CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Palm kernel oil is an edible plant oil derived from the kernel of the palm fruit
(Ekweis guineensis) (Hartley, 1997). Palm kernel oil which is semi-solid in non-
temperature, is more saturated than palm oil and comparable to coconut oil. It is
very stable at high cooking temperatures thereby being the best for commercial
cooking. It can be stored longer than any other vegetable oil. It is high in lauric
acid (Poku, 2002). Palm kernel oil does not contain cholesterol or trans fatty
acids. Resembling coconut oil, palm kernel oil is packed with lauric fatty acids (C
H O ) and 12 24 2 therefore suitable for the manufacture of soaps, washing
powders and other personal care products. Lauric acid helps in quick lathering. A
good soap must contain 15% laurate for good lathering while soap made for sea
water usage virtually must be based at 100% laurate (Bachmann, 2005).

The palm kernel oil is highly different from palm oil. The two oil from same fruit
are entirely different in fatty acid composition and properties. Palm kernel is an
important bio product from oil palm mill/processing. Plant palm kernel
constitutes about 45% - 48% by weight of oil in which properties and
characteristics are quite different from palm oil rather resembles coconut oil
(Gbasonuzo et al. 2012). The major fatty acid (lauric (C ) 12 accounts for about
48% of the fatty acid composition. Other constituents of palm kernel oil includes
16% nuriatic acid (C ) and 15% 14 oleic acid. Palm kernel oil is used in
manufacturing both edible and non-edible products has a great use both in food
industry and non-food industry (Oyinlala et al. 2004). Food usage of palm kernel
oil is more saturated and so can be in regenerated to wide range of products for
the food industries. It can be used alone or in blend with other oil for
manufacture of cocobutter substances, confectionary fats, biscuit dough's, filling
cream, cake icing, and table margarine (Bredeson, 1983). Palm kernel oil is known
to confer special attractive physical features and aroma to bakers of bread and
other bakery products. It is also used in making chocolate and some other related
food products. It is used at home cook industry for cooking different types of
food. Palm kernel oil can be directly combined with petrol diesel or use in making
biodiesel for diesel engines. Locally, Africans use the oil to fuel native lamps for
lighting in rural communities that are not connected with electricity (Shaver,
2005). It is used in making different non-edible products such as soap/detergent,
candle, cosmetics/cream, glue, grease/lubricants for machines, use in product
plastics, use in drilling mud for petroleum industry, printing inks, rubbers,
pharmaceuticals products e.t.c. (Butcher, 2005) The process involved in
production of palm kernel oil are selection of good palmkernel-nuts, crushing the
nuts with the nutcrusher, heating the seeds with the mechanical seed fryer so as
to excite the oil molecules the transferring the heated – crushed nuts to the oil
press. The oil pressing machine presses the heated seeds and expels the oil
content of the seeds through the oil exit chamber and at same time expels the
cake through the cake exit chamber (Oyinlala et al 2004). The crude oil is .
collected in drum of high capacity or over head tanks and left to settle. Since the
sludge (sediments) or residue is denser than the oil, it settles below the oil. Then
the oil can then be collected over the residues and under goes further purification
to remove impurities and get brighter colour. Lack of skilled man power,
inadequate provision of machines and poor technology have affected a lot of food
and raw material processing in Nigeria; especially in the southeastern Nigeria.
Palm kernel oil is one of the widely used raw materials for a good number of
industries in Nigeria. It is widely used in the country and required attention by
policy makers in order to enhance, equip and encourage the raw material (palm
kernel oil) producers and processors. The main aim of this study is to obtain data
on the palm kernel oil extracting techniques and technology involved both in
processing and storage which will guide the investors, government policy makers
and researchers in devising measures for mechanizing the production and
processing in the area.

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The following aims and objectives of this work.

1. To survey and collate information on traditional palm kernel processing in
Owerrinta.

2. To assess the importance of each operation in relation to production and

quality characteristics of palm kernel o i l .

3. To determine the optimum parameters of the factors governing the various

operations for better performance.

4. To modify the traditional methods of processing palm kernel for higher

yield and better quality oil. processes studied for higher yield and better quality
oil.

