NATIOBAL INSTRUCTORS’ COLLEGE ABILONINO

P.O. BOX 347 LIRA (U)

DEPARTMENT OF PEDAGOGY.

COURSE UNIT: ETSD 2204 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT.

ACADEMIC YEAR 2019/2020

CLASS: YEAR II.

SEMESTER II.

LECTURER: LOLU MOSES IGARU.

FEBRUARY 2022
TABLE OF CONTENTS:

Contents
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT....................................6
1.1 THE CONCEPT OF TVET CURRICULUM..............................................................................6
1.1.1 Definition of the term TVET................................................................................................6
1.1.2 THE GOAL OF TVET...............................................................................................................7
1.1.3 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF TVET..............................................................................................7
1.1.4 DEFINITION OF THE TERM CURRICULUM..................................................................7
1.1.5 FUNCTIONS AND ROLES OF CURRICULUM................................................................8
1.1.6 TYPES OF CURRICULA....................................................................................................9
1.1.7 FACTORS AFFECTING CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT.........................................................12
1.2 TVET FORMAL AND NON-FORMAL CURRICULA ACTIVITIES....................................15
1.2.1 FORMAL TVET LEARNING ACTIVITIES.....................................................................15
1.2.2 TVET NON-FORMAL LEARNING ACTIVITIES...........................................................15
1.2.3 NON-INFORMAL TVET LEARNING ACTIVITIES.......................................................16
1.3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN TVET..........................................................................17
Elements of Curriculum......................................................................................................................19
1. Curriculum Objectives..........................................................................................................19
2. Content or Subject Matter....................................................................................................20
3. Learning Experiences (Methods of Delivering Knowledge)...............................................20
4. Curriculum Evaluation.........................................................................................................21
3.1.3 Taba Model of Curriculum Development....................................................................................26
Taba’s definition of Curriculum......................................................................................................27
Steps of Hilda Taba model of Curriculum Development..................................................................27
1. Diagnosis of Learners’ Needs: -............................................................................................27
2. Formulation of Objectives: -.................................................................................................27
3. Selection of the Content: -.....................................................................................................28
4. Organization of the Content: -..............................................................................................28
5. Selection of Learning Experiences: -....................................................................................28
6. Organization of Learning Activities: -.................................................................................28
7. Evaluation: -...........................................................................................................................28
Strengths of using the Taba Model...................................................................................................28
Limitations of using the Taba Model................................................................................................29
3.1.6 Wheeler Model of Curriculum.............................................................................................30
Difference Between Tyler and Wheeler Model of Curriculum........................................................31

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 Definition.....................................................................................................................................31
Nature..........................................................................................................................................31
Phases..........................................................................................................................................32
Evaluation....................................................................................................................................32
Content and Learning Experience................................................................................................32
Conclusion...................................................................................................................................32
Need Analysis for Curriculum.............................................................................................................32
Need Assessment for Curriculum.............................................................................................33
Need Analysis includes..............................................................................................................33
Subdivision of Needs..................................................................................................................33
Importance of Need Assessment in Curriculum......................................................................34

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Course Code and Name: ETSD2204 TVET Curriculum Development
Course Level: Year II Semester I
Course Credit: 3 CU
The Course introduces trainees to TVET curriculum development practice
Learning outcomes
The student:
 Writes reports on curriculum and curriculum development in TVET
institutions.
 Carries out training needs assessment
 Designs TVET short courses and develops course materials.
Competences
By the end of the course, students should be able to:
 Explain the concept of CBET Curriculum Development
 Discuss the elements, types and significance of TVET curricula that
conform to CBET.
 Carryout field work practicum on TVET institutions’ curricula
activities
 Compare different models of curriculum development in relation to
CBET
 Develops tools for training needs assessment
 Carryout field work practicum in training needs assessment
activities
 Design TVET courses
 Develop course materials
Detailed Course Description Duration
Concept of TVET Curriculum 4 Hours
 TVET concepts of Curriculum
 TVET Formal and Non-Formal Curricula activities
 Curriculum Development in TVET

TVET curriculum activities in CBET systems. 4 Hours

 Elements and types of TVET curricula.

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  CBET Curricula
Field work practicum in TVET curriculum 8 Hours
 Studying TVET school curricula in relation to CBET
TVET Curriculum Development Activities 8 Hours
 Types of TVET curriculum development models
 Training Needs Assessment
Field work practicum 8 Hours
 Studying TVET curricula development activities in relation to
CBET
Developing TVET Courses 13 Hours
 Designing TVET Courses
 Developing Course materials
 Produce institutional aids in TVET, using Art, Technology and ICT
Methodology: Using: Interactive lecture, project work, demonstration and practice,
resource persons, field study and report writing, guided discussion, practical tasks, group
work, case study
Assessment :
 Assignment 5%
 Tests 10%
 Practical/project work 25%
 Examination 60%
Total 100%
References:
1. Uganda Government (2008). The Business, Technical and Vocational Education and
Training (BTVET) Act 2008. Entebbe: Government Printing and publishing
corporation.
2. Melinda, W. and W. Angliss (2005). Pedagogy in VET: A background Paper.
Melbourne; TAFE Development Centre LTD.
3. Mjelde, L. (2006). Magical Properties of Workshop Learning. Bern: Peter Lang.Bishop
G. (1985), Curriculum development. A Textbook for Students. McMillan.
4. Ministry of Education and Sports. (2011). Skilling Uganda: BTVET Strategic Plan
2011- 2020. Final Draft – July 2011.
5. Bishop G. (1985), Curriculum development. A Textbook for Students. McMillan

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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT.

1.1 THE CONCEPT OF TVET CURRICULUM

 LEARNING OUTPUTS:

 Define the term TVET

 Explain the goal and objectives of TVET

 Define curriculum

 State the functions and roles of TVET Curriculum.

 Describe the types of curricula.

 Factors affecting TVET curriculum

1.1 TVET CONCEPTS OF CURRICULUM

1.1.1 DEFINITION OF THE TERM TVET

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TVET is an acronym meaning; technical and vocational education and training. It is
education and training which provides knowledge, skills and attitudes (competences)to
prepare a learner for employment. TVET uses formal, non-formal and informal learning.
TVET is recognised to be a crucial vehicle for social equity, inclusion and sustainable
development.

UNESCO refers to TVET as a comprehensive term referring to those aspects of the

educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and
related sciences, and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and
knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life. (Promoting
Tvetisation and Innovation Through Industrial, 2017)

1.1.2 THE GOAL OF TVET

The main objective of TVET is to develop an effectively coordinated and harmonized TVET
system that is capable of producing quality skilled human resource with the right attitudes
and values required for growth and prosperity of the various sectors of the economy.

1.1.3 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES OF TVET

The Specific objectives of TVET are to:
1. Provide adequate and appropriate skilled Artisans, Craftsmen, Technicians and
Technologists at all levels of the economy through practical training and work
experience;
2. Transfer technology continuously through collaborative approach between TVET
institutions and the relevant industries;
3. Promote dignity and decency of labour, particularly manual work;
4. Provide increased training opportunities for the increasing school leavers and other
trainees to increase employability;
5. Provide continuous upgrading of skills and knowledge at the pace and ability of the
trainees;
6. Provide a dynamic curriculum responsive to the manpower needs of a dynamic
economy;
7. Impart marketable skills, technical know-how and attitudes that respond to
contemporary labour market demands by the industry, informal sector and for self-
employment.
8. TVET facilitates economic growth by increasing the productivity of workers.

