockwise. In left-laid
rope, the strands are wound helically away 18 6x46 SFW
from the observer counterclockwise. Ropes
and strands may be either right- or left-laid.
In regular lay ropes, the wires in the strands Figure 7-2. Wire Rope "X" Chart.
and the strands in the rope are laid in
opposite directions. In lang lay ropes, the
wires and strands are laid in the same
direction. Alternate lay ropes consist of RIGHT REGULAR LAY RIGHT LANG LAY
alternate regular and lang lay strands. The
six possible lay combinations are:

• Right regular lay (RRL),

LEFT REGULAR LAY LEFT LANG LAY

• Left regular lay (LRL),

• Right lang lay (RLL),

RIGHT ALTERNATE LAY
• Left lang lay (LLL),

• Right alternate lay (R-ALT),

and
Figure 7-3. Wire Rope Lays.
• Left alternate lay (L-ALT).

Regular lay ropes resist kinking and untwisting, and handle easily. Lang lay ropes are more flexible and resistant to abrasion and bending fatigue
than regular lay ropes. Right regular lay is the most common wire rope lay, although right lang lay is also common. Left lay and alternate
lay ropes are used only for specific applications.

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7-2.5 Pitch or Length of Lay. The pitch or length of a rope lay is the distance, measured parallel to the rope axis, in which a strand makes
one complete turn around the rope, as shown in Figure 7-4. The length of a strand lay is defined in the same manner, although strand lay length
is more difficult to determine because it is
not always possible to determine the
WIRE ROPE
number of outside wires in a strand. LAY LENGTH

7-2.6 Preforming. Preformed strands and

wires are shaped to the helix they will have
in the finished rope before the rope is laid
up. Preforming eliminates residual stress,
STRAND LAY LENGTH
prevents the rope from unlaying when cut WITH 7 OUTER WIRES
or broken, resists kinking, and reduces the
tendency of a rope to rotate about its own
axis. Figure 7-4. Lay Length, Six-Strand Rope.

7-2.7 Type or Grade of Metal. The five principal wire rope steel grades, listed from weakest to strongest, are: traction steel (TS), mild plow
steel (MPS), plow steel (PS), improved plow steel (IPS), and extra-improved plow steel (EIPS). The grade names date to the early days of wire
rope development, and remain as descriptions of the relative strength of sizes and grades of wire rope. They do not specify particular materials
or strengths. The strength of plow steel is the basis for calculating the strength of all steel rope wires. The tensile strength of any steel wire
grade is not constant, but varies with the diameter. Tensile strength is highest in the smallest wires. American manufacturers show grade by
color coding. Improved plow steel and extra improved plow steel are the most common grades. Bronze rope finds limited use as lifelines and
tow wires for minesweeping gear. Old equipment is occasionally fitted with iron rope.

Any of the steel grades may be galvanized to inhibit corrosion. Ungalvanized ropes are referred to as bright or black to distinguish them from
galvanized ropes. Ropes are galvanized by electroplating or hot dipping individual wires in zinc before making up the strands. The hot dipping
anneals the wires and reduces the final rope strength by about 10 percent. If the wires are galvanized before their final cold drawing series,
the cold drawing rehardens the wires and there is no reduction in strength. Galvanized wire rope is assumed to have 90 percent of the strength
of bright wire rope of the same size, unless it is can be determined that the wire was galvanized by electroplating or before the final drawing.
Galvanized wire is not normally used for running rigging because the zinc coating quickly wears or flakes off—strength is not degraded, but
the expense of galvanizing is wasted.

7-2.8 Wire Rope Strength. Wire rope strength is a function of both material grade and rope construction. Increasing the number of wires
per strand increases the metal area in the rope cross section. Factors other than metal cross section affect rope strength. In general, 6 × 19 class
ropes are stronger than 6 × 7 or 6 × 37 ropes. The Seale, Warrington, and filler wire constructions were developed to increase total metal cross
section, and therefore strength for a given rope diameter. The average increase in strength for these constructions over simpler constructions
is about 10 percent. Seale construction loses some flexibility.

Breaking strength is the ultimate load carried by a wire rope sample during a tension test. Manufacturers design wire rope to nominal strengths,
which are calculated by standardized, industry-accepted procedures. Nominal strength calculations assume static loading, i.e., a load applied
at less than one inch per minute. Tables 7-1 and 7-2 (Page 7-6) give nominal strength and unit weight for some of the more common wire rope
sizes and constructions.

Minimum acceptance strength—21⁄ 2 percent less than the published nominal strength—is the industry tolerance used to offset variables in the
preparation of samples and physical testing of wire rope. The 21⁄ 2-percent tolerance is also applied to government specifications.

Empirical relationships for wire rope strength are based on diameter or circumference only. Because of the effect of construction and other
variables on rope strength, manufacturer’s rated strength (usually nominal strength) is a more reliable indicator of a rope’s load capacity, and
should be used whenever available.

Strength of improved plow steel (IPS), metal-cored (WSC, IWRC) wire ropes is estimated as:

BS = 3.6C 2 long tons

= 8,000C 2 pounds

where:

BS = breaking strength, lton or lbs

C = circumference, in.

EIPS and some CRES ropes are stronger than calculated by this relationship. Fiber-cored ropes and lower grade steel ropes are weaker.

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Table 7-1. Wire Rope Breaking Strength (Pounds).

Rope
Rope Diameter, inches
Classification
1 3 1 5 3
⁄4 ⁄8 ⁄2 ⁄8 ⁄4 1 11⁄ 4 11⁄ 2 15⁄ 8 13⁄ 4 2 21⁄ 4 21⁄ 2 23⁄ 4 3 31⁄ 4 31⁄ 2 33⁄ 4 4 41⁄ 2 5 51⁄ 2 6

6×7 IPS/FC 5,280 11,720 20,600 31,800 45,400 79,400 122,000 172,400 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

6×7 IPS/IWRC 5,680 12,600 22,200 34,200 48,800 85,400 131,200 185,400 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

6×19 IPS/FC 5,480 12,200 21,400 33,400 47,600 83,600 129,200 184,000 214,000 248,000 320,000 400,000 488,000 584,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

6×19 IPS/WSC 5,880 13,120 23,000 35,800 51,200 89,800 138,800 197,800 230,000 266,000 344,000 430,000 524,000 628,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
or IWRC

6×19 EIPS/WSC 6,800 15,100 26,600 41,200 58,800 103,400 159,800 228,000 264,000 306,000 396,000 494,000 604,000 722,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
or IWRC

6×19 CRS/ --- --- 22,800 35,000 49,600 85,400 129,400 180,500 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
IWRC2

6×37 IPS/FC2 --- --- 20,400 31,600 45,200 79,600 123,000 175,800 214,000 238,000 308,000 386,000 472,000 568,000 670,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

6×37 IPS/FC, 5,480 12,200 21,400 33,400 47,600 83,600 129,200 184,000 214,000 248,000 320,000 400,000 488,000 584,000 688,000 798,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
coml

6×37 IPS/IWRC, 5,880 13,120 23,000 35,800 51,200 89,800 138,800 197,800 230,000 266,000 344,000 430,000 524,000 628,000 740,000 858,000 982,000 1,114,000 --- --- --- --- ---
coml

6×37 EIPS/IWRC 6,800 15,100 26,600 41,200 58,800 103,400 159,800 228,000 264,000 306,000 396,000 494,000 604,000 722,000 850,000 984,000 1,128,000 1,282,000 --- --- --- --- ---

6×37 & 6×61 --- --- 22,000 34,000 48,600 85,600 132,200 189,000 230,000 256,000 330,000 414,000 508,000 610,000 720,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
IPS/ WSC or
IWRC2

6×37 CRS/ --- --- 20,400 31,300 44,400 77,300 118,300 166,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
IWRC2

6×61 IPS/FC --- --- --- --- --- 76,600 123,000 175,800 206,000 238,000 308,000 286,000 472,000 564,000 670,000 780,000 898,000 1,022,000 1,154,000 1,438,000 1,744,000 --- ---

6×61 IPS/IWRC --- --- --- --- --- 85,600 132,200 189,000 222,000 256,000 330,000 414,000 508,000 610,000 720,000 838,000 966,000 1,098,000 1,240,000 1,544,000 1,874,000 --- ---

6×61 EIPS/IWRC --- --- --- --- --- 98,200 152,200 218,000 254,000 292,000 380,000 478,000 584,000 700,000 428,000 966,000 1,110,000 1,264,000 1,426,000 1,776,000 2,156,000 --- ---

6×37 & 6×61 --- --- 25,200 39,200 55,800 98,200 152,200 216,000 264,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
EIPS/ WSC or
IWRC2

6×91 IPS/FC --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 292,000 366,000 450,000 540,000 636,000 742,000 852,000 --- --- --- --- --- ---

6×91 IPS/IWRC --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 314,000 394,000 484,000 580,000 684,000 798,000 916,000 1,044,000 1,178,000 1,468,000 1,782,000 2,120,000 2,480,000

6×91 EIPS/IWRC --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 362,000 454,000 554,000 666,000 786,000 916,000 1,054,000 1,200,000 1,354,000 1,688,000 2,048,000 2,438,000 2,852,000

8×19 IPS/FC 4,700 10,480 18,460 28,600 41,000 72,000 111,400 158,800 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

8×19 IPS/IWRC --- --- 20,200 31,400 43,000 79,200 122,600 174,600 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

8×19 EIPS/IWRC --- --- 23,200 36,200 51,800 91,000 141,000 200,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

18×7 IPS/FC & --- --- 19,700 30,600 43,600 76,600 118,400 168,800 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
19×7 IPS/IWRC

18×7 EIPS/FC & --- --- 21,600 33,600 48,000 84,400 130,200 185,600 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
19×7 EIPS/IWRC

6×3×7 & 6×3×19 --- 5,060 8,940 13,900 19,920 35,000 54,400 77,800 91,200 105,400 137,000 172,600 212,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Spring Lay

1 3 1 5 3
⁄4 ⁄8 ⁄2 ⁄8 ⁄4 1 11⁄ 4 11⁄ 2 15⁄ 8 13⁄ 4 2 21⁄ 4 21⁄ 2 23⁄ 4 3 31⁄ 4 31⁄ 2 33⁄ 4 4 41⁄ 2 5 51⁄ 2 6

1. Breaking strengths from AISI standards unless otherwise stated

2. MIL-STD-R-W-410D

3. Reduce breaking strength by 10% for galvanized rope

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Table 7-2. Wire Rope Linear Weight (Weights in lb/ft).

Rope Type Rope Diameter, inches

1 3 1 5 3
⁄4 ⁄8 ⁄2 ⁄8 ⁄4 1 11⁄ 4 11⁄ 2 15⁄ 8 13⁄ 4 2 21⁄ 4
6×7 FC 0.09 0.21 0.38 0.59 0.84 1.50 2.34 3.38 --- --- --- ---
6×7 IWRC 0.10 0.23 0.42 0.65 0.92 1.65 2.57 3.72 --- --- --- ---
6×19 FC 0.11 0.24 0.42 0.66 0.95 1.68 2.63 3.78 4.44 5.15 6.72 8.51
6×19 WSC or IWRC 0.12 0.26 0.46 0.72 1.04 1.85 2.89 4.16 4.88 5.67 7.39 9.36
6×37 FC 0.11 0.24 0.42 0.66 0.95 1.68 2.63 3.78 4.44 5.15 6.72 8.51
6×37 IWRC 0.12 0.26 0.46 0.72 1.04 1.85 2.89 4.16 4.88 5.67 7.39 9.36
6×61 FC --- --- --- --- --- 1.68 2.63 3.78 4.44 5.15 6.77 8.51
6×61 IWRC --- --- --- --- --- 1.85 2.89 4.16 4.88 5.67 7.39 9.36
6×91 FC --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 6.77 8.51
6×91 IWRC --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 7.39 9.36
8×19 FC 0.10 0.22 0.39 0.61 0.88 1.57 2.45 3.53 --- --- --- ---
8×19 IWRC --- --- 0.47 0.73 1.06 1.88 2.94 4.24 --- --- --- ---
18×7 FC --- --- 0.43 0.68 0.97 1.73 2.70 3.89 --- --- --- ---
19×7 IWRC --- --- 0.45 0.71 1.02 1.82 2.84 4.08 --- --- --- ---
6×3×7 & 6×3×19 Spring Lay --- 0.12 0.22 0.34 0.49 0.88 1.36 1.97 2.28 2.67 3.53 4.56

Rope Type Rope Diameter, inches

21⁄ 2 23⁄ 4 3 31⁄ 4 31⁄ 2 33⁄ 4 4 41⁄ 2 5 51⁄ 2 6

6×7 FC --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
6×7 IWRC --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
6×19 FC 10.5 12.7 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
6×19 WSC or IWRC 11.6 14.0 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
6×37 FC 10.5 12.7 15.1 17.7 --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
6×37 IWRC 11.6 14.0 16.6 19.5 22.7 26.0 --- --- --- --- ---
6×61 FC 10.5 12.7 15.1 17.7 20.6 23.6 26.9 34.0 42.0 --- ---
6×61 IWRC 11.6 14.0 16.6 19.5 22.7 26.0 29.6 37.4 46.2 --- ---
6×91 FC 10.5 12.7 15.1 17.7 20.6 --- --- --- --- --- ---
6×91 IWRC 11.6 14.0 16.6 19.5 22.7 26.0 29.6 37.4 46.2 54.5 65.0
8×19 FC --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
8×19 IWRC --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
18×7 FC --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
19×7 IWRC --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
6×3×7 & 6×3×19 Spring Lay 5.44 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

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7-2.9 Reserve Strength. The reserve strength of a wire rope is the combined strength of all
but the outside wires, and is a measure of an externally damaged rope’s resistance to sudden Table 7-3. Wire Rope Reserve Strength.
failure. Table 7-3 gives reserve strength—a percentage of the wire rope nominal strength—as
a function of the number of outside wires in each strand.
Number of Outside Wires Reserve Strength, %
7-2.10 Stretch. Wire rope elongation under load is the sum of constructional and elastic
stretch. The adjustment of wires and seating of strands on the core under load causes a perm-
3 0
anent constructional stretch. The amount of constructional stretch varies with rope construction
4 5
and loading from about one-fourth to one percent of the length of the rope. Constructional
stretch is smallest for IWRC ropes and largest for ropes with a fiber core and fiber strand 5 13
centers. Most of the constructional stretch occurs in the first few days or weeks of operation. 6 18
7 22
Elastic stretch is the temporary elongation of the wire while under load. The rope will return 8 27
to its preload length—including constructional stretch—if the rope has not exceeded its elastic 9 32
limit. For most ropes, the 10 36
elastic limit is about 60 12 43
Table 7-4. Wire Rope Modulus of Elasticity. percent of the breaking 14 49
strength. Elastic stretch is 16 54
calculated by: 18 58
Class Approximate Modulus of PL
∆L =
Elasticity (E), lb/in2 EAm

0 to 20% 21 to 65% where:

loading loading
P = load, lbs
6 × 7, fiber core 11,700,000 13,000,000 L = length of rope, in.
6 × 19, fiber core 10,800,000 12,000,000 Am = metal cross-section area, in2
E = modulus of elasticity of the rope, lb/in2
6 × 37, fiber core 9,900,000 11,000,000
and:
6 × 19, IWRC 13,500,000 15,000,000
The metal cross-section area (Am) is equal to d2f, where d is diameter and
6 × 37, IWRC 12,600,000 14,000,000
f is a compactness factor. E, the modulus of elasticity of the wire rope, is
8 × 19, fiber core 8,100,000 9,000,000 always less than the modulus of the parent metal, because the helical form
of the wires has greater elasticity than a straight bar of the same material.
Tables 7-4 and 7-5 give values of E and f for various constructions.
A rope that has been in service for some time may show a sudden and significant increase in stretch, usually accompanied by a reduction in
diameter. The increase in stretch indicates a serious loss of rope strength due to wear or wire breakage, or because the core has ceased to
support the strands. Operations should be suspended until the rope is replaced.

Table 7-5. Approximate Compactness Factor of Wire Ropes.

Compactness Factor (f) Compactness Factor (f)

Construction Construction
Fiber Core IWRC WSC Fiber Core IWRC WSC
5×7 0.390 0.457 6 × 37 FW 0.427 0.493
6×6 0.320 0.386 6 × 41 SFW 0.425 0.491
6×7 0.384 0.451 6 × 41 WS 0.424 0.490
6 × 12 0.232 6 × 42 Tiller 0.231
6 × 19 12/7 0.376 0.442 6 × 43 FWS 0.392 0.458
6 × 19 S 0.404 0.470 6 × 46 SFW 0.425 0.492
6 × 19 W 0.416 0.482 6 × 46 WS 0.426 0.492
6 × 21 FW 0.412 0.478 6 × 61 FWS 0.408 0.474
6 × 21 S 0.411 0.471 7×7 0.471
6 × 24 15/9 0.329 7 × 19 12/7 0.466
6 × 25 FW 0.417 0.483 7 × 19 W 0.505
6 × 26 WS 0.409 0.476 8×7 0.343 0.474
6 × 29 FW 0.420 0.486 8 × 19 12/7 0.333 0.464
6 × 31 12/19 0.385 0.452 8 × 19 S 0.359 0.472
6 × 31 WS 0.414 0.481 8 × 19 W 0.366 0.497
6 × 33 FW 0.423 0.490 8 × 25 W 0.368 0.499
6 × 36 WS 0.419 0.485 18 × 7 0.422
6 × 37 18/19 W 0.393 0.459 19 × 7 0.453

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7-2.11 Wire Rope Terminal Fittings.

Terminal fittings connect lengths of wire
rope conveniently to loads, hauling systems,
or to each other. Terminations are hard eyes WIRE ROPE SOCKET
with thimbles, soft eyes without thimbles, or POURED SPELTER OR RESIN 100%
specialized fittings. Eyes are made by
splicing, with wire rope clips, or with
swaged or pressed fittings. Not all term-
inations will develop full strength. Im- WIRE ROPE SOCKET
properly applied end fittings cause uneven SWAGED 100%
load distribution that may cause short service
life or failure at less than breaking strength.
Figure 7-5 shows common terminations, with
their strength ratings as a percentage of the MECHANICAL SPLICE
rope strength. Temporary terminations are SWAGED LOOP OR THIMBLE 90-95%
commonly made up with wire rope clips and
wedge sockets, because they can be installed
and removed quickly without special
equipment. If wire rope clips and wedge
sockets are applied improperly, as shown in
Figure 7-6, they will not develop full WEDGE SOCKET
strength, and can damage the rope, causing 75-90%
it to fail at less than rated strength. Only
properly trained and experienced personnel
should make terminations and splices. End
preparations, or beckets, shown in Figure 7-
7, are not terminal fittings. Beckets allow
CLIPS 80%
ropes to be pulled, or fairled, into position, NUMBER OF CLIPS VARIES WITH ROPE SIZE
and are designed to carry only a fraction of AND CONSTRUCTION (SEE NSTM 613)
the rope’s strength.
7-2.12 Bending Stresses. A tensioned
wire rope bent over a surface, such as a
sheave, roller, chock, etc., is subject to LOOP OR THIMBLE SPLICE
bending stresses in addition to the axial HAND-TUCKED 80-90%
stress created by the load. For a single
wire, the following relationships of solid
mechanics hold: Figure 7-5. Wire Rope Terminal Fittings.

EI σI
M = and, M =
r c
where:
M = bending moment
E = modulus of elasticity, from CORRECT
Table 7-4 U-BOLTS ON DEAD-END
I = moment of inertia of the wire 6-9 DIAMS.
r = bending radius CORRECT
σ = maximum bending stress in DEAD END
the wire
c = distance from the neutral axis NOT LONG LIVE
of the wire to its extreme ENOUGH END INCORRECT
fiber U-BOLTS ON ALTERNATE SIDES

Equating the two relationships and solving

for σ gives:
ENTERING
Ec
σ = WRONG SIDE
r INCORRECT
INCORRECT U-BOLTS ON LIVE END
Substituting the sheave radius, D/2, for r
and one-half the wire diameter, dw/2, for c: Figure 7-6. Correct & Incorrect Application of Temporary
Edw Wire Rope Terminations.
σ =
D

where:
D = sheave diameter
dw = wire diameter

7-8
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-6. Wire Rope Wire Diameter.

Diameter of outer
Class wires related to rope
diameter, d

6×7 d/9
6 × 19 d/13 - d/16
6 × 37 d/22
8 × 19 d/15 - d/19

Table 7-6 gives values for average wire

diameters for various constructions. The PADEYE LINK TAPERED AND TAPERED END
BECKET WELDED END WITH LOOP
increased stress due to bending is equiv-
alent to an added tensile load. The
equivalent load is determined by the Figure 7-7. Wire Rope Beckets.
following:
Pbending = σAm
where:
.50
GENERALLY TRANSITION ACCEPTABLE
Am = metal cross-section area = UNACCEPTABLE (ACCEPTABILITY
BENDING FACTOR, Kb

d2f (f is compactness factor .60 VARIES WITH

from Table 7-5) CONSTRUCTION)

.70
The bending load, in pounds, is estimated
from the following empirical relationship:
.80
 
= 
2.8 × 109 d 3 
Pbending  .90
 N 2R 
where: 1.00
2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30 34 38
D/d
d = wire rope diameter, in.
N = number of wires in the STRENGTH vs SHEAVE DIAMETER
wire rope (e.g., 114 for a 6
× 19, fiber-core rope)
R = bending radius, in.
10
An alternative to the above calculation for
6 × 19 and 6 × 37 class ropes is to estimate 20
the total load, including bending load, by a
D/d

bending factor (Kb) from the upper curve 30

in Figure 7-8:
Pstatic 40
Ptotal =
Kb
50
The lower curve in Figure 7-8 shows the
reduction in service life caused by bending. 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Bending stress exists only in the bent portion
of the rope. For any bending radius, SERVICE LIFE, %
maximum rope bending stress occurs when SERVICE LIFE vs SHEAVE DIAMETER
the length of contact is equal to one lay
length, because every wire experiences the
maximum stress simultaneously. Increasing Figure 7-8. Effect of Sheave Diameter on 6x19 and 6x37 Class Ropes.
contact length without increasing bending
radius does not reduce bending stress. The increased contact subjects a greater length of the rope to stress. Maximum bending stress in a wire rope
is the stress caused by the smallest bending radius in the system. Stress is independent of the number of sheaves or drums.

7-9
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

The cyclic stresses resulting from bending will shorten a wire rope’s service life because
of fatigue. Fatigue resistance (service life) increases as the ratio of drum diameter to wire
diameter (D/d) increases. Individual wires move relative to one another and to the bearing Table 7-7. Sheave and Drum Diameter
Ratios for Wire Rope.
surface as the rope bends, causing abrasion. Abrasive wear increases as D/d decreases.
Under heavy loads, the rope flattens against the bearing surface, increasing relative motion
between strands and wires. Lubrication and large D/d ratios mitigate the adverse affects Construction
Suggested Minimum
of bending. More flexible ropes tolerate smaller drum diameters. Table 7-7 gives D/d D/d
suggested and minimum D/d ratios for various constructions (as recommended by the U.S. 6×7 72 42
6 × 19 S 51 34
Navy and AISI). The absolute minimum D/d ratios correspond to rope efficiencies of
6 × 21 FW 45 30
approximately 90 percent (Kb = 0.9). 6 × 25 FW 39 26
6 × 26 WS 45 30
7-2.13 Drums and Sheaves. A drum is a flanged cylinder on which wire rope is wound 6 × 25B Flattened Strand 45 30
for storage or operation. The surface of the drum barrel may be grooved to guide the rope 6 × 27H Flattened Strand 45 30
for uniform winding and to support the rope without crushing it when tensioned. Sheaves 6 × 30G Flattened Strand 45 30
are grooved pulleys (see Figure 7-11) used to support or fairlead ropes. Rollers are 6 × 31 WS 39 26
relatively small-diameter cylinders or wide-faced sheaves used to support ropes. 6 × 36 WS 35 23
6 × 37 SFW 39 26
Rope running over a sheave bends going on and straightens coming off the sheave, i.e., the 6 × 41 SFW 32 21
6 × 41 WS 32 21
rope flexes twice. Rope going onto or coming off a drum flexes only once. Since rope 6 × 42 Tiller 21 14
service life depends on—to some extent—the number of times the rope flexes, theoretical 6 × 43 FWS 35 23
considerations call for sheaves to be larger than drums. Practical considerations, and 6 × 43 FW 28 18
recognition that in most naval usage, wire ropes wear out from causes other than bending, 6 × 46 SFW 28 18
result in sheaves often being smaller than drums. A drum should be large enough to wind 6 × 46 WS 28 18
the rope onto it in one layer; overwinding of layers of wire should be avoided, although this 6 × 49 SWS 32 21
is often not possible. The drum diameter should be at least 20 times the rope diameter for 8 × 19 S 41 27
a reasonable life for drum and rope, and 45 to 60 times the rope diameter for long life. 8 × 25 FW 32 21
18 × 7 51 34
19 × 7 51 34
The approximate capacity of a drum or reel for a uniformly wound rope can be derived as
Class Absolute Minimum D/d
follows: If the depth of rope on the drum is A, the drum barrel diameter is B, and drum
5 × 19 20
width between flanges C as shown in Figure 7-9, then the length of a single turn of rope
6×7 28
is πB. The number of turns in one layer on the drum is X = C/d, where d is the rope 6 × 12 14
diameter, and X is the integer portion of the result of the division C/d. The length of rope 6 × 19 20
on one layer is thus πBX. As shown in Figure 7-9, the center-to-center distance between 6 × 24 14
adjacent rope layers is 0.866d; discounting the 0.5d height to the center of the first layer, 6 × 31 16
the number of layers required to make up the depth of rope on the drum is Y = A/0.866d, 6 × 33 16
where Y is the integer portion of the result of the division. The effective drum diameter 6 × 37 14
for succeeding rope layers increases. The effective drum diameter for the last layer is
(B + A - d); to simplify calculations, the final diameter can be approximated as B + A. The average drum diameter is thus [B + (B + A)]/2.
The length of rope in an average turn on the drum is therefore π(2B + A)/2, the length on the average layer πX(2B + A)/2, and the total length
of rope to give a depth of A is:
2B A
L = πXY M
2
A H
where L = drum capacity for evenly wound
rope.
B 30˚
The above derivation assumes the same 2r = d h
number of turns on each layer. As the num-
ber of turns per layer will differ no more _
r=d
2
than two, the error resulting from this as- C
60˚ 60˚
sumption is insignificant unless the drum is
very narrow. New ropes, usually oversize by H = FLANGE DEPTH
1
⁄ 32-inch per inch of nominal diameter, take M = DESIRED CLEARANCE
A = ROPE DEPTH FOR EQUILATERAL
more space on a drum, as do randomly =H-M TRIANGLE
wound ropes. Drum capacity is approxi-
CROSS SECTION OF h = d sin 60
mately 0.94L for new ropes and 0.92L for DRUM DIMENSIONS ROPE LAYERS ON DRUM = 0.866 d
randomly wound ropes.
Fleet angle is the horizontal angle from Figure 7-9. Dimensions for Drum Capacity.
which the wire approaches the drum. To
avoid chafing and undue bending, the fleet
angle should not exceed 11⁄ 2 degrees. This equates to about 40 feet of lead for each foot of traverse, as shown in Figure 7-9. Because of the
close quarters on salvage ships and casualties, it is not always possible to provide adequate leads for winches. If wire leads to a winch from
a point where a stationary fairlead creates an excessive lead angle, a moving fairlead can be rigged as shown in Figure 7-10. A large shackle
can be substituted for the snatch block for low line tensions and small angles, but sheave blocks are preferred. Winches equipped with level
wind mechanisms can operate with larger fleet angles. Operating guides normally specify the maximum fleet angle.