1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The traditional palm oil processing starts with the shelling of the palm nuts. The
shelling used to be performed using two stones to crack each nut and separating
the kernel and shell simultaneously. This manual operation has been largely
superseded by the use of nut-cracking stations for better improvement.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The traditional oil extraction method is to fry palm kernels in old oil or simply
heat the dried nuts Until the oil is extracted from the nut which is one of the most
simple methods that involves roasting and Unroasted of palm kernel.

1.5 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This work is limited to the fact that the kernel processors have to go around the
palm oil processors during the peak season, when prices are lowest, to purchase
the nuts for drying. The nut processing and oil extraction is undertaken in the dry
season when the pressure to obtain raw materials has subsided.

1.6 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This work is scope at the traditional or locally methods of extraction of palm

kernel oil from the nuts that required two different methods.
 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The oil' palm - the major source of vegetable .oil.

The oil palm, Elaeis guineensis, Jacq, is a perennial plant indigenous to tropical
West Africa. It used to be in wild groves in the West African region, between
latitudes 13°N and 12°8 (Godin and Spensley. 1971). It is now however cultivated
between 10°N and s of the equator, in Africa, Indoensia and Malaysia. (Hardon

, 1984; Moore, 1973).

The plant is a member of the palm family, Pamacaea and the sub order
Ceroxyoidaea. It is single-stemmed and upright, growing fully to about 18-21
metres high, and carrying 20-25 pinnate leaves on its crown. The fruits which
grow in bunches, vary in shape, length, weight, colour, and in physical
composition, depending greatly on the variety. Generally, they are ovoid or
elongated, bulging somewhat at the top; 2 to more than 5 cm in length, and 3 to
over 30 grams in weight. The colours are between deep orange and reddish
brown. The fruits are the sources of two important oils, the palm oil and the palm
kernel oil. A typical fruit consists of an oleaginous seed ( the kernel or
endorsperm) which gives the kernel oil, surrounded by the following; a hard shell
(endocarp), an oleaginous fleshy mass of tissue (mesocarp) which gives the palm
oil, and an exocarp (skin), in that order. The shell and the kernel form the nut,
whereas the exocarp, the mesocarp and the endocarp (shell) together form the
pericarp of the fruit, (Hartley, 1983). Variations in the physical compositions are
seen in the thickness of the individual layers. Figure 1 shows the structure
of a typical oil palm fruit.

2 .1.1 Variety of oil palm fruit

There are many varieties of the African oil palm; (International Potash Institute,
1957; Corley et al, 1976; Hartley, 1983, Hardon, 1984). In Ghana, 3 varieties dura,
tenera and pisifera are known.

Tenera is a hybrid from dura and pisifera, (Hardon, 1984; Hartley, 1 983).
The oil content of the different fruit varieties vary and may be related to the
physical compositions of the varieties. Thedura which has a very thick shell
(about 2 - 8mm thick) and a low to medium mesocarp content, for instance
has less oil than the tenera which has thinner shell (0.5 - 4mm) and a
 medium to high mesocarp content, (Hartley 1983;
International Potash institute, 1957).
2.2 Oil palm fruit processing in Nigeria

The processing of oil palm fruits constitutes a big industry in

many parts of the world. This stems from the economic importance of the
oils andtheir by-products, and the associated socio-economic values, (Addo
Consultants, 1989).

types of oil may be derived from the palm fruits, palm oil and palm kernel
oil. In Ghana, the production of the palm oil, takes precedence over the
kernel processing, just as in many other places; and the two processes are
not necessarily carried out by the same processor or at the same premise.

2.2 . 1General methods for processing of oil bearing materials

Theobjectives in most oil extraction processes include:

1 • the production of oil uninjured, which is free from

undesirable impurities:

2. obtaining the oil in as high a yield as is consistent with the economy

of the process, and

3. production of an oil cake or residue of the greatest possible value;

(Bailey, 1951; Corley et al, 1976).

The various oil extraction techniques are described under three common
methods:-

rendering, pressing, and solvent extraction, (Weiss, 1983; Bailey, 1951).