1.1.4 DEFINITION OF THE TERM CURRICULUM.

There are many concepts of curriculum. These include;

1. Curriculum in narrow sense refers to the subjects taught in the school. In the broader
sense it refers to total learning experiences of a learner not merely in schools but in
society aswell.(http://www.slideshare.net/kapatid32012/curriculumdevelopmentfull-
book 1/229, 2016)
2. Curriculum development is defined as planned, a purposeful, progressive, and
systematic process to create positive improvements in the educational system. Every
time there are changes or developments happening around the world, the school
curricula are affected. There is a need to update them to address the society’s needs.

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 3. Curriculum is the goals, assessments, methods, and materials used to teach a
particular skill or subject. ...

4. Curriculum is the outline of concepts to be taught to students to help them meet

the content standards. Curriculum is what is taught in a given course or subject.

5. curriculum is a set of plan of activity conducted to influence learning process as a

guidance which covers several dimensions such as learning objectives, learning
materials, teaching method, and assessment to achieve specific educational goals.

6. curriculum is a set of plan of activity conducted to influence learning process as a

guidance which covers several dimensions such as learning objectives, learning
materials, teaching method, and assessment to achieve specific educational goals.

Exercise 1.
Define the term curriculum other than the one given above.

A TVET curriculum is a “Plan for Training” designed to provide a complete set of learning
experiences including workshop, classroom, experiential and self-guided training
delivery recommendations that will lead to the achievement of a desired set of
competencies required in the world of work.
1.1.5 FUNCTIONS AND ROLES OF CURRICULUM

The Functions of Curriculum

The main function of curriculum in educational program is to act as a guidance in
implementing the learning process. Connected with the students as teaching subject, there are
six functions of curriculum, namely:
 The adaptive function, it should be able to direct students to be able to adapt to the
physical environment and social environment.
 Integrative Function, it should be able to produce a person who is able to live and
integrate with the social and community.
 Differentiation Function, it provides services to individual differences.
 Preparatory function, it should be able to prepare students for further study.
 Selective function, it gives an opportunity to the students to choose a program that
suits with their ability and interest.
 Diagnostic functions, it should direct the students to understand and receive strength
(potency) and weakness in the possessed.

1. The Roles of Curriculum

As educational program, curriculum has been systematically planned, it assumed a very
important role for education when in the analysis of the nature of society and culture and also
schools as social institutions in carrying out its operations, can be determined at least three
important roles of curriculum. They are:
 The role of conservative
 Culture has no earlier than the birth of a certain generation and something will not die
and endless generation is concerned

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  Role of critical or evaluative
 Culture is always changing and growing in line with the times that continues to spin.
Schools not only inherit the culture but also assess, select the elements of culture that
will be inherited. Related to curriculum, the development of curriculum is also based
on the changing of culture and society condition.

 The role of creative

 Curriculum conduct creative activities and constructive in the sense of creating
something new and develop according to the needs of the present and future in the
community to help each individual develop the potential of him. Curriculum creates
lessons, experiences, ways of thinking, ability and new skills, in the sense of
providing benefits to the community. (Zais, 1993)

1.1.6 TYPES OF CURRICULA

Curriculum defined
Curriculum is a broad plan that is made by school and it includes educational experiences to
achieve its aims, goals and objectives and students have these educational experiences under
the guidance of the school. Therefore, Curriculum has ten basic patterns that are discussed
below:
Child-Centred Curriculum

It is also called learner-centred curriculum. The philosophy underlying this curriculum is that
the children is that the centred of the educational process. This pattern of curriculum bases
upon the abilities and the interest of the learners and students have experiences and diverse
learning activities rather than rote learning. Learner-centred classrooms focus primarily on
individual students’ learning. The teacher’s role is to facilitate growth by utilizing the
interests and unique needs of students as a guide for meaningful instruction.

This curriculum allows the students to actively participate in discovery learning processes
and a variety of hands-on activities are administered in order to promote successful learning.
And it focuses upon a child as a learner being a centred of activities in a learning centred.

2. Teacher-Centred Curriculum

In this curriculum, the focus is upon teacher’s teaching skills and the way of delivery of the
content. It emphasizes the importance of transmitting of knowledge, skills and information
from a teacher to students. A teacher is a centre of knowledge and instils the respect of
authority and makes children aware of their responsibilities. Teachers focus on making
relationships with students that are anchored in intellectual explorations of selected materials.

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They focus more on content than on student processing and this pattern of curriculum places
more of the responsibility on delivering content rather than considering students needs and
desires. The teacher plans each and everything about what to do in the class and students
follow the teacher.

3. Core Curriculum

This type of curriculum is a set of common courses and is a general education for all students
and common learning includes knowledge, skills and values and all learners are provided
these learning experiences and these common learning experiences are expected essential for
the learners to adjust effectively in the society and these learning sets the basic subjects like
English, Math, History, Science etc.

This type of curriculum emphasizes on the total growth the of the pupil such as social,
emotional, moral, intellectual, physical and spiritual and each learning experience aims at the
total growth.

4.Overt, Explicit, or Written Curriculum

Written curriculum is simply that which is written as part of formal instruction of schooling
experiences. It may refer to a curriculum document, texts, films, and supportive teaching
materials that are overtly chosen to support the intentional instructional agenda of a school.
Thus, the overt curriculum is usually confined to those written understandings and directions
formally designated and reviewed by administrators, curriculum directors and teachers, often
collectively.

5. Covert or Hidden Curriculum

The hidden curriculum refers to the types of curriculum which is unplanned or unintended
curriculum but plays a vital role in learning. It consists of norms, values, and procedures. The
hidden curriculum refers to the way in which cultural values and attitudes (such as obedience
to authority, punctuality, and delayed gratification) are transmitted, through the structure of
teaching and the organization of schools

6. Integrated Curriculum

An integrated curriculum implies learning that is synthesized across traditional subject areas

and learning experiences that are designed to be mutually reinforcing. This approach

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develops the child’s ability to transfer their learning to other settings. It is a unification of
different subjects having interrelating themes and concepts. Teacher teaches various subjects
by using integration techniques. For example, General Science curriculum integrates concepts
from Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Geology and Astronomy etc.

7. Subject-Centred Curriculum

These types of curricula give importance to training pupils in particular subjects. Its main
objectives are all the elements of knowledge that constitute a subject for study. Thus, the
curriculum goes into the depth of the subject that gives specialized knowledge to the learner.
The specialist teacher is appointed to deal with the subject in its analytical detail.

Higher education is characterized by this subject-centred curriculum. It leads to higher study,

research, and experimentation of individuals on the subject. This type of curriculum is more
appropriate for students of academic interest and creativity talents.

8. Broad Field or Holistic Curriculum

Broad field curriculum is a modification of subject centred curriculum. A broad field

curriculum is a structure for achieving educational outcomes that combines related subjects
into one broad field of study. 

The purpose of a broad field curriculum is to highlight relationships between subjects and to
integrate the learning experience. The broad field design combines two or more related
subjects into a single broad field of study, for example, Language Arts combines the separate
but related subjects of Reading, Spelling, Writing, Speaking, Listening, and Composition.

9. Activity Centred Curriculum

The type of curriculum that gives priority to active learning of a subject may be known as an
activity curriculum. The verbal system of education neither suits the mental need of the child
nor the circumstances of life. It is the philosophy of Pragmatism behind this curriculum
which beliefs in learning to be practical, useful, and work-oriented. Activity involvement in
learning naturally gives better results. Work is a natural and easier means of learning
anything. It is also the native and natural tendency of children.

Further, the experience derived from work is more durable and more meaningful for life. So,
modern educators like Froebel, Montessori, Dewey, and Gagne in their respective learning
methods have designed this activity curriculum for children.