7-10
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Sheaves and rollers should be grooved for

the specific rope size to prevent flattening FAIRLEAD
under heavy loads. Because the diameter of SHEAVE
a new rope is up to 5 percent greater than its
nominal diameter, grooves must have the
clearances shown in Figure 7-11. Table 7-8
gives required groove dimensions. Sheaves
should be in balance and aligned to prevent
swaying of the rope and abrasion against the
sheave flanges. Sheaves and drums should
be as large as practical to increase rope life,
but factors such as machinery weight,
60’ (LEAD)
headroom restrictions, and high-speed
operation call for small sheaves. Overall
economy and practicality often require SNATCH BLOCK LEFT RIGHT
sacrificing rope life. POSITIONED BY FLEET FLEET
PURCHASE OR ANGLE ANGLE
Reverse bending places severe stresses on a WINCH AS WIRE
TRACKS ACROSS
rope because stresses in the wire fibers DRUM. 1/2˚ 1/2˚
alternate between tension and compression. MIN MIN
1 1/2˚ 1 1/2˚
Reverse bends near one another have the MAX MAX
most adverse effect. Rope life in reverse
bending is only 40 to 50 percent of that in
continuous bending. For equal service life SMOOTH
of the rope, sheaves causing reverse bends FACE
DRUM
should be one-third to one-half larger than
other sheaves in the system. 1 1/2’ (TRAVERSE)

Table 7-8. Sheave and Drum Figure 7-10. Fleet Angle.

Groove Dimensions.

Nominal Rope Minimum Groove Radius (in.)

Diameter (in.) New Worn

1
⁄4 0.135 0.129 GROOVE
5
⁄ 16 0.167 0.160 DIA.
3
⁄8 0.201 0.190 3/4 DIA. + 5%
7
THROAT
⁄ 16 0.234 0.220 GROOVE
WIDTH
1
⁄2 0.271 0.256 GAGE
5 TREAD DIAMETER
⁄8 0.334 0.320
3
⁄4 0.401 0.380 PITCH DIAMETER
7
⁄8 0.468 0.440 OUTSIDE DIAMETER
1 0.543 0.513
11⁄ 8 0.605 0.577 GROOVE DIAMETER TOLERANCES
11⁄ 4 0.669 0.639 NOM. WIRE ROPE DIAMETER GROOVE DIAMETER TOLERANCES
11⁄ 2 0.803 0.759 1/4 - 5/16 + 1/64 MIN TO 1/32 MAX
15⁄ 8 0.876 0.833 3/8 - 3/4 +1/32 MIN TO 1/16 MAX
13⁄ 4 0.939 0.897 1 3/16 - 1-1/8 +3/64 MIN TO 3/32 MAX
17⁄ 8 1.003 0.959 1 3/16 - 1-1/2 +1/16 MIN TO 1/8 MAX
1 9/16 - 2-1/4 +3/32 MIN TO 1/4 MAX
2 1.085 1.025
2 5/16 AND LARGER +1/8 MIN TO 1/4 MAX
21⁄ 4 1.210 1.153
21⁄ 2 1.338 1.279
23⁄ 4 1.481 1.409 GROOVE GROOVE ORIGINAL ORIGINAL
DIA. DIA. GROOVE GROOVE
3 1.607 1.538 DIA. DIA.
31⁄ 4 1.731 1.658
31⁄ 2 1.869 1.794
33⁄ 4 1.997 1.918
4 2.139 2.050 ROPE WORN
41⁄ 4 2.264 2.178 GROOVE
DIA.
41⁄ 2 2.396 2.298
43⁄ 4 2.534 2.434 (a) GROOVE TOO (b) CORRECT FIT (c) CORRECTLY DESIGNED (d) NEW ROPE OF NOMINAL
LARGE, INSUF- GROOVE DIA. SHEAVE WITH GROOVE DIA. IN GROOVE WORN
5 2.663 2.557 FICIENT SUPPORT SLIGHTLY LARGER WORN TO DECREASED BY PREVIOUS ROPE OF
51⁄ 4 2.804 2.691 FOR ROPE THAN ROPE DIA. DIA. OF ROPE DECREASED DIA.
51⁄ 2 2.929 2.817
53⁄ 4 3.074 2.947
Figure 7-11. Sheave Groove Nomenclature, Proportions, and Tolerances.
6 3.198 3.075

7-11
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-9. Allowable Bearing Pressures on Sheaves. Table 7-10. Knuckle Block Allowable Radial Pressure Exponents.

Allowable Pressure for Rope Class, psi Radial Pressure Exponent (c) for Rope Class:
Sheave Material Regular Lay Rope Lang Lay Rope Sheave Material
6×7 6 × 19 6 × 37 8 × 19 6 × 7 6 × 19 6 × 37 8 × 19 Regular Lay Rope Lang Lay Rope
1
Wood 150 250 300 350 165 275 330 400 6×7 6 × 19 6 × 37 6×7 6 × 19 6 × 37
Cast Iron2 300 480 585 680 350 550 660 800
Cast Steel3 550 900 1,075 1,260 600 1,000 1,180 1,450 Wood 1.565 1.745 1.835 1.60 1.78 1.875
Chilled Cast Iron4 650 1,100 1,325 1,550 715 1,210 1,450 1,780 Cast Iron 1.825 2.0585 2.19 1.885 2.11 2.35
Manganese Steel 1,470 2,400 3,000 3,500 1,650 2,750 3,300 4,000
Notes: 1 On end grain of beech, hickory, gum Cast Steel 2.1145 2.43 2.615 2.16 2.50 2.7
2 Based on Brinell hardness of 125
3 Based on 30-40 carbon steel with Brinell hardness of 160 Manganese Steel 2.88 3.525 3.98 2.98 3.68 4.185
4 Not advised unless surface is of uniform hardness

7-2.14 Radial Pressure. Tension on a

wire rope led over a curved surface causes
a radial pressure on the surface. For α
ordinary sheaves, where the arc of contact ROPE TENSION (T)
is greater than one lay length:
α
2T
p =
Dd

where:

p = radial pressure, psi

T = rope load, lbd SIN α
= 2T SIN α
SIN (90 - α )
D = tread diameter of drum/ ROPE PRESSURE (P) = T
2
sheave, in. 2
d = nominal rope diameter, in.
Figure 7-12. Knuckle or Fairlead Sheave.
Table 7-9 gives allowable bearing pressures
for different bearing surfaces, from the
standpoint of sheave design only. If the
sheave material is too soft, rapid wear
reduces both sheave and rope life. A badly
worn groove causes pinching, grinding, and
α = .01746Rα
ARC LENGTH L = 2π R 360 TOTAL ANGLE OF DEPARTURE (α)
increased abrasion. A hard material causes
only light surface abrasion.
L
If the arc of contact is less than one lay N-1 TENSION (T)
length, the sheave is a knuckle or fairlead
sheave, or curve sheave (multiple sheaves),
illustrated in Figures 7-12 and 7-13.
RADIUS (R) (FEET)
For knuckle sheaves:
 sinα  α
p = T   = 2Tsin   α
 α  2
 sin(90 )
 2  N = NUMBER OF SHEAVES
N - 1 = NUMBER OF SPACES
where:

p = rope pressure, lbs

T = rope tension, lbs TL
PRESSURE PER SHEAVE = = T x SPACING BETWEEN SHEAVES (FEET)
α = contact angle = angle of R(N - 1) R
departure, degrees

The allowable pressure is Dc, where the ex- Figure 7-13. Curve Sheaves.
ponent c depends upon construction and
sheave material. Table 7-10 gives values of c.

7-12
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

For curve sheaves:

α 
L = 2πR   = 0.01746Rα
 360 

=   × spacing between sheaves

TL T
p =
(R(N 1))  
R

where:
6 x 7 ROPES 6 x 19 AND 6 x 37 ROPES

SHEAVE DIAMETER IN TERMS OF ROPE DIAMETER (D)

L = contact arc length, ft 120D 120D
R = arc radius, ft
α = total contact angle = total 108D 108D

angle of departure, degrees 96D 96D

p = rope pressure per sheave, lbs PROPER SHEAVES PROPER SHEAVES
N = number of sheaves 84D 84D
T = rope tension, lbs
72D 72D
The curves in Figure 7-14 show the zones
that fix the character of the sheaves or rol- 60D 60D
lers. Ropes should not be bent around rol- 34D 34D
lers, as the smaller bending radius will re- 48D CURVE 48D
42D OR 42D CURVE
sult in very high rope stresses and radial KNUCKLE
36D SHEAVES
OR
36D KNUCKLE
pressures. 30D SHEAVES
28D 24D
7-2.15 Wire Rope Selection. Breaking SUPPORTING 16D
strength, fatigue resistance, crushing resist- MINIMUM TREAD
ROLLERS
MINIMUM TREAD SUPPORTING
ance, etc., and availability establish the base 7D DIAMETER ROLLER 6D DIAMETER ROLLER ROLLERS
for conventional wire rope selection. An 0 5˚ 10˚ 15˚ 20˚ 25˚ 30˚ 35˚ 40˚ 45˚ 0 5˚ 10˚ 15˚ 20˚ 25˚ 30˚ 35˚ 40˚ 45˚
approximate selection formula is written as: ARC OF CONTACT OR ANGLE OF ROPE ARC OF CONTACT OR ANGLE OF ROPE
DEPARTURE OVER SHEAVE DEPARTURE OVER SHEAVE
(NS)Kb
DSL =
Ks
Figure 7-14. Sheave Categories.
where:

DSL = demanded static load = known or dead load plus additional loads caused by sudden starts and stops, shocks, bearing friction, etc.
NS = nominal strength = published test strength
Kb = bending factor from the curves in Figure 7-8
Ks = safety factor, chosen as discussed below

In salvage, the selection of wire rope may be limited to those ropes already on site. Handling capabilities can limit the weight and size of rope
that can be brought to or employed at the site (Table 7-2 gives weight per unit length for common wire ropes). In some situations, rigging
systems are made up entirely by hand, or some connections are made by divers. In other cases, drum space limitations may force the use of
a smaller diameter wire to gain length. When wire rope selection is limited, the selection formula may be modified to:
(NS L)Kb
SL =
Ks
where:

SL = permissible static load

L = additional loads caused by sudden starts and stops, shocks, bearing friction, weight of wire rope and fittings, etc.

Paragraph 7-7 discusses loads and stresses due to shock loads, friction, platform list and motion, etc.
A safety factor is selected after careful consideration of loads, accelerations, shocks, rope speeds, rope attachments, sheave arrangements and
sizes, environment, etc. For standard Navy practice, safety factors are 31⁄ 2 for standing rigging, 5 for running rigging, and 8 to 12 for situations
with danger to life. The safety factors are higher than those required for structural components under similar loading because:

• There is uncertainty about the failure mode of wire rope.

• Loads due to shock, platform motion, wind, etc., are difficult to quantify.

• The effects of corrosion, abrasion, fatigue, damage to individual wires, etc., reduce the strength of wire rope over time.

• There is serious hazard to life and property from unexpected failure of hoisting and hauling ropes.

• Keeping stress levels well below breaking strength extends service life.

7-13
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-11. Diagnostic Guide to Common Wire Rope Degradation.

Mode Symptoms Possible Causes

Fatigue Wire breaks are transverse—either straight across or Z Rope bent around too small a radius; vibration or whipping; wobbly
shape. Broken ends appear grainy. sheaves; rollers too small; reverse bends; bent shafts; tight grooves;
corrosion; small drums and sheaves; incorrect rope construction; improper
See Figures 7-17 and 7-18. installation; poor end terminations. (In the absence of other modes of
degradation, all rope will eventually fail in fatigue.)
Tension Wire breaks show a mix cup and cone fracture and shear Overloads; sticky, grabby clutches; jerky conditions; loose bearing on drum;
breaks. fast starts, fast stops, broken sheave flange; wrong rope size and grade;
poor end terminations. Excessive strain on rope degraded by other
See Figures 7-16 and 7-17. factors.
Abrasion Outer wires worn smooth to knife edge thinness. Wire Change in rope or sheave size; change in load; overburden change; frozen
broken by abrasion in combination with another factor will or stuck sheaves; soft rollers, sheaves or drums; excessive fleet angle;
show a combination break. misalignment of sheaves; kinks; improperly attached fittings; grit and sand;
objects imbedded in rope; improper grooving.
See Figure 7-21.
Abrasion plus Reduced cross section is broken off square producing a A long-term condition normal to the operating process.
Fatigue chisel shape.
Abrasion plus Reduced cross section is necked down as in a cup and cone A long-term condition normal to the operating process.
Tension configuration. Tensile break produces a chisel shape.
Cut or Gouged or Wire ends are pinched down, mashed and/or cut in a rough Any of the above conditions; abnormal or accidental forces during
Rough Wire diagonal shear-like manner. installation.
Torsion or Twisting Wire ends show evidence of twist and/or cork-screw effect.
Mashing Wires are flattened and spread at broken ends. Any of the above conditions; abnormal or accidental forces during instal-
lation. (A common occurrence on the drum.)
Corrosion Wire surfaces are pitted with breaks showing evidence of Improper lubrication or storage; corrosive environment.
fatigue, tension, or abrasion.

See also Paragraph 7-2.16 and Figures 7-15 through 7-22.

7-2.16 Wire Rope Inspection. Salvors should recognize strength-degrading damage to wire ropes and remove damaged ropes from service.
Ropes in service should receive almost constant visual inspection and should be examined thoroughly before and after use. The nature and
recurrence of wire rope damage can indicate improperly functioning sheaves, rollers, or other components of the system. The following is a
fairly comprehensive listing of critical inspection factors, presented as a user’s guide to accepted standards of wire rope inspection. An
inspector’s ability to detect damage or critically degrading conditions depends chiefly on his experience with similar ropes. Table 7-11 is a quick
reference for diagnosing wire rope degradation.

• Abrasion. Rope abrades in normal service as it moves over drums and sheaves. Abrasion is increased by operation in abrasive
environments. Most standards require rope replacement when the outer wires have been reduced to two-thirds of their original
diameter.

• Elongation. The causes and consequences of wire rope elongation are discussed in Paragraph 7-2.10. Ropes with permanent
elongations greater than one percent of the original length should be removed from service. Elongation is impossible to determine
if the original rope length is not known.

• Reduced Rope Diameter. Reduced diameter indicates degradation. Reduced diameter may result from excessive abrasion of
outside wires, collapse of core support, corrosion, loosening or tightening of rope lay, inner wire breakage, rope stretch, or ironing
of strands. Many standards (including the Navy’s) require replacement when a rope’s diameter is less than published minimum
diameters. However, published minimum diameters do not account for the actual diameter of the rope or differences in
compressibility between IWRC and fiber-core ropes. All ropes will show a significant reduction in diameter when loaded. A rope
whose original diameter is only slightly larger than its nominal diameter may be reduced to a diameter smaller than its published
minimum on initial loading, even though the rope is not degraded. A more dangerous situation occurs when a rope’s original
diameter is near the upper allowable limits. Such a rope may be dangerously degraded even though its diameter is greater than
the published minimum. A wire rope’s continued service should therefore not be based solely on its diameter being greater than
a published minimum. Evaluation of rope diameter should be based on comparison with the rope’s diameter when new, and under
conditions similar to those at the time of the inspection.

• Core Deterioration. Core deterioration or collapse can be indicated by a reduction in diameter that is more rapid than from other
causes, and is cause for removing the rope from service, regardless of its diameter. Loss of core support causes strand nicking,
small depressions or nicks in individual wires caused by the wires bearing heavily on one another as the rope works under load.
Typical strand nicks are shown in Figure 7-15.

7-14
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

• Corrosion. Corrosion is a serious cause of degradation, and is difficult to evaluate. It reduces cross-sectional area of the individual
wires and prevents the rope’s component parts from moving smoothly over each other as the rope flexes. Corrosion usually results
from insufficient lubrication and/or operation in harsh environments. Severe rusting leads to premature fatigue failure. Ropes with
corrosion that reduces diameter of outer wires by one-half or causes deep pits should be removed from service. In most cases,
a slight discoloration due to rusting only indicates the need for lubrication.

• Broken Wires. The number of broken

wires on the outside of a wire rope is
an index of its general condition. The
number and distribution of broken
wires provide criteria for removing
ropes from service:

(1) Running ropes – six or more

randomly broken wires in one rope
lay, or three or more broken wires
in one strand in one rope lay.

(2) Standing ropes – three or more

broken wires in one rope lay.

Where there are any broken wires

within one rope lay of an attached end
fitting, the end of the rope should be
cut off and a new termination installed.
Figure 7-15. Strand Nicking. Once broken wires begin to appear in
a rope in service, many more will
follow in a short period—the rope is
nearing the end of its useful life.

Broken wires on the outer surface of

the strands are called crown breaks,
and those in wires between strands are
called valley breaks. Valley breaks are
more serious than crown breaks
because they are symptoms of core
failure and subsequent strand nicking.
One valley break near a termination or
two valley breaks elsewhere is reason
to replace the rope.
Figure 7-16. Typical Tension Break.
Figure 7-16 shows a wire rope that has
failed in tension. Individual wires that
have failed in tension show a
characteristic cup and cone fracture,
illustrated in Figure 7-17(a). Wires
(a) TENSION (b) SHEAR-TENSILE that have failed in shear, or combined
shear and tension, will break on an
angle, as shown in Figure 7-17(b).
(c) FATIGUE (d) FATIGUE
• Fatigue. Wires broken with square
ends and little surface wear have
Figure 7-17. Wire Breakage. usually failed as a result of fatigue.
Typical fatigue breaks are shown in
Figure 7-17(c) and (d). It is common
for a number of wires to fail in fatigue
over a short period of time, as shown
in Figure 7-18. In almost all cases,
fatigue breaks are caused by bending
stresses or vibration. Fatigue is
reduced by using larger drums,
sheaves, and rollers, or by using more
Figure 7-18. Fatigue Failure.
flexible rope

7-15
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

• Kinks. Kinks are permanent distortions that result when loops are pulled too tightly. An open kink opens the rope lay, while a closed
kink twists the lay more tightly, as shown in Figure 7-19. The rope is seriously weakened in the vicinity of the kink.

• Bird Caging. Bird cages, like that shown in Figure 7-20, result from torsional imbalance in the rope caused by sudden release of tension,
pulling the rope through tight sheaves or over small drums, or sudden stops that cause the load to bounce and slack the rope.

• Peening. Like abrasion, peening reduces

rope diameter and flattens the outer
wires. Peening does not remove as
much metal as abrasion, but work
hardens the affected wires. These wires
are then more susceptible to bending
fatigue. Peening is distinguished from
OPEN KINK abrasion by careful examination of the
wires. The outer surface of peened
wires have a hammered appearance and
have been flattened by spreading to the
sides—the wire is deformed from its
original circular cross section and may
be wider than its original diameter.
Cracks or breaks, caused by work hard-
CLOSED KINK ening, may be present. The surfaces of
abraded wires have a ground or polished
Figure 7-19. Open and Closed Kinks. appearance, and the inner sides retain
their circular perimeters. Figure 7-21
compares the cross section of peened
and abraded wires. Peening results from
one of two causes:
(1) Continuous pounding, as when the
rope beats against a hard object,
roller, or itself.
(2) Continuous working under high
loads over a drum or sheave.
Peening can be prevented by placing
chafing gear or other protectors between
the rope and the object it is striking.
Figure 7-20. Bird Cage.
• Scrubbing. Scrubbing is the
displacement of wires and strands as the
rope rubs against itself or other objects.
METAL WIRE FLATTENED
ABRADED AND SPREAD BY This, in turn, causes uneven wear along
AWAY POUNDING one side of the rope.

• Obvious Damage. Improper or mal-

functioning sheaves, rollers, etc., cause
serious deformations. Rope with
crushed, jammed, or flattened strands,
FATIGUE high-stranded or unlaid lengths, kinks,
CRACKS bulges, gaps or excessive clearance
MAY BE
PRESENT between strands, popped cores (Figure 7-
ABRASION PEENING
22), broken strands, torch burns, electric
arc strikes, or serious strand nicking
should be removed from service.
Figure 7-21. Peening and Abrasion. Sections with localized damage can be
cut out and the good portions of the rope
used.

• End Fittings. Cracked, corroded, bent,

worn, or improperly installed fittings
should be replaced.
The Navy’s Preventive Maintenance System
(PMS) specifies inspection and replacement
criteria for various wire ropes, including
beach gear and heavy-lift wires. PMS
standards should be followed except in cases
of emergency or operational necessity.
Figure 7-22. Popped Core.

7-16
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-3.4 Anchor/Mooring Chain. There are

three types of heavy chain produced for use Table 7-12. ASTM Specifications for Alloy Steel Chain.
in anchoring or mooring systems and
similar applications:
Grades 63 and 80
• Stud-link chain (welded stud-
link, cast stud-link, and Di- Nominal Minimum Breaking Strength (lbs) Weight per 100 ft Length per 100 links
Lok chain). Diameter (in.) Grade 63 Grade 80 (max) (in.)

• Large-diameter, special- 7
9
⁄ 32 6,900 8,700 50 76
purpose open link chain (such ⁄ 32 11,400 14,400 84 98
5
as buoy chain and marine ⁄ 16 14,000 17,800 120 110
3
railway hauling chain). ⁄8 20,200 25,600 176 134
1
⁄2 35,900 45,600 300 160
•
5
⁄8 56,100 71,200 453 200
Square section (open or stud- 3
⁄4 80,800 102,600 655 235
link) chain. 7
⁄8 110,000 139,600 910 270
1 143,600 182,400 1,170 280
Stud-link chain is preferable for virtually all 11⁄ 4 224,400 285,000 1,765 371
salvage applications. Special-purpose open
link and square link chains are discussed
briefly, however, as circumstances may
Proof Coil Steel Chain (NACM Grade 28)
force their use.
Nominal inside link
Different types of chain are manufactured Max length,
dimensions (in.) Weight per Working- Min.
to government (MILSPEC) or commercial Trade size Actual size 100 links Min. proof
100 ft (lbs) load limit break-test
standards, which specify geometry, (in.) (in.) Length Width (in.) load (lbs)
(lbs) (lbs)
dimensions, breaking strength, proof load, 3 7
and metallurgical qualities. Figure 7-24 ⁄ 16 ⁄ 32 0.95 0.40 99 42 750 1,500 3,000
1 9
shows standard chain dimensions and ⁄4 ⁄ 32 1.00 0.50 104 76 1,250 2,500 5,000
5 11
nomenclature. Classification societies and ⁄ 16 ⁄ 32 1.10 0.50 114 115 1,875 3,750 7,500
3 13
the American Petroleum Institute (API) set ⁄8 ⁄ 32 1.23 0.62 128 166 2,625 5,250 10,500
7 15
commercial standards. Some manufacturers ⁄ 16 ⁄ 32 1.37 0.75 142 225 3,450 6,900 13,800
1 17
⁄2 ⁄ 32 1.50 0.81 156 286 4,500 9,000 18,000
produce special-purpose chain for which 5 21
⁄8 ⁄ 32 1.87 1.00 194 425 6,800 13,600 27,200
there are no industry standards. Tables 7- 3 25
⁄4 ⁄ 32 2.12 1.12 220 605 9,500 19,000 38,000
13 through 7-18 take chain characteristics 7 29
⁄8 ⁄ 32 2.50 1.37 260 811 11,375 22,750 45,500
from MILSPEC, ABS, API, or manu-
1 11⁄ 32 2.75 1.50 286 1,045 13,950 27,900 55,800
facturer’s standards.

Mooring chain is commonly made up in

High-Test Steel Chain (NACM Grade 43)
standard shots (shackles in the United
Kingdom) of 15 fathoms (90 feet or 27.5
meters). Most manufacturers produce both Nominal inside link
Max length,
dimensions (in.) Weight per Working- Min.
half-shots and long continuous lengths. Trade size Actual size 100 links Min. proof
100 ft (lbs) load limit break-test
Pendants, or short shots, are made up as (in.) (in.) Length Width (in.) load (lbs)
(lbs) (lbs)
required. Three or four extra links for 9
proof, Charpy impact, and other tests are ⁄ 32 0.82 0.39 86 80 2,500 4,100 7,750
5 11
usually included in manufactured lengths. ⁄ 16 ⁄ 32 1.01 0.48 105 123 4,000 6,700 11,500
3 13
Normally, chain is 100 percent proof-tested; ⁄8 ⁄ 32 1.15 0.56 121 175 5,100 8,500 16,200
7 15
Navy specifications require proof-testing. ⁄ 16 ⁄ 32 1.29 0.65 135 235 6,600 11,200 20,700
1 17
⁄2 ⁄ 32 1.43 0.75 150 300 8,200 13,700 26,000
5 21
7-3.5 Stud-Link Chain. Chain links with ⁄8 ⁄ 32 1.79 0.90 186 450 11,500 19,500 36,900
3 25
⁄4 ⁄ 32 1.96 1.06 205 655 16,200 27,000 50,400
center studs are stud-links. The stud 7 29
⁄8 ⁄ 32 2.25 1.09 234 814 22,500 45,000 90,000
prevents the links from turning sideways or
1 113⁄ 32 2.63 1.25 273 1,064 26,500 53,000 106,000
kinking, and prevents adjacent links from
pounding on one another when the chain is
dropped or alternately slacked and High-Strength Binding Chain (NACM Grade 28)
tensioned. The stud resists the tendency of
the sides to deform under load, increasing Trade size Max weight, Working-load Min. proof
the proof load relative to open link chain of Min. break-test (lbs)
(in.) 100 ft (lbs) limit (lbs) load (lbs)
the same size and metallurgical quality, but
does not increase breaking strength. Stud- 1
⁄
4
84 3,150 6,300 12,600
link chain has a higher load rating than 5
⁄16 123 4,700 9,400 18,800
open-link chain because safe working loads 3
⁄
8 176 6,600 13,200 26,400
are based on proof load. Proof load for 7
⁄16 235 8,750 17,500 35,000
stud-link chain is about 65 to 78 percent of 1
⁄
2 300 11,300 22,600 42,200
breaking strength, and can be taken as two-
thirds of breaking strength.

7-18
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Figure 7-25 shows three types of stud-link

chain: LINK

d CHAIN
• Welded Stud-Link, DIAMETER
PITCH

• Forged Integral Stud (Di-

Lok), and
GRIP 3.6d

• Cast Stud-Link. STUD

7-3.6 Welded Stud-Link Chain. Six

standard grades of welded stud-link chain
are manufactured in the United States: 6.0d

• USN stud-link chain (MIL-C-

24633 and MIL-C-78096A), Figure 7-24. General Features of Stud-Link Chain.

• ABS grade 1, 2, 3, and 4

chain, and

• API Oil Rig Quality (ORQ)

chain.

In the most common manufacturing

process, a steel rod is forged into a link
WELD WELD
shape with the ends of the rod meeting on
the side of the link. The ends of the rod
LINK WITH DOUBLE STUD-WELD
are joined by flash butt-welding. The stud PRESSED-IN STUD
is inserted before the link cools and the link
FLASH BUTT-WELDED STUD LINKS
is pressed together on the stud. To prevent
stud loss in USN, ORQ, and ABS grade 4
chain, one end of the stud is welded to the
side wire. Both ends of the stud are
sometimes welded to the side wires to
prevent crevice corrosion between the stud
and side wires. The double weld does not
increase strength. Some manufacturers seal
weld the studs on grade 1, 2, or 3 chain
DI-LOK LINK CAST CHAIN LINK
when specified by the customer.

