HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

▪ Horizontal Curves
• Horizontal curve is a geometrical curve provided in plan
to provide change in direction of alignment of a road

▪ Functions of horizontal curve

• To provide gradual change in direction of alignment
• To provide comfort to drivers
• To provide easy turning maneuver to drivers
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Necessity of horizontal curve
• Excessive cutting or filling (earthwork) can be avoided
• The natural or artificial obstructions in the way of
alignment can be avoided
• Costly land can be avoided
• Roads can be made stable and on safe side of hills by
changing alignment.
• To avoid the monotony of driving
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Design of horizontal curves
• When a vehicle traverse a horizontal curve, the
centrifugal force acts horizontally outwards through the
CG of vehicle
• Centrifugal force P depends upon radius of curve R and
the speed of the vehicle negotiating the curve V
• This centrifugal force P is counteracted by the
transverse friction resistance developed between tires
and pavement which enables vehicle to change the
direction and maintain the stability
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Centrifugal force acting in a vehicle traversing a
horizontal curve has two effects
• Tendency to overturn vehicle outwards
• Tendency to skid the vehicle laterally outwards

• If the speed of vehicle is high or radius of curve is less

the centrifugal force may increase to an extent which
can cause over turning or lateral skidding of vehicle
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Superelevation
▪ Transverse inclination provided to the pavement
surface to counteract effects of centrifugal force and to
reduce chances of vehicles to overturn or skid is known
as super elevation or cant or banking

▪ Super elevation e can be expressed as the ratio of the

height of outer edge with respect to horizontal width
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Super elevation required depends upon
• Radius of curve
• Vehicle speed
• Co efficient of lateral friction

▪ Advantages of super elevation

• Passengers and goods can be transferred safely on the
road
• Vehicles can traverse horizontal curve with more speed
• Maintenance of roads at curves can be decreased.
• Construction of drains can be minimize
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Maximum superelevation
• Practically it is necessary to limit maximum allowable
superelevation rate specially if the roadway is catering
mix traffic

▪ Minimum superelevation
• If calculated superelevation is equal or less than the
camber of roadway surface, minimum superelevation to
be provided can be limited to the camber of surface
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Design of super elevation
• Design of super elevation in mixed traffic is a complex
problem

• from practical considerations it is suggested that the

super elevation should be provided to fully counter act
the centrifugal force due to 75% of the design speed
(neglecting the lateral friction) and limiting the maximum
super elevation to 0.07
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ e + f = v2 / gR
Where,
e = rate of super elevation
f = co efficient of lateral friction = 0.15
V = Design speed (m/s)
R = Radius of horizontal curve
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s 2
• The value of f is taken as 0.15 for design purpose

▪ e + f = v2 / 127R
Where, V = Design speed (kmph)
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Steps for design of super elevation
1. Calculate super elevation for 75% design speed
(neglecting lateral friction)
e = (0.75 V)2 / gR (V in m/s)

2. If calculated e < 0.07, obtained value of super elevation

(e) can be provided
If calculated e > 0.07, provide e = 0.07

3. Check the co efficient of friction (f) for maximum value

of e = 0.07 at full value of design speed
e + f = V2 / gR (V in m/s)
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• If f < 0.15, provided super elevation is safe for design
speed
• If f > 0.15 calculate restricted speed or allowable speed
Va

4. Allowable speed Va can be calculated from,

e + f = Va2 / gR ( V in m/s)
where, e = 0.07 & f = 0.15
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Attainment of superelevation
• Elimination of crown of the cambered section
• Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation
HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Horizontal transition curve
• Transition curve is a horizontal curve in plan provided to
allow gradual transition from a straight alignment to
designed circular curve
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Horizontal transition curve
• When transition curve is introduced between a straight
and circular curve the radius of transition curve
decreases from infinity to minimum at beginning of
horizontal curve
• Rate of change of radius depends upon shape of
transition curve
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Objectives or functions of transition curve
• To gradually introduce centrifugal force, avoiding
sudden jerk on the vehicle
• To introduce super elevation and extra widening
gradually
• To provide comfort for the driver to enable steering
through he curve smoothly and safely
• To enhance aesthetics of highways.
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Types of transition curve
• Spiral or clothoid
• Cubic parabola
• Lemniscate

▪ Requirements of an ideal shape of transition curve

• Rate of introduction of centrifugal force or rate of
change of centrifugal acceleration should be consistent
• Radius of transition curve should consistently decrease
from infinite at tangent point to radius of horizontal
curve at start of curve
• Length of transition curve should be inversely
proportional to radius of horizontal curve
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ IRC recommends Spiral or clothoid as the ideal
transition curve

▪ Reasons
• For spiral curves rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration is constant
• The calculation and field implementation of spiral curve
is simple and easy.
• It enhances aesthetics
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Calculations of length of transition curve Ls
• It is designed to fulfil three conditions
• Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration
• Rate of introduction of superelevation
• Empirical formula

• Highest value among three is adopted as length of

transition curve
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Length of transition curves

• Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

Ls = 0.0215V3 / CR
Ls = Length of transition curve, m
C = allowable rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration = 80 / 75+V (0.5<C<0.8)
R = radius of circular curve, m
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• Rate of introduction of superelevation
If pavement is rotated about the centerline
Ls = EN/2 = eN(W + We) / 2

If pavement is rotated about the inner edge

Ls = EN = eN(W + We)
Where,
Ls = Length of transition curve, m
e = designed rate of super elevation
W+ We = total width of pavement
N = rate of introduction of super elevation
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
N can be adopted as,
1in 150 for plain terrain or open country areas
1 in 100 for built up areas
1 in 60 for hill roads