10. Null Curriculum

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Eisner (1985) defined null curriculum as information that schools do not teach. Sometimes
the teacher ignores some content or skill, deliberately or unknowingly. A teacher may
consider some idea unimportant and ignore it. Similarly, teacher may avoid detailed
description of some topic for the one or other reason. An example is the exclusion of
Darwin’s theory of evolution from the official biology curriculum.

SELF STUDY:
Describe the below types of curriculum;

 .Societal curriculum
 .Phantom curriculum
 .Concomitant curriculum
 Rhetorical curriculum
 Curriculum-in-use
 Received curriculum
 The internal curriculum
 The electronic curriculum

1.1.7 FACTORS AFFECTING CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

Curriculum development is influenced by a multitude of factors. Factors affecting curriculum

development include philosophical, psychological, societal or social, political, economic,
educational, technological and gender factors etc. A brief description of these factors is as
under;

Philosophical Factors

Based upon fundamental beliefs that arise from one’s philosophy of Education, curricular
decisions involve consideration of several topics and issues. Precisely for this reason, we
consider philosophy as one of the major foundation areas in curriculum.

Studying philosophy helps us deal with our own personal systems of beliefs and values the
way we perceive the world around us and how we define what is important to us. Hence, a
study of the philosophy of education in terms of curriculum development is essential. In
essence, educational philosophies influence, and to a large extent determine, our educational
decisions and alternatives. Those who are responsible for curricular decisions, therefore,

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should be clear about what they believe. If we are unclear or confused about our own beliefs,
then our curricular plans are bound to be unclear and confusing.

The philosophical schools of thought that have guided the planning and development of
curriculum are; perennialism, essentialism, progressivism and reconstructionism.

Perenialists believe in knowledge. To them knowledge disciplines the mind and develops the
ability for it to reason and develop intellectual powers and pursue the truth. Therefore, the
emphasize cognitive abilities. An English philosopher John Locke believes that without
knowledge, there is no mind. This philosophy results into a subject centred curriculum which
emphasizes mastery of classical and modern languages, grammar, rhetoric, logic,
mathematics and religion.

Write short notes on the following;

Essentialism.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

Progressivism.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Progressivism.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Reconstructionism.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Psychological Factors

The purpose of psychology is to study human behaviour. Psychology contributes to

curriculum planning by providing teachers with information concerning the nature of

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students, the nature of the process involved in learning, the motivation, personality and
individual differences of students, the value of teaching methods and teaching effectiveness.

Social or Societal Factors

The purpose of sociology is the analysis of organized human relationship. Its major
contribution to curriculum has been the making of decisions about the content of the
curriculum and its main focus has been the understanding of the direction of social change
and the socialization of the individual. Its method of working involves providing extensive
information about the social background of students, promoting a realistic evaluation of the
role of the teacher and school in social change. It increases teacher’s flexibility, tolerance and
awareness of methods of inquiry. It keeps in mind that primary school curriculum differs
from secondary school curriculum. The needs of society play an important role in
development of the curriculum, e.g. it should be emphasis on a technical based curriculum for
the development of an industrialized society.

Political Factors

Politics has a certain impact on all spheres of life, and instability of politics leads to
instability in everyday life. It usually defines goals and content; political considerations need
to be admitted while curriculum development; and political decisions may change the
requirements for curriculum development.

Governments need to promote nationalism, patriotism and ideologies. Therefore, have polices
according to which they send out directives. The directives state the medium of instruction,
the nature of the syllabus and the kind of textbook, etc.

The ruling national resistance movement (NRM) in Uganda has the key ideologies namely;
 Pursuit of peace, Democracy and good governance, National unity and non-sectarianism,
Affirmative action, Equal opportunities, Socio-economic transformation and modernization,
Patriotism, Pan–Africanism. These have impart in the curriculum development of the nation.
Economic Factors

As compared to the elite schools where this is hardly a problem, schools belonging to the
lower social strata cannot entertain the possibility of using modern equipment, e.g. the
computer, due to financial constraints. This also leads to losing good teachers and other
personnel to places offering better remuneration.

Educational Factors

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In order to bring about effective learning modern and efficient methods of education should
be used and for this we need trained and skilled teachers. We also need to keep co-curricular
activities like sports, drama, debates, excursions, etc. as an integral part of the curriculum.

Technological Factors

The influence of technological progress is observed in each sphere of life, and when the time
for curriculum development comes, the technological point plays an important role.

Curriculum developers cannot ignore this technological progress and the influence it presents.
Technological innovations may be applied to curriculum development in several ways “as a
plan for the systematic use of various devices and media” and as the issue that “is found in
models and procedures for the construction or development and evaluation of curriculum
materials and instructional systems” (Print, 1993, p.55).

Gender Factors

The needs of each gender are also kept in mind for the development of curriculum. Although
this is the age where women have gone into professions which were previously considered
the domain of male gender and women are asking for equal rights, yet option should be left
open, e.g. home economics for girls and technical education for boys, though these should not
be strictly the domains of females or males respectively. In advanced countries where women
enjoy a greater degree of freedom, a variety of educational institutions exist that separately
cater the male and female curriculum needs.

1.2 TVET FORMAL AND NON-FORMAL CURRICULA ACTIVITIES

This is any education, training and learning activity leading to the acquisition of knowledge,
understanding and skills which are relevant for employment or self-employment. TVET
serves here as an overarching term to describe all kinds of formal, non-formal and informal
training and learning provided by or in all different institutions, providers and learning
locations.

1.2.1 FORMAL TVET LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Trained teachers
2. Formal Curricula Training activities
3. Formal Assessment
4. Classified Certification

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 5. Formal Apprenticeship

1.2.2 TVET NON-FORMAL LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Experienced practitioners Workers
2. Practical Skills Work activities
3. Informal Assessment
4. Unclassified certification
5. Work based activities

1.2.3 NON-INFORMAL TVET LEARNING ACTIVITIES

1. Workers
2. Work activities
3. No Assessment
4. No certification
5. Informal Apprenticeship

FORMAL TRAINING CBET SYSTEM

Knowledge based curriculum with an Outcome or competence based. The
emphasis on theory rather than practical emphasis is put on achievement rather than
skills. process. It reflects the expectations of
performance in the workplace.

Restrictive entry qualifications – only – Limited entry restrictions

people who meet the prescribed entry generally, anyone can apply for a
qualifications can have access to training programme. Entry is not just based on
programme qualifications or age but will take account of
prior achievement. Sometimes a bridge
module may be necessary. It is flexible, not
time-based – learners progress
through
units/modules at their own pace and
complete which ever modules are
appropriate for employment.

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Teacher centered - input focused – every It is individualized – learning is trainee
trainee looks up to the teacher as the person centered and the role of the trainer changes
who knows it all and relies on the skills and to that of a facilitator. Trainees can access
knowledge from the teacher learning through different methods and
means.

Course duration is specified – courses have It enables trainees to learn at their own pace
set time limits which every trainee has to and select which modules are appropriate.
adhere to, whether they have acquired the Trainees can focus on the skills they are
skill or not and all trainees in a particular confident of mastering
class finish at the specified time.