Tables 7-13 and 7-14 (Pages 7-20 and Figure 7-25. Stud-Link Chain.
7-21) list characteristics of USN and
commercial stud-link chain (Table 3-11 in
the Salvor’s Handbook, S0300-A7-HBK-010, gives some of the same information for a more limited size range). ORQ chain is slightly stronger
than ABS grade 3 chain. For 17⁄ 8-inch chain diameter and smaller, USN chain is slightly stronger than ABS grade 3 chain; 2-inch and larger
USN chain has the same strength as grade 3 chain. ABS grade 3 or better chain is an acceptable substitute for USN chain for most applications.
Most anchor chain in commercial service is Grade 2.

Stud-link chain is used widely for permanent moorings, towing bridles, anchor chain on Navy and merchant ships, and in other marine ap-
plications. Large quantities of chain are held at Naval Facilities Engineering (NAVFAC) commands, Naval shipyards, and in the ESSM system.

7-19
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-13. Navy Stud-Link Chain (MIL-C-24633).

L
A

TYPE I AND TYPE II

Minimum
Length of six consecutive links, L (inches) breaking Weight
Size, A Number of links Proof load
strength per shot
(in.) per shot Minimum Nominal Maximum (pounds)
(pounds) (pounds)

3
⁄4 359 193⁄ 8 191⁄ 2 1913⁄ 16 48,000 75,000 480
7 5 3 1
⁄8 305 22 ⁄ 8 22 ⁄ 4 23 ⁄ 16 64,400 98,000 660
1 267 257⁄ 8 26 263⁄ 8 84,000 129,000 860
1 1 1 5
1 ⁄8 237 29 ⁄ 16 29 ⁄ 4 29 ⁄ 8 106,000 161,000 1,080
1 5 1 15
1 ⁄4 213 32 ⁄ 16 32 ⁄ 2 32 ⁄ 16 130,000 198,000 1,350
3 9 3 1
1 ⁄8 193 35 ⁄ 16 35 ⁄ 4 36 ⁄ 4 157,000 235,000 1,630
11⁄ 2 177 3813⁄ 16 39 391⁄ 2 185,000 280,000 1,940
5 1 7
1 ⁄8 165 42 42 ⁄ 4 42 ⁄ 8 216,000 325,000 2,240
3 1 1 1
1 ⁄4 153 45 ⁄ 4 45 ⁄ 2 46 ⁄ 8 249,000 380,000 2,590
7 1 3 1
1 ⁄8 143 48 ⁄ 2 48 ⁄ 4 49 ⁄ 2 285,000 432,000 2,980
2 135 5111⁄ 16 52 523⁄ 4 318,000 454,000 3,360
1 15 1 1
2 ⁄8 125 54 ⁄ 16 55 ⁄ 4 56 ⁄ 8 357,000 510,000 3,790
1 3 1 3
2 ⁄4 119 58 ⁄ 16 58 ⁄ 2 59 ⁄ 8 396,000 570,000 4,250
3 7 3 3
2 ⁄8 113 61 ⁄ 16 61 ⁄ 4 62 ⁄ 4 440,000 628,000 4,730
21⁄ 2 107 6411⁄ 16 65 66 484,000 692,000 5,270
5 7 1 1
2 ⁄8 101 67 ⁄ 8 68 ⁄ 4 69 ⁄ 4 530,000 758,000 5,820
3 1 1 9
2 ⁄4 97 71 ⁄ 8 71 ⁄ 2 72 ⁄ 16 578,000 826,000 6,410
7 3 3 7
2 ⁄8 93 74 ⁄ 8 74 ⁄ 4 75 ⁄ 8 628,000 897,000 7,020
3 89 775⁄ 8 78 793⁄ 16 679,000 970,000 7,650
1 13 1 1
3 ⁄8 87 80 ⁄ 16 81 ⁄ 4 82 ⁄ 2 732,000 1,046,000 8,320
1 1 1 3
3 ⁄4 83 84 ⁄ 16 84 ⁄ 2 85 ⁄ 4 787,000 1,124,000 9,010
3 5 3
3 ⁄8 79 87 ⁄ 16 87 ⁄ 4 89 843,000 1,204,000 9,730
31⁄ 2 77 909⁄ 16 91 925⁄ 16 900,000 1,285,000 10,500
35⁄ 8 73 9313⁄ 16 941⁄ 4 955⁄ 8 958,000 1,369,000 11,300
3 1 1 7
3 ⁄4 71 97 ⁄ 16 97 ⁄ 2 98 ⁄ 8 1,019,000 1,455,000 12,000
7 1 3 3
3 ⁄8 69 100 ⁄ 4 100 ⁄ 4 102 ⁄ 16 1,080,000 1,543,000 12,900
4 67 1031⁄ 2 104 1051⁄ 2 1,143,000 1,632,000 13,700
3 15 1 5
4 ⁄4 57 122 ⁄ 16 123 ⁄ 2 125 ⁄ 16 1,700,000 2,550,000 18,900

7-20
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-14. Commercial Stud-Link Chain (ABS) (All Loads in Pounds).

L
A

Chain Length of Weight in Oil Rig Quality1

Grade 1 Grade 2 Grade 3 Grade 4
Diameter, A Five Links, L Pounds per
inches inches Proof Breaking Proof Breaking Proof Breaking Proof Breaking 15 Fathoms Proof Breaking
Load Load Load Load Load Load Load Load Load Load
1
⁄2 11 10700 15300 15300 21400 21400 30600 230
9
⁄ 16 123⁄ 8 13500 19300 19300 27000 27000 38600 290
5
⁄8 133⁄ 4 16600 23700 23700 33200 33200 47500 370
11
⁄ 16 151⁄ 8 20100 28600 28600 40100 40100 57300 410
3
⁄4 161⁄ 2 23800 34000 34000 47600 47600 68000 480
13
⁄ 16 177⁄ 8 27800 39800 39800 55700 55700 79500 570
7
⁄8 191⁄ 4 32200 46000 46000 64400 64400 91800 660
15
⁄ 16 205⁄ 8 36800 52600 52600 73700 73700 105000 760
1 22 41800 59700 59700 83600 83600 119500 860 84000 129000
11⁄ 16 233⁄ 8 47000 67200 67200 94100 94100 135000 970
11⁄ 8 243⁄ 4 52600 75000 75000 105000 105000 150000 1080 106000 161000
13⁄ 16 261⁄ 8 58400 83400 83400 116500 116500 167000 1220
11⁄ 4 271⁄ 2 64500 92200 92200 129000 129000 184000 1350 130000 198000
15⁄ 16 287⁄ 8 70900 101500 101500 142000 142000 203000 1490
13⁄ 8 301⁄ 4 77500 111000 111000 155000 155000 222000 1630 157000 235000
17⁄ 16 315⁄ 8 84500 120500 120500 169000 169000 241000 1780
11⁄ 2 33 91700 131000 131000 183500 183500 262000 1940 185000 280000
19⁄ 16 343⁄ 8 99200 142000 142000 198500 198500 284000 2090
15⁄ 8 353⁄ 4 108000 153000 153000 214000 214000 306000 2240 216000 325000
111⁄ 16 371⁄ 8 115000 166500 166500 229000 229000 327000 2410
13⁄ 4 381⁄ 2 123500 176000 176000 247000 247000 352000 2590 249000 380000
113⁄ 16 397⁄ 8 132000 188500 188500 264000 264000 377000 2790
17⁄ 8 411⁄ 4 140500 201000 201000 281000 281000 402000 2980 285000 432000
115⁄ 16 425⁄ 8 149500 214000 214000 299000 299000 427000 3180
2 44 159000 227000 227000 318000 318000 454000 485600 616000 3360 322000 488000
21⁄ 16 453⁄ 8 168500 241000 241000 337000 337000 482000 523700 665400 3570 342000 518000
21⁄ 8 463⁄ 4 178500 255000 255000 357000 357000 510000 562000 712600 3790 362000 548000
23⁄ 16 481⁄ 8 188500 269000 269000 377000 377000 538000 602400 764300 4020 382500 579100
21⁄ 4 491⁄ 2 198500 284000 284000 396000 396000 570000 622600 790100 4250 403000 610000
25⁄ 16 507⁄ 8 209000 299000 299000 418000 418000 598000 642900 816000 4490 425000 642500
23⁄ 8 521⁄ 4 212000 314000 314000 440000 440000 628000 685600 870000 4730 447000 675000
27⁄ 16 535⁄ 8 231000 330000 330000 462000 462000 660000 728300 926200 4960 469500 709500
21⁄ 2 55 242000 346000 346000 484000 484000 692000 773300 982400 5270 492000 744000
29⁄ 16 563⁄ 8 254000 363000 363000 507000 507000 726000 818300 1040800 5540 516000 778500
25⁄ 8 573⁄ 4 265000 379000 379000 530000 530000 758000 865500 1099300 5820 540000 813000
211⁄ 16 591⁄ 8 277000 396000 396000 554000 554000 792000 889100 1129600 6110 565000 849000
23⁄ 4 601⁄ 2 289000 413000 413000 578000 578000 826000 912700 1159900 6410 590000 885000
213⁄ 16 617⁄ 8 301000 431000 431000 603000 603000 861000 949800 1207200 6710 615000 925000
27⁄ 8 631⁄ 4 314000 449000 449000 628000 628000 897000 986900 1254400 7020 640000 965000
215⁄ 16 645⁄ 8 327000 467000 467000 654000 654000 934000 1025100 1302700 7330 666500 1005000
3 66 340000 485000 485000 679000 679000 970000 1063300 1351000 7650 693000 1045000
31⁄ 16 673⁄ 8 353000 504000 504000 705000 705000 1008000 1115000 1416200 7980 720500 1086500
31⁄ 8 683⁄ 4 366000 523000 523000 732000 732000 1046000 1155500 1466800 8320 748000 1128000
33⁄ 16 701⁄ 8 380000 542000 542000 759000 759000 1084000 1195900 1517400 8660 776050 1169000
31⁄ 4 711⁄ 2 393000 562000 562000 787000 787000 1124000 1236400 1570200 9010 804100 1210000
35⁄ 16 727⁄ 8 407000 582000 582000 814000 814000 1163000 9360 833150 1253000
33⁄ 8 741⁄ 4 421000 602000 602000 843000 843000 1204000 9730 862200 1296000
37⁄ 16 755⁄ 8 435000 622000 622000 871000 871000 1244000 10100 892100 1339550
31⁄ 2 77 450000 643000 643000 900000 900000 1285000 10500 922000 1383100
39⁄ 16 783⁄ 8 465000 664000 664000 929000 929000 1327000 10900
35⁄ 8 793⁄ 4 479000 685000 685000 958000 958000 1369000 11300 1021000 1566000
33⁄ 4 821⁄ 2 509000 728000 728000 1019000 1019000 1455000 12000 1120000 1750000
37⁄ 8 851⁄ 4 540000 772000 772000 1080000 1080000 1543000 12900 1205000 1863000
315⁄ 16 865⁄ 8 556000 794000 794000 1111000 1111000 1587000 13300
4 88 571000 816000 816000 1143000 1143000 1632000 13700 1298000 1996500

1
Oil rig quality information from commercial vendor.

7-21
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-3.7 Di-Lok Chain. Di-Lok is a trade

name for a high-quality forged chain 80,000
formerly manufactured by Baldt. Each Di- LOAD
Lok link has a male and female part as
70,000
shown in Figure 7-25. The female part is
made with an integral stud. The link is
formed by inserting the cold male end into 60,000 1"
the heated female end and hammering the 4" DIA.
STD. USN DI-LOK

LOAD, POUNDS
female end down over the male end.
Forging produces a link of relatively 50,000
ELASTIC LIMIT
uniform strength. The stud cannot be lost
because it is an integral part of the link. 40,000
The stud is faired into the side wires,
increasing the link’s cross-sectional area ABS GRADE 3
ELASTIC LIMIT
and section modulus in lateral bending. 30,000
The increased section modulus enables Di- ELASTIC LIMIT
Lok chain to carry higher bending loads
20,000 ABS GRADE 2
than equivalent-sized stud-link chain.
Figure 7-26 compares bending strength (as WELDED ABS GRADE 1
ESTIMATED
indicated by deflection under load) of 10,000
standard Di-Lok and grades 1, 2, and 3
ELASTIC LIMIT
welded stud-link chain.
0.010 0.020 0.030 0.040 0.050 0.060 0.070 0.080 0.090 0.100
Di-Lok chain is no longer manufactured,
but large quantities remain in service. The DEFLECTION, INCHES
Navy used Di-Lok chain in various sizes as
ships’ anchor chain, and large quantities of
Figure 7-26. Deflection of 1-Inch Stud-Link Chain Under Lateral Load.
21⁄ 4-inch Di-Lok chain were procured for
beach gear ground legs and ARS/ATS bow
lift slings. The Supervisor of Salvage reserves Di-Lok chain for applications where chain must be bent while under load because this type of
chain has superior bending performance and limited availability. Welded stud-link chain should be used for beach gear and other applications
that do not require resistance to bending.

Navy Di-Lok chain was produced in three grades: type I (standard), type II (heavy duty), and type III (high-strength). Table 7-15 lists strength
and other characteristics for Navy Di-Lok chain. Standard Di-Lok (type I) chain of 17⁄ 8-inch diameter and smaller has the same strength as USN
stud-link chain. Two-inch and larger standard Di-Lok chain has lower strength than USN or ABS grade 3 chain. Types II and III Di-Lok chain
are stronger but were produced in only in a limited range of sizes.

Commercial Di-Lok chain was produced in two grades: standard and super-strength. Strength of standard Di-Lok chain is identical to Navy
type I Di-Lok chain up to 17⁄ 8-inch size. Larger size standard Di-Lok is strong than Navy type I chain and all but 31⁄ 2-inch Navy type II chain.
Standard Di-Lok was produced in a greater variety of sizes than Navy Di-Lok, as shown in Table 7-16 (Page 7-24). Proof strength of super-
strength Di-Lok chain is the same as standard chain, but breaking strength is higher. Commercial Di-Lok chain is somewhat heavier than the
same size Navy chain.

There is some evidence that Di-Lok chain is more susceptible to failure under long-term service in tidal or splash zones. Water seeps into the
locking area and causes crevice corrosion that is not visually detectable because of the way the links are formed. For this reason, Di-Lok chain
is not normally a part of permanent fleet moorings, nor is it stockpiled by NAVFACENGCOM. Di-Lok chain is held by:

• Naval shipyards as ships’ anchor chain and for making up towing bridles.

• Naval supply activities for fleet issue.

• The ESSM system for heavy lift rigging.

7-22
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-15. Navy Di-Lok Chain (MIL-C-19444).

L (LENGTH OVER 6 LINKS)

A

Type I Standard

Length of six consecutive links, L (inches) Minimum

Proof load breaking Weight per shot
Number of
Size, A (in.) (pounds) strength (pounds)
links per shot Minimum Nominal Maximum
(pounds)
3
⁄4 359 1913⁄ 32 191⁄ 2 1925⁄ 32 48,000 75,000 490
7 41 3 5
⁄8 305 22 ⁄ 64 22 ⁄ 4 23 ⁄ 64 64,000 98,000 680
1 267 257⁄ 8 26 263⁄ 8 84,000 129,000 890
1 7 1 43
1 ⁄8 237 29 ⁄ 64 29 ⁄ 4 29 ⁄ 64 106,000 161,000 1,130
11⁄ 4 213 3211⁄ 32 321⁄ 2 3231⁄ 32 130,000 198,000 1,400
13⁄ 8 193 3537⁄ 64 353⁄ 4 3617⁄ 64 157,000 235,000 1,690
1 13 9
1 ⁄2 177 38 ⁄ 16 39 39 ⁄ 16 185,000 280,000 2,010
15⁄ 8 165 423⁄ 64 421⁄ 4 4255⁄ 64 216,000 325,000 2,325
13⁄ 4 153 459⁄ 32 451⁄ 2 465⁄ 32 249,000 380,000 2,695
7 33 3 29
1 ⁄8 143 48 ⁄ 64 48 ⁄ 4 49 ⁄ 64 285,000 432,000 3,095
2 135 513⁄ 4 52 523⁄ 4 289,800 439,200 3,490
1 63 1 3
2 ⁄8 125 54 ⁄ 64 55 ⁄ 4 56 ⁄ 64 325,800 493,200 3,935
21⁄ 4 119 587⁄ 32 581⁄ 2 5911⁄ 32 362,700 549,000 4,415
23⁄ 8 113 6129⁄ 64 613⁄ 4 6241⁄ 64 402,300 607,500 4,915
1 11 15
2 ⁄2 107 64 ⁄ 16 65 65 ⁄ 16 442,800 669,600 5,475
25⁄ 8 101 6759⁄ 64 681⁄ 4 6915⁄ 64 486,000 731,700 6,050
3 5 1 17
2 ⁄4 97 71 ⁄ 32 71 ⁄ 2 72 ⁄ 32 531,000 796,500 6,660
27⁄ 8 93 7425⁄ 64 743⁄ 4 7553⁄ 64 576,000 868,500 7,295
3 89 775⁄ 8 78 791⁄ 8 623,700 940,500 7,955
1 55 1 27
3 ⁄8 87 80 ⁄ 64 81 ⁄ 4 82 ⁄ 64 673,200 1,015,200 8,700
31⁄ 4 83 843⁄ 32 841⁄ 2 8523⁄ 32 723,700 1,089,000 9,410
3 21 3 1
3 ⁄8 79 87 ⁄ 64 87 ⁄ 4 89 ⁄ 64 776,000 1,166,400 10,112
31⁄ 2 77 909⁄ 16 91 925⁄ 16 829,800 1,244,800 10,900
33⁄ 4 71 971⁄ 32 971⁄ 2 9829⁄ 32 1,008,000 1,575,000 12,500
3 29 1 9
4 ⁄4 57 121 ⁄ 32 122 ⁄ 2 124 ⁄ 32 1,700,000 2,550,000 20,500
Type II Heavy Duty
23⁄ 4 97 715⁄ 32 711⁄ 2 7217⁄ 32 584,100 882,900 7,000
3 89 775⁄ 8 78 791⁄ 8 685,800 1,035,000 8,100
1 9 5
3 ⁄2 77 90 ⁄ 16 91 92 ⁄ 16 972,000 1,530,000 12,000
Type III High Strength
3
⁄4 359 1913⁄ 32 191⁄ 2 1925⁄ 32 67,500 91,100 550
1 267 257⁄ 8 26 263⁄ 8 116,100 156,700 1,000
11⁄ 8 237 297⁄ 64 291⁄ 4 2943⁄ 64 145,000 195,000 1,270
3 37 3
1 ⁄8 193 35 ⁄ 64 35 ⁄ 4 3617⁄ 64 211,500 285,500 1,900
11⁄ 2 177 3813⁄ 16 39 399⁄ 16 252,000 340,200 2,260
5 3 1 55
1 ⁄8 165 42 ⁄ 64 42 ⁄ 4 42 ⁄ 64 292,500 395,000 2,620

7-23
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-16. Commercial Di-Lok Chain.

L
A

Standard Super Strength

Length of five Weight per Weight per
Chain Size Number of links
consecutive links Proof test Breaking test 15-fathom Proof test Breaking test 15-fathom
(in.) per 15-fathom
(inches) (pounds) (pounds) shot (pounds) (pounds) shot
A shot
L (pounds) (pounds)
3
⁄4 357 161⁄ 2 48,000 75,000 505 48,000 91,500 630
13
⁄ 16 329 177⁄ 8 56,000 86,500 600
7
⁄8 305 191⁄ 4 64,000 98,000 700 64,000 119,500 860
15
⁄ 16 285 205⁄ 8 74,000 113,500 795
1 267 22 84,000 129,000 900 84,000 157,300 1,125
11⁄ 16 251 233⁄ 8 95,000 145,000 1,020
11⁄ 8 237 243⁄ 4 106,000 161,000 1,140 106,000 196,400 1,425
13⁄ 16 225 261⁄ 8 118,000 179,000 1,275
11⁄ 4 213 271⁄ 2 130,000 198,000 1,415 130,000 241,500 1,770
5
1 ⁄ 16 203 287⁄ 8 143,500 216,500 1,560
13⁄ 8 195 301⁄ 4 157,000 235,000 1,705 157,000 286,700 2,125
17⁄ 16 187 315⁄ 8 171,000 257,500 1,865
11⁄ 2 179 33 185,000 280,000 2,035 185,000 341,600 2,505
19⁄ 16 171 343⁄ 8 200,500 302,500 2,195
15⁄ 8 165 353⁄ 4 216,000 325,000 2,345 216,000 396,500 2,925
11
1 ⁄ 16 159 371⁄ 8 232,500 352,500 2,530
13⁄ 4 153 381⁄ 2 249,000 380,000 2,720 249,000 463,600 3,400
113⁄ 16 147 397⁄ 8 267,000 406,000 2,925
17⁄ 8 143 411⁄ 4 285,000 432,000 3,125 285,000 527,000 3,900
115⁄ 16 139 425⁄ 8 303,500 460,000 3,335
2 133 44 322,000 488,000 3,525 322,000 595,000 4,400
21⁄ 16 129 453⁄ 8 342,000 518,000 3,750
21⁄ 8 125 463⁄ 4 362,000 548,000 3,975 362,000 668,500 4,960
23⁄ 16 123 481⁄ 8 382,500 579,100 4,215
21⁄ 4 119 491⁄ 2 403,000 610,000 4,460 403,000 744,000 5,560
25⁄ 16 117 507⁄ 8 425,000 642,500 4,710
23⁄ 8 113 521⁄ 4 447,000 675,000 4,960 447,000 823,500 6,200
7
2 ⁄ 16 111 535⁄ 8 469,500 709,500 5,210
21⁄ 2 107 55 492,000 744,000 5,528 492,000 907,600 6,900
29⁄ 16 105 563⁄ 8 516,000 778,500 5,810
25⁄ 8 103 573⁄ 4 540,000 813,000 6,105 540,000 991,800 7,650
211⁄ 16 99 591⁄ 8 565,000 849,000 6,410
23⁄ 4 97 601⁄ 2 590,000 885,000 6,725 590,000 1,079,700 8,400
13
2 ⁄ 16 95 617⁄ 8 615,000 925,000 7,040
27⁄ 8 93 631⁄ 4 640,000 965,000 7,365 640,000 1,177,300 9,200
215⁄ 16 91 645⁄ 8 666,500 1,005,000 7,696
3 89 66 693,000 1,045,000 8,035 693,000 1,274,900 10,050
31⁄ 16 87 673⁄ 8 720,500 1,086,500 8,379
31⁄ 8 85 683⁄ 4 748,000 1,128,000 8,736 748,000 1,376,000 10,900
3
3 ⁄ 16 85 701⁄ 8 776,050 1,169,000 9,093
31⁄ 4 83 711⁄ 2 804,100 1,210,000 9,460 804,100 1,476,200 11,825
35⁄ 16 81 727⁄ 8 833,150 1,253,000 9,828
33⁄ 8 79 741⁄ 4 862,200 1,296,000 10,210 862,200 1,581,000 12,750
37⁄ 16 77 755⁄ 8 892,100 1,339,550 10,599
31⁄ 2 77 77 922,000 1,383,100 10,998 922,000 1,687,300 13,700
35⁄ 8 73 793⁄ 4 1,021,000 1,566,000 11,607 1,021,000 1,910,500 14,500
33⁄ 4 71 821⁄ 2 1,120,000 1,750,000 12,626 1,120,000 2,135,000 15,800
37⁄ 8 1,205,000 2,273,300 16,400

7-24
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-3.8 Cast Stud-Link Chain. Large

quantities of cast chain were manufactured Table 7-17. BLaCO and BLeCO "Special Steel" Cast Chain.
during World War II by the National Chain
Company (NACO), especially in the 21⁄ 16- Chain size Proof Load Breaking Strength Approx Weight per Fathom
inch size. The stud is cast as an integral in. lbs lbs lbs
part of the link and cannot be lost.
13⁄ 4 172,800 214,920 172
Because of internal defects, poor grain
2 225,800 316,064 224
structure and surface quality inherent in
21⁄ 4 285,600 399,840 283
casting, cast chain generally has lower
21⁄ 2 352,800 493,920 351
strength than either welded stud-link or Di-
23⁄ 4 405,440 567,616 427
Lok chain, although one manufacturer’s
3 457,184 639,968 511
chain is nearly as strong as ABS grade 2
31⁄ 4 506,688 709,408 600
chain, as shown in Table 7-17. Cast steel
31⁄ 2 553,056 774,368 698
is more vulnerable to corrosion than are
forged or rolled steel. If used, remaining 33⁄ 4 595,168 833,280 796
4 632,128 885,024 872
NACO cast chain should be inspected
carefully for wastage and considered
equivalent to ABS grade 1 chain. Manufacturer’s data

7-3.9 Square-section Chain. In the

United Kingdom and certain other countries
of the British Commonwealth, the term
mooring chain is applied only to Admiralty
pattern, long-link, square-section chain, like
that shown in Figure 7-27. Other heavy INSIDE WIDTH = 2(CHAIN SIZE)
CROWN
chain used for moorings or ship’s anchor THICKNESS CHAIN
chain is called chain cable. Admiralty (ZONE OF WEAR) SIZE
mooring chain was formerly manufactured
INSIDE WIDTH
in 10-fathom shots consisting of 60 links,
regardless of chain size, although the chain
is now manufactured in 121⁄ 2- and 15-
fathom shots, usually of cast steel. Square-
section chain is used extensively in EXTERNAL WIDTH END
permanent mooring ground legs because its ≈ 4.2(CHAIN SIZE) SIZE DEPTH
high drag resistance increases the holding
power of the mooring. It is inferior to EXTERNAL LENGTH
welded stud-link or Di-Lok chain for = 36" + 2(CROWN THICKNESS)
virtually any other salvage ap-
plication—within the British common-
Figure 7-27. Admiralty Pattern Square Section Mooring Chain.
wealth, salvors should ensure that
procurement requests for stud-link chain are
not interpreted as requests for square-
section mooring chain. Strength and weight Table 7-18. Admiralty Pattern Square Section Mooring Chain.
data for square section chain is provided in
Table 7-18. Square Stud-Link Square Open Link
Chain Crown End Approx
size Thickness Depth Proof Proof Approx Weight per
Weight per
in. in. in. Load Load Fathom
Fathom
lbs lbs lbs
lbs

2 3⁄ 4 3 7⁄ 8 3 3⁄ 8 316,730 508 226,240 491

3 4 1⁄ 8 3 5⁄ 8 376,320 629 268,800 607
3 1⁄ 4 45⁄ 16 3 7⁄ 8 442,170 699 315,840 672
3 1⁄ 2 5 4 1⁄ 4 514,300 874 367,360 840
3 3⁄ 4 5 1⁄ 4 4 1⁄ 2 586,430 1,017 418,880 977
4 5 5⁄ 8 4 5⁄ 8 667,960 1,214 477,120 1,165

Chain size is depth of link at side with link lying flat – see Figure 7-27
Internal length for all links is 36 inches, internal width is twice chain size
Wear limit - crown thickness should not be less than crown thickness of next lower size

7-25
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-3.10 Special-purpose Chains. Various manufacturers make special-purpose stud-link and open link mooring chains. There are military and
commercial specifications for some of these chains, while others are made to manufacturers’ standards. The principal special-purpose chains
are:

• Open link Coast Guard buoy chain.

• Open link marine railway hauling chain.