Indigenous methods may not fall directly under any of these categories. They
are described as traditional methods, (Ata, 1970; Hartley, 1983) .

2.2.2 Traditional oil extraction processes

These are mainly water displacement and low pressure pressing techniques. They
also involve pre-extraction treatment which are mechanical and requires the
application of heat. Cornelius (1983), Hartley (1983), Ata (1970), UNIFEM (1987)
and Irvine (1970) have described a number of traditional oil palm fruit and kernel
processing techniques. Banzon and Velasco ( 1982) have al so described a number
of coconut processing methods.

2.2.3 Pre-extraction treatments of oil seeds

These are critical operations auxiliary to the actual extraction processes. They can
be mechanical treatment or heat treatments, (Bailey 1951).

2.2.3.1 Mechanical treatments

Cleaning. Seeds are first cleaned to separate foreign material. Manual or

mechanised cleaning may be done depending on the technology.

In traditional technology manual cleaning is done.

Dehulling and separation of husks: Oil seeds are preferably decorticated before
they are extracted wherever this is practicable. The hulls or shells are low in oil
content, usually containing not more than one per cent oil. They can reduce yield
if not removed by absorbing and retaining oil in the press cake. Bailey (1951)
described various machinery used to remove hulls and shells of

different oil bearing seeds and nuts. Cornelius (1983) also described techniques
for separating palm kernels from the nuts. Size reduction: Reduction of seeds to
smaller particles, facilitate extraction of oil from oilseeds by mechanical or solvent
methods, (Bailey, 1951). According to Moore, (1973), breaking of seeds allows
good heat penetration during subsequent cooking, and also ruptures the oil cells.

Heat treatment: This may be divided into two categories: Using heat treatment
alone as means of extracting the oil, or to merely facilitate the subsequent
expression of oi 1 by mechanical means.

The former category, it is termed rendering, and it is used on fatty animal tissues,
or other materials with a high ratio of oil to solid matter. The latter is commonly
called cooking. The purposes in both categories are similar. They are to coagulate
the proteins in the walls of the fat containing cells, and make the walls permeable
to the flow of oil.

Heat treatment also causes the oil and moisture in the microscopic seed cells also
expands to burst the cell and release the oil. In addition, the heat:

1. decreases the viscosity of the oil to make it more readily extractable;

2. reduces the harshness of the material and

3. regulates the moisture content of the material for efficient extraction,

(Bailey, 1951; Moore, 1973, Cornelius, 1983).

Cooking has other important secondary effects. These

include, insolubilization of phosphatides and possibly other undesirable

impurities; destruction of molds and bacteria, and detoxification of gossypol,
(Bailey, 1951).

2.2.4. Extraction of palm oil

Processes involved are well documented. A few sources are Ay (1990), UNIFEM
(1987); Ihekoroye and Ngoddy, (1985); Corneluis, (1983), Hartley, (1983), Ata
(1974). There are both modern and traditional methods. I hekoronye and Ngoddy
( 1985), and Hartley ( 1983), specified the following unit operations in the modern
technology; sterilization, stripping of fruits, digestion of fruits, pressing
(extraction) and clarification. Ata (1974) described the predominant methods
(both traditional and modern) used in Ghana. The traditional processes usually
involve processes like boiling, pounding, fermentation, and oil separation,
(Hartley 1983; Ata, 1974)
2.2.4 Extraction of Palm Kernel Oil Production of palm kernel

The palm kernel is obtained by the removal of the pericarp of the fruit. This
involves two main stages - removal of the mesocarp with the exocarp and
cracking of the nut to remove the endocarp (shell). The first stage is accomplished
usually in processes to extract palm oil (the oil of the mesocarp). Traditional and
modern methods exist for the palm oil extraction, and these determine the
detailed processes involved in the production of the nuts. Generally, the fruits are
cooked and digested. The pulp is pressed out and then the nuts separated from
the fibre, (Ata, 1974; Cornelius, 1983). The nuts are dried and this may facilitate
the shrinkage of the kernels from the shel 1. They are then cracked either
manually or mechanically. The kernels are finally separated from the shells.
Cornelius, 1983 described a detailed process of kernel production in a modern
plant.