End -tested knowledge based examinations Employment-led. Occupational standards

– trainees are given summative examination are set by industrial and business. Education
at the end of the specified training, without and training is based on these occupational
consideration of whether one is ready to standards
take the examination or not. and assessed
continuously as trainees are recognized as
ready.
Graded practical tasks – Someone is deemed Training is modularized into achievable
as having passed the examination even if the units/elements of competence.
score is only 40 or 50%, with high chances Theoretical
of making mistakes once employed in understanding is taught and applied to
performing those tasks individual competences. Assessment is
Training continuous covering each and every element
of the competence and outcome.
Training / education, centre or college – Training and achievement can be realized in
based – instruction only takes place in the workplace or in a training centre. It
recognized training institutions or training takes account of previous achievement and
centre. prior learning It is practically oriented and
theory is taught mainly as underpinning
knowledge

Table 1. Comparison of Formal Training Compared with CBET System

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1.3 CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN TVET

This refers to the planning, designing, developing, implementing and evaluation of a TVET
programme.
TVET Curricula is broadly categorized as competency based curriculum (CBT) and Non-
CBT curricula such as problem-solving, communications, creativity, management and
entrepreneurial capabilities.
CBT curricula are designed considering the following principles;
Identification of competencies in consultation with experts from industries and training
institutes
Adopting 21st century pedagogy and methodology
Training must be in line with labour market needs sand industrial standard
Creating training modality to experience real working situation through platform such as On
Job Training (OJT) and Industrial visit.

CHAPTER 2: TVET CURRICULUM ACTIVITIES IN CBET SYSTEMS.

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Mjelde (2006) identified TVET learner activities as consisting of general education,
vocational theory and vocational practice.

General education consists of programmes that are not trade based for instance, language,
science and general mathematics. It indicates that the list should include information and
communication technology (ICT) and entrepreneurship. In addition, these activities should
also include employable soft skills like customer care, time management interpersonal skills
etc.

Vocational theory is the theoretical knowledge that defines material, tools and machinery for
a y trade as well as their use during the imparting skills in learners. It may include scientific
principles involved in the trade.
Vocational practice: is the activity of both the TVET educational institutions and work
places.
Vocational practice includes workshop practice at school, fieldwork practicum at work places
during school sessions and apprenticeship training as on job training. At school, the trainee is
a student but at the work place he/she is a worker.

2.1 ELEMENTS AND TYPES OF TVET CURRICULA.

Elements of Curriculum

According to Tyler, it is essential as a part of comprehensive theory of organization to show

what elements of curriculum will serve satisfactorily as organizing elements. The appropriate
coordination of elements of curriculum would guarantee the success of a curriculum. There is
no consensus among the experts on elements of curriculum, but the most four common points
of view concerning this issue are: objectives, content or subject matter, methods or learning
experiences and evaluation.

These four basic elements of curriculum are essential and interrelated to each other. Aims,
goals, and objectives can be simplified as “what is to be done”; the subject matter/content is
“what subject matter is to be included”; the learning experiences is “what instructional
strategies, resources and activities will be employed”; while curriculum evaluation is “what
methods and instruments will be used to assess the results of the curriculum”.

1. Curriculum Objectives

The curriculum aims, goals and objectives spell out what is to be done. It tries to capture
what goals are to be achieved, the vision, the philosophy, the mission statement and
objectives. Further, it clearly defines the purpose and what the curriculum is to be acted upon
and try what to drive at. We begin with this element because it is difficult to plan a successful
trip without a destination.
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Aims are often expressed in terms of state standards, which are expressed in somewhat
general terms, then broken down into more specific goals, then further broken down into
objectives. These objectives are specific and written in behavioural terms so as to develop
learning structures and conditions. Sometimes the objectives are sorted
as cognitive, affective, and psychomotor.

There are four main factors affecting the formulation of curriculum objectives. These are

1. The society
2. The knowledge
3. The learner
4. The learning process

All of these factors are to be considered while selecting and formulating the curriculum
objectives.

2. Content or Subject Matter

A second element is the content of the curriculum. It contains information to be learned at

school. It is an element or a medium through which the objectives are accomplished. Content
or subject matter refers to the body of knowledge that the student will take away when the
course is done. It must assure that the curriculum objectives are properly met.

One of the important consideration is the selection of content for a subject. At the time of
subject matter selection, the following factors are to be kept in mind:

1. Available sources and resources

2. Demand of the society
3. International needs
4. Level and age of the learner or student
5. Methods of content organization
6. Number of courses offered
7. Quantity and qualification of teaching staff
8. Scope of subject matter
9. System of examination
10. Type of society and culture

20
In organizing the learning contents, balance, articulation, sequence, integration, and
continuity of the subject matter to develop a sound content.

3. Learning Experiences (Methods of Delivering Knowledge)

The third element is the strategies and methods of teaching or the learning experiences
adopted by the teachers during instruction. It deals with the teaching-learning process
including methodology of teaching and learning experiences both within the institution and
outside, learning environments, teachers’ material as well as students’ material. In his classic
text on curriculum, Tyler defined the term learning experiences as follows:

The term “learning experience” is not the same as the content with which a course deals nor
the activities performed by the teacher. The term “learning experience” refers to the
interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which
he/she can react. Learning takes place through the active behaviour of the student.

Tyler argues that the teacher’s problem is to select learning experiences that will foster active
involvement in the learning process in order to accomplish the expected learning outcomes.
Tyler outlined five general principles in selecting learning experiences:

1. The learning experience must give students the opportunity to practice the desired
behaviour.
2. The learning experience must give the students satisfaction; unsatisfying experiences
hinder their learning.
3. The learning experience must “fit” the students’ needs and abilities.
4. Multiple learning experiences can achieve the same objective. Hence, a wide range of
experiences is more effective for learning than a limited range.
5. The learning experience should accomplish several learning outcomes and satisfy
more than one objective (Tyler, 1949).

4. Curriculum Evaluation

Curriculum evaluation refers to the process of placing value on a curriculum. Evaluation may
focus on a curriculum’s design, including content and process; its implementation; or
outcomes. It identifies the quality, effectiveness of the program, process and product of the
curriculum.

21
Curriculum evaluation is different from a student evaluation. It is a broader term being used
to make judgment about the worth and effectiveness of curriculum. Curriculum evaluation is
also important in a sense that one could assess whether the aims and objectives have been met
or not. It also shows the effectiveness of strategy of teaching and other components. The
interpretation of evaluation provides the feedback to the curriculum and its components. With
the help of evaluation phase experts can modify the curriculum by bringing about desirable
changes.
2.2 CBET CURRICULA
A Competency Based Curriculum (CBC) is a framework or guide in the form of a course
design, for a particular field or occupation. It is combination of series of modules that are
developed based on National Competency Standards (NCS) with corresponding learning
outcomes, assessment criteria, contents, learning conditions, instructional methodologies and
assessment methods.(Professional & Division, 2014)
Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) is a mode of training
where the emphasis is placed on the acquisition of competence. It is
designed to meet the demands of industry and business. It involves
training individuals to be able to perform to the standards required in
employment. (Cornelius-ukpepi, 2018)

CBET itself may be described as " training which is performance- and standards based and
related to realistic workplace practices It is focussed on what learners can do rather than on
the courses they have done”.(Structures and Functions of Competence-based Education and
Training ( CBET ):, 2017)

According to Obwoge (2017) “Competency-based education allows students to study and

learn at their own pace. They can move quickly through material they already know and
focus on what they still need to learn hence saving both time and money. Implemented
effectively” Competency-based education can improve quality and consistency, reduce costs,
shorten the time required to graduate, and provide us with true measures of student learning.
This is especially important because the learning outcome is the same for all abilities of
learners and only time varies. (Chinyere, D, Okeke, Benjamin, & Harcourt, 2014)

Kyobe & Rugumayo (2005) define Competency Based Education and Training (CBET) as
an approach to Technical Vocational Education and Training that emphasizes the
development
of skills/competences that are actually required in the world of work. In CBET, the focus is
shifted from inputs into training to outcomes of training and the intended outcomes are
derived from the requirements of employment, i.e. Industry Standards.
In CBET the emphasis is on ensuring that individuals achieve high quality of
performance, important for industry and business to be successful.
In general term, Competence is defined as; ‘the ability to perform tasks
or do work according to set standards. It is the ability to transfer skills,
knowledge and attitudes to a range of situations within a given
occupation’.
From this definition it is clear that the terms, ‘competence’ and