• Abrasion resistant stud-link chain (ARC).

Coast Guard buoy chain is manufactured to a MILSPEC that requires the same material quality as ABS grade 1 chain. Breaking strength, as
shown in Table 7-19, is about the same as grade 1 chain, but proof load is about half the breaking strength, or 70 percent of the grade 1 proof
load. The chain has oversize end links and is proof-tested before government acceptance.

Table 7-19. Characteristics of Coast Guard Buoy Chain (MIL-C-22521A).

B F

C E G

A
D LENGTH OVER SIX LINKS

Common Links End Links

Length
Over Weight
Wire Six Wire per 15-
Diameter Length Width Links Diameter Length Width Proof Break Fathom Shot
A B C D E F G Test Test (approx.)
1
⁄2 3 17⁄ 8 13 3
⁄4 41⁄ 4 25⁄ 8 7500 15000 210
5 3 1 1 3 1 5
⁄8 3 ⁄4 2 ⁄4 16 ⁄ 4 ⁄4 4 ⁄2 2 ⁄8 11500 23000 323
3 1 5 1 7 1 1
⁄4 4 ⁄2 2 ⁄8 19 ⁄ 2 ⁄8 5 ⁄4 3 ⁄8 16000 32000 442
7 1 1 3 1 3 7
⁄8 5 ⁄4 3 ⁄8 22 ⁄ 4 1 ⁄8 6 ⁄4 3 ⁄8 22000 44000 608
1 1 1 3
1 6 3 ⁄2 26 1 ⁄4 7 ⁄2 4 ⁄8 29000 58000 780
1 3 7 1 1 1 3
1 ⁄8 6 ⁄4 3 ⁄8 29 ⁄ 4 1 ⁄4 7 ⁄2 4 ⁄8 38500 77000 990
1 1 3 1 1 1
1 ⁄4 7 ⁄2 4 ⁄8 32 ⁄ 2 1 ⁄2 9 5 ⁄4 45500 91000 1245
1 1 7 1 1
1 ⁄2 9 5 ⁄4 39 1 ⁄8 11 ⁄ 4 6 ⁄2 65500 131000 1762
5 3 11 1 7 1 1
1 ⁄8 9 ⁄4 5 ⁄ 16 42 ⁄ 4 1 ⁄8 11 ⁄ 4 6 ⁄2 76500 153000 2040
13⁄ 4 101⁄ 2 61⁄ 16 451⁄ 2 21⁄ 8 12 73⁄ 16 86500 173000 2370
17⁄ 8 111⁄ 4 61⁄ 2 483⁄ 4 21⁄ 8 12 73⁄ 16 100000 200000 2640

All specifications in pounds and inches, unless otherwise stated.

7-26
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Marine railway hauling chain is made to strict dimensional specifications to mesh smoothly in the marine railway sprocket fairleads and wildcat.
As shown in Table 7-20, some sizes of marine railway chain have breaking strengths slightly higher and proof loads slightly lower than ABS
grade 3 chain.

Table 7-20. Characteristics of Typical Marine Railway Hauling Chain.

D LENGTH OVER FIVE GRIPS

A

B
C

Length
Over
Grip Five Weight Weight
Chain Length Width Radius Grips per per Proof Break
Size A B C D Link Foot Test Test
7
⁄8 21⁄ 2 19⁄ 16 9
⁄ 16 121⁄ 2 1.4 6.6 35236 62310

1 4 111⁄ 16 5
⁄8 20 2.9 8.7 46000 81070
1 1 13 11 1
1 ⁄8 4 ⁄2 1 ⁄ 16 ⁄ 16 22 ⁄ 2 4.0 10.7 57800 102000
1 15 29
1 ⁄4 5 1 ⁄ 16 ⁄ 32 25 5.5 13.1 71875 126562
3 1 1 31 1
1 ⁄8 5 ⁄2 2 ⁄ 16 ⁄ 32 27 ⁄ 2 7.2 15.6 86968 153139

11⁄ 2 6 23⁄ 16 11⁄ 32 30 9.3 18.5 103500 182250

15⁄ 8 61⁄ 2 25⁄ 16 13⁄ 32 321⁄ 2 11.7 21.6 121468 213889

3 7 1
1 ⁄4 7 2 ⁄ 16 1 ⁄8 35 14.7 25.3 140875 248063
7 1 9 3 1
1 ⁄8 7 ⁄2 2 ⁄ 16 1 ⁄ 16 37 ⁄ 2 18.6 29.7 161718 365764
11 1
2 8 2 ⁄ 16 1 ⁄4 40 21.8 32.8 184000 324000

21⁄ 8 81⁄ 2 213⁄ 16 15⁄ 16 421⁄ 2 26.7 37.8 207718 365764

21⁄ 4 9 215⁄ 16 111⁄ 32 45 31.4 41.9 232875 410063

3 1 1 13 1
2 ⁄8 9 ⁄2 3 ⁄ 16 1 ⁄ 32 47 ⁄ 2 36.6 46.1 259468 456889
1 3 15
2 ⁄2 10 3 ⁄ 16 1 ⁄ 32 50 42.6 51.1 287500 506250
5 1 5 17 1
2 ⁄8 10 ⁄ 2 3 ⁄ 16 1 ⁄ 32 52 ⁄ 2 49.0 56.0 316968 558139

23⁄ 4 11 37⁄ 16 119⁄ 32 55 56.3 61.3 347875 612563

27⁄ 8 111⁄ 2 39⁄ 16 121⁄ 32 571⁄ 2 65.3 68.2 380218 669514

23
3 12 311⁄ 16 1 ⁄ 32 60 74.2 74.2 414000 729000

All specifications in pounds and inches, unless otherwise stated.

7-27
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Abrasion-resistant chain is produced for high-wear marine and industrial applications. There is one grade with strength equal to ABS grade 3
chain, and one slightly stronger grade. Abrasion-resistant chain is much harder and is advertised to wear three times as long as standard chain.
Table 7-21 shows some characteristics of abrasion resistant chain.

Table 7-21. Characteristics of Typical Abrasion-resistant Chain.

C B A

A B C Strength*
Length Approx.
Over Weight Proof Break
Chain Link Link Five Per 15- Test Test
Size Length, Length, Links Fathom lbs lbs
Inches Inches Inches Inches Shot
2 12 73⁄ 16 44 3360 324000 489000
21⁄ 8 123⁄ 4 75⁄ 8 463⁄ 4 3790 364000 548000
1 1 1 1
2 ⁄4 13 ⁄ 2 8 ⁄8 49 ⁄ 2 4250 405000 611000
3 1 9 1
2 ⁄8 14 ⁄ 4 8 ⁄ 16 52 ⁄ 4 4730 449000 676000
1
2 ⁄2 15 9 55 5270 494000 744000
5 3 7 3
2 ⁄8 15 ⁄ 4 9 ⁄ 16 57 ⁄ 4 5820 541000 815000
3 1 7 1
2 ⁄4 16 ⁄ 2 9 ⁄8 60 ⁄ 2 6410 590000 889000
7 1 3 1
2 ⁄8 17 ⁄ 4 10 ⁄ 8 63 ⁄ 4 7020 640000 965000
13
3 18 10 ⁄ 16 66 7650 693000 1044000

*Loads shown are for ARC-15 physical properties. ARC-30 loads are the same as Grade 3 Stud-Link Chain.

WEIGHT AND STRENGTH COMPARISONS

25⁄ 16" ARC-15 25⁄ 16" ARC-30 25⁄ 16" GRADE 4 25⁄ 16" ORQ
Hardness
Brinell 500 560 340 225
Rockwell C 52 55 35 20
Strength
Break Test, lbs 642500 598000 816000 643500
Proof Test, lbs 425000 418000 642900 427000
Wear Factor
(standard = 1.0) 3.0 3.0 1.5 1.0

7-3.11 Chain Bending. Chain is designed and constructed to be loaded in pure tension. Tensioning chain that is bent over a surface introduces
bending stresses that reduce load-carrying capability. Figure 7-28 shows three general cases of chain tensioned over a curved surface. Analysis
of chain stresses in such cases is a complex problem. There is no simple relationship for stress resulting from the bending, and results of
analyses do not agree. Figure 7-29 shows experimentally determined breaking loads for chain as a function of D/d. Based on these results,
chain should not be tensioned over surfaces with diameters less than seven times the chain wire diameter. Sharp bends and corners should be
avoided.

7-28
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

β
α

(a) UNGROOVED SURFACE.

ALL LINKS SUBJECT TO BENDING

β = 90˚

(b) SHALLOW-GROOVED SURFACE.

FLAT LINKS CLEAR OF SURFACE AND IN
TENSION--VERTICAL LINKS ONLY IN BENDING

β
= 0˚

(c) DEEP-GROOVED SURFACE

VERTICAL LINKS CLEAR OF BOTTOM OF GROOVE
AND IN TENSION--FLAT LINKS ONLY IN BENDING.

Figure 7-28. Chain Bent Over a Curved Surface.

1.0
STRAIGHT BREAKING STRENGTH
MINIMUM BREAKING STRENGTH/

0.8

FIRST CHAIN
0.6 SECOND CHAIN

0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15
SURFACE-TO-CHAIN DIAMETER RATIO D/d

Figure 7-29. Results of Chain Bending Tests.

7-29
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-3.12 Chain Links and Connectors. 6.5 d

Chains are made up of common links, or
A-links, with a standard length of 6d and
width of 3.6d, where d is the wire diameter 1.1 d
as shown in Figure 7-24. Enlarged and
4d
modified links join chain to different-sized
chain as well as to anchors, buoys, wire A-LINK B-LINK C-LINK
rope, or other fittings. The various links (COMMON) (ENLARGED) (OFFCENTER STUD)
d IS WIRE
and fittings are described in Tables 7-22 DIAMETER
and 7-23 and illustrated in Figure 7-30. OF A-LINK
d
w
Table 7-22. Chain Links.
r
Preferred Name Other Names Functional Description
Common Link A-link The common link that E-LINK l
makes the chain (OPEN)
PEAR-SHAPED LINK
Enlarged link B-link An adaptor link between E-LINK IS SIMILAR
common links and an TO C-LINK, l = 8.17d
end link or shackle WITHOUT STUD. w = 4.25d
r = 0.75d
Offset stud-link C-link Enlarged link with offset
stud to accept the pin of
a standard joining or A-LINK C-LINK
bending shackle through
the larger opening. B-LINK
End link E-link Enlarged studless link
that accepts the pin of a
standard mooring or NOT DRAWN
bending shackle. TO SCALE USE OF A-, B- AND C-LINKS
Commercially, the end
link on a shot.
Figure 7-30. Typical Links.
Pear-shaped link Pear-shaped An adapter between
end link larger and smaller
chains and fittings

7-3.12.1 Detachable Links. Detachable links (joining links, lugless shackles) have
Table 7-23. Chain Fittings and
approximately the same dimensions and profile as common links. They connect chain that passes
Connectors.
over a wildcat or a grooved chain roller. Figure 7-31 shows several types of detachable links.
Preferred Name Other Names Functional Description The links are designed to fit the common link (A-link) of a specific size chain. Pear-shaped
Joining shackle D-link Connects two end links detachable links join different-sized chains, or connect common links to fittings too large for a
D-shackle together standard detachable link or shackle. Detachable links are rated for the same breaking strength as
Anchor joining F-link Connects an end link to the size and grade of chain they connect. Most chain failures result from failure of a detachable
shackle F-shackle an anchor shank or other
End shackle structure
link. A common industry practice is to use the next larger size or next higher grade detachable
Anchor shackle link.
Detachable link Detachable Connects common, A-
joining shackle links
Lugless joining
shackle
Pear-shaped Anchor joining Connects common links
detachable link link to larger chain and
DETACHABLE KENTER
fittings LINK SHACKLE
Buoy shackle End joining Connects end links to
shackle mooring buoy tension bar
Sinker shackle Connects sinkers into
mooring chain; does not
carry anchor load PEAR-SHAPED
Swivel Allows the chain to rotate DETACHABLE LOK-A-LOY
LINK
Ground ring Connects several chains
to a single riser or sling
Spider plate Spider Joins two or more chain
legs to a single riser or
sling Figure 7-31. Detachable Links.

7-30
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-3.12.2 Shackles. There are four

standard types of shackles for mooring
chains: joining (or D-) shackles, bending
(or F-) shackles, buoy shackles, and sinker
shackles. Chain must have enlarged end
links (B-, C-, or E-links) to fit joining,
bending, and buoy shackles. Sinker
shackles fit common links and have an
elongated shank to fasten around the width
of a common link to connect a sinker into
the chain, as shown in Figure 7-32. In
addition to the four standard mooring
shackles, plate shackles and ordinary safety
shackles are used for salvage and
BENDING SHACKLE (F-SHACKLE)
improvised systems. Components are bent (D-SHACKLE IS LIKE F-SHACKLE, BUT SMALLER)
into chain without breaking it, and bights
engaged when hoisting or moving chain,
A-LINK OF MOORING CHAIN
with sinker and plate shackles. Plate
shackles, described in Paragraph 7-5, are
common in salvage because of their
versatility, and because they can be made
in the field. SINKER SHACKLE

7-3.12.3 Swivels. Swivels and swivel

A-LINK
shackles, shown in Figure 7-33, prevent
twists in chain legs. Twisted chain can
transmit enough torque to rotate an anchor HAIRPIN
and cause it to break out of the bottom. SINKER
Swivels are not used in systems that
include tensioned wire rope, such as beach
gear or towing rigs, for two reasons:

• If one end of a tensioned rope is

free to rotate, the rope will unlay
to some extent because of the SINKER SHACKLE ATTACHED
natural tendency of the strands to NOT DRAWN TO SCALE TO MOORING CHAIN
unwind under tension. If tension
is suddenly lowered or released, Figure 7-32. Chain Shackles.
the rope will bird cage or hockle
before it can rewind itself.

• Chain swivels are not designed

for a high number of cycles.

BUTTON d

MALE

b
REGULAR SWIVEL b = 5.3d
SWIVEL SHACKLE
SWIVELS GROUND SPIDER PLATE
RING

Figure 7-33. Swivels, Ground Ring, and Spider Plate.

7-31
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-3.12.4 Equalizers. Equalizers distribute

SLIDING-TYPE EQUALIZER
load evenly among several pulling points or
anchors. Figure 7-34 shows a typical
sliding-type equalizer. To equalize the load
between two chain legs, the legs are
connected together and passed through the
equalizer as shown in Figure 7-34. Uneven
tension causes the chain to slip over the EQUALIZER
curved plate and equalize the leg loads.
7-3.12.5 Chain Stoppers. Chain stoppers
grip chain at points other than the ends and
hold against a load. Figure 7-35 shows
three principal types of chain stoppers:

• Pelican hook,

• Dog or pawl-type stopper, and EQUALIZERS IN GROUND LEGS

• Devil’s claw.

Navy ships have pelican hook chain LOAD

ANCHOR GROUND LEG
stoppers, while most merchant ships have
dog, pawl-type, or devil’s claw stoppers.
EQUALIZER
Large pelican hook and devil’s claw
stoppers are not usually as strong as the
chain for which they are sized. It may be
necessary to have two or more stoppers to
equal the strength of the chain. With
multiple chain stoppers, the load must be ANCHOR
equalized. Turnbuckles adjust the tension
until all stoppers carry the same load.
LOAD
Pelican hooks are more versatile than other EQUALIZER
stoppers, and are used to connect chain,
wire rope, or fiber line pendants so that EQUALIZER
they can be released quickly or under ANCHOR
tension. Pelican hooks engage bights of
chain for hoisting or hauling.
7-3.13 Chain Identification and
Inspection. Di-Lok chain is identified by
the thickness of the sides of the link, pear-
shaped openings, and split in the stud, as Figure 7-34. Equalizer.
shown in Figure 7-25. The wire diameter
of the male end of the link is slightly
smaller than that of the female end, and the joint where the female end was hammered down may be distinguishable. An integral stud
distinguishes cast chain from welded stud-link chain. Cast chain links may also have the raised letters "NACO" on the stud. The separation
line or seal weld between the pressed-in stud and side wires of a welded stud-link is easily seen. A manufacturer’s mark, grading society mark
and grading numbers or letters are stamped on end links. In the absence of the end links, there is no way to determine the grade without proof-
testing. Seal-welded studs do not indicate grade because manufacturers seal-weld studs on lower grade chain and omit welds on higher grade
chain at customer request. Chain of unknown grade should be treated as grade 1.
Knocking or cutting studs from links weakens the links. Connections to chain should be made with the connectors and fittings described in
Paragraph 7-3.12. In the field, there is often no choice other than to remove studs. When studs are removed, the chain is considered to be one
grade lower than its markings.
Chain and chain fittings should not be welded in the field because metallurgical properties will be altered and strength reduced. Heat-affected
zones are susceptible to cold cracking. Moisture absorption during welding may lead to hydrogen embrittlement.
Before use, chain and fittings should be inspected visually for missing studs and obvious wear, deformation, or serious corrosion. The following
are common types of chain wear and damage:

• Missing studs – Proof load is significantly reduced when a link loses a stud. A studless link is subject to higher bending stress,
has lower fatigue resistance, and is more likely to kink than a studded link. Links without studs should be discarded.

• Bent links – Bent links have been plastically deformed and may have been permanently weakened or have locked-in residual
stresses. Links bent more than 3 degrees out of plane should be discarded.

7-32
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

• Wear – Wear reduces chain diameter, which in turn reduces strength. The grip area of the links wears most quickly. Links should
be discarded if the average of two diameters is less than 95 percent of the nominal diameter, or any diameter is less than 90
percent of the nominal diameter.

• Corrosion – Evenly distrib-

uted light surface corrosion is
not damaging, but excessive PELICAN BAIL CHAIN
corrosion reduces strength by HOOK
reducing cross-sectional area
and can induce fatigue
failure. Corrosion pits cause
stress concentration. Fretting
corrosion proceeds rapidly in
the grip area where the
protective oxide layer is
continually worn away, ex-
posing the metal to oxidation. PELICAN HOOK
Corrosion-pitted links and
links with diameter reduced
by more than 10 percent SIDE OF DOG
DOCK OR
should be discarded. TOP OF DECK

• Deep gouges – Physical LOAD

damage to chain surfaces,
such as cuts or gouges, causes DOG TYPE
stress concentration that can
lead to fatigue failure. Links DEVIL’S
need not be discarded if CLAW
damage can be ground out
without reducing diameter by
more than 10 percent.

• Loose studs – Loose studs

cause increased bending
stress in the chain. Links
with studs that can move
more than 1⁄ 8-inch axially, DEVIL’S CLAW
more than 3⁄ 16-inch laterally,
or welded studs with more
than 1⁄ 8-inch clearance be- Figure 7-35. Chain Stoppers.
tween the side wire and the
end of the stud opposite the
weld should be discarded.

• Cracks – Cracks propagate under cyclic loading and cause premature failure. Links with the following conditions should be
discarded:

(1) Crack at the toe of the stud weld extending into the base material.

(2) Surface cracks that cannot be ground out without reducing diameter by more than 10 percent (8 percent for detachable links).

(3) Internal cracks discovered by nondestructive testing (NDT).

When chain is proof-tested, the overall length and number of links of each shot of chain are recorded. Measurement of elongation determines
a chain’s wear and deformation. Completeness of the shot is assured by counting the links. The chain is hoisted so that it hangs free. The
overall length is measured and compared to MILSPEC or manufacturer’s limits. If the length exceeds the upper limit, then the chain is worn
or stretched, and may not meet required strength standards. Local wear or deformation is detected by gaging the entire length of chain with
calipers set to a six- (or five-) link length. If a segment is longer than the manufacturer’s specifications, shown in Tables 7-13 through 7-21,
some or all of the six (five) links are excessively worn or stretched. Chain links can be nondestructively tested. On long-term salvage
operations, such as major sinkings and wreck removals, there is time for chain testing during mobilization and preparation for different phases
of the operation. There is seldom time or facilities for elongation tests at a stranding site, however. Navy beach gear and ship anchor chain
is periodically tested and returned to service only if it meets specifications. Sounding the chain with a heavy hammer will reveal cracked or
internally corroded links or fittings. Each link is struck solidly with the hammer. A sound link returns a clear, ringing tone; a bad link has a
dull, flat tone. Bad links should be cut out of the chain and replaced with detachable links or shackles.

7-33
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-4 FIBER LINE

Synthetic or natural fibers twisted together to form plies or yarns make up ropes of braided, plaited, or twisted construction. U.S. maritime practice
is to specify fiber line size by circumference in inches. Other countries and industries may specify line size by diameter. Fiber lines are lighter,
more flexible, and more easily secured and handled than wire rope or chain, but have lower strength and are more susceptible to damage.

7-4.1 Fibers. Manila, hemp, sisal, jute, and cotton are the most common natural rope fibers. Nylon, polyester (Dacron®), polyethylene, and
polypropylene are the most common synthetic fibers. Polyaramid (Kevlar®) is common in deep ocean research and recovery operations because
of its extremely high strength-to-weight ratio. Polyaramid lines are uncommon in surface and shallow water work because of their high cost
and low abrasion resistance.

A kraft paper marker is inserted in the center of one strand of large new rope as identification. The marker shows the year of manufacture, type
of fiber, and name of manufacturer. Natural fibers are distinguished from synthetics by their harsh, dry feel and the length of fiber. Natural
fiber lengths range from 24 to 36 inches, while synthetic fibers are usually continuous throughout the length of the line and are very fine and
soft. Polypropylene has stiff, coarse fibers with a smooth, waxy surface. Manila and sisal can be identified by pulling a few fibers from the
center of a strand. The manila fibers are light yellow to cream, with occasional reddish or brown areas; sisal fibers are a lustrous white.
Polyester and nylon will sink in water, polypropylene floats. New polyester has a fuzzier appearance and drier feel than nylon. Nylon
sometimes attains a fuzzy appearance in service.

For most applications, synthetics have replaced natural fiber lines. Natural fiber lines find application primarily where light weight and low
elongation are required. Heavy manila, sisal, or hemp hawsers are occasionally found in service. Table 7-24 compares the characteristics of
natural and synthetic fiber ropes.

7-4.2 Twisted Fiber Lines (3-Strand). Fibers are twisted together to form yarns for lines. Bundles of natural fiber yarns are twisted into
strands. To keep the yarns from untwisting, synthetic yarns are plied in groups of three before being twisted into strands. The line is formed
by twisting together three or more strands. In plain lay construction, each component is twisted in the opposite direction. That is, for a right
lay natural fiber line, the fibers have a right (Z) twist to form the yarns, the yarns have a left (S) twist to form strands, and the strands have a
right twist to form the line, for a ZSZ twist pattern. A left lay natural fiber line would have an SZS pattern. Right lay synthetic lines with plied
yarns have an SZSZ twist pattern. A cable-laid rope has individual ropes twisted together and may be either right lay, made up of left lay lines,
or left lay, made up of right lay lines.

All Navy twisted fiber lines larger than 13⁄ 4-inch are right lay to avoid the possibility of connecting right lay and left lay lines end to end. Under
tension, a right-left combination would cause both ropes to unlay and fail at less than their safe working load.

Table 7-24. Comparison of Physical Characteristics — Natural and Synthetic Fiber Ropes1.

Polypropylene Polypropylene
Manila Sisal Nylon Kevlar Polyester Monofilament Multifilament Polyethylene
Rope Material: 3-Strand 3-Strand 3-Strand 12-Strand 3-Strand 3-Strand 3-Strand 3-Strand
Agave Sisalana Generic name aramid-
Manufactured Abaca plant - Hexamethalene Ethylene Glycol & Ethylene
plant - aromatic polyamide
or derived from: 3’ to 6’ leaf fibers diamine and adipic acid Terephthalic acid Propane Propane Polymers
2’ to 4’ leaf fibers fibers

STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS:

Tensile strength, lbs (1"

8,100 6,480 22,500 63,000 19,800 12,600 11,470 11,470
diameter rope)
Recommended factor of
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
safety2
Wet strength versus dry
Up to 120% Up to 120% 90-95% 95% 100% 102-105% 102-105% 102-105%
strength (percent)
Strength per unit of weight
30,000 24,000 86,500 210,000 66,000 70,000 58,800 62,000
(tensile strength/lbs per foot)
Shock load absorption ability Poor Poor Excellent Poor Good Very good Very good Fair
Repeat loading performance Poor Poor Very good Very good Excellent Very good Very good Fair

WEIGHT AND DENSITY CHARACTERISTICS:

Pounds per 100 feet (1") 27 27 26 30 30 18 19.5 18.5

Specific gravity of fiber 1.5 1.4 1.14 1.44 1.38 0.91 0.91 0.95
Floats No No No No No Yes Yes Yes

ELASTICITY - STRETCH:

Permanent elongation at
5% 5% 8% -- 6% 4% 7.5% 6%
working loads (break-in)
Elasticity at working load
14% (includes
(recoverable stretch under 5% 5% 16% 6% 9% 10.5% 6%
permanent elongation)
load)
Elongation at 100% load (at
13% 13% 35% over 21% 20% 24% 36% 22%
break), used rope
Creep (elongation under
Very low Very low Moderate Very low Low High High High
sustained load)

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Table 7-24 (Continued). Comparison of Physical Characteristics — Natural and Synthetic Fiber Ropes1.

Polypropylene Polypropylene
Manila Sisal Nylon Kevlar Polyester Monofilament Multifilament Polyethylene
Rope Material: 3-Strand 3-Strand 3-Strand 12-Strand 3-Strand 3-Strand 3-Strand 3-Strand
Agave Sisalana Generic name aramid-
Manufactured Abaca plant - Hexamethalene Ethylene Glycol & Ethylene
plant - aromatic polyamide
or derived from: 3’ to 6’ leaf fibers diamine and adipic acid Terephthalic acid Propane Propane Polymers
2’ to 4’ leaf fibers fibers

SURFACE CHARACTERISTICS:

Some harshness due Smooth and somewhat Smooth but not Smooth and very
Smooth and hard, not Smooth and soft
to hairs. After use Smooth. After use sticky but not slippery. slippery. After use slippery. After use
slippery. After use with some natural
Rope feeling to touch considerable Same as Manila. becomes fuzzy with a After use becomes becomes harsh due becomes slightly
becomes fuzzy with a fuzziness. Remains
harshness due to softer feel. fuzzier than nylon or to broken fiber harsh due to
softer feel. same after use.
broken fiber ends. polyester. ends. broken fiber ends.
Rendering qualities (ability of
Good, but
rope to ease out smoothly
Excellent Good Fair Very poor Good Poor Fair requires extra
under load around bitts or
wraps.
capstan heads
Water absorption: (some
water will be held between Up to 100% Up to 100% Up to 9% Less than 1% Less than 1% Zero Zero Zero
fibers of all ropes)

FLEXURE:

Dry Good Good Superior Excellent Excellent Very good Very good Very good
Wet Good Good Excellent Excellent Superior Excellent Excellent Very good

WEAR:

Resistance to surface
Good Fair Very good Poor Excellent Good Good Good
abrasion
Resistance to internal wear
Good Very good Excellent Poor to fair Very good to excellent Very good Very good Very good
from flexing
Resistance to cutting
Good Poor Excellent Excellent Very good to exellent Good Very good Good
(toughness)

HIGH AND LOW TEMPERATURE PROPERTIES:

Does not melt,

480°F, progressive Does not melt. 482°F. Progressive
progressive strength 330°F. Softens 330°F. Softens 280°F. Softens
Melting point Same as Manila. strength loss above Carbonizes at about strength loss above
loss above 180°F, above 300°F. above 300°F. above 250°F.
300°F 800°F. 300°F.
chars at 275°F.
High temperature working
200°F 200°F 300°F 400°F 300°F 200°F 200°F 150°F
limit
Low temperature working limit -100°F -100°F -70°F -320°F -70°F -20°F -20°F -100°F
Burns with
Flammability Burns like wood Burns like wood Burns with difficulty Does not burn Burns with difficulty Burns with difficulty Burns with difficulty
difficulty
Resistance to Rot, Mildew,
and Attack by Marine Poor Very poor Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent Excellent
Organisms:

DETERIORATION:

Due to aging (properly stored

About 1% per year About 1% per year Zero Zero Zero Zero Zero Zero
ropes)
Due to exposure to sunlight
Slight Slight Slight Poor Almost none Some Some Some
(ultraviolet rays)

CHEMICAL RESISTANCE:

Very good to excellent,

Fair, except to Fair, except to Excellent, except
except for
To acids Very poor Very poor concentrated sulphuric concentrated sulphuric Excellent Excellent for concentrated
concentrated sulphuric
and hydrochloric acids. and nitric acids. sulphuric acid.
acid.
Very good, except to
Very good to excellent.
concentrated sodium
To alkalis Very poor Very poor Excellent Slight deterioration Excellent Excellent Excellent
hydroxide at high
from sodium hydroxide.
temperature.
Good, but Fair. Soluble in
Good. Soluble in some Very good to excellent. Same as Same as
hydrocarbons will chlorinated
To organic solvents Same as Manila. phenolic compounds Excellent Soluble in some polypropylene polypropylene
remove protective rope hydrocarbons at
and in 90% formic acid. phenolic compounds. monofilament. monofilament.
lubricants. 160°F.