2.2.5.2 Modern methods of extraction

Six modern palm kernel mills are presently well known in the country. These are
Terna Food Complex Corporation Oil Mills, Mpohor Oil Mills, Juabeng Oil Mills,
Crystal Oil Mills, St Lewis Oil Mills and Tringo Oil Mills. Ata (undated) described
the operation of a mill at Atebubu Oil Mills. Gadegbeku (1969) also made mention
of seven industrial mills capable of processing palm kernels.

The mills mentioned, use high pressure operated expellers. In operation, the
kernels are cleaned, broken-up into a coarse meal between rollers, heated, and
then passed through the presses to squeeze out the oil. The oil squeezed out in
passed through filters to remove contaminants. The extraction rate of such
expellers is estimated to be about 80 per cent, (Moore 1973, Cornlius 1983; Addo
consultants, 1989). Moore (1973), Cornelius (1983), and Hammond and Smith
(1986) have described the detailed processes of this method of extraction.

2.2.5.3 The traditional Methods of extraction

Three processes are documented. The most popular involves the roasting of the
kernels and milling. The meal is then boiled in water, with frequent stirring,
during which the oil floats on top of the water and it is collected, (Ata, 1970;
UNIFEM 1987; Addo consultants 1989). The extraction rate is estimated to be
between 20 and 40 per cent (UNIFEM, 1987; Addo consultatns, 1989). In a second
method, the kernels are roasted at very high temperatures until the oil oozes
out,(Addo consultants 1989). previous method.

This is less efficient than the Irvine (1970) also described a third method which
avoids the roasting operation. The kernels are soaked in water overnight. They
are then pounded in a mortar, and aged with water. The oil separates out as an
emulsion on the surface and is skimmed off and heated to dry. Cornelius (1983)
described the traditional methods that involved water extraction as water
displacement methods.

2. 3 Quality Characteristics

Differences in the quality characteristics of the Ghanaian palm kernel oil

processed using modern and traditional techniques exist. The characteristics of
some industrial and traditional products have been reported, (Ata, undated).

2.3.1 Effect of processing characteristics on the quality of palm kernel oil.

2.3.1 .1 Effect of heat treatments of kernels

Howat (1975), and Jayalekshmy and Mathew (1991) demonstrated that heating
causes browning of palm kernel oil. This browning effect has been explained to
result from Malliard reaction, (Jayalekshmy and Mathew, 1991; Howat 1975). The
dark colour of traditionally produced palm kernel oil is due to the extensive heat
treatment, (Ata, undated; Stork, 1960). The flavour and odour of the oil is also
intensified during heating.

2.3.1.2 Effect of storage of kernels

The characteristics of kernels and the mode of storage prior to processing have
also been reported to influence the production and quality charcteristics of palm
kernel oil, (Bailey, 1951; Coursey 1961; Howat 1975).

When kernels are stored for long periods, they generate heat within, which also
causes browning of the endosperm, (Burgoyne, 1951; Simmons, 1963).

Higher moisture levels of kernels during storage enchance decomposition of the

unextracted oil, through increased mould and enzyme (lipase) activities.
According to Bailey (1951) and Howat (1975), these mould contaminate the
kernels during the initial stages of drying. The lipases however accumulate in the
seed during the latter part of the kernels maturation, (Bailey, 1951). Lipases are
reported to resist several hours of heating at 100°C in partially dried palm kernels.

2.4 Description of the palm kernel

The palm kernel is an important oilseed found in the fruit of the oil palm plant,
Elaeis guineensis, Jacq. It contains about 46 to 57 percent of oil on dry matter
basis. A typical composition is shown in Table 1. Structurally, it consits of an
endosperm, which is white and transluscent when fresh, enclosed in a light brown
testa. On heating, both the endosperm and testa turn dark; (Stork 1960;
Jayalekshmy and Mathew, 1991). The shape and size are related to the variety of
the palm fruit. They range from spherical to oblong, and some are flattened and
irregular.
Table 1: A typical composition of the palm kernel (percentage by weight)

Constituents Concentration %

Dry matter 92.0

Crude protein (N×6.25) 8.5

Oil ( Ether extract) 49.0

Crude fibre 5.8

Carbohydrates 26.9
 Ash 1.8

2.5 Economic importance of palm kernel

The processing of palm kernels yield two important products - the kernel oil, and
the kernel cake or meal. These two products have many nutritional and technical
values, such that their production constitutes an important economic venture in
many countries. The oil is one of the two known lauric acid oils, the other being
coconut oil. These two oils contain higher proportions of lauric acid and other
shorter chain fatty acids, (Table 2). They have higher proportions of saturated
fatty acids.