22
‘competency’ relate to the ability of an individual to do something to a
required standard. Vocational competence is contextualised as the ‘doing
something’ in a particular vocation, specialism, discipline or occupation.
The objectives of the CBET are to:

1. Establish occupational standards which can be measured

2. Train competent individuals with transferrable skills
3. Link education and training to the skills needed by employers
4. Establish a quality assurance system which will have the confidence of all
stakeholders
5. Promote lifelong learning through progression and transfer
6. Encourage individuals to achieve their full potential
7. Develop attitudes and abilities to respond rapidly to change

CBET is proposed to be a flexible system which will enable all sectors of the population to
access training without barriers (Education & Framework, 2018)
The Strategic Plan is titled ―Skilling Uganda‖, which denotes a paradigm shift for skills
development in Uganda. The BTVET system is expected to emerge from an educational sub-
sector into a comprehensive system of skills development for employment, enhanced
productivity and growth. The main purpose will be to create employable skills and
competencies relevant in the labour market instead of educational certificates. It will embrace
all Ugandans in need of skills, including but not only primary and secondary school leavers.
(MoESTS, 2011)
As such it is envisaged that resultant TVET system will be able to engage with the following
target groups;
1. Those currently educated and trained who need to update their competences
2. Individuals from the informal sector.
3. Individuals from the formal sector.
4. The unemployed population
5. Out of school youth.
6. Those with little or no education.
7. Those individuals who are made redundant so that they can learn new competences
8. Those who have retired but who would like to develop new skills and competences
The competence based curriculum (CBC) shall specify the outcomes, which are consistent
with the requirements of the workplace as agreed through consultations with the field experts
from industry or training institutes. The CBC should cover the scopes beyond the requirement
of NCS, therefore addressing the industry requirement.

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CHAPTER THREE: FIELD WORK PRACTICUM IN TVET CURRICULUM

3.1 STUDYING TVET SCHOOL CURRICULA IN RELATION TO CBET

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT IN THE CBET WORLD

Creating a curriculum is one of the essential functions within an education or training system
as it constitutes the guideline for planning, conducting and assessing learning processes.
Curriculum development can be approached from three different perspectives
(Smith/Keating, 2003, p. 121)
The first perspective is to regard it as "rational” or "linear”, i.e., it is a logical process
which proceeds from objectives to the selection of learning experiences to the organisation of
learning material to evaluation.
The second one sees curriculum development as a "cyclical” model, where the whole
learning process is a cycle which continua
The second one sees curriculum development as a "cyclical” model, where the whole
learning process is a cycle which continually renews itself so that evaluation leads to the re-
formulation of objectives.
The third perspective implies an "interactive” model assuming that curriculum development
can commence at any stage and that feedback leads to constant change at any stage. The two
most commonly used methods for curriculum development - DACUM and functional
analysis can be rated and described as linear models.

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CHAPTER THREE: TVET CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES

3.1 TYPES OF TVET CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT MODELS

3.1.1 Definition of curricular terms and concepts:

Curriculum design: is the deliberate process of devising, planning and selecting the
elements, techniques, and procedure of the critical variables of the subject matter, pupils,
teachers and the environment in order to facilitate teaching.
In other words, it is the structure, pattern or organization of the curriculum. It aims at
identifying the collective components of the plan of instruction.
Curriculum development: is the deliberate planned enterprise which results into the
syllabus and the curriculum material. The development process involves planning curricular
materials and piloting them.

Curriculum development is the multi-step process of creating and improving a course taught
at a school or university. While the exact process will vary from institution to institution, the
broad framework includes stages of analysis, building, implementation, and evaluation.

Curriculum construction: this refers to the building or writing and revising the course of
study.
Curriculum innovation: refers to the promotion of new ideas and practices in teaching and
learning.
 Types of TVET curriculum development models

3.1.2 Tyler’s model for curriculum development.

The brilliance of Tyler’s model is that it was one of the first models and it was and still is a
highly simple model consisting of four steps.

Determine the school’s purposes (aka objectives)

Identify educational experiences related to purpose

Organize the experiences

Evaluate the purposes

Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction

Step one is determining the objectives of the school or class. In other words, what do the
students need to do in order to be successful? Each subject has natural objectives that are
indicators of mastery. All objectives need to be consistent with the philosophy of the school
and this is often neglected in curriculum development. For example, a school that is
developing an English curriculum may create an objective that students will write essays.
This would be one of many objectives within the curriculum.

Step two is developing learning experiences that help the students to achieve step one. For
example, if students need to meet the objective of writing an essay. The learning experience
might be a demonstration by the teacher of writing an essay. The students than might practice

25
writing essays. The experience (essay demonstration and writing) is consistent with the
objective (Student will write an essay).

Step three is organizing the experiences. Should the teacher demonstrate first or should the
students learn by writing immediately? Either way could work and preference is determined
by the philosophy of the teacher and the needs of the students. The point is that the teacher
needs to determine a logical order of experiences for the students.

Lastly, step four is evaluation of the objectives. Now the teacher assesses the students’
ability to write an essay. There are many ways to do this. For example, the teacher could have
the students write an essay without assistance. If they can do this, it is evidence that the
students have achieved the objective of the lesson.

Tyler model of curriculum describes how to formulate educational objectives, how to

organize them, analyze them and adjust them so that the students are able to meet these
objectives. Basically, Tyler presented his curriculum rationale as four questions:

1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that will likely attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether the purposes are being attained?
According to Tylor, in developing any curriculum should involve answering these four
questions. Moreover, this model is linear in nature, and objectives form the basic component
in the curriculum development. Moreover, objectives are the basis for the selection and
organization of learning experiences, and they form the basis for assessing the curriculum.
Furthermore, objectives are derived from the learner, contemporary life and subject specialist.
Thus, we also call this model the objective model.

We can also re-formulate these four questions into four principles as follows:

26
1. Defining appropriate learning objectives
2. Establishing useful learning experiences
3. Organizing learning experiences to have a maximum cumulative effect
4. Evaluating the curriculum and revising the aspects that did not prove to be effective

3.1.3 Taba Model of Curriculum Development

Hilda Taba (7 December 1902 – 6 July 1967) was an architect, a curriculum theorist, a
curriculum reformer, and a teacher educator. She wrote many books, especially in education,
including The Dynamic of Education (1932), Adolescent Character and Personality (1949),
School Culture: Studies of Participation and Leadership (1955), Action Research: A case
study (1957), Curriculum Development and Practice (1962), Thinking in Elementary School
Children (1964) etc.

Taba contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundation of concept development and
critical thinking in social studies curriculum and helped to lay the foundation of education.
She also created a multipurpose teaching model that utilizes the use of multiple process i.e.
Listing, grouping, re-grouping, labelling, and synthesizing. Her model “Grassroots’
approach” is modified version of Tyler’s model.

Taba’s definition of Curriculum

Taba defines ‘curriculum’ as a document containing a statement of the aims and of the
specific objectives; it indicates some selection and organization of content; it either implies or
manifests certain patterns of learning and teaching. Because the objective demand or the
content organization requires it includes a program of evaluation of the outcomes.

Steps of Hilda Taba model of Curriculum Development

Hilda Taba is the developer of this model of learning. Taba believed that there is a definite
logical and sequential order in creating a curriculum. She promotes the “Down-Top model”
or Grassroots approach. Taba’s grassroots model has seven steps as listed below, advocating
a major role for teachers.