Notes:
1
Data provided by Wall, Columbian, American, Tubbs/Jackson, and Samson Rope Companies and E.I. Dupont.
2
As recommended by the Cordage Institute and from manufacturers’ minimum catalog breaking strength values. These values are based on normal service conditions and do not cover exceptional
conditions such as shock loads, sustained loads, etc., nor do they cover conditions where life, limb, or valuable property are involved. In these cases, a lower working load or higher factor of
safety may be advisable. A higher working load or lower factor of safety should be used only with an expert knowledge of conditions or professional estimates of risk. The factors of safety given
are for 3⁄ 4- inch-diameter rope and larger. Smaller ropes should have larger safety factors; up to 12 for nylon and Kevlar and up to 10 for the other fibers.

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7-4.3 Braided Fiber Lines. The chief advantage of braided lines is their reduced tendency to kink or rotate under load, compared to right and
left lay twisted lines. Several braiding patterns exist, with double-braid and eight-strand plaited being the most important for heavy loads. Table
7-25 compares characteristics of three-strand and braided fiber lines.

7-4.4 Fiber Line Strength. Tables 7-26 and 7-27 (Pages 7-37 through 7-30) list breaking strength and unit weight for various size and
construction fiber lines. A rule of thumb gives fiber line strength:

BS = 900C2k
Table 7-25. Relative Characteristics of Line
where:
Constructions for the Same Fibers.
BS = breaking strength, pounds
C = circumference, inches Abrasion Rotates
k = comparison factor: Stretch Cost
Construction Strength Resistance Under Load
manila 1.0
nylon 2.5 Three Strand Low Best High Low Yes
polyester 2.1 Double Braid High Worst Low High No
polypropylene 1.6 Plaited Medium Medium Highest Medium No
polyethylene 1.4
sisal 0.8

This is an empirical approximation that does not account for variations in strength between constructions.

7-4.5 Stretch. All fiber lines stretch under load. In natural fiber lines, the stretch is permanent and similar to the constructional stretch of wire
ropes. A fiber line transmits load by friction between overlapping fibers. Each overlap extends for only a short portion of the line’s length.
Elongation results from the fibers slipping relative to one another under an applied load. With each successive increasing load, additional
elongation occurs. The rope will fail when stretch reaches about 20 percent of the original length.

Stretch of synthetic lines is partly permanent and partly elastic. If the rope has not exceeded its safe working load, the permanent stretch is not
progressive and usually amounts to about seven percent of the rope’s length. Permanent stretch is usually complete by the fifth loading.
Thereafter, the rope stretches elastically under load without serious damage. Nylon ropes will stretch up to 33 percent under their safe working
load, polyester and polypropylene about 20 percent.

7-4.6 Bending. Bending under loads causes internal abrasion and increased stress in the rope. There are no methods for predicting loss of
strength due to bending as there are for wire rope. Sharp corners, small bending radii, and reverse bends should be avoided. The radius of
faying surfaces and fairleads for fiber line should be at least one-half the circumference of the line.

7-4.7 Terminations and Connections. Because fiber lines are flexible, they can be secured to loads, fittings, or to each other with knots and
bends. Knots or bends are not recommended where sudden or heavy loads may be applied. Most knots will reduce rope strength by 40 percent
or more due to the high stresses and abrasion of the sharp turns in the knot. In comparison, well-made splices retain 80 to 90 percent of the
rope strength. Splices are used to connect two lines to make up a longer line, form eyes in the ends of lines, or connect lines to special
terminations, such as sockets or rings. Terminal eyes allow connections by shackles or other hardware. An eye fitted snugly around a metal
liner, or thimble, is a hard eye, while soft eyes have no thimbles and are usually of large diameter. Because of the differences in line strength
and stretch characteristics, thimbles designed for natural fiber lines cannot be used with synthetic fiber lines. Fiber lines should be secured to
deck fittings by passing eyes over the fittings or by taking round turns, rather than figure-eight turns. Simple round turns on bitts, bollards, or
other curved surfaces will retain 90 percent of the rope strength. Figure-eight bends on cleats or H-bitts will reduce effective rope strength by
50 to 60 percent. On double bitts, figure-eight turns reduce strength by only 25 percent, but present other problems. The figure-eight bends
lock up under heavy loads and prevent proper load-sharing between successive figure-eights. The rope can thin down under the load and slip
suddenly. Applying half-hitches to snub the load reduces the effective rope strength by 40 percent because of shearing in the rope.

7-4.8 Damage. Fiber lines are susceptible to damage from physical abuse, chemical attack, aging, heat and prolonged exposure to sunlight.
Fiber lines are physically damaged by:

• Excessive loading or too-rapid rate of loading.

• Surface abrasion chafing over rough, hard surfaces.

• Cutting on sharp edges.

• Bending over a radius too small.

• Shearing when pinched or crushed.

• Kinking and hockling.

Chafing gear and blocks protect ropes from abrasion and cutting. Fairlead blocks, padding, specially built large-radius guards, or redesign of
the line lead should be used to prevent contact with sharp edges such as hatch coamings and deck edges. Gritty substances, such as sand,
graphite, ice, or sand-blasting grit cut rope internally. The greatest damage occurs when these materials become lodged between fibers in a
relaxed rope. As the line is tensioned, the grit works progressively outward, cutting the inner fibers.

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7-4.9 Deterioration. Natural cellulose-based fibers are subject to deterioration with age. The fibers darken and become brittle under even the
best storage conditions, losing about two percent strength per year. Of more significance is the stiffening that occurs, causing the rope fibers
to break easily when bent, even under light loads. Strength in bending decreases by 5 to 10 percent per year. Natural fiber lines more than
five years old are suitable only for lashings and light work. Acids, alkalies, paints, soaps, vegetable oils, heat, sunlight, mildew, and rot all
damage natural fibers. Contact with rusting iron in salty, wet environments can reduce the strength of a manila or sisal line by one-third in as
little as six days. Thirty days’ contact will destroy the rope.

Synthetic lines do not deteriorate appreciably with age, but suffer from exposure to the elements, particularly sunlight. White nylons are fairly
resistant to exposure, but will stiffen slightly when stored in warm, humid areas. Gold and green nylons, and white polyethylenes and
polypropylenes are very susceptible to degradation from exposure, losing as much as 40 percent of their strength within three months. Acids
damage nylons, alkalies damage polyesters. Contact with rusting iron can cause a 40 percent loss in strength in one month in nylon lines. The
wet strength of nylon line is about 85 percent of its dry strength.

Table 7-26. Natural and Synthetic Fiber Rope Strength.

Rope Circumference, in.: 1 11⁄ 2 2 21⁄ 2 3 31⁄ 2 4 41⁄ 2 5 51⁄ 2 6 7 8 9 10

Nominal Diameter, in.: 5
⁄ 16 1
⁄2 5
⁄8 13
⁄ 16 1 11⁄ 8 15⁄ 16 11⁄ 2 15⁄ 8 13⁄ 4 2 21⁄ 4 25⁄ 8 3 31⁄ 4
Manila, 3- & 4-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited1 900 2,385 3,960 5,830 8,100 10,800 13,500 16,650 20,200 23,850 27,900 36,900 46,800 57,600 69,300
Nylon, 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited2 2,300 5,750 9,350 15,300 22,500 29,700 38,750 47,700 58,500 70,200 82,800 113,000 146,000 180,000 225,000
Nylon, double braid3 3,060 7,650 13,680 21,150 30,240 40,500 53,100 66,600 81,900 99,000 117,900 159,300 207,000 256,500 289,800
Polyester, 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited4 2,300 5,750 9,000 14,000 19,800 26,600 33,800 42,100 51,300 61,000 72,000 96,300 123,000 157,000 189,000
Polyester/DURON double braid3 3,060 7,650 13,100 20,300 28,300 38,500 49,000 61,200 75,400 90,200 106,000 141,300 180,000 225,000 252,000
Polypropylene monofilament 3-strand twisted, 8-strand
1,710 3,780 5,580 8,910 12,600 16,500 21,200 26,700 32,400 38,700 46,800 62,100 81,000 103,000 123,000
plaited4
4
Polypropylene multifilament 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited 1,560 3,440 5,080 8,110 11,470 15,020 19,290 24,300 29,480 35,220 45,590 56,510 73,710 93,730 111,930
Polypropylene multifilament double braid3 --- --- --- --- --- 24,750 31,680 39,420 47,880 57,150 67,140 89,280 114,300 140,400 169,200
Polypropylene monofilament 12-strand single braid3 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 40,230 47,880 56,160 74,430 94,500 117,000 143,100
Polyethylene 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited5 1,560 3,440 5,80 8,110 11,470 15,020 19,290 24,300 29,480 35,220 45,590 56,510 73,710 93,730 111,930
Kevlar 12-strand single braid3 8,400 20,000 32,400 45,000 63,000 83,000 104,000 129,000 156,000 184,000 214,000 282,000 --- --- ---
LST MOORING, polyester cover, polypropylene core,
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 54,900 65,700 90,000 108,000 137,700 166,500
3-strand5
LST WORKBOAT, polyester/polyethylene cover,
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 48,600 58,500 75,600 95,400 117,000 144,000
polypropylene core, 3-strand5
6
P/D 10, polyester cover, polypropylene core, 3- & 8-strand 1,710 3,960 5,760 9,180 13,100 17,400 21,200 26,700 32,400 38,700 46,800 62,100 81,000 103,000 123,000
P/D 100, polyester/polypropylene cover, polyethylene core,
--- 3,780 6,030 --- 12,600 18,900 24,300 30,600 37,800 45,000 54,000 64,800 85,100 105,000 132,000
3- & 8-strand6
POLY-PLUS, polypropylene/polyester/polyethylene core
--- 4,050 5,760 9,180 13,500 17,370 22,500 28,170 34,470 41,850 50,850 66,600 86,400 109,800 129,600
and single cover5
5
POLY-CRON, polyester/polyethylene core and double cover --- --- --- --- 12,600 18,900 24,300 30,600 37,800 45,000 54,000 72,000 94,500 117,000 146,700
PRODOK, polyolefin core, polyester jacket each strand,
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 49,950 66,150 85,050 108,000 129,150
3- strand7
DURA-PLEX, polyolefin core, polyester jacket each strand,
2,340 6,030 10,440 --- 22,500 30,150 38,880 48,600 59,400 71,200 84,000 112,500 144,000 180,000 219,600
12- strand3
BLUE STREAK, polypropylene core, polyester jacket each
2,160 5,580 9,900 --- 20,700 27,900 36,000 45,000 54,900 66,600 78,300 105,000 135,000 171,000 207,000
strand, 12-strand3
3
KEVLAR core, polyester cover, double braid --- 14,400 23,400 34,200 46,800 61,200 77,400 94,500 113,400 133,200 154,800 201,600 252,900 309,600 370,800
POWER BRAID, polypropylene core, nylon cover,
--- 6,840 11,700 18,000 25,260 34,200 44,100 55,170 67,500 81,000 95,400 127,800 164,700 204,300 248,400
double braid3
3
NYDAC, polyester core, nylon cover, double braid 2,340 6,030 10,440 15,930 22,680 30,150 38,880 48,600 59,400 71,190 84,000 112,500 144,000 180,000 219,600
NYSTRON SPM BRAID, nylon/polyester double braid3 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 90,000 108,900 129,600 175,000 227,700 282,100 318,600
UNILINE, parallel fiber core with braided cover5
Nylon core and cover --- 10,000 16,000 --- 40,900 51,800 77,400 92,200 108,000 125,000 164,000 --- --- --- ---
Nylon core, polyester cover --- 10,000 16,000 --- 40,900 51,800 77,400 92,200 108,000 125,000 164,000 --- --- --- ---
KEVLAR core, nylon cover --- 20,000 32,000 --- 81,800 103,600 154,800 184,400 216,000 250,000 328,000 --- --- --- ---

Notes:
1. Data provided by Wall Rope Works and Columbian Rope Company
2. Data provided by Columbian Rope Company and Tubbs/Jackson Rope Company
3. Data provided by Samson Ocean Systems Company
4. Data provided by Wall Rope Works, Columbian Rope Company, and Tubbs/Jackson Rope Company
5. Data provided by Wall Rope Works
6. Data provided by Columbian Rope Company
7. Data provided by Tubbs/Jackson Rope Company

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Table 7-26 (Continued). Natural and Synthetic Rope Strength.

Rope Circumference, in.: 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 24 26 28 30

Nom Diameter, in.: 31⁄ 2 4 41⁄ 4 45⁄ 8 5 51⁄ 4 51⁄ 2 6 61⁄ 4 61⁄ 2 7 8 81⁄ 2 91⁄ 4 10

Manila, 3- & 4-strand twisted, 8-strand

81,900 94,500 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
plaited1

Nylon, 3-strand twisted, 8-strand plaited2 270,000 324,000 376,000 437,000 501,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

Nylon, double braid3 345,600 405,900 470,700 539,100 612,000 689,400 770,400 855,400 945,400 1,037,000 1,134,000 1,282,000 1,482,000 1,696,000 1,920,000

Polyester, 3-strand twisted, 8-strand

229,000 270,000 314,000 365,000 419,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
plaited4

Polyester/DURON double braid3 302,400 356,400 414,900 477,900 545,400 616,500 691,200 771,000 854,000 945,000 1,035,000 1,125,000 1,296,000 1,476,000 1,665,000

Polypropylene monofilament 3-strand

146,000 171,000 205,200 238,200 273,600 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
twisted, 8-strand plaited4

Polypropylene multifilament 3-strand

132,860 155,610 186,730 216,760 248,980 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
twisted, 8-strand plaited4
3
Polypropylene multifilament double braid 200,700 234,000 270,000 307,800 347,400 389,700 433,800 480,000 528,000 579,000 630,000 --- --- --- ---

Polypropylene monofilament 12-strand

169,200 198,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
single braid3

Polyethylene 3-strand twisted, 8-strand

132,860 155,610 8,110 11,470 15,020 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
plaited5

LST MOORING, polyester cover,

202,500 238,500 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
polypropylene core, 3-strand5

LST WORKBOAT, polyester/polyethylene

175,500 207,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
cover, polypropylene core, 3-strand5

P/D 10, polyester cover, polypropylene

146,000 171,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
core, 3- & 8-strand6

POLY-PLUS, polypropylene/polyester/
153,000 180,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
polyethylene core and single cover5

POLY-CRON, polyester/polyethylene core

--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
and double cover5

PRODOK, polyolefin core, polyester jacket

153,000 180,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
each strand, 3-strand7

DURA-PLEX, polyolefin core, polyester

261,000 303,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
jacket each strand, 12-strand3

BLUE STREAK, polypropylene core,

252,000 297,000 342,000 396,000 450,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
polyester jacket each strand, 12-strand3

KEVLAR core, polyester cover, double

436,500 506,700 581,400 659,700 742,500 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
braid3

POWER BRAID, polypropylene core, nylon

296,100 348,300 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
cover, double braid3

NYDAC, polyester core, nylon cover,

261,000 303,000 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
double braid3

NYSTRON SPM BRAID, nylon/polyester

379,800 446,400 517,500 592,200 673,200 758,200 847,300 940,500 1,039,500 1,140,300 1,247,400 --- --- --- ---
double braid3

Notes:
1. Data provided by Wall Rope Works and Columbian Rope Company
2. Data provided by Columbian Rope Company and Tubbs/Jackson Rope Company
3. Data provided by Samson Ocean Systems Company
4. Data provided by Wall Rope Works, Columbian Rope Company, and Tubbs/Jackson Rope Company
5. Data provided by Wall Rope Works
6. Data provided by Columbian Rope Company
7. Data provided by Tubbs/Jackson Rope Company

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Table 7-27. Natural and Synthetic Rope Linear Weight.

Rope Circumference, in.: 1 11⁄ 2 2 21⁄ 2 3 31⁄ 2 4 41⁄ 2 5 51⁄ 2 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 24 26 28 30

5 1 5 13
Nominal Diameter, in.: ⁄ 16 ⁄2 ⁄8 ⁄ 16 1 11⁄ 8 15⁄ 16 11⁄ 2 15⁄ 8 13⁄ 4 2 21⁄ 4 25⁄ 8 3 31⁄ 4 31⁄ 2 4 41⁄ 4 45⁄ 8 5 51⁄ 4 51⁄ 2 6 61⁄ 4 61⁄ 2 7 8 81⁄ 2 91⁄ 4 10
Rope fiber and construction Linear weight, lb/100 ft
Manila, 3- & 4-strand twisted,
3 7.5 13 20 27 36 48 60 74 90 108 146 191 242 299 367 436 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
8-strand plaited
Nylon, 3-strand twisted,
2.5 6.5 10.5 17 26 34 45 55 68 83 95 129 168 210 263 316 379 445 520 590 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
8-strand plaited
Nylon, double braid 2.5 6.5 12 18 26 36 47 60 74 89 106 144 188 238 294 356 423 497 576 662 753 850 953 1,061 1,176 1,297 1,693 1,987 2,305 2,646
Polyester, 3-strand twisted,
3 8 13 21 30 40 52 67 82 98 118 157 205 258 318 384 460 540 630 720 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
8-strand plaited
Polyester/DURON double
3 8 14 22 32 43 56 71 88 100 126 172 224 284 350 424 504 592 686 788 896 1,012 1,134 1,264 1,400 1,544 2,016 2,366 2,744 3,150
braid
Polypropylene monofilament
3-strand twisted, 8-strand 2 5 7.5 12.5 18 23.5 30.5 38.5 47.5 57 69 92 120 153 190 232 275 325 375 430 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
plaited
Polypropylene multifilament
3-strand twisted, 8-strand 2 5.5 8 13.5 19.5 25 32.5 41 51 61 74 98 128 164 203 248 294 348 401 460 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
plaited
Polypropylene multifilament
--- --- --- --- --- 28.5 37.5 48 58.5 71 84 115 150 190 234 283 337 395 459 526 599 676 758 845 936 1,032 --- --- --- ---
double braid
Polypropylene monofilament
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 47.5 57 68 93 122 154 190 230 274 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
12-strand single braid
Polyethylene 3-strand twisted,
2 5 8 13 18.5 24.5 31.5 40 49.5 59 72 96 125 159 198 241 286 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
8-strand plaited
Kevlar 12-strand single braid 3 8 14 20 30 40 52 66 82 99 118 160 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
LST MOORING, polyester
cover, polypropylene core, --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 65 80 110 140 175 210 245 295 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
3-strand
LST WORKBOAT, polyester/
polyethylene cover, --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 66 84 113 143 185 220 255 310 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
polypropylene core, 3-strand
P/D 10, polyester cover,
polypropylene core, 2.5 6.5 9.5 15 22 29 35.5 45 54.5 63 78 105 138 174 210 255 300 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
3- & 8-strand
P/D 100, polyester/
polypropylene cover,
--- 6.5 10.5 --- 26.5 34 44 55 67 80 95 127 165 208 253 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
polyethylene core,
3- & 8-strand
POLY-PLUS, polypropylene/
polyester/polyethylene - 6.5 9.5 14.5 21.5 27 38 46 55 65 83 108 138 179 210 248 290 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
core and single cover
POLY-CRON, polyester/
polyethylene core and double --- --- --- --- 26.5 34 44 55 67 80 95 127 165 208 253 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
cover
PRODOK, polyolefin core,
polyester jacket each strand, --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 82 106 138 178 211 258 299 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
3-strand
DURA-PLEX, polyolefin core,
polyester jacket each strand, 2.5 6 10.5 - 24 32.5 42.5 54 67 81 96 130 170 215 265 321 382 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
12-strand
BLUE STREAK, polypropylene
core, polyester jacket each 2.5 6.5 11 - 25 34.5 45 57 70 85 101 137 179 227 280 339 403 473 549 630 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
strand, 12-strand
KEVLAR core, polyester
--- 8 15 23 33 45 59 75 92 112 132 180 235 297 368 443 527 619 718 820 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
cover, double braid
POWER BRAID,
polypropylene core, --- 6 10.5 16 23.5 32 42 53 65 79 94 127 166 211 260 315 374 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
nylon cover, double braid
NYDAC, polyester core, nylon
3 7 13.5 21 30 41 53.5 67.5 83 101 120 163 213 270 333 403 480 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
cover, double braid
NYSTRON SPM BRAID,
--- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 80 97 115 157 205 259 320 387 461 541 627 720 819 925 1,040 1,160 1,280 1,410 --- --- --- ---
nylon/polyester double braid
UNILINE, parallel fiber core
with braided cover
Nylon core and cover --- 9 13 --- 26 42.5 64 76 89 103 135 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
Nylon core, polyester cover --- 10 15 --- 29.5 49 73 87 102 118 155 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---
KEVLAR core, nylon cover --- 10 15 --- 30 49 73.5 87.5 103 119 156 --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- ---

7-39
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-5 RIGGING HARDWARE

Rigging hardware or jewelry includes

shackles, hooks, and miscellaneous pieces
of rigging systems. The items shown in
Figure 7-36, along with the chain fittings
described in Paragraph 7-3.12, are common
rigging hardware. Tables 7-28 through 7- SCREW-PIN SAFETY PLATE SHACKLE OFFSET PLATE
40 (Pages 7-41 through 7-48) list working SHACKLE SHACKLE SHACKLE
loads for various pieces of rigging W/KEY
hardware. These tables are based on U.S.
G overn m e n t a n d man u fa c tu rers ’
specifications. There may be some vari-
ation between the characteristics listed and
those of items produced under other specifi-
cations. Most manufacturers provide
technical documentation and/or advice with
their products. UPSET BENT
PIN-TYPE SHACKLES PLATE SHACKLE PLATE SHACKLE
U-shaped shackles are probably the most
widely used piece of rigging hardware.
Shackles are manufactured in two basic
body styles—bow and straight-sided. Chain
shackles (designed to connect lengths of
chain) are straight-sided to approximate the
profile of a chain link and minimize the
chance of fouling. Anchor shackles are
often bowed, although straight-sided anchor BAXTER BOLT (REVERSIBLE DECK BOLT) EYE BOLT
shackles are commonly used to prevent
fouling in the hawse pipe.
Figure 7-36. Rigging Hardware.
Shackles are further differentiated by the
way the shackle pin is retained in the body
of the shackle:

• Round pins have an enlarged

P
section, or head, at one end
to prevent passage through
the holes in the body. The P
other end of the pin has a
hole to accept a cotter key or B B
keeper pin, or is threaded to A
accept a hex nut. P P P P

• Screw-pins have an eye on

one end and threads that A
engage matching threads on BEARING
one side of the shackle body. AREA Ab
TENSION
• Pins for safety shackles are AREA At
SHEAR AREA As
shaped like large hex-head SECT. A-A SECT. B-B
bolts. After the pin is passed
through the holes on the STRESSES
shackle body, a nut is placed
PLATE PIN
on the threaded end. The P P
threaded end often has a hole σt = P/A t τ = P/2A s1
for a cotter key or small bolt. C C σb = P/A b
•
SHEAR
Some types of heavy shackles AREA As1 τ = P/2A s
have pins with oval or tear- SECT. C-C
drop cross sections to
increase strength against the
normal unidirectional lateral Figure 7-37. Plate Shackle.
loading. These pins are
otherwise similar to round
pins and are secured with
keeper pins.

7-40
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Safety shackles are preferred for salvage and towing work because their pins are less likely to come loose or jam, although other types of
shackles can be used safely. Round pins and screw-pins can be secured or moused with safety wire to prevent their coming loose. It may be
impossible to turn a screw-pin that has deformed under load, whereas the nut of a safety shackle can be removed and deformed pin forced out.

Navy general-purpose shackles are provided in two grades: grade A (ordinary strength) and grade B (high-strength). Shackles conforming to
Navy specifications are marked with their safe working load (based on a safety factor of five on breaking strength). Unmarked shackles are
treated as grade A. Table 3-15 in the Salvor’s Handbook (S0300-A7-HBK-010) gives strength of Navy shackles.

Plate shackles, shown in Figure 7-36, are versatile and can be made in the field. Plate shackles can connect chain, wire rope, fiber line, padeyes,
etc. Strength analysis of a plate shackle is similar to that for bolted connections, as shown by the free-body diagrams in Figure 7-37.

Table 7-28. Dimensions and Strength, Chain Shackles.

N D

ROUND PIN CHAIN SHACKLES SCREW PIN CHAIN SHACKLES

DIMENSIONS IN INCHES TEST REQUIREMENTS

CHAIN PROOF BREAK

SIZE WEIGHT TEST TEST
A D F M N (LBS) (LBS) (LBS)
1
⁄2 15⁄ 16 5
⁄8 15⁄ 8 13⁄ 16 0.75 8,800 24,000
5 9 3 1
⁄8 1 ⁄ 16 ⁄4 2 1 ⁄ 16 1.47 14,300 39,000
3 7 7 3 1
⁄4 1 ⁄8 ⁄8 2 ⁄8 1 ⁄4 2.52 20,900 57,000
7 1 13 7
⁄8 2 ⁄8 1 2 ⁄ 16 1 ⁄ 16 3.83 28,600 78,000

1 23⁄ 8 11⁄ 8 33⁄ 16 111⁄ 16 5.55 37,400 102,000

11⁄ 8 25⁄ 8 11⁄ 4 39⁄ 16 113⁄ 16 7.60 41,800 114,000

1 3 5 1
1 ⁄4 3 1 ⁄8 31 ⁄ 16 2 ⁄ 32 10.81 52,800 144,000
3 5 1 7 1
1 ⁄8 3 ⁄ 16 1 ⁄2 4 ⁄ 16 2 ⁄4 14.26 59,400 162,000

11⁄ 2 35⁄ 8 15⁄ 8 47⁄ 8 23⁄ 8 19.03 74,800 204,000

3 5 3 7
1 ⁄4 4 ⁄ 16 2 5 ⁄4 2 ⁄8 31.40 110,000 300,000
1 3 1
2 5 2 ⁄4 6 ⁄4 3 ⁄4 45.00 154,000 420,000

21⁄ 2 6 23⁄ 4 8 41⁄ 8 83.59 242,000 660,000

*3 61⁄ 2 31⁄ 4 81⁄ 2 5 178.00 374,000 1,020,000

1 3 1 3
*3 ⁄ 2 8 3 ⁄4 10 ⁄ 2 5 ⁄4 265.00 528,000 1,440,000

*Furnished in round pin only.