Table two

Types Source 1 by % Source 2 by % Source 3 by %

Of faty acid

Caproic 0.2 0.1 3.9

Caprylic 2.7 4.0 3.6

Capric 7.0 3.6 0.1

Caprolei 46.9 50.4 49.6

Laurie 14.1 17.3 16.5

Myristic 8.8 7.9 7.6

Palmitic 1.3 2.3 1.2

Stearic 18.5 11.8 0.2

Arachidic 0.7 2.1 0.1

Palmitoleic 6.7 3.6
Oleic Linoleic 16.0

Palm kernel oil is used in the manufacture of soap and detergent and also in
formulation of margarine, shortening and cooking oils. It is particularly useful for
biscuit fats, confectionery ice cream and biscuit filling cream fat, (Pantzaris, 1989).
Cornelius, (1983) however noted the following two factors that limit its use for
edible purposes: The product of its hydrolysis has a soapy taste which makes its
rancidity readily detectable; and the oil foams badly in admixture with other oils
in frying. Jones, (1989) also reported that palm kernel oil would elevate serum
cholesterol levels, and hence precipitate coronary heart disease if consumed in
large quantities.

Table 3: Fatty Acid Compositions of Palm Kernel oil

Constituent Cake Meal

Moisture 11 .0 10.0

Crude protein (N X 19.0 20.4

6.25) Oi l
6.0 0.9
(Ether extract)
13.0 15.0
Crude fibre
46.5 49.7
Carbohydrate Ash
3.9 4.0
2.6 Palm Kernel Processing

Palm kernel processing was done using indigenous methods in the West African
region, long before the international trade of the oilseed begun. The technology
however developed rapidly after the industrial revolution in Europe, when the
demand for palm kernel oil increased. Modern processing methods for both batch
and continuous production were developed, to facilitate large scale production,
(Bailey 1951; Moore, 1973; Cornelius, 1983, and Hammond and Smith, 1987); and
improve product characteristics (Ata, 1976) Nevertheless, the indigenous
methods have persisted up to date and even account for the bulk of the kernel oil
produced in some of the West African countries. The traditional palm kernel
processes have similar

characteristics as the other traditional oil processes. Howat (1975) and Ata
(undated) indicated their low extraction efficiencies and the poor sensory quality
characteristics.
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3. 1 MATERIALS

3. 1 . 1 PALM KERNEL

A number of palm kernel samples were either produced, or acquired from a palm
kernel oil mill for processing into palm kernel oil samples. Samples of palm
kernels were produced from freshly harvested Dura and Tenera fruits.

Kernels from cooked and uncooked fruits of both varieties were separately
produced. These were used in studies to compare the traditional roasting kernel
and unroasted kernel processes, and to find the effect of pre-processing heat
treatment on the production and quality characteristics of the o i 1 .

Another sample of palm kernels (30kg) derived from Tenera, were purchased
from TRINGO OIL MILLS Owerrinta, Aba, Abia State. The sample was used in a
number of process and product characteristics studies.

The third sample of palm kernels was produced from nuts purchased from
individual households in Owerrinta metropolis. The sample was used in a pi lot
study to evaluate modified processes with the unmodified traditional process.
3.1 .2 Palm Kernel oil Samples

Six freshly produced palm kernel oil samples were purchased from six different
processors in Accra, for evaluation of quality characteristics.