1. Diagnosis of Learners’ Needs: -

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The teacher who is also the curriculum designer starts the process by identifying the needs of
the students for whom curriculum is to be planned. For example; Majority of students are
unable to think critically.

2. Formulation of Objectives: -

After the teacher has identified the needs of learners that require attention, he or she specifies
the objectives by which needs will be fulfilled. Objectives has the following benefits:

- They save a lot of teachers’ time and energy.

- They help to determine the necessary course materials.
- They improve the adequacy and effectiveness of the teaching-learning processes.
- They direct the students’ attention, increase their persistence and motivate them.
- They encourage students to become involved and develop their own learning skills and
strategies.
- They help to develop criteria for evaluating materials and methods and monitoring students’ progress.

3. Selection of the Content: -

The objectives selected or created suggest the subject matter or content of the curriculum.
Not only objectives and content should match, but also the validity and significance of the
chosen content need to be determined. i.e. the relevance and significance of the content.

4. Organization of the Content: -

A teacher cannot just select content but must organize it in a Particular Sequence taking into
consideration the maturity of learners, their academic achievement and their interests.

5. Selection of Learning Experiences: -

Content must be presented to students and they must be engaged with the content. At this
point teacher should select appropriate instructional methodology that will involve the
students with the content.

6. Organization of Learning Activities: -

The learning activities be organized in a sequence depending both on content sequence and
learners’ characteristics. The teacher needs to keep in mind the students he or she will be
teaching.

7. Evaluation: -

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The curriculum planner i.e. the teacher must determine what objectives have been
accomplished. To assess the achievement of learning objectives, evaluation procedures need
to be designed.

Strengths of using the Taba Model

1. This model taps into higher-order thinking skills.

2. Builds comprehension skills such as inference, synthesizing and summarizing.
3. Gifted learners will thrive with the opportunities to explore questions with multiple
correct answers.
4. Questioning is open ended, No clear right or wrong response.
5. When grouped together students work collaboratively with others to build speaking
and listening skills.
6. Provides an opportunity for healthy classroom discussions before and after
generalizations are made.

Limitations of using the Taba Model

1. Can be difficult for some students to handle the open-ended aspect of the model.
2. Without clear direction it may be difficult for teachers to plan and prepare questions
for the path of the students take.
3. Difficult to adapt for all subjects, or at least for some types of texts.
4. Texts must be chosen in advance.

3.1.4 Developing a Curriculum (DACUM) MODEL:

What is DACUM?

Developing a Curriculum (DACUM) is a process that incorporates the use of a focus group of
5 – 9 occupational experts in a facilitated storyboarding process to capture the major duties
and related tasks included in an occupation, as well as, the necessary knowledge, skills, and
traits.  This cost-effective method provides a quick and thorough analysis of any job.   

The Process

Step One:  Initial Occupational Profile

In the DACUM process, high-performing incumbent workers analyse their own job. 

DACUM utilizes a panel of five to nine high-performing incumbent workers.  Over a two-

29
day period, these skilled workers identify the duties and tasks that make up their job.  Under
the direction of a neutral facilitator, the panel analyses their job-related tasks while using a
modified brainstorming process that encompasses a storyboarding technique.  The final result
is an occupational profile presented in a chart format, which describes a job in terms of
specific duties and tasks that competent workers must perform.  During the process, tasks are
also sequenced and ranked based on:

 Criticality:  Essential and/or most important components of a job

 Most time consuming:  Tasks that consume the majority of the worker’s time
 New worker training needs:  Tasks that should be included in introductory training
programs
 Veteran worker training needs:  Tasks that should be included in veteran training
programs

Steps Two & Three:  Validation Process

The occupational profile is validated and vetted through various methods.  A peer-review
process is utilized in a validation workshop to review the initial profile.  Once peer reviewed,
the profile can then be analysed through a management review, allowing the management
team to synthesize what the workers said, with what they expect and believe the job should
encompass. 

Steps Four & Five:  Curriculum Development

Once the profile has been validated, a task analysis can be conducted to further define the
job.  The validated profile and the task analysis can then be used to develop a curriculum. 

3.1.5 systematic curriculum and instructional development (SCID). curriculum

development model.
To provide structure for developing curriculum for Competency Based Education (CBE), an
effective and efficient model, Systematic Curriculum and Instructional Development (SCID),
has been devised. SCID has five phases: analysis, design, development, implementation, and
evaluation. Each of 23 components involves several steps, some optional. Phase 1 may
involve needs analysis, job analysis, task verification, and task analysis. In Phase 2, task
performance information collected during analysis is used to specify the job skills,
knowledge, and attitudes the program will develop in the learner. During this phase, decisions
are made regarding the appropriate training settings, entry-level qualifications, and the
sequencing of learning objectives. Phase 2 concludes with the preparation of a training plan.
Phase 3 results in the production, review, and revision of instructional materials.
Implementation involves putting the education or training program into operation. After
pretesting, the training is conducted as planned and learner performance is evaluated with
progress and post-tests. Phase 5 gathers data on the overall instructional process, program
outcomes, student follow-up data, worker productivity data, and cost-effectiveness data, to
conduct a summative evaluation. (A SCID diagram and SCID systems approach summary are
included.) (NLA)

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3.1.6 Wheeler Model of Curriculum
Wheeler model of curriculum development is a type of model that indicates curriculum
development is a continuous cycle. According to this model, curriculum development should
be responsive to changes in the education sector and make appropriate modifications to
account for these changes. Moreover, this model targets situational evaluation; this is because
the context within which the curriculum decisions are taken is considered important. This
practice can help make the most effective decisions.

This model includes five interconnected phases:

1. Aims, goals, and objectives

2. Learning experiences
3. Selection of content
4. Organization and integration of learning experiences and content
5. Evaluation
Once this cycle is complete, it starts again from the first step and goes onward, continuingly
improving the curriculum. Wheeler model has both advantages and disadvantages.

Wheeler model takes new information into account, has a feedback mechanism, view
elements of curriculum as interconnected phases, and emphasize on situational analysis.
These are the main advantages of Wheeler model. However, Wheeler model is also time-
consuming and can be difficult to put into practice.

Difference Between Tyler and Wheeler Model of Curriculum

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Definition
Tyler model of curriculum was developed by the American educator Ralph Tyler in the 1940s
while Wheeler model is a cyclic model of curriculum developed by D. K. Wheeler in 1967. 

Nature
Tyler model is linear while Wheeler model is cyclic. 

Phases 
Tyler model has four main components: objectives, selection of learning experiences,
organization of learning experiences, and evaluation. Wheeler model, on the other hand, has
five phases: aims, goals, and objectives, learning experiences, selection of content,
organization and integration of learning experiences and content, and evaluation.

Evaluation
Although both models have an evaluation phase, in Tyler’s model, evaluation is terminal
since it is the last phase in a linear model, but the evaluation is Wheeler model is not
terminal. However, in the Wheeler model, the feedback from the evaluation phase is fed back
into objective and goals.

Content and Learning Experience

In the Tyler model, there is no separate component as content while in the Wheeler model,
content is separated from learning experiences from which it’s developed.

Conclusion
In brief, the Tyler model is a linear model containing four main components: objectives,
selection of learning experiences, organization of learning experiences, and evaluation.
Wheeler model, on the other hand, is a cyclic model with five phases: aims, goals, and
objectives, learning experiences, selection of content, organization and integration of learning
experiences and content, and evaluation. Hence, this is the main difference between Tyler and
Wheeler model of curriculum.