1
Data provided by Baldt, Inc. and The Crosby Group. These shackles conform to Fed. Spec. RR-C-271B.

7-41
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-29. Dimensions and Strength, Anchor Shackles.

P A

N D

ROUND PIN ANCHOR SHACKLES SCREW PIN ANCHOR SHACKLES

DIMENSIONS IN INCHES TEST REQUIREMENTS

WEIGHT PROOF TEST BREAK TEST
CHAIN SIZE A D F M N P (LBS) (LBS) (LBS)
1
⁄2 13⁄ 16 5
⁄8 17⁄ 8 13
⁄ 16 15⁄ 16 0.79 8,800 24,000
5
⁄8 19⁄ 16 3
⁄4 23⁄ 8 11⁄ 16 111⁄ 16 1.60 14,300 39,000
3
⁄4 17⁄ 8 7
⁄8 213⁄ 16 1
1 ⁄4 2 2.72 20,900 57,000
7
⁄8 21⁄ 8 1 35⁄ 16 17⁄ 16 29⁄ 32 3.95 28,600 78,000
1 23⁄ 8 11⁄ 8 33⁄ 4 111⁄ 16 211⁄ 16 6.12 37,400 102,000
1
1 ⁄8 25⁄ 8 11⁄ 4 41⁄ 4 113⁄ 16 229⁄ 32 8.27 41,800 114,000
11⁄ 4 3 13⁄ 8 411⁄ 16 21⁄ 32 31⁄ 4 11.71 52,800 144,000
13⁄ 8 35⁄ 16 11⁄ 2 51⁄ 4 21⁄ 4 35⁄ 8 15.83 59,400 162,000
11⁄ 2 35⁄ 8 15⁄ 8 53⁄ 4 23⁄ 8 37⁄ 8 20.80 74,800 204,000
13⁄ 4 45⁄ 16 2 7 27⁄ 8 5 33.91 110,000 300,000
2 5 21⁄ 4 73⁄ 4 31⁄ 4 53⁄ 4 51.75 154,000 420,000
21⁄ 2 6 23⁄ 4 101⁄ 2 41⁄ 8 71⁄ 4 101.59 242,000 660,000
*3 61⁄ 2 31⁄ 4 13 5 77⁄ 8 178.00 374,000 1,020,000
*Furnished
1
in round pin only.
Data provided by Baldt, Inc. and The Crosby Group.

Table 7-30. Dimensions and Strength, Chain Shackles.

A C
S

R
L M B

W V
Q E N E
D K

TYPE "A" TYPE "B"

TYPE "A" SHACKLE

DIMENSIONS IN INCHES TEST REQUIREMENTS
CHAIN SIZE A D F M N WEIGHT (LBS) PROOF TEST (LBS) BREAK TEST (LBS)
11⁄ 2 35⁄ 8 15⁄ 8 53⁄ 4 23⁄ 8 20.8 132,000 360,000
13⁄ 4 41⁄ 8 2 7 27⁄ 8 33.9 176,000 480,000
2 5 21⁄ 4 73⁄ 4 31⁄ 4 51.7 220,000 600,000
21⁄ 2 6 23⁄ 4 101⁄ 2 41⁄ 8 101.5 352,000 960,000
3 61⁄ 2 31⁄ 4 13 5 178.0 484,000 1,320,000
31⁄ 2 8 33⁄ 4 145⁄ 8 51⁄ 4 265.0 616,000 1,680,000
4 9 41⁄ 4 141⁄ 2 51⁄ 2 338.0 770,000 2,100,000
TYPE "B" SHACKLE
DIMENSIONS IN INCHES WEIGHT PROOF TEST BREAK TEST
SHACK NO. A B C D E F K L M N Q R S T V W (LBS) (LBS) (LBS)
1 41⁄ 2 291⁄ 4 21 101⁄ 2 33⁄ 4 43⁄ 4 143⁄ 4 18 151⁄ 2 71⁄ 4 6 51⁄ 2 6 51⁄ 2 1 2 450 880,000 1,600,000
2 41⁄ 2 35 241⁄ 2 12 33⁄ 4 5 16 1
22 ⁄ 2 20 1
8 ⁄2 63⁄ 4 61⁄ 2 61⁄ 2 53⁄ 4 1 2 600 1,100,000 2,000,000
3 5 351⁄ 4 25 12 43⁄ 4 6 18 1
22 ⁄ 2 1
19 ⁄ 2 1
8 ⁄2 71⁄ 2 61⁄ 2 63⁄ 4 7 1 2 775 1,320,000 2,400,000
4 6 401⁄ 4 26 14 61⁄ 2 7 241⁄ 4 26 221⁄ 2 81⁄ 4 93⁄ 4 61⁄ 2 71⁄ 4 8 1 2 1100 1,760,000 3,200,000
5 71⁄ 2 44 28 15 61⁄ 8 71⁄ 2 207⁄ 8 29 251⁄ 4 85⁄ 8 93⁄ 4 61⁄ 2 71⁄ 2 8 11⁄ 2 2 1550 2,200,000 4,000,000
6 81⁄ 2 53 31 17 61⁄ 2 81⁄ 4 221⁄ 4 36 317⁄ 8 91⁄ 4 121⁄ 2 7 81⁄ 2 9 11⁄ 2 3 1900 2,640,000 4,800,000

7-42
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-31. Dimensions and Strength, Heavy Duty Anchor Shackles.

P A

DIMENSIONS IN INCHES TEST REQUIREMENTS

SHACK NO. CHAIN SIZE A F M N P WEIGHT PROOF TEST BREAK TEST

(LBS) (LBS) (LBS)
1 41⁄ 8 41⁄ 2 153⁄ 4 61⁄ 2 1013⁄ 16 319 441,000 1,655,000
3 1 11 7
2 4 ⁄4 5 ⁄8 19 ⁄ 16 6 ⁄8 117⁄ 16 451 588,000 2,205,000
3 5 51⁄ 2 211⁄ 4 77⁄ 8 12 638 735,000 2,755,000
4 53⁄ 8 6 235⁄ 8 77⁄ 8 12 1157 883,000 3,310,000
5 61⁄ 2 7 255⁄ 8 87⁄ 8 1213⁄ 16 1549 1,176,000 4,410,000
6 7 71⁄ 4 279⁄ 16 97⁄ 8 133⁄ 4 1844 1,471,000 5,515,000
7 73⁄ 4 8 291⁄ 2 1013⁄ 16 143⁄ 4 2156 1,764,000 6,615,000
8 8 81⁄ 2 255⁄ 8 1113⁄ 16 153⁄ 4 2464 2,059,000 7,720,000

1
Data provided by D. van Beest en Zonen B.V.

Table 7-32. Dimensions and Strength, Regular Swivels.

C
M

F D
H
A
Z
L B

A H
G A

M
C

REGULAR TYPE

DIMENSIONS IN INCHES
WEIGHT BREAK TEST (LBS)
CHAIN SIZE A B C D F G H L M Z (LBS)
1
⁄2 6.44 2.50 1.31 1.31 2.00 3.19 5.44 1.50 .63 1.25 18,000
5
⁄8 7.81 3.00 1.50 1.56 2.38 3.88 6.56 1.75 .75 2.25 26,000
3
⁄4 8.69 3.50 1.88 1.75 2.63 4.31 7.19 2.00 .88 3.5 36,000
7
⁄8 10.13 4.00 2.13 2.06 3.06 5.00 8.38 2.25 1.00 5.4 50,000
1 11.63 4.50 2.38 2.31 3.50 5.75 9.63 2.50 1.13 8.8 62,500
11⁄ 8 12.63 5.00 2.56 2.38 3.75 6.25 10.38 2.75 1.25 12.0 76,000
11⁄ 4 13.63 5.63 3.00 2.69 3.69 6.75 11.13 3.13 1.38 16.0 90,000
11⁄ 2 20.13 7.00 4.00 4.19 4.19 10.00 17.13 4.00 2.25 49.0 226,000

7-43
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-33. Dimensions and Strength, Jaw One End Swivels.

C
M

F A
H D

L B
K Z
G E

N
P T

JAW ONE END TYPE

DIMENSIONS IN INCHES
WEIGHT (LBS) BREAK TEST (LBS)
CHAIN SIZE A B C D E F G H K L M N P T Z
1
⁄2 6.06 2.50 1.31 .50 1.31 1.31 3.19 2.88 4.50 1.50 .75 1.75 1.31 .63 1.25 18,000
5
⁄8 7.31 3.00 1.50 .63 1.56 1.50 3.88 3.44 5.31 1.75 .94 2.06 1.63 .75 2.13 26,000
3
⁄4 8.31 3.50 1.88 .75 1.75 1.75 4.31 4.00 6.06 2.00 1.13 2.53 1.88 .88 3.5 36,000
7
⁄8 9.53 4.00 2.13 .88 2.06 2.06 5.00 4.53 7.00 2.25 1.19 2.75 2.13 1.00 5.3 50,000
1 11.69 4.50 2.38 1.13 2.31 2.81 5.75 5.94 8.56 2.50 1.75 3.72 2.63 1.13 9.8 62,500
11⁄ 8 12.19 5.00 2.56 1.13 2.38 2.81 6.25 5.94 8.94 2.75 1.75 3.72 2.63 1.25 14.0 76,000
11⁄ 4 13.13 5.63 3.00 1.38 2.69 2.81 6.75 6.38 9.44 3.13 2.06 4.31 3.13 1.50 17.0 90,000
11⁄ 2 20.84 7.00 4.00 2.25 4.19 4.44 10.00 10.84 14.74 4.00 2.88 6.00 5.63 2.25 49.0 226,000
1
Data provided by The Crosby Group.

Table 7-34. Dimensions and Strength, Chain Swivels.

D P
SEE NOTE (*) M

U R

A C

DIMENSIONS IN INCHES TEST REQUIREMENTS

CHAIN SIZE A B C D M P R U WEIGHT (LBS) PROOF TEST (LBS) BREAK TEST (LBS)
11
⁄ 16 - 3⁄ 4 3
⁄4 25
6 ⁄ 32 3 3 11⁄ 16 9
2 ⁄ 16 3
⁄4 3
⁄4 5 48,000 75,000
13
⁄ 16 - 7⁄ 8 7
⁄8 13
7 ⁄ 16 1
3 ⁄2 3 1⁄ 2 13⁄ 16 15
2 ⁄ 16 7
⁄8 7
⁄8 7 64,000 98,000
15
⁄ 16 - 11 ⁄ 8 1 103⁄ 16 4 4 13⁄ 4 311⁄ 16 1 13⁄ 16 14 106,000 161,000
13⁄ 16 - 11 ⁄ 2 11⁄ 2 141⁄ 4 73⁄ 8 63⁄ 4 21⁄ 2 51⁄ 2 11⁄ 8 11⁄ 2 47 185,000 280,000
19⁄ 16 - 17 ⁄ 8 2 1515⁄ 16 77⁄ 8 77⁄ 8 25⁄ 8 63⁄ 8 11⁄ 4 2 78 285,000 432,000
115⁄ 16 - 23⁄ 16 21⁄ 4 191⁄ 8 97⁄ 16 97⁄ 16 31⁄ 8 75⁄ 8 13⁄ 8 21⁄ 4 126 382,000 579,000
21⁄ 4 - 23 ⁄ 8 23⁄ 8 2111⁄ 16 1013⁄ 32 91⁄ 4 4 83⁄ 4 11⁄ 2 27⁄ 16 172 447,000 675,000
*27⁄ 16 - 25 ⁄ 8 33⁄ 16 231⁄ 8 125⁄ 16 87⁄ 16 35⁄ 16 91⁄ 16 13⁄ 4 33⁄ 16 527 540,000 813,000
*211⁄ 16 - 27 ⁄ 8 37⁄ 16 255⁄ 16 131⁄ 2 93⁄ 16 35⁄ 8 915⁄ 16 115⁄ 16 37⁄ 16 590 640,000 965,000
*215⁄ 16 - 31 ⁄ 8 33⁄ 4 271⁄ 2 1411⁄ 16 10 315⁄ 16 1013⁄ 16 21⁄ 8 33⁄ 4 656 748,000 1,128,000
*33⁄ 16 - 33 ⁄ 8 41⁄ 16 293⁄ 4 1513⁄ 16 103⁄ 4 41⁄ 4 1111⁄ 16 21⁄ 4 41⁄ 16 722 862,200 1,296,000
*37⁄ 16 - 35 ⁄ 8 43⁄ 8 3115⁄ 16 1
17 ⁄ 16 115⁄ 8 49⁄ 16 129⁄ 16 27⁄ 16 43⁄ 8 798 1,021,000 1,566,000
*311⁄ 16 - 37 ⁄ 8 411⁄ 16 341⁄ 8 181⁄ 4 127⁄ 16 47⁄ 8 133⁄ 8 25⁄ 8 411⁄ 16 884 1,205,000 1,863,000
*315⁄ 16 - 4 413⁄ 16 351⁄ 4 1813⁄ 16 127⁄ 8 5 1313⁄ 16 23⁄ 4 413⁄ 16 938 1,298,000 1,996,000
*Manufactured with one common link each end. Weights given include weight of two common links.
1
Data provided by Baldt, Inc.; similar swivels that are stocked for use in the standard free-swinging, fleet-type moorings have different dimensions and strengths.

7-44
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-35. Dimensions and Strength, Swivel Shackles.

CHAIN END
M D KEY OR
WELDED
WASHER
A

C J

N
ANCHOR END

CHAIN SIZE (IN.) ANCHOR SIZE (LBS) DIMENSIONS IN INCHES TEST REQUIREMENTS WEIGHT (LBS)
A C D E J M N PROOF LOAD (LBS) BREAK LOAD (LBS)
5
2 20,000 LWT 2 ⁄8 161⁄ 2 15 41⁄ 2 313⁄ 4 3
2 ⁄8 1
7 ⁄4 318,000 454,000 1600
5
2 9,000 STOCK 2 ⁄8 151⁄ 2 1
15 ⁄ 2 1
3 ⁄2 313⁄ 4 3
2 ⁄8 1
5 ⁄2 318,000 454,000 1700
21⁄ 8 15,000 LWT 3 161⁄ 2 161⁄ 2 57⁄ 8 30 33⁄ 4 71⁄ 4 357,000 538,000 1700
21⁄ 4 18,000 STOCK L 27⁄ 8 161⁄ 2 15 41⁄ 2 313⁄ 4 27⁄ 8 63⁄ 4 396,000 570,000 1600
25⁄ 8 12,150 SNUG STOW 3 161⁄ 2 15 4 313⁄ 4 3 51⁄ 4 530,000 758,000 1600
23⁄ 4 50,000 MOORFAST 31⁄ 2 19 211⁄ 2 51⁄ 2 30 31⁄ 2 10 500,000 1,800,000 1200
23⁄ 4 21⁄ 4" WIRE THIMBLE 33⁄ 8 123⁄ 16 1113⁄ 16 41⁄ 8 253⁄ 8 33⁄ 8 4 590,000 885,000 850
3 30,000 LWT 35⁄ 8 29 1
21 ⁄ 2 1
7 ⁄2 301⁄ 4 6 10 500,000 1,800,000 1200
3 30,000 LWT 35⁄ 8 19 211⁄ 2 5 301⁄ 4 6 81⁄ 8 500,000 1,800,000 1200
31⁄ 4 30,000 MOORFAST 4 19 211⁄ 2 51⁄ 2 301⁄ 4 41⁄ 4 10 500,000 1,800,000 1200
1
Data provided by Baldt, Inc.

Table 7-36. Dimensions and Strength, Chain Stopper (Pelican Hook).

CHAIN-CONNECTING LINK STOPPER

E TURNBUCKLE
C

D
A
B

CHAIN SIZE (INCHES) A (MIN) B (MIN) B (MAX) C D E DET. LINK PROOF TEST BREAK TEST SAFE WORKING
SIZE LBS LBS LOADS (TONS)
3 1 1 7 3
⁄4 16 33 ⁄ 4 40 ⁄ 2 1 11 ⁄8 ⁄4 67,500 91,100 16.9
7
⁄8 171⁄ 4 387⁄ 16 459⁄ 16 17⁄ 32 11 1 7
⁄8 88,200 119,000 22
1 1 7
1 - 1 ⁄8 19 ⁄ 2 46 ⁄ 8 551⁄ 2 17
1 ⁄ 32 13 1
1 ⁄8 1
1 ⁄8 145,000 195,000 36.2
11⁄ 4 195⁄ 8 48 565⁄ 8 117⁄ 32 13 11⁄ 4 11⁄ 4 178,200 240,600 44.5
11⁄ 4HS - 11⁄ 2 233⁄ 4 553⁄ 16 6511⁄ 16 13⁄ 4 16 11⁄ 2 13⁄ 8 211,500 285,500 52.8
13⁄ 8HS - 15⁄ 8 233⁄ 4 553⁄ 16 6511⁄ 16 2 16 11⁄ 2 13⁄ 8 211,500 285,500 52.8
15⁄ 8HS - 2 241⁄ 8 593⁄ 16 6911⁄ 16 27⁄ 16 16 11⁄ 2 11⁄ 2 252,000 340,200 63
21⁄ 8 - 23⁄ 8 261⁄ 4 655⁄ 8 761⁄ 8 9
2 ⁄ 16 16 15⁄ 8 11⁄ 2 252,000 340,200 63
21⁄ 2 - 25⁄ 8 293⁄ 4 743⁄ 8 871⁄ 2 31⁄ 8 20 17⁄ 8 15⁄ 8 292,500 395,000 73
23⁄ 4 - 23⁄ 4HD 293⁄ 4 865⁄ 8 893⁄ 4 31⁄ 8 20 17⁄ 8 13⁄ 4 352,000 476,000 88
3HD - 31⁄ 4 36 903⁄ 4 1061⁄ 2 33⁄ 4 24 23⁄ 8 21⁄ 4 403,000 610,000 100.7
33⁄ 8 - 31⁄ 2 385⁄ 8 977⁄ 16 1133⁄ 16 37⁄ 8 24 25⁄ 8 21⁄ 2 492,000 744,000 123
31⁄ 2HD - 33⁄ 4 443⁄ 8 110 1281⁄ 8 41⁄ 2 271⁄ 2 3 3 706,000 1,068,000 176.5
All specifications in pounds and inches, unless otherwise stated.
One ton equals 2,000 pounds.
NOTE: Keeper plates available for turnbuckle eyes to prevent rotation while towing.
Data provided by Baldt, Inc.

7-45
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-37. Dimensions and Strength, Chain Stoppers (Devil’s Claw).

B
E C

CHAIN-CONNECTING LINK
D

F G

A (MIN.) (MAX.)
BALDT SPEC

CHAIN SIZE A A B DET LINK PROD. WT.

C D E F G PROOF LOAD BREAK LOAD
(INCHES) (MIN) (MAX) (MIN) SIZE LBS
3
⁄ 4 - 7⁄ 8 341⁄ 2 42 171⁄ 4 11 63⁄ 4 1 19⁄ 16 11⁄ 8 7
⁄8 64,400 91,800 33
5 1 11 11 5 1 7 3
1 ⁄ 16 - 1 ⁄ 4 46 ⁄ 16 55 ⁄ 16 19 ⁄ 8 13 9 1 ⁄4 1 ⁄8 1 ⁄4 11⁄ 4 129,000 184,000 73

15⁄ 16 - 15⁄ 8 53 631⁄ 2 233⁄ 4 16 121⁄ 4 11⁄ 2 21⁄ 4 21⁄ 4 11⁄ 2 183,500 262,000 145

111⁄ 16 - 23⁄ 8 571⁄ 4 673⁄ 4 241⁄ 8 16 155⁄ 8 15⁄ 8 21⁄ 4 31⁄ 8 11⁄ 2 183,500 262,000 181
7 3 1 1 3 7 3 5
2 ⁄ 16 - 2 ⁄ 4 69 ⁄ 4 89 ⁄ 4 29 ⁄ 4 20 18 1 ⁄8 3 ⁄8 3 ⁄8 13⁄ 4 247,000 352,000 403

213⁄ 16 - 31⁄ 2 901⁄ 2 1061⁄ 2 383⁄ 8 24 23 25⁄ 8 31⁄ 2 45⁄ 8 21⁄ 2 484,000 692,000 872
9 1 1 3 1 7 1 1
3 ⁄ 16 - 4 106 ⁄ 8 124 ⁄ 8 44 ⁄ 8 27 ⁄ 2 28 2 ⁄8 4 ⁄4 5 ⁄4 3 679,000 970,000 1,216

Specifications in pounds and inches unless otherwise stated.

Table 7-38. Dimensions and Strength, Chain Stoppers (Dog or Ulster Type).

A B
DIMENSIONS IN INCHES TEST REQURIEMENTS

CHAIN SIZE A B C D APPROX. WEIGHT (LBS) PROOF TEST (LBS) BREAK TEST (LBS)
1 1 3
1 - 1 ⁄2 20 11 13 ⁄ 2 7 ⁄4 215 183,500 262,000

19⁄ 16 - 17⁄ 8 25 141⁄ 4 171⁄ 8 93⁄ 4 470 281,000 408,000

115⁄ 16 - 23⁄ 16 30 181⁄ 8 22 12 1,300 337,000 482,000

1 1 1 3
2 ⁄4 - 2 ⁄2 39 21 ⁄ 2 27 ⁄ 8 15 1,670 484,000 692,000

29⁄ 16 - 213⁄ 16 427⁄ 8 243⁄ 4 301⁄ 2 161⁄ 4 2,230 603,000 861,000

27⁄ 8 - 33⁄ 16 531⁄ 2 295⁄ 8 369⁄ 16 201⁄ 2 4,550 759,000 1,084,000

31⁄ 4 - 37⁄ 16 463⁄ 4 27 34 173⁄ 4 3,800 871,000 1,244,000

1 3 1 5 1
3 ⁄2 - 3 ⁄4 62 ⁄ 2 34 ⁄ 8 43 ⁄ 8 24 4,000 1,019,000 1,455,000

313⁄ 16 - 4 661⁄ 2 37 46 251⁄ 2 4,500 1,143,000 1,632,000

1 1 3 1
4 ⁄ 16 - 4 ⁄ 4 70 ⁄ 4 39 ⁄ 4 49 30 4,700 1,272,000 1,817,000

1
Data provided by Baldt, Inc.

7-46
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-39. Dimensions and Strength, End Links.

CHAIN SIZE (INCHES) A B C WEIGHT PROOF TEST

11
⁄ 16 - 3⁄ 4 13
⁄ 16 55⁄ 8 27⁄ 8 1.8 48,000

13
⁄ 16 - 1 11⁄ 16 71⁄ 2 33⁄ 4 4.0 84,000

11⁄ 16 - 11
⁄4 13⁄ 8 93⁄ 8 47⁄ 8 8.0 130,000

5 1 5 1 3
1 ⁄ 16 - 1 ⁄ 2 1 ⁄8 11 ⁄ 4 5 ⁄4 14.2 185,000

19⁄ 16 - 13⁄ 4 17⁄ 8 13 65⁄ 8 21.6 249,000

113⁄ 16 - 2 21⁄ 8 15 75⁄ 8 34.2 322,000

1 1 1 7 3
2 ⁄ 16 - 2 ⁄ 4 2 ⁄2 16 ⁄ 8 8 ⁄4 45.4 403,000

25⁄ 16 - 21⁄ 2 23⁄ 4 183⁄ 4 93⁄ 4 62.0 492,000

29⁄ 16 - 23⁄ 4 3 201⁄ 2 103⁄ 4 81.0 590,000

13 1 1 5
2 ⁄ 16 - 3 3 ⁄4 22 ⁄ 2 11 ⁄ 8 105.0 693,000

31⁄ 16 - 33⁄ 8 35⁄ 8 251⁄ 4 13 148.0 862,200

37⁄ 16 - 33⁄ 4 4 28 141⁄ 2 202.0 1,120,000

13 1 1
3 ⁄ 16 - 4 4 ⁄4 30 15 ⁄ 4 258.0 1,298,000

All specifications in pounds and inches, unless otherwise stated.

7-47
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-40. Strength of Turnbuckles from ASTM STD F 1145.

Minimum Breaking Strength, lbf

Size, Nominal Outside Type I, Grade 1 All Others

Diameter of Thread, in. Jaw, Eye, or Stub End Hook End Pulls Jaw, Eye, Hook End Pulls
Pulls or Stub End Pulls
1
⁄4 2,500 1,500 1,550 1,050
5
⁄ 16 3,500 2,500 2,700 1,650
3
⁄8 5,200 3,500 4,100 2,300
1
⁄2 9,000 5,200 7,550 3,700
5
⁄8 13,500 8,000 12,100 5,400
3
⁄4 20,000 10,000 18,100 7,500
7
⁄8 29,000 12,000 18,100 7,500
1 38,000 14,500 33,100 12,800
11⁄ 4 60,000 23,000 53,600 20,600
13⁄ 8 72,000 29,000 63,400 24,300
11⁄ 2 85,000 36,000 77,700 29,300
13⁄ 4 115,000 - 105,000 -
2 150,000 - 138,000 -
21⁄ 4 197,000 - 181,000 -
21⁄ 2 242,000 - 223,000 -
23⁄ 4 304,000 - 277,000 -
3 350,000 - 337,000 -
31⁄ 4 400,000 - 400,000 -
31⁄ 2 475,000 - 475,000 -
33⁄ 4 550,000 - 550,000 -
4 635,000 - 635,000 -

Recommended Working Loads, lbf

1
⁄4 500 300 310 210
5
⁄ 16 700 500 540 330
3
⁄8 1,040 700 820 460
1
⁄2 1,800 1,400 1,500 740
5
⁄8 2,700 1,600 2,400 1,080
3
⁄4 4,000 2,000 3,600 1,500
7
⁄8 5,800 2,400 5,000 2,000
1 7,600 2,900 6,600 2,560
11⁄ 4 12,000 4,600 10,700 4,120
13⁄ 8 14,400 5,800 12,600 4,860
11⁄ 2 17,000 7,200 15,500 5,860
13⁄ 4 23,000 - 21,000 -
2 30,000 - 27,600 -
21⁄ 4 39,400 - 36,200 -
21⁄ 2 48,400 - 44,600 -
23⁄ 4 60,800 - 55,400 -
3 70,000 - 67,400 -
31⁄ 4 80,000 - 80,000 -
31⁄ 2 95,000 - 95,000 -
33⁄ 4 110,000 - 110,000 -
4 127,000 - 127,000 -

Note: Type and grades of turnbuckles are illustrated in Figure 7-38.

7-48
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

BODY

END PULL HEADS END PULL

CLASS A - BODY ONLY, HEADS NOT DRILLED

D CLASS B - BODY ONLY, HEADS DRILLED AND THREADED

CLEAR OPENING
BETWEEN HEADS
GRADE 1 - FORGED
GRADE 2 - SPREAD
GRADE 3 - RESISTANCE-WELDED
GRADE 4 - ARC- OR GAS-WELDED
CLASS C - STUB AND STUB CLASS F - HOOK AND EYE
TYPE I, OPEN TURNBUCKLE BODY

CLEAR OPENING
BETWEEN HEADS CLASS D - EYE AND EYE CLASS G - JAW AND JAW
TYPE II, PIPE TURNBUCKLE BODY

JAM NUT

CLEAR OPENING CLASS E - HOOK AND HOOK CLASS H - JAW AND EYE
BETWEEN HEADS
TYPE III, RIGGING TURNBUCKLE BODY

TURNBUCKLE TYPES AND GRADES TURNBUCKLE CLASSES

Figure 7-38. Turnbuckles.