3.2. Methods

3.2.1 Kernel Production

Well cooked or uncooked fruits of Dura and Tenera varieties were pounded in
wooden mortar with a pestle to remove the mesocarp. The nuts were separated
from the fibre, and washed with hot water- They were then spread on aluminium
trays and allowed to dry in the sun for varying number of days depending on the
variety of fruit and the initial treatment, to let the kernel shrink completely from
the shells. The latter facilitates cracking and separation of kernels.

The nuts were cracked with motorised cracker, and the kernels separated
manually by hand picking.

The nuts purchased from households were winnowed to remove extraneous

matter. They were then cracked and kernel separated.
3.2.1 Compar;son of the Traditional Roasted and Unroasted Kernel Processes

3.2.2 Traditional Roasted method of extracting palm kernel oil

Five kilograms of kernels were processed using the traidtional roasted kernel
process. Kernels were roasted in an aluminium sauce pan over an Electric stove at
Medium to High heating. Roasting was done for about 40 minutes, at the end of
which kernels easily disintegrated when crushed between stones. The roasting
temperature at the beginning, and at specific intervals of time were recorded.

The roasted kernels were milled into a fine meal. Four hundred and fifty grams
was weighed and added to 400 ml of boiling water and stirred. Additional amount
of water in smaller quantities were added and stirred until oil separated out of
meal. The mass was boiled further to evaporate free water, and the oil was
collected. The extraction process was repeated by boiling with additional 200 ml
of water. The final meal to water ratio for the two extractions was 450 gram of
meal to 800 ml of water.

3.2.3 Traditional method Unroasted method of extracting palm kernel oil

A similar sample of kerne1 s was processed using the traditional unroasted kernel
process. The kernels were soaked in freshly boiled water, about 97 degree Celsius
and left overnight. It was milled twice into a fine meal, using a disc attrition mill
(No. 2A. Grinding Mill, Agro). The meal was boiled with water for about 30 - 45
minutes. The initial quantity of water was supplemented regularly to ensure
vigorous boiling during the period. The final ratio of meal to water was 450 grams
of meal to 1200 ml of water. The boiled mass was mixed with about two times its
volume of cold water, and then aged overnight. An oily emulsion developed and
separated out as a top layer. This was collected at the end of the aging, and boiled
to obtain the palm kernel oil.

The percentage yield from each process was calculated. The specific gravities,
refractive indices, free fatty acids values, iodine values, saponification values,
peroxide values, (Pomeranz and Meloan, 1977, Pearson 1976, AOAC, 1975, Weiss
1970), and the photometric values, (Pomeranz and Meloan 1977) were
determined. The data obtained were analysed and compared statistically.
 CHAPTER FOUR.

4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.0 RESULT

Two processing methods were observed. One widely known and used (by all
processors visited), involves roasting of the kernels prior to oil extraction. The
other does not include this roasting treatment,. The two processes have some
common steps.
Generally, processing starts with the acquisition of the predominant raw
materials. Precessors either arrange with small scale palm oil millers to purchase
large quantities of nuts, or visit individual households to purchase the smaller
quantities accumulated from palm soup preparat io ns. These two sources are
utilized by 93 per cent of processors interviewed. The remaining 7 percent rather
obtain kernels from markets. Processors interviewed in the Eastern region
obtained their raw material mainly from the palm oil millers whereas those in
Greater Accra generally make the home visits.

The nuts which may be mixed with fibre and other debris are freed by hand
picking, drying and winnowing, (Plate 1 and 2). The nuts are further dried until
kernels would easily separate from shells when cracked, as tested by cracking
samples with stones. They are cracked, either manually on a hard surface with
stones, (Plate 3a), or in motorised nut crackers, (Plate 3b).

4.1 DISCUSSION

4.1.0 The 'roasted kernel' process

The kernels are roasted or fried in oil (Plate 6) to facilitate milling and the
ultimate release of oil during the extraction. This is done in large aluminium or
steel pots using palm nut shells, dried residual kernel cake (spent cake), firewood
and kerosine as the predominant fuel sources. The majority of processors, (about
97 percent), actually fry the kernels, the oil used purposefully serving as a heat
transfer medium to the kernels, and checking burning. The fully roasted or fried
kernels become very brittle and uniformly dark within. They also become lighter
in weight as oil oozes out during the operation. Well 'roasted' kernels are
removed from the pot , drained of oi l and spread in containers or on the ground
(Plate 7) to cool very quickly (to avoid further burning). They are then milled finely
into a pasty meal which is extracted of the oil using a disc attrition mill, (Plate 8).