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3.2 TRAINING NEEDS ASSESSMENT

Need Analysis for Curriculum

Need analysis refers to the analysis of the learner and the society such as learners’ capacity
and ability, aptitudes and potential for learning, motivation, needs, interests and values as
well as society’s orientation to nurturing or using the individual gainfully. It also provides a
framework of assumptions about emotional, political, cultural, religious and geographical
condition of a country. This helps the curriculum planners in the selection of objectives,
selection of organization of learning materials and in suggesting appropriate evaluation
procedures.

Need Assessment for Curriculum

In order to devise a curriculum and prepare course materials and methods based on the
students’ and institution’s objectives, we had better carry out needs analysis. As Richards
(2007) holds “a sound educational program should be based on an analysis of learner needs.”

Needs assessment is the basic element of curriculum which is usually done before, during and
after the curriculum development in order to determine the course’s outline, materials and
resources. Any course should be set up based on the students’ needs and we should be
“sensitive to our learners and their needs” (Schmitt, 2000,). To this end, Flowerdew and
Peacock (2001) contend that needs analysis attempts “to fine tune the curriculum to the
specific needs of the learner.”

Need Analysis includes

Generally, in addition to determining the learners’ needs, materials and methods, needs
analysis intends to;

 Ascertain the students’ objectives and goals.

 Find out what the students need to do in order to learn (learning needs).
 Determine what the students need to do in the target situation (target situation
analysis).
 Check the place and its availability of the resources, equipment, materials and
facilities (means analysis).

33
  Establish the students’ language level at the beginning of the program (present
situation analysis).

Subdivision of Needs

In order to better study the learners’ needs, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) subdivide the
needs into necessities, lacks and wants.

1. Necessities: - Necessities refer to the requirement of the target setting. In other words,
the linguistic elements the learners need to use in the target environment. In this way,
the target situation analysis comes to the fore. Determining the necessities of the
target situation is one of the aspects of what the learners need to learn.
2. Lacks: - The other more important issue is to know what the learners already know.
By determining what the learners have at their disposal, we can identify which of the
necessities they lack. Therefore, by studying the gap between the necessities and the
lacks we can select and teach the appropriate materials to the learners.
3. Wants: - The necessities and lacks are the objective points that are determined by the
needs analysis. However, the learners themselves have their own wishes and wants.
The learners’ wants may be in conflict with the teachers’ or other parties perceptions.
Therefore, any curriculum designer should consider the learners’ wants appropriately.

Importance of Need Assessment in Curriculum

The needs assessment is carried out to identify the aims, vision, principles, goals, learners’
key competencies, desirable characteristics, learning standards and indicators in curriculum
development process. Information obtained during the needs analysis can be used to decide
the appropriate contents for the students. It also ensures that the decisions about curriculum
and instruction are correct, believable, unbiased, and made on the principle of reasonableness,
reduced errors, and save the time and resources.

Remarkably, needs analysis is not a one-off exercise, rather it is an ongoing activity carried
out continually during the whole teaching-learning processes. At this juncture, the important
issue is the students’ involvement in the needs analysis processes. In order to encourage the
students to participate in the learning process, the teachers and curriculum designers need to
involve the learners in the needs analysis. As Peacock (2001) argues when the learners’ needs
and wishes are not considered “the results can be frustrated and disappointed students.” (p.
283). Ultimately, the teachers should gather enough information about the students and the

34
course and convert “needs analysis outcomes into course content and procedures” (Lynch,
2001).

CHAPTER FOUR: DEVELOPING TVET COURSES.

4.1 Designing TVET Courses

CBET CURRICULUM DESIGN

Planning and Developing CBET

The design of CBET programs requires careful planning and continuous monitoring of
development steps. The first step is to define competence standards by translating work-based
requirements into nationally endorsed industry standards. This requires experts in relevant
occupational fields who are able to depict essential work activities, tasks and functions with
respect to a specific competence profile. The methods applied can either be DACUM or
functional analysis (see 2.3 for more details). Furthermore, the forms of delivery and
assessment need to be specified in accordance with the respective training provider. Thus, the
learning environment of workplaces or training providers must be defined and resources and
learning materials obtained. Information on assessment requirements and procedures must be
distributed to learners and trainers by registered assessors. The organisation
and management of CBET programs has to be efficient to assure the quality of outcomes and
learning processes. A model of the planning and developing

The two most commonly used methods for curriculum development - DACUM and
functional analysis – can be rated and described as linear models. DACUM (acronym for
develop a curriculum) is a method to define systematically the tasks, jobs, competences and
tools associated with a certain type of workplace. DACUM is an inductive approach, i.e.
small units are defined and gradually extended to be applied in a broad context. Three
assumptions are underlying DACUM: First, persons doing certain activities regularly can
describe them in a realistic and precise manner. Second, an efficient way of work and job
analysis is to describe the tasks of a specialist precisely and completely and third, every
successfully completed task requires special knowledge, skills, equipment and behaviour,
which can be identified implicitly through work and job analysis. The job analysis that is
required by DACUM includes several aspects such as the analysis of occupations, jobs,
duties, tasks and single work steps. Additional issues such as workers behaviour, general
knowledge and skills, tools, equipment, supplies and materials as well as future concerns
should be considered. Gonczi/Hager/Oliver (1990, p. 38) defined steps to be undertaken in
order to set up and conduct a DACUM

procedure:

35
> First, it is necessary to choose an expert facilitator and select participants from various
levels of the
relevant occupation. Participants must have a profound knowledge of the occupation and it is
important that different interests (e.g. educators,
practitioners, unionists) are involved.

> Second, a pre-DACUM session must be organised in order to explain the process of
curriculum development. At the beginning of the session, the facilitator has to give a general
introduction to and review of the occupational area. Then the main duties within the
occupation must be outlined and associated tasks, sub tasks and required competences must
be identified. Additionally, the importance of each task, sub task and competence must be
rated according to its frequency of performance and its importance for a holistic work
performance. The results must be structured and recorded for a final report, which is
disseminated to the relevant authorities. The steps of a typical DACUM session are outlined
below;
Conducting a DACUM Session
1. General introduction and orientation.
2. Review of occupational area.
3. Identification of the duties.
4. Identification of tasks, sub tasks and competences associated with each duty.
5. Reviewing and refining the outcomes so far.
6. Establishing importance of each task and/or competence by rating on frequency of
performance, essentialness etc.
7. Final structuring.
8. Recording of final results.
9. Preparing report.

Source: Gonczi/Hager/Oliver, 1990, p. 39.

Systematic Curriculum and Instructional Development (SCID)

Is a successful model for curriculum development customized to complement the needs of

career and technical educators as well as business and industry trainers. SCID has five
phases: design, development, implementation, evaluation, and 22 comprehensive
components. SCID was devised to use information populated from DACUM to establish a
systematic and rational process for developing competency-based instructional materials.

SCID is complementary to the DACUM workshop. DACUM is a quick, effective, relatively

low-cost method of analysing jobs and occupations. DACUM has been used worldwide for
more than 40 years. SCID is a systematic process model used to develop curriculum and
instructional materials required to train tomorrow’s workforce.