7-49
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-6 WEIGHT-HANDLING AND

LIFTING SYSTEMS GUY ROPES LUFFING ROPES

Usually, shipboard weight- and cargo-

handling gear is subdivided as follows:
• Rotating cranes, with either A-FRAME HOIST
ROPES
topping or nontopping booms,
• Nonrotating cranes, A-FRAME BREAST
• Boom-and-kingpost TO HOISTING
arrangements, and DRUM

• Sheer legs and gin poles.

Figure 7-39 shows some typical types of GUYS GUYS
derricks, cranes, booms, and davits.
MAST
Cranes, booms, derricks, etc., should be used GIN POLE
in compliance with the manufacturers’
recommendations. The capacities of installed
cranes, booms, and davits on U.S. Navy ships GIN POLE GUYED
are in the Ship’s Information Book (SIB), in
the booklet of general plans, and on label
plates on the equipment. When planning lifts
with installed cranes or booms, riggers, COUNTER-
operators, and appropriate technical manuals MAST WEIGHT AND
MACHINERY
should be consulted for the operating RIGID HOUSE
requirements and limitations of the equip- GUYS
BOOM
ment. NSTM Chapters 573 (Booms), and 589
(Cranes), and the Boatswain’s Mate Rate WHEELS PIVOT
Training Manuals provide more complete
guidance for boom and crane operation. COMBINED STIFF-LEG AND A-FRAME
STIFF-LEG WITH ROTATING TABLE (360˚)
7-6.1 Booms. Boom-and-kingpost weight-
handling systems have wide application be-
cause of their versatility and reliability. The Figure 7-39. Derricks.
capacities of cargo booms range from less
than 5 tons to more than 500 tons. Cargo
gear designs for a ship are found in the Rig- SWIVEL FITTING FOR TOPPING LIFT
ging Diagram (Navy) or Cargo Gear SWIVEL PAD
Register (Merchant). Figure 7-40 illustrates
boom terminology. TOPPING LIFT
BLOCKS BOOM HEAD
When designing a boom-and-kingpost system,
or when assessing the ability of existing gear MAST OR VANG EAR ON BODY
to handle an oversized lift, load on individual KINGPOST TOPPING HEAD FITTING
components and foundations must be deter- LIFT BODY HEAD
mined and matched against the strength of the TOPPING LIFT FITTING
structure. The following loads are important: LEADLINE OR SWIVEL EYE
HAULING PART
• Tension in the topping lift. BOOM
HOIST BLOCK
T

•
) AR

Compression in the boom SWAGED UPPER VANG

ER G P

(boom thrust). JOINT PENDANT

NN LIN

TOPPING (WELDED)
•
RU U

WINCH
O HA

Tension in the stays. UPPER VANG

RG OR

BLOCK
• Vertical and horizontal forces
CA E
N
ED LI

at the stay anchors.

LL AD

BOOM HEEL LOWER

•
CA LE

FITTING VANG
Compression on the mast
O T

BLOCK
LS IS

above the boom step.

(A HO

GOOSENECK
•
O

BOOM
RG

Compression on the mast BOOM STEP HEEL

CA

below the boom step. BRACKET SWIVEL

PAD
• Horizontal shear on the mast BOOM HEEL
SWIVEL BOOM
foundation. FITTING HEAD VANG SWIVEL
OR GUY FITTING
•
BLOCK
Maximum bending moment on MAST TO HOIST TACKLE CARGO HOOK
the mast. STEP WINCH
DRUM VANG PAD
Component loads in a cargo boom or other
weight-handling system are determined by
vector diagrams, as shown in Figure 7-41 and Figure 7-40. Nomenclature for Cargo Boom and Kingpost.
the following example.

7-50
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

TOPPING LIFT D
OR SPAN

STAY E
TENSION TOPPING
25˚
LIFT

25˚
30’ STAY A TOPPING
BOOM LIFT
(25’) TENSION

’
25
LIFTING F
50˚ BLOCK
50˚ C

MAST
(30’) BOOM
5’ LOAD THRUST
(5 TONS) 5 TONS B

BOOM AND MAST ARRANGEMENT FORCE DIAGRAM

Figure 7-41. Forces on Cargo Rig.

EXAMPLE 7-1
BOOM LOADS

For the mast and boom shown in Figure 7-41 with a five-ton load, calculate If there were more than one stay, the "backstay tension" would be resolved
the following: into component tensions for each stay. At the padeye, backstay tension is
resolved into horizontal and vertical components by multiplying by the sine
Tension in the topping lift and backstay or cosine of the backstay angle (25o):
Boom thrust
Compression on the mast above the boom step FH = 7.56sin25 = 3.19 tons
Vertical and horizontal forces on the backstay anchoring padeye FV = 7.56cos25 = 6.85 tons
Horizontal shear on the mast step
Compression on the mast below the mast step (neglecting weight of Horizontal shear results from back thrust (the horizontal component of boom
the mast and gear) thrust), and is equal to the product of boom thrust and the sine of the boom-
Maximum bending moment on the mast to-mast angle, α:

Starting at the head of the boom, the force triangle ABC is constructed by Mast step shear = Back thrust = Boom thrust sinα = 4.17sin50 = 3.19 tons
drawing the five-ton weight vector AB, the vector BC parallel to the boom,
and the vector CA so that it is parallel to the topping lift and closes the Lower mast compression (below the boom step) is the sum of the upper
triangle, as shown in Figure 7-41. The magnitude of the forces in the boom mast compression and the vertical component of boom thrust:
and topping lift can be found by the law of sines:
Boom thrustvert = Boom thrust cosα = 4.17cos50 = 2.68 tons
SinA SinB SinC
= = so:
BC CA AB
Lower mast compression = 9.17 + 2.68 = 11.85 tons
From geometry, the angles A, B, and C are determined: The mast is equivalent to a beam fixed at one end and supported at the
other with an off-center concentrated load (boom thrust). From Case 14 of
A = 54o
Table 2-3:
B = 50o
C = 76o Fab 3.19(30)(5)
M1 = = = 13.6 ft-tons
and: L 35
ABsinB 5sin50
Topping lift tension = CA = = = 3.95 tons
sinC sin76
 2   
M1 = a  (2 2L) = 30  (80 70) = 2.79 ft tons, at the boom step
ABsinA 5sin54 Fb 3.19(52)
Boom compression = BC = = = 4.17 tons
3
sinC  2 (35 ) 
sin76 3
2L 
A force triangle DEF is drawn from the top of the mast, starting with the
3.95-ton tension in the topping lift. From geometry: Fab 3.19(30)(5)
M2 = (a L) = (5 35) = 12.69 ft tons at the mast step
D = 54o 2L 2 2 (352)
E = 101o
C = 25o where:
and:
F = lateral force on the boom = back thrust
DEsinD 3.95sin54 a = distance from boom step to topping lift/back stay attachment
Backstay tension = EF = = = 7.56 tons
sinF sin25 b = distance from boom step to mast step
DEsinE 3.95sin101 L = distance from mast step to topping lift/backstay attachment
Upper mast compression = FD = = = 9.17 tons
sinF sin25

7-51
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

In addition to loads caused by suspended weights, boom parts are subject to loads resulting from their own weight. The mast is subject to varying
compression due to its weight and the weight of the boom and gear, which is at its maximum at the foot of the mast. The boom is subject to a
bending moment caused by its weight:
wL
M = sinα
8
where:

M = bending moment, ft-tons L = length of the boom, ft

w = weight of the boom, tons α = boom angle

Booms are subject to additional bending because the cargo whip or purchase block and the topping lift block are not attached at the same point.

As boom angle increases, component loads increase for the same suspended weight. Since boom angle determines outreach, operating capacity
for booms is a function of outreach or swing radius. In the example, the topping lift is attached directly opposite a single backstay, so the
horizontal components of the topping lift and backstay tensions did not cause shear or bending in the mast. Only boom thrust caused shear and
bending in the mast. Two conditions cause additional stresses:

• When the boom swings, the topping lift is no longer in the same plane as the backstay. The mast resists horizontal forces
perpendicular to the backstay at the masthead by developing internal shear forces and bending moments. The mast is subject to
bending in two planes. The unopposed horizontal force is determined by resolving the topping lift tension into components in line
with and perpendicular to the backstay.

• If the topping lift sheave and backstay attachment are not at the same height, the mast is equivalent to a simply supported beam with
two point loads.

If there are two or more stays, the resultant of the tension in the stays will be in the same plane as the topping lift, so the opposing forces are
directly opposite and will not cause shear and bending in the mast. Tension in the multiple stays is found by determining the resultant tension
as for a single backstay then resolving it into components in line with the stays. Bending in a stayed mast can be avoided altogether if the boom
is stepped at the foot of the mast. Masts for light cargo booms are sometimes unstayed and always subject to bending.

Stress at any section of the mast or boom is the sum of bending, axial (compressive), and torsional stresses. To find bending stress, the bending
moment at the section in question is divided by the section modulus. Bending stress is compressive on the boom side of the mast and tensile on
the opposite side. To find axial stress, the axial compression is divided by the section area. To find torsional shear, the torque (if any) on the
section is divided by the torsional section modulus. The torsional section modulus of a circular section is one-half the bending section modulus.
The maximum combined stress is compressive, and is given by:

 2
St  St 
Sc = Ss2  
2  2 
where:

Sc = combined stress, psi

St = total compressive stress, psi = axial stress + bending stress
Ss = torsional stress, psi

J. Burton Davies of the Royal Institute of Naval Architects has given a relationship for the crippling stress in compression members with
slenderness ratios (length to radius of gyration) greater than 80:
σy (0.003 l 1) σE
σy 1) σE 4σyσE
k 2
Scr = (0.003 l
k
2
where:

Scr = crippling stress = total stress at collapse σE = Euler crippling stress

σy = material yield stress, ton/in2 (15 for mild steel) π2E
l/k = slenderness ratio =
l 2
l = boom length k
k = radius of gyration E = modulus of elasticity, tons/in2 (13,000 for mild steel)

Tables 7-41 and 7-42 provide crippling axial loads for mild steel tubes used as booms.

The effective height of the mast—that is, the height above the boom step—influences the loads in the boom, topping lift, stays, and mast itself.
Effective mast heights less than two-thirds of the boom length will cause very high component loads relative to the weight lifted.

Cargo booms are rigged in various configurations, depending on the amount and location of material handled and speed of handling. In a single swing-
ing boom rig (Figure 7-40), the boom is swung by tending the vangs and is topped with the topping lift to spot the suspended load. Cargo transfer
by a single swinging boom is relatively slow and tedious. Variations of the of the single swinging boom rig, such as the wing lead, backweight, or
Liverpool rigs, or multi-boom rigs, such as the yard-and-stay or housefall rigs, can move cargo at a higher rate than a swinging boom or most cranes.
Experienced salvage riggers or cargo handlers should be consulted when setting up rigs for offloading large quantities of cargo.

7-52
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Table 7-41. Limiting Axial Loads for Mild Steel Tubes Table 7-42. Limiting Axial Loads for Mild Steel Tubes
(S.W.L. over 10 tons) Factor of Safety = 4 (S.W.L. 10 tons or less) Factor of Safety = 5
All Loads in Short Tons (2,000 lbs). All Loads in Short Tons (2,000 lbs).

Length, ft Outside Diameter, in. Thickness Length, ft Outside Diameter, in. Thickness
1 5 3 7 1 9 5 1 5 3 7 1 9 5
⁄4 ⁄ 16 ⁄8 ⁄ 16 ⁄2 ⁄ 16 ⁄8 ⁄4 ⁄ 16 ⁄8 ⁄ 16 ⁄2 ⁄ 16 ⁄8
25 8 11.2 13.7 20 6.5 6.3 7.2
9 14.6 17.9 7 7.4 8.6
10 18.3 22.2 26.5 25 7 5.5 6.4
30 9 11.7 14.3 8 7.7 9.0 11.0
10 15.0 18.4 21.7
9 9.9 11.6 14.3
11 18.3 22.7 26.8
10 12.3 14.7 17.8 21.2
12 21.8 27.2 32.0 37.1
13 25.3 31.5 37.2 43.2 30 7 4.1 4.8
35 10 12.1 14.9 17.7 8 5.9 6.9 8.5
11 15.4 18.9 22.3 9 7.9 9.3 11.4
12 18.7 23.0 27.4 31.5 10 10.2 12.0 14.7 17.3
13 22.2 27.3 32.6 37.4 11 14.6 18.2 21.5
14 31.7 37.9 43.5 49.5 12 17.5 21.7 25.6 29.7
40 10 12.2 14.4 13 20.2 25.2 29.8 34.6
11 12.7 15.6 18.4 35 7 3.2 3.7
12 15.7 19.5 23.0 26.7 8 4.6 5.4 6.6
13 19.1 23.5 28.1 32.2 9 6.3 7.4 9.0
14 27.8 32.9 38.2 43.4
10 8.3 9.7 11.9 14.2
15 32.3 38.3 44.3 49.9
11 12.3 15.1 17.8
16 36.3 43.4 50.5 56.9
17 48.6 56.5 64.3 71.3 12 15.0 18.4 21.9 25.2
18 54.0 62.8 70.8 79.3 13 17.7 21.8 26.1 29.9
19 59.2 68.8 78.4 87.1 96.4 14 25.4 30.3 34.8
45 10 11.8 40 8 3.7 4.3 5.2
11 10.6 13.0 15.3 9 5.1 5.9 7.3
12 13.3 16.3 19.5 22.3 10 6.7 7.9 9.7 11.5
13 16.2 20.2 23.8 27.3 11 10.2 12.5 14.7
14 23.9 28.6 32.8 12 12.6 15.6 18.4 21.3
15 28.2 33.7 38.7 44.0 13 15.3 18.8 22.5 25.8
16 32.6 38.6 44.8 51.0 14 22.3 26.3 30.5
17 43.9 51.0 57.4 64.3
15 25.8 30.5 35.5
18 49.0 57.0 64.9 72.0
45 9 4.2 4.8 5.9
19 54.4 63.3 71.3 80.0 88.6
20 69.2 78.9 87.6 97.0 10 5.6 6.5 8.0 9.4
50 11 10.9 12.8 11 8.5 10.4 12.2
12 11.3 13.9 16.4 18.8 12 10.6 15.0 15.6 17.9
13 13.9 17.1 20.4 23.4 13 13.0 16.1 19.0 21.8
14 20.7 24.8 28.2 32.0 14 19.1 22.9 26.2 29.9
15 24.5 29.2 34.0 38.2 15 22.6 27.0 31.0 35.2
16 28.8 34.0 39.5 44.9 16 26.1 30.9 35.9
17 39.2 45.6 51.3 57.5 50 10 5.4 6.7 7.9
18 44.5 51.2 58.3 65.3 11 7.1 8.7 10.3
19 49.7 57.8 65.1 73.0 80.8 12 9.0 11.1 13.1 15.1
20 63.4 72.3 81.1 88.9
13 11.1 13.7 16.3 18.7
55 12 11.8 13.9 16.1
14 16.6 19.8 22.7 25.6
13 12.0 14.7 17.4 20.0
14 18.0 21.3 24.4 27.8 15 19.6 23.5 27.2 30.6
15 21.5 25.4 29.5 33.1 16 23.0 27.2 31.6 36.0
16 25.2 30.2 34.6 39.4 55 11 6.0 7.4 8.7
17 34.9 40.1 45.6 50.5 12 7.7 9.4 11.1 12.9
18 39.7 46.1 51.9 58.2 13 9.6 11.8 13.9 16.0
19 44.9 51.7 58.8 66.0 72.2 14 14.4 17.0 19.5 22.2
20 58.3 65.7 73.6 81.5 15 17.2 20.3 23.6 26.5
60 12 10.2 12.0 13.8 16 20.2 24.1 27.7 31.5
13 10.3 12.8 15.1 17.3 17 27.9 32.0 36.5
14 15.5 18.6 21.3 24.0 60 12 6.6 8.1 9.6 11.1
15 18.7 22.3 25.6 29.1
13 8.2 10.2 12.1 13.9
16 22.1 26.5 30.4 34.6
14 12.4 14.9 17.1 19.2
17 31.0 35.6 40.5 44.8
18 35.2 41.0 46.7 51.7 15 14.9 17.8 20.5 23.3
19 40.5 46.5 53.0 59.4 65.0 16 17.1 21.2 24.3 27.7
20 52.6 59.9 66.4 73.6 17 24.8 28.5 32.4
65 14 13.6 16.1 18.5 21.1 18 28.2 32.8
15 16.5 19.5 22.6 25.5 65 14 10.9 12.9 14.8 16.9
16 19.5 23.3 26.8 30.5 15 13.2 15.6 18.1 20.4
17 27.2 31.6 35.6 39.9 16 15.6 18.6 21.4 24.4
18 31.7 36.4 41.4 46.4 17 21.8 25.3 28.5 31.9
19 36.4 41.8 47.6 52.7 58.4 18 25.3 29.1 33.1
20 47.3 53.9 60.4 66.1 19 29.1 33.4
70 15 14.5 17.3 19.9 22.4
70 15 11.6 13.8 15.9 17.9
16 17.4 20.6 23.7 27.0
16 13.9 16.5 18.9 21.6
17 24.2 28.2 31.7 35.5
18 28.2 32.7 36.9 41.3 17 19.4 22.5 25.4 28.4
19 32.3 37.6 42.8 47.4 52.5 18 22.5 26.2 29.5 33.1
20 43.0 48.4 54.3 59.4 19 25.8 30.1 34.2

7-53
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

The rated load for a boom is its safe

working load when rigged as a single Table 7-43. U.S. Navy Cargo Boom Design Safety Factors.
swinging boom. Safe working load of
yard-and-stay and housefall rigs is one-half
of the rated load. Cargo booms on U.S. Kingposts 5 on ultimate strength
Navy ships have 10-ton working loads
unless otherwise specified. Kingposts,
Booms 5 on ultimate strength,
booms, and running rigging are designed
6 on critical column load
with the safety factors shown in Table 7-43.

Many ships have heavy lift booms or Running rigging 5 on breaking strength
derricks for making lifts greater than the 5-
to 10-ton lifts associated with ordinary
cargo loading. Navy LKA-116 Class ships
have 78-ton Stuelken-type booms, shown in
Figure 7-42. Special-purpose heavy lift
ships may have boom capacities of up to
500 tons. Rigging for modern heavy lift
booms swings the boom by altering the
length of two topping lifts rather than by
using vangs. The topping lifts are slaved
together so that the boom is controlled from
a single point.

7-6.2 Cranes and Davits. Cranes offer

greater speed and ease in handling loads
than single swinging booms. Cranes are BOOM IN BOOM IN WORKING
rotating or nonrotating. Rotating cranes are ALTERNATE POSITION OVER
topping or nontopping. Figures 7-43 and 7- POSITION OVER ONE HATCH
ADJACENT HATCH
44 illustrate four types of rotating cranes:

• Topping cranes:

(1) Kingpost. SECTION LOOKING FORWARD ELEVATION LOOKING INBOARD

(2) Pedestal.

• Nontopping cranes:

(1) Jib.

(2) Pillar.

Nonrotating crane types include:

• Gantry.

• Overhead.
BOOM SHOWN IN
WORKING POSITION
• Raised runway. OVER SIDE OF SHIP

PLAN VIEW
• Traveling supports.
Figure 7-42. Stuelken or Newport News Heavy Lift Boom.

7-54
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

MAIN HOIST WIRE ROPE TELESCOPING

ASSEMBLY (DRUM) BOOM

JIB CRANE
HOUSE
MAIN BLOCK/
HOOK
SPOTTING GEAR TOPPING
FOR ACCURATE PEDESTAL AUXILIARY HOOK
LIFT ("HEADACHE BALL")
LOAD POSITIONING CYLINDER

PEDESTAL

KINGPOST CRANE PEDESTAL CRANE WITH TELESCOPING BOOM

(SIMILAR TO CARGO SHIP DECK CRANES) (SIMILAR TO AS 18 CRANE)

Figure 7-43. Rotating Cranes.

RIGID SUPPORT

COLUMN

MAIN
FIXED HOOK/
TENSION BLOCK
MEMBER BOOM
(FIXED AUXILIARY
REACH) HOOK
MAIN
HOIST PILLAR
AUXILIARY
HOIST (WHIP
JIB BOOM HOIST)

RIGID
SUPPORT

TROLLEY
HOIST

JIB CRANE PILLAR CRANE

(SIMILAR TO LHA CRANE) (SIMILAR TO CVN 65 CRANE)

Figure 7-44. Rotating Nontopping Cranes.

7-55
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Typical gantry and overhead cranes are

shown in Figure 7-45. Raised runway and
traveling support cranes are similar in
TROLLEY
concept and operation.
Port facilities have numerous types of cranes END TRUCK
in permanent, temporary, or mobile installa- HOIST
tions. Navy ships have kingpost, pedestal, BRIDGE
jib, and pillar cranes. Stores-handling davits BRIDGE DRIVE
(J-bar davits) are essentially simple pillar
cranes. Most shipboard cargo cranes are
kingpost or pedestal cranes. Some large RUNWAY
special-purpose vessels, such as floating dry-
docks, have portal cranes. A portal crane
consists of a large pedestal or kingpost crane
with legs forming a portal for traffic. Large OVERHEAD TRAVELING CRANE
(SIMILAR TO LSD 41 WELL DECK CRANE)
floating cranes are usually kingpost cranes. HOOK/BLOCK
Mobile cranes are usually pedestal or king-
post type cranes mounted on truck or crawler
chassis. Large Navy vessels—aircraft car-
TROLLEY
riers, amphibious warfare vessels, and repair
ships—carry truck cranes. Mobile cranes are
extremely useful in certain conditions:
• Working from piers in BRIDGE
harbor operations. HOOK/BLOCK
• Placed on casualties lack-
ing cargo gear or power.
• Placed on barges or large
landing craft to form im- GANTRY LEGS
promptu floating cranes.
TRUCKS
Loads on crane components are determined RAILS
by force and free-body diagrams—the same
way as they are determined for boom GANTRY CRANE
systems. Because cranes are unstayed, the (SIMILAR TO ASR CRANE)
pivoting mechanism of a rotating crane is
always subject to bending. Counterweights
on many cranes reduce the moment on the Figure 7-45. Nonrotating Cranes.
crane base. Inertia loads caused by rolling
or pitching increase the moment at the base.
Cranes, unless specifically designed for heavy weather operation, cannot be used in as high a sea state as booms or sheer legs.
Because they have no topping lifts, the booms of pedestal, pillar, and jib cranes are cantilever beams and are subject to shear forces and bending
moments caused by both the suspended load and their own weight. Cranes are designed to carry loads in the same vertical plane as the boom
axis. Side-loading should be avoided because the crane structures are not designed to resist athwartships thrust. Side-loading occurs when the
crane rotates or travels with a swaying load or when it drags loads.
Ships are equipped with portable J-bar davits for handling stores, ammunition, and miscellaneous weights. Stores davits on Navy ships normally
have 1,000-pound working loads (500-pound on destroyers and smaller ships). Ammunition davits have working loads equal to the weight of the
heaviest piece of ammunition in the magazine served. U.S. Navy shipboard cranes have a 5-long-ton safe working load unless otherwise specified.
7-6.3 Floating Cranes. Floating cranes perform a variety of lifts in salvage work. Light- to medium-capacity cranes can be moored alongside
casualties without operating cargo gear to offload cargo, remove other weights, or position salvage gear. Large cranes with capacities as high as
several thousand tons may be used to:
• Lift sunken or stranded wrecks.
• Lift large sections of wrecks that have been cut up in place.
• Incline or lift stranded ships to reduce ground reaction.
• Parbuckle capsized ships.
• Operate wreck grabs or punches.
• Prevent unstable or marginally stable sunken ships from capsizing during raising by maintaining upward tension on the deck
edges.
Floating cranes are typically either rotating cranes or sheer legs mounted on appropriately sized and equipped barges or pontoons. Sheer legs are
suitable for hoisting heavy weights because of the inherent stability and rigidity of the triangle formed by the two legs. Since sheer legs do not
rotate, the barge must be maneuvered, by tugs or ground tackle, to move the lifted object. Rotating cranes, also called ringers or whirley cranes,
usually have greater outreach than sheer legs, and can reposition lifts more conveniently, but have less inherent stability. For all cranes, lift
capacity decreases with outreach; as a boom or A-frame is lowered, bending loads increase dramatically. A crane can lift its rated capacity at
only a limited outreach. Figure 7-46 shows the rigging diagrams and capacity curves for a high-capacity salvage sheer legs.

7-56
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

1,000
TONS MAIN
LIFT BLOCK
DECK
TACKLES 2 X 250
TONS

2 X 250
SHEER LEGS TONS

WRECK
WRECK SECTION

SEA FLOOR

50
300
300
MAXIMUM CAPACITY 300 JIB STRETCHED
300
AT EACH OUTREACH 300
280
255
210

180 40
150
125

95

70

45
30

HEIGHT OF HOOK (m)

500 20
500 500 2 x 10T
500 430

340 270

20
210 2 x 150T
160

110
2 x 5T

WEIGHT IN
A-FRAME
JIB REMOVED 10
2 x 250T

DECK
TACKLES

4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44
2 x 250t OUTREACH (m)

Figure 7-46. Salvage Sheer Legs.

7-57
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Figure 7-47 shows similar diagrams for a large rotating crane. The Navy and Army maintain floating cranes in the 50- to 300-ton range at
various facilities around the world. Large commercial floating cranes are generally built to customer specifications and change location and
ownership frequently. As such, there are no catalogs of available cranes and capabilities. If commercial floating plant must be hired, local
shipping agents, underwater construction contractors, or salvage companies should be contacted.
30’0"
65’0"

WHIP
35’0"

AUX.
AUX. MAX.
HOOK HEIGHT

2700
MAIN
2500
240
2300
235’0"

220
MAIN MAX.
2100 HOOK HEIGHT
200
NET HOOK CAPACITIES IN TONS (2000#)

1900
180
1700
MAIN LIFTING 160
CAPACITY
1500 (OVER THE STERN)
140
1300
MAIN LIFTING

LIFTING HEIGHT IN FEET

CAPACITY (FULL 120

(ABOVE WATERLINE)
1100 REVOLVING)
100
900
80
700 AUXILIARY
60
500
HEEL 40
PIN 300 WHIP
20
100
40’ 6"

100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

260

280

300

300

320

340

LIFTING RADIUS IN FEET

64’ 0" 64’ 0"
AMERICAN HOIST AND DERRICK CO.
MODEL NO. M2500 SERIAL NO. R1170
MCDERMOTT DERRICK BARGE 29

Figure 7-47. Typical Offshore Floating Crane Lift Curves.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-6.4 Improvised Systems. Sheer legs,

gin poles, stiff leg derricks, etc., can be _ (W)
TENSION IN GUY = a
b
improvised on salvage operations. Figures WHERE:
7-48 through 7-54 show some examples of
W = WEIGHT TO BE LIFTED α
improvised systems and supporting load
a = DRIFT β
diagrams and calculations. b = DISTANCE FROM BASE β
OF POLE TO GUY
7-6.4.1 Gin Pole. A gin pole or standing
derrick is a boom without a mast or topping L
lift. It has a single spar with its butt resting W W
GIN
securely in a shoe so that it can pivot and 90˚ POLE
AFTER
rotate. The head of the spar is held in GUY b
place by guys or stays. A guy is a stay that α
includes a tackle or is rigged to a winch to P
permit adjustment of its length. Two guys,
spaced 60 to 90 degrees apart, are a
nominally sufficient to support the gin pole, SPACE DIAGRAM FORCE DIAGRAM
because the weight of the load compresses
the gin pole and holds its head against the
Figure 7-48. Gin Pole Forces.
guys. At least one additional guy or stay
should be rigged to prevent the pole from
falling over backwards if the load jerks or is released suddenly. Gin poles are rigged with three to six guys.