In the extraction operation, a thick slurry is made by dissolving the meal in boiling
water. This is allowed to boil for about 30 minutes. During this time the mass is
stirred frequently with a wooden stick (Plate 9), and additional water is added
until a dark brown oil flows out of the boiling mass to float on the surface. Some
cold water is sprinkled on the surface to wash down suspended meal particles and
to clarify the oil which is collected (scooped out), (Plate 10).
The extraction is repeated two or more times by mixing the residual meal with
water and boiling again. Some processors, however, after the second extration,
mix the residual meal with water into a slurry which is aged for 3 days. The
remaining oil is released, and floats as an emulsion. This is collected and boiled to
break the emulsion and to evaporate the water to obtain the oil.

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION

Data collated from the field survey revealed two traditional methods of palm
kernel processing, the roasted kernel method and the unroasted kernel method.
The roasted kernel method involves roasting and milling of the kernels and a
water displacement extraction. It is the pr edomi nant .meth od used by all the
traditional kernel processors. It yields dark brown, strong scented, strong burnt
flavoured oil, the type of traditional palm kernel oil found on the Ghanaian
markets. The unroasted kernel method involves soaking and milling of the kernels
and another form of water displacement extraction involving aging of the meal in
a slurry form. It yields pale yellowish, practically odourless, mild fresh kernel
flavoured oil. The method is scarcely used by the traditional processors, yet
its oi 1 product is considered superior in quality, compared to the roasted kernel
product.

The technology of palm kernel processing involves predominantly women,

ranging in ages from 20 to 80 years. Majority of them have had no formal
education. The processors make use of simple, inexpensive equipment to process
the kernels. The palm kernel is the predominant raw material.
However, some processors sometimes add copra to increase the yield, and to
improve the colour in the roasted kernel process. The kernels which are of the
dura and tenera oi 1 palm varities are seasonal in supply and the supply is linked
very well with the processing of the fresh palm fruits. They are generally
purchased from traditional palm fruit processors or from individual households in
the nut form and cracked to separate the kernels.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION
Considering acceptability of the palm kernel oil and the process characteristics, it
is suggested that the unroasted kernel process is more appropriate for the
traditional technology. However, the operating conditions should be improved to
optimise the yield and quality characteristics and to shorten processing time. In
this wise, the modifications suggested are worth considering. These should
however be further tested using other experimental designs, such as the response
surface methodology, to further optimise the process conditions. The
modifications are:

1. Soaking of kernels should not exceed 30 minutes. It should be done in

freshly boiled water (about 95 -100't). Soaking could better still be avoided by
holding kernels in a roaster below 1009:; for 10 - 30 minutes, or boiling the
kernels for 10 20 minutes. The rationale is to give the kernels a mild pre-
processing heat treatment to cause the possible fungistatic effects.

2. Kernels should be very finely comminuted; to obtain particle size of about

of about 300µ (at least 3 times milling).

3. Cooking of kernel slurry should not exceed 20 minutes of boiling at 100°C.

4. Aging of kernel slurry should be done for averagely three hours, not far below
or beyond.

REFERENCES

1. Aboagye (1991) Terna Food Complex oil mills, personal communication.

2. Addo Consultant (1989). A study of the oil palm industry in Ghana. J.S. Addo
Consultants, Opeibea House, Accra.

3. Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), (1975). Official Methods

of Analysis, 12th Ed. Washington, D.C.
4. Ata J.K.B.A. (1970). A technological look at the oil industry in Ghana. FRI
Mimeo report, FRI 115.

5. Ata J.K.B.A. (1974). Processing and Quality characteristics of Ghanaian

commercial Palm Oils. Ghana Journal of Agric. Sci. 7,147-149, Accra.

6. Ata J.K.B.A. (Undated). Quality Characteristics of some industrial and

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