36
37
 Stage Activity Players
Planning Needs identification, Job analysis, Task DACUM committee
identification, Task analysis (for (Instructors,
knowledge, skills & work standards), experienced workers,
develop a competence profile professional bodies)
Designing  Training/learners activities (training DACUM committee
plan, modules, timetable) (Instructors,
 Curriculum Materials: worksheet, experienced workers,
assignment sheet, learning aids professional bodies)
(models), handbooks, handouts, and job
aids (scheme of work, lesson plans,
register, rubric, —to mention just a
few)
Developing Training plan, modules, timetable, models DACUM committee
(Instructors,
experienced workers,
professional bodies)
Implementation Instructors, experienced
workers & professional
bodies
Evaluation/ Learners Assessment strategies Trainees, instructors
Assessment Programme evaluation experienced workers,
professional bodies

4.2 Developing Course materials

4.3 Produce institutional aids in TVET, using Art, Technology and ICT

Competency
The ability to perform particular tasks and duties to the standard of performance expected in
the workplace, applying all relevant skills, knowledge and attitudes consistently over time in
the required workplace situations.
The measurement of competency comprises individual units of competency, which cover a
broad area of work that can logically stand-alone. They are detailed documents that specify
the functions performed by an enterprise or industry at certain levels or ‘units’, and are
written in a special format that can be used to assess/determine outcomes

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Competency standards
Competency standards are made up of a number of units of competency each of which
describes a key function or role in a particular job function or occupation.
Core competencies
Core competencies are capabilities that are important for success in employment and in life.
They are transferable ─ in other words, they can be used in other contexts or jobs. Examples
of core skills include interpersonal communication skills, working in teams, negotiation
skills, problem solving, and enterprise skills.(International Labour Organization, 2015)
A Unit of Competency
A unit of competency can be described by its function or purpose. The steps that have to be
performed to achieve an outcome and the means of demonstrating that it has been performed
satisfactorily should be described, as well as the conditions under which the function will be
performed. The description will also include knowledge and skills that a person needs to
perform the task and the means of assessing whether a person can perform the task.
Benefits of Competency Standards
Competency standards can test the effectiveness of training, improve recruitment, identify
training gaps which should lead to improved efficiency, productivity, worker safety and
employee retention. As well, they can be used to develop enterprise practices and procedures,
for performance management, and quality management system for licensing purposes.
Training packages may replace formal education and training systems in certain
circumstances.
Levels or Stages of Competency.
A number of professional organizations prescribe competency in terms of several levels or
stages. The advantages of having such levels is that a professional can progress from the
initial level of achievement soon after graduation to senior positions in employment, where
he/she would undertake management and supervisory roles and have had experience in a
broad range of activities in his/her professional life. Paths from one level to the next should
also be developed. These will normally involve the types of documented supervised
experience, the range of continuing professional development, and agreement to abide by the
code of ethics.(Trinder, 2008)
COMPONENTS OF CBC
There are three main components for CBC namely; Competency profile, Course information
and Module information.
COMPETENCY PROFILE
It is a curriculum framework with the list of the competency areas and sub-competency areas
with associate competencies/tasks needed for analyzing task and designing curriculum for
effectual training and learning process. Following are the components of competency profile:
COMPETENCY AREA (CA)

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  One of the distinct major activities or units involved in the work performed in an
occupation.
 Are general, not specific, statement of the work that is performed.
 It must start with appropriate action verb.
 Stand-alone (are meaningful without reference to job).
 One unit from NCS may lead to one competency area or more
SUB-COMPETENCY AREA (SCA)
 It is a fragmentation of duty and it is not stand alone without referring to the job for
most of the case
 It must start with an appropriate action verb.
 Elements of Competence from NCS may be considered as Sub-Competency Area .
 There should be minimum of 3 and maximum of 12 sub competency area under each
competency area
Competency/Task:
Competency/Task should have the following features.
 Specific
 Measurable

 Observable
 Has its own unique procedure
 Broken down into three or more steps
 Can be performed in limited period of time
 Has definite start and end point
 When completed, results in a product, service or decision
 Must start with an appropriate action verb
Thus, a task is a time-bound work activity; it has a beginning and an end. Moreover, a task is
usually performed under standardized conditions using standardized tools. There should be
minimum of 3 and maximum of 20 tasks under each sub competency area.
MODULE INFORMATION
The CBC shall consist of several modules to form a complete package of curriculum.
Modules in each curriculum are self-contained and the training shall be undertaken separately
to ensure acquisition of skills, knowledge and attitude needed to perform the activity under
employment conditions. Each module shall represent a certifiable part of a job. However,
eligibility for National Certification shall require the completion of all modules within the
skill area. Each module of CBC consists of the following main components:
 Occupation
 Competency Area
 Module Title
 Module Code

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  Module description
 Certificate Level
 Pre-requisites
 Nominal Duration
 Learning Outcomes
 Assessment criteria
 Content
 Learning condition
 Instructional methodologies
 Method of Assessment

NON-CBT CURRICULUM
Non-CBT curriculum can be either of short course, modular or soft skills curricula that is
developed based on the needs of labour market

41
REFERENCES:
Chinyere, S., D, P. C. P., Okeke, P., Benjamin, C., & Harcourt, P. (2014). Competency Based
Education and Training in Technical Vocational Education : Implication for
Sustainable National Security and Development Department of Technical and Business
Education , Delta State University , Nigeria Department of Science and Technical.
1(October), 290–300.
Cornelius-ukpepi, B. U. (2018). Philosophical implications in curriculum development.
(September 2007).
http://www.slideshare.net/kapatid32012/curriculumdevelopmentfullbook 1/229. (2016). 1–
229.
International Labour Organization. (2015). Regional Model Competency Standards : Welding
services.
Kyobe, E., & Rugumayo, A. (2005). Competency based education and training ( CBET ): A
Case Study in Uganda Introduction : 189–191.
MoESTS. (2011). Skilling Uganda - BTVET Strategic Plan 2011-2020. (July), 112.
Professional, T., & Division, S. (2014). Guidelines for Tvet Curriculum Development.
Retrieved from
http://www.molhr.gov.bt/molhr/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/GUIDELINES-FOR-
DEVELOPMENT-OF-TVET-CURRICULUM-2018.pdf
Promoting Tvetisation and Innovation Through Industrial. (2017). 1(02), 153–166.
Structures and Functions of Competence-based Education and Training ( CBET ): (2017).
Trinder, J. C. (2008). Competency Standards - a Measure of the Quality of a Workforce. The
International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information
Sciences. . Beijing 2008, Vol. XXXVI, 165. Retrieved from
http://www.isprs.org/proceedings/XXXVII/congress/6a_pdf/5_WG-VI-5/01.pdf
Chinyere, S., D, P. C. P., Okeke, P., Benjamin, C., & Harcourt, P. (2014). Competency Based
Education and Training in Technical Vocational Education : Implication for
Sustainable National Security and Development Department of Technical and Business
Education , Delta State University , Nigeria Department of Science and Technical.
1(October), 290–300.
Cornelius-ukpepi, B. U. (2018). Philosophical implications in curriculum development.
(September 2007).
http://www.slideshare.net/kapatid32012/curriculumdevelopmentfullbook 1/229. (2016). 1–
229.
International Labour Organization. (2015). Regional Model Competency Standards : Welding
services.
Kyobe, E., & Rugumayo, A. (2005). Competency based education and training ( CBET ): A
Case Study in Uganda Introduction : 189–191.
MoESTS. (2011). Skilling Uganda - BTVET Strategic Plan 2011-2020. (July), 112.

42
Professional, T., & Division, S. (2014). Guidelines for Tvet Curriculum Development.
Retrieved from
http://www.molhr.gov.bt/molhr/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/GUIDELINES-FOR-
DEVELOPMENT-OF-TVET-CURRICULUM-2018.pdf
Promoting Tvetisation and Innovation Through Industrial. (2017). 1(02), 153–166.
Structures and Functions of Competence-based Education and Training ( CBET ): (2017).
Trinder, J. C. (2008). Competency Standards - a Measure of the Quality of a Workforce. The
International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information
Sciences. . Beijing 2008, Vol. XXXVI, 165. Retrieved from
http://www.isprs.org/proceedings/XXXVII/congress/6a_pdf/5_WG-VI-5/01.pdf

43