Figure 7-39 shows a basic gin pole; Figure 7-48 diagrams the forces acting on a gin pole. The after guy or backstay can be subject to high
tensions. The tension on the guy is found by solving the force polygon. If side W of the force triangle represents the suspended load, side P
is the backstay tension. From the law of sines:
sinα sinβ W sinα
⇒ =
w P P sinβ

Wsinβ
∴ P =
sinα

A perpendicular, b, is extended from the foot of the gin pole to the backstay, and a is defined as the horizontal distance from the plumb line
of the weight to the foot of the gin pole.
β α
sinα = , and sinβ =
L L

where:

L = length of the gin pole

From this, a simple relationship for the backstay tension is derived:

 a 
W 
Wsinβ  L  = W a
P = =  
sinα  b  b
 
 L 

where:

P = tension on the after guy

a = distance from the foot of the pole to the plumb line of the load
b = perpendicular distance from the guy to the foot of the pole
W = load

As the gin pole is slacked outward, b decreases and a increases. As the pole approaches the horizontal, the ratio a/b becomes large and P
approaches infinity. The compression in the gin pole is determined by the force diagram shown in Figure 7-48. Like the back guy, load in the
pole approaches infinity as the pole approaches the horizontal. Increasing the distance between the after guy anchor and the foot of the gin pole
reduces tension in the guy, but increases compression in the pole. When lifting weights of more than about 1,000 pounds, a large shoe or
doubler plate is fitted under the foot of the gin pole and the deck shored to spread the load. Attachments for the stays or guys are also
reinforced.

7-59
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Gin poles erected on firm foundations may

have lengths of 250 feet or more, with lift TWIN GIN POLES GALLOWS FRAME
capacities to about 300 tons. Heavy gin
poles do not swing under load but lift loads
vertically at fixed radius. High-capacity
gin poles lean only 5 to 10 degrees from
the vertical. Because of the small angle
with the vertical, the gin pole must be
significantly taller than the height of the lift
when bulky loads are lifted. The guys
should be heavily preloaded to minimize
the increase in pole angle when the guys PROFILE VIEWS
stretch as heavy loads are lifted. The guy
preloading must not be so great that the
compressive load on the pole resulting from
the combination of guy tension and the
suspended load exceeds the capacity of the
pole. Lighter poles can lean to greater
angles and are sometimes rigged with
adjustable guys so the load can be moved
horizontally by topping the pole.
OBLIQUE PLAN VIEWS
Gin poles can be erected in pairs to NOTE: SOME GUYS DELETED IN PROFILE VIEWS FOR CLARITY
increase lifting capacity and clearance
between the poles and the load, as shown in
Figure 7-49. Two poles assembled with a Figure 7-49. Modified Gin Poles.
horizontal beam across the pole heads form
a gallows frame. If both poles are rigged
to the same angle and guy arrangement,
and the hoist tackle connected to the center
of the beam, the loads in both poles will be
equal. Gallows frames have higher
capacities than twin gin poles. Shore-
based gallows frames typically have lift
heights of up to 200 feet, and capacities to
600 tons; shorter frames can lift up to 1,200
tons.

7-6.4.2 Swinging Derrick. Figure 7-50

shows an improvised swinging derrick, or
cargo boom. The foot of the boom is either
stepped to the foot of the mast by heavy
lashings or set in a shoe against the mast.
The boom can also be set in a shoe at some
distance from the foot of the mast. The SHOE
shoe carries the horizontal and vertical
boom thrust. Shoes can be built up against
hatch coamings or machinery foundations.
It is best to use a mast, kingpost, or other SHORING
structure that is in place as the derrick
mast. A jury mast can be set up by
inserting a steel or wooden spar through a
hole cut in the deck and resting the foot of
the spar on the deck below. The mast is
secured by welding, angle clips, or wedges
at its foot and the deck penetration.
Alternatively, the jury mast is inserted
through a hatch and braced firmly against
one side or corner. There should be two or Figure 7-50. Improvised Swinging Derrick
more stays.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

A type of swinging derrick, called a

Chicago boom, can be installed on an
existing mast, kingpost or deckhouse as
shown in Figure 7-51. The lower end of
the boom is attached to a vertical or
horizontal surface by a combination hinge
and swivel pin, or goose neck. Topping
lifts and hoist tackles are rigged as shown. TOPPING
Swing guys, running from each side of the LEAD
boom head to convenient anchorages, swing
the boom and load. Typically, a double LOAD
drum winch powers the topping and LEAD
hoisting lifts. If the boom is used only for
lifting and swinging, the topping lift is
BOTTOM LOAD
replaced by a fixed stay. Chicago boom PIVOT
lengths typically range from 10 to 25 feet,
with lift capacities from 500 pounds to
about 35 tons. Figure 7-51. Chicago Boom.

7-6.4.3 Sheer Legs. Sheer legs are built

from steel or wooden spars as shown in
Figure 7-52. The butts of the legs are SHEER HEAD
BACK LASHING
separated by a distance equal to one-third GUYS
of their length or less. Cross-members or
WELDED STEEL
stays prevent the sheer legs from spreading SHEER LEGS
STEEL TUBE,
under load. A hoisting tackle rigged to the WELDED BOX
apex of the legs lifts the loads. Guys GIRDER,
STRUCTURAL
attached to the sheer head allow moving the SHAPES, ETC.
load horizontally by increasing or
decreasing the angle of sheer legs off the
vertical. Slacking the load sharply
increases loading on the legs and guys.
Guy tension and leg compression are
determined by viewing the rig edge-on and
determining backstay tension and leg
compression as if the rig were a gin pole GUYS
with a single stay. Resultant guy tension
and leg compression are resolved into their
GUYS
components by solving force polygons.

MAIN
PURCHASE

PADEYES WELDED
TO DECK

LASHED WOODEN
SPARS

Figure 7-52. Field-Built Sheer Legs.

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7-6.4.4 Tripod. Tripods, like the one shown in Figure 7-53, are inherently strong, but cannot move a load horizontally. Tripods are of welded
steel shapes or lashed wooden spars. The compression on any leg of the tripod is:
W
Compression
3sinα

where:

α = angle between a tripod leg and the horizontal

W = load

7-6.4.5 Other Improvised Systems. Almost any type of crane or derrick can be improvised if structural plate, tubing, or shapes and basic metal
fabrication equipment and skills are available. Some examples of simple weight handling systems are shown in Figure 7-54. Dimensions are
selected to carry loads determined by vector analysis described above.

PURCHASE STROP

CHEEKS
PRYPOLE

THUMB
PIECE

HEAD LASHING

SPLAY
TACKLE
SHOE

IMPROVISED
TIMBER TRIPOD

COME-ALONG
OR CHAIN FALL

PREFABRICATED,
COLLAPSABLE,
ADJUSTABLE
HEIGHT TRIPOD

Figure 7-53. Tripods.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

MANUALLY SLEWED FIELD BUILT

JIB CRANE SWIVEL-PIVOT FITTING
MILD
STEEL MILLED OR GROUND FLATS
TUBE
I-BEAM
LATHE TURNED STEEL BAR

FLAT BAR, PIVOT BASE - HEAVY ROUND STOCK,

ANGLE, PIPE, CENTER HOLE DRILLED OR TURNED,
ETC. FLAT MILLED OR SAW-CUT

PRESS FIT BRONZE/BRASS BUSHING

PADEYES
FOR
TENDING
LINES

PIVOT/
SUPPORT
WELDED TO
BULKHEAD
GUYS
(3 - 4)

PADEYE
BOOM FOOT
BELOW STAY
ANCHORAGES

FIXED
STAYS
(4 - 6)

WELDED
PADEYE

I-BEAM

STEEL TUBE
OR I-BEAM
WITH TUBE BASE
TO FIT SOCKET

FIXED BASE
OR SOCKET

FIELD BUILT DAVIT BASKET DERRICK

Figure 7-54. Improvised Weight-Handling Systems.

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7-6.5 Purchases. A purchase is a device that multiplies the force exerted by a tensioned rope. Purchases consist of three basic parts:

• Standing or fixed block or blocks.

• Moving or traveling block or blocks attached to the load.

• Fiber line or wire rope rove between the sheaves of the fixed and moving blocks. The rope is tensioned by hand (light tackle)
or by a line-handling device. Figure 7-55 illustrates basic purchases. The purchase multiplies force (gains an advantage)
because each part of the rope at the traveling block exerts the same tension on the block. The total force on the traveling block
is the sum of the forces exerted by the individual parts of rope. The mechanical advantage of a purchase is the ratio of force
generated by the purchase to the tension on the purchase rope. The theoretical mechanical advantage (TMA) is the number
of parts of rope led to the moving block. For example, a purchase rove with 3 parts at the traveling block has a theoretical
mechanical advantage of 3, and develops 15 tons of force when the rope is tensioned to 5 tons. Theoretical advantage equals
the ratio of the line speed to the load speed.

The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) is less than the TMA because of friction in the system. AMA must be known to determine the actual
tension required on the purchase rope and can be calculated from:
W TMA
AMA = =
P 1 (kN)

where:

W = weight lifted or load moved

P = rope tension required to generate the force W
N = number of sheaves in the system
k = friction factor

The friction loss in the system depends on the number and condition of the sheaves and the amount of rope in contact with the sheaves. In
general, friction factors are:

• 0.10 for ordinary sheaves in good condition, with the rope bending 180 degrees on the sheave.

• 0.06 for low friction blocks, such as those in heavy lift purchases.

• 0.15 to 0.25 for poorly lubricated or nonstandard blocks.

The reciprocal of the AMA is the lead line factor, a measure of the required line or winch pull as a proportion of the system load.

The power put into a system equals the power expended by the system plus losses. Power is work done per unit time. Work is the product
of force and distance, so power is the product of force and distance moved per unit time (velocity). For a purchase, power input is the product
of rope tension and line velocity (Vr); power output is the product of force on the traveling block and its velocity (Vb). Setting the power input
equal to power output:
PVr = WVb

PVr Vr
∴ Vb = =
W AMA

As the purchase is hauled, a point on the purchase rope travels a distance equal to the distance that the traveling block moves, multiplied by
the number of parts led to the block (TMA). The length of purchase rope required is the desired block travel multiplied by the TMA plus the
length required to engage the line tensioning gear (winch, capstan, etc.).

7-64
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SINGLE WHIP RUNNER LUFF

LUFF-ON-LUFF

GUN TACKLE TWOFOLD THREEFOLD

Figure 7-55. Purchases.

7-65
 S0300-A8-HBK-010

Very elaborate and powerful purchases, such as those shown in Figure 7-56, can be rigged with low-friction blocks.

BALANCING
BLOCK

12 4 13
1 2 3 5 6 7

STANDING
BLOCK
11 10 9 8

WINCH WINCH

MOVING
BLOCK
1 2 3 4 5 6

7 8 9 10 11 12

RIGGING HEAVY TACKLES - SPANISH BURTON PRINCIPLE

HAULING PURCHASE

A 6 6

WINCH

LIFTING
B 5 5 PURCHASE

1 1
2 2
EQUALIZING SHEAVE 3 3
4 4
5 5
6

C 5 5

WINCH

D 6 6

1250-TON TACKLE RIGGED FOR BOW LIFTING

Figure 7-56. Heavy Purchases.

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7-6.6 Line-handling Equipment. Line-handling devices such as winches and capstans provide tractive force to lift and move weights and
operate purchases. Figure 7-57 shows various line- handling and tensioning devices.

CAPSTAN

WILDCAT

FRICTION
BRAKE

LOCKING
HANDWHEEL

DRIVE
MOTOR

WINCH WITH
GYPSY HEAD

WINDLASS
WITH CAPSTAN

FLUSH
DECK
CAPSTAN

(LINEAR)
HAND-POWERED HYDRAULIC
CHAIN HOIST PULLER

Figure 7-57. Line-Handling Equipment.

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7-7 ACCELERATION LOADS

The basic load on a boom or crane is the weight lifted, including the weight of the hook, fall, slings, etc. Acceleration forces added to the static
load determine the total load. Acceleration forces result from:

• Platform motions, such as rolling.

• Initial acceleration of the load.

• Sudden impacts or snap loading.

Acceleration loads are found by application of Newton’s second law of motion:

 
Fa = ma = a 
w 

 gc 

where:

Fa = force due to acceleration, lbf

a = acceleration, ft/sec2
w = weight of suspended load, lbm
gc = constant = 32.2, lbm-ft/lbf-sec2

In most cases, a precise value for acceleration cannot be determined. Acceleration loads caused by changing hoisting speed are usually less
than those caused by platform motions, and very small compared to loads resulting from sudden application of the brake. High-acceleration
loads can result if the falls go slack and are suddenly re-tensioned, as when a load strikes the water or deck. Drag on suspended submerged
objects can cause very high loads on hoisting gear as a ship rises to the seas.

Permissible static load is determined by deducting from the permissible system load all known acceleration loads, or an assumed acceleration
load of 10 percent of the static load, whichever is larger.

If the line speed is known, acceleration caused by brake application can be approximated by assuming constant acceleration and estimating the
time required for the brake to stop the winch drum:
V
a =
t

where:

V = line speed, ft/sec

t = time required for brake to stop winch, sec

Tangential acceleration caused by rolling or pitching can be calculated from:

4π3dθ
a =
180T 2

where:

d = radial distance from the axis of oscillation (pitch or roll) to the point of load application, ft
θ = angle of pitch or roll, degrees
T = pitch or roll period, seconds

Loads resulting from fall slackening are very difficult to

predict, but can be severe. Impact theories apply if the speed Table 7-44. Snap Loading.
of the load relative to the boom head is known. Table 7-44
shows the results of series of hoisting tests made with varying
Hoisting Static Lifted Gently, With 5 Inches With 6 With 12
amounts of slack in the fall. Conditions Weight No Slack Slack Inches Slack Inches Slack

As the test results show, total load under snap-loading Dynamometer 3,670 4,030 5,600 8,960 12,500
conditions can be more than three times the static load. reading, lbs
11,300 11,525 19,025 25,750 28,950
Lifting systems must be operated to reduce acceleration loads.

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7-8 DECK FITTINGS

Lifting and pulling wires often are attached

to existing deck fittings. Strength analysis Table 7-45. Safe Working Loads for Navy Bitts (MIL-B-17397D).
shows limiting loads for the fittings and
underlying foundations. Bitt Size (Barrel Diameter) Safe Working Load
in. lbs
7-8.1 Bitts and Similar Fittings. Bitts,
4 23,000
cleats, and bollards are analyzed as
8 60,000
cantilever beams. Bending stresses in the
fitting itself, direct shear on the foundation 10 100,000
and welds, and tensile stresses in the 12 164,000
foundation and welds resulting from the 14 265,000
bending moment on the fitting are possible 18 375,000
causes of failure. Bitts, cleats, and chocks
for U.S. Navy ships are designed with a
factor of safety of three on the material’s
ultimate tensile strength. The design load Table 7-46. ASTM Standards for Steel Double Barrel Bitts.
is the breaking strength of the largest fiber
line or wire rope used on the fitting,
Bitt Size (Barrel Diameter) Working Load at 1⁄ 2 Height, pounds
applied where it creates the largest moment.
in. Welded1 Cast2
The design line of the fitting is determined
by inspection. The belaying surfaces of 6 30,130 29,450
bitts and cleats and the riding surfaces of 8 47,530 47,210
chocks have a minimum radius of one-half 10 92,590 86,650
the circumference of the largest fiber line, 12 121,070 114,020
or five times the diameter of the largest
14 180,350 159,120
wire rope used on the fitting. Openings in
16 236,300 210,970
chocks are sized to pass a thimbled eye
splice and two parts of the largest line used 18 299,360 271,380
with the fitting. Table 7-45 lists safe 20 320,840 313,390
working loads for various sizes of Navy 22 390,820 355,560
bitts. The strength of deck fittings on 24 476,610 430,020
merchant ships is similar to those on Navy
ships. Tables 7-46 and 7-47 give ASTM Notes:
standards for bitts and cleats. Deck fittings 1. From ASTM STD 938-85, based on safety factor of 2 and material yield of 36 ksi (AISI grade 1030)
on older ships may be designed for the
2. From ASTM STD 915-85, based on safety factor of 2 and material yield of 30 ksi (AISI grade 6030)
breaking strength of manila, rather than
nylon, lines. Because the design safety
factor is taken on the ultimate strength,
increasing load above designed load and
reducing the safety factor may result in
deformation. Deformation of a fitting is Table 7-47. Steel Welded Horn-Type Cleat (ASTM STD F1074-87).
dangerous because ropes or lines may slip
off, even if the fitting does not fail. Rope Circumference Rope Diameter
Cleat size in. in. Test Load
(distance across horns)
7-8.2 Padeyes. A padeye is a device 6 × 37 fiber core lbs
in. Manila Nylon Dacron Polypropelene
fastened to a larger structure to provide a wire rope
point to attach loads. There are three basic 10 3
1 ⁄4 1 1 11⁄ 2 4,100
types of padeyes:
16 3 2 2 21⁄ 2 5
⁄ 16 9,000

•
1
24 5 3 3 4 ⁄2 23,000
Heavy deck-mounted
padeyes, also called deck 30 6 31⁄ 2 4 5 5
⁄8 36,000
pads, for towing, ground
tackle, or cargo handling,

• Free-standing padeyes on decks, bulkheads, overheads, and external shell plating as tie-down points for moving weights, and

• Replenishment at sea (RAS) padeyes.

Padeyes installed on Navy ships have a label plate stating safe working load and last test date. Strength and dimensions of special-purpose
padeyes and those that are part of operating systems are in the Ship’s Information Book (SIB).

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-8.2.1 Deck Pads. There are three

different types of deck mounted padeyes:
TENSION
• Vertical, free-standing
FULL
PENETRATION
padeye, WELDS

• Horizontal padeye, and

• Towing bracket.
DECK
Figure 7-58 shows two basic types of STIFFENER LONGITUDINAL PLATE
vertical free-standing padeye. The eye of DIPPED-SHACKLE TYPE
the shackle pin-type padeye is a simple
round hole designed to accept the pin of a
connecting shackle. The eye of the dipped
TENSION
shackle-type padeye is elongated to permit FULL
passing the mortise of the shackle through PENETRATION
GUSSET WELDS
and presenting the shackle pin to the
terminal fitting of the line to be attached.
The bearing surface of the eye is rounded
so the bow of the shackle bears evenly
against it. If the pin of a shackle is put
through the eye of a dipped shackle type DECK
padeye, the shackle pin and eye experience STIFFENER LONGITUDINAL PLATE
a large concentrated load because the SHACKLE-PIN TYPE
contact area between the straight pin and
rounded bearing surface of the padeye is
very small. Figure 7-58. Vertical Free-Standing Padeye.

Padeyes carry tensile loads in the plane

parallel to the plate. The line attached to a
vertical padeye can swing freely through a
vertical arc and without side-loading the
padeye. Side-loaded padeyes are subject to
bending and transverse shear, and fail by
tripping, or lateral bending. Padeyes may
be gusseted as shown in Figure 7-58 to
resist side-loads. Side-loads on shackle
pin-type padeyes are also undesirable
because the shackle is racked laterally
against the padeye, creating forces that tend CHAIN-
to open the jaw of the shackle. Padeye INTEGRAL- STOPPER
PIN PADEYE PADEYE
thickness should be 75 to 80 percent of the
shackle jaw opening to reduce racking
loads. Shackles in dipped-shackle type Figure 7-59. Horizontal Padeyes.
padeyes are free to rotate under side-loads
and avoid racking stresses.

Figure 7-59 shows two types of horizontal padeye. Horizontal padeyes allow the load to have horizontal freedom of motion. Vertical load
components cause problems in horizontal padeyes similar to those caused by side-loading in vertical padeyes. The chain-stopper or shackle
mating style accepts the pin of a screw-pin or safety shackle. This style of padeye is found on the forecastle of most Navy ships as the chain
stopper padeye. The integral pin-style padeye has a screw-pin that threads into a recess in the base plate. Chain end links and wire rope or
fiber line hard eyes attach to the padeye without an intermediate connector. Removing the pin converts the padeye to a shackle mating style
padeye.

Towing padeyes may be either vertical or horizontal. Except for tugs, Navy ships have towing padeyes on the fantail (and sometimes on the
forecastle). Navy towing padeyes are designed with a factor of safety of three on ultimate strength of material, based on breaking strength of
the ship’s towing hawser. The type and size of the towing hawser is specified in the Ship’s Information Book (SIB). U.S. submarine towing
padeyes are designed for an 80,000-pound applied load.

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-8.2.2 Towing Bracket. The Smit

Towing Bracket, shown in Figure 7-60, or
a similar towing bracket, is installed on
many merchant ships. The bracket consists
of two vertical plates, similar to free-
standing padeyes, with an elliptical pin
fitted between them. The pin fits the end
link of the towing chain chafing pendant.
The bracket’s pin has a locking pin and
striking bar. Releasing the locking pin and
driving the striking bar with a sledge, to TOP VIEW
drive the pin out of the chain link, releases CONNECTING STRIKING
the chain without bringing it on deck. Like LINK AS BAR
vertical padeyes, the towing bracket is APPROPRIATE
PIN
sensitive to side-loading.

7-8.2.3 General-purpose Padeyes. Free-

PIN IN
standing padeyes are installed on Navy ships OPEN
in the number, location, and capacity neces- SIDE VIEW FRONT VIEW POSITION
sary for convenient and rapid handling of
stores and ammunition. Padeyes are instal- Figure 7-60. Smit Towing Bracket.
led over machinery and on outer shell plat-
ing for unshipping rudders and propellers.

7-8.2.4 Replenishment at Sea (RAS) Padeyes. Replenishment at sea (RAS) padeyes are installed on bulkheads, masts, or kingposts on Navy
and MSC ships to provide attachment points for replenishment rigs. The padeye’s design loads are shown in Table 7-48. The Ship’s Information
Book or Operations Handbook will specify the type of rig and safe working load for RAS padeyes.

Table 7-48. RAS/FAS Padeyes.

Type of Rig Padeye Design Load, lbs Remarks

Fueling at Sea (FAS) Rigs

Close-in Spanwire 30,000 to the long link

Messenger 8,000
Messenger fairlead 8,000 tension in messenger, not necessarily direct load on pad
Hose connecting 5,000
Riding line 6,500 padeyes and cleats
Stream Spanwire 36,000
Messenger 8,000
Messenger fairlead 8,000 tension in messenger, not necessarily direct load on pad
Riding line 15,000 padeyes and cleats

Replenishment at Sea (RAS) Rigs

Stream All 50,000 tension in spanwire and inhaul/outhaul lines

Burton All 50,000 tension in whips
Housefall All 50,000 tension in whips
Fiber highline Highline 30,000
inhaul/outhaul 30,000 powered
inhaul/outhaul 9,000 hand-tended

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 S0300-A8-HBK-010

7-8.2.5 Padeye Design. As shown in Figure 7-61, padeyes fail in tension, bearing, or shear. The eye opening must be large enough to accept
the pin of a shackle of strength equal to that of the padeye. There must be enough metal around the eye to prevent failure in bearing or tension.
Padeyes should be installed so that loads are in their own plane. Doubler plates and/or underdeck reinforcements spread the padeye loads
through the ship’s structure. Padeyes should be located to take advantage of existing stiffeners. Example 7-2 illustrates design of a padeye.

As = 2Lt
L t t
t t
L
L
80,000
lbs d
d
_
>L
Ab = td

l T _ 2Lt
At > BEARING (CRUSHING)
TENSION SHEAR

Figure 7-61. Padeye Design.

EXAMPLE 7-2

DESIGN OF A VERTICAL FREE-STANDING PADEYE

The vertical free-standing padeye shown in Figure 7-61 carries an 80,000- With t and d specified, the minimum edge clearance for failure in shear
pound horizontal load. Determine: and tension are determined. The largest minimum edge clearance
governs the padeye design. If the required edge clearance is too large
Eye diameter, d for the shackle, a thicker or stronger plate is selected and edge
Minimum padeye length, l clearances recalculated.
Plate thickness, t
Minimum weld length, l1, for weld thickness, T σyAt σy2Lt (Fs)
Minimum edge clearance, L (1) Failure in tension: Pt = = ⇒ L = Pt
(Fs) (Fs) 2σyt
Assume that the padeye, deck, and weld filler rod are mild steel with the 3(80,000)
following properties: L = = 1.875 in
2(32,000)(2)
Tensile yield strength, σy = 32,000 psi
τyAs τy2Lt Ps(Fs)
Shear yield strength, τy ≈ 0.65σy ≈ 21,000 psi (2) Failure in double shear: Ps = = ⇒ L =
Bearing strength, σb = 50,000 psi (Fs) (Fs) 2τyt
Factor of safety (Fs) = 3 for plate tension, shear, and bearing
= 1.5 for weld shear 3(80,000)
L = = 2.857 in ≈ 2.9 in.
2(21,000)(2)
Hole diameter, d, must be large enough to accept the pin of a shackle rated
for 80,000 pounds. From Table 7-27, a 2-inch shackle has a breaking
strength of 420,000 pounds–with a safety factor of 5, the safe working load L is therefore 2.9 inches, or 3 inches for simpler fabrication. From Table
is 84,000 pounds. Pin diameter of the 2-inch shackle is 21⁄ 4 inches. Se- 7-27, depth of a 2-inch shackle is 73⁄ 4 inches, leaving a 43⁄ 4-inch clearance
lecting 21⁄ 2 inches for d allows enough clearance to connect shackles easily. with L = 3 inches.

The free-body diagrams in Figure 7-61 show that plate thickness and hole The minimum weld length must be long enough to provide enough shear
diameter determine bearing area (Ab), and plate thickness and edge area for a weld of thickness T to carry the applied load. One-quarter-inch
clearance determine tension, and shear areas (At, As). With hole diameter fillet welds can be made quickly and reliably in the field. The working
specified as 21⁄ 2 inches, minimum plate thickness is: load (Fs = 1.5) per linear inch of 1⁄ 4-inch mild steel fillet weld is 2,500
pounds (see Paragraph 2-7.1). Minimum weld length is the applied load
Pb(Fs) divided by strength per inch:
Pb = σbAb = σbtd ⇒ t =
σbd
80,000
3(80,000) I1 = = 32 inches
t = = 1.92in → use 2-inch plate 2,500
(50,000)(2.5)
Plate thickness must be less than the jaw opening of the design shackle. The padeye must be long enough to provide enough contact area for a
From Table 7-27, the jaw opening of a 2-inch shackle is 31⁄ 4 inches, so t = 32-inch weld. Total available weld length is:
2 inches is acceptable. Thickness should be about 21⁄ 2 inches to prevent
racking of the shackle. Doughnut-shaped bearing plates are tack-welded to (I1 2t ) (32 4)
I1 = 2I 2t ⇒ I = = = 14 inches
the padeye to increase thickness around the eye, or washers are used with 2 2
the shackles.

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