• By empirical formula
For plain and rolling terrain
Ls = 2.7V2 / R

for mountainous and steep terrain

Ls = V2 / R

• Shift of transition curve S = Ls2/ 24R

 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Extra widening of pavement on horizontal curve
• Provided on the horizontal curves by widening the
pavement slightly more than normal width required

▪ Reasons to provide extra widening of pavement

• To avoid off tracking of vehicles
When vehicles with rigid wheel base are traversing
horizontal curve real wheels do not follow the exact
same path as the front wheels, which is called off
tracking. This means that when inner front wheel is
taking a path on the inner edge of the pavement at
curve, inner rear wheel will be off the pavement
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• If vehicles are travelling on the curve with excessively
higher speed than design speed transverse skidding of
vehicles may occur and rear wheels may take outer
path than the of that traversed by front wheels
• Drivers have tendency to use outer side instead of
central path of the lane at the beginning of the curve to
have greater visibility
• When two vehicles are overtaking or crossing each
other on the curve it is a psychological tendency to
keep more distance between vehicles than on straight
stretches of road
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Amount of extra widening depends upon
• Length of wheel base of design vehicle
• Radius of horizontal curve
• The psychological factor of drivers
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Widening of pavement on horizontal curves
• Mechanical widening, Wm = nl2 / 2R

• Psychological widening Wps = V / 9.5 (R) 1/2

Where, n = number of traffic lanes
l = length of wheel base, m
V = design speed (kmph)
R = Radius of horizontal curve, m

• We = Wm + Wps
= nl2 / 2R + V / 9.5 (R)1/2
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Set back distance on horizontal curve
• Setback distance or the clearance distance is the
distance required from the centreline of a horizontal
curve to an obstruction on the inner side of the curve to
provide adequate sight distance at a horizontal curve.
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• The setback distance depends upon
• Sight distance
• Radius of the curve
• Length of the curve.
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• Types of curves for hill roads
• Hair-pin curves
• Salient curves
• Re-entrant curves
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Hair-pin Bends
• Should be located on hill side with minimum slope and
maximum stability
• hair-pin bends with long arms and farther spacing are
preferred
• Reduce construction problems and expensive
protection work in hilly areas
• Travel distances will be longer and speed is less
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• Hair-pin Bends
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Salient curves
• The curves with their convexity on the outer edge of a
hill road is known as salient curves
• Center of salient curve lies towards hill side

• Very dangerous for fast moving traffic

• A parapet is provided at the outer edge of curve
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Re-entrant curves
• The curves with their convexity on the inner edge of a
hill road is called re-entrant curves
• Center of curvature lies away from hill side
• Less dangerous as provide enough visibility for fast
moving traffic
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Terrain type
▪ Road class
▪ Design speed
▪ Design vehicle
▪ Pavement width
▪ Shoulder width
▪ Stopping sight distance
▪ Overtaking sight distance
▪ Curve radius
▪ Superelevation
▪ Pavement widening
▪ Length and shift of transition curve
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Calculate values of ruling and minimum radius for a
horizontal curve on a state highway in rolling terrain
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Design rate of superelevation for a horizontal curve with
radius 500 m on a state highway in plain terrain
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Find total width of a pavement on a horizontal curve for
a new national highway to be aligned along a rolling
terrain with ruling minimum radius with maximum wheel
base of trucks as 6 m. Assume data if necessary
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ A national highway passing through rolling terrain in
heavy rainfall area has a horizontal curve of radius 500
meters. Design length of transition curve. Assume
necessary data
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ A state highway passing through a rolling terrain has a
horizontal curve of radius equal to ruling radius. Design
all geometric features of this horizontal curve, assuming
suitable data
HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Stopping sight distance = v x t + v2 / 2gf
(when road is without gradient)

▪ When road is with ascending gradient n%

SSD = v.t + v2 / 2g (f + n/100)

▪ When road is with descending gradient n%

SSD = v.t + v2 / 2g (f - n/100)
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Overtaking sight distance
• For two way traffic OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
• On divided highways & and on roads with one way
traffic OSD = d2 + d2

d1 = vbt
Where,
vb = speed of overtaken vehicle (m/s)
t = reaction time (sec)
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• d2 is the distance travelled by overtaking vehicle during
overtaking time (T)
d2 = vbT + 2s
T = √4s / a
S = 0.7vb + 6
Where,
vb = speed of overtaken vehicle (m/s)
T = overtaking time
a = acceleration of overtaking vehicle
s = spacing of vehicles
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• d3 is the distance travelled by vehicle coming from
opposite direction in time T
d3 = VT
Where,
V = speed of vehicle from opposite direction
or design speed (m / sec)
T = overtaking time
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ e + f = v2 / gR
Where,
e = rate of super elevation
f = co efficient of lateral friction = 0.15
V = Design speed (m/s)
R = Radius of horizontal curve
g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/s 2
• The value of f is taken as 0.15 for design purpose

▪ e + f = v2 / 127R
Where, V = Design speed (kmph)
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Steps for design of super elevation
1. Calculate super elevation for 75% design speed
(neglecting lateral friction)
e = (0.75 V)2 / gR (V in m/s)

2. If calculated e < 0.07, obtained value of super elevation

(e) can be provided
If calculated e > 0.07, provide e = 0.07

3. Check the co efficient of friction (f) for maximum value

of e = 0.07 at full value of design speed
e + f = V2 / gR (V in m/s)
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• If f < 0.15, provided super elevation is safe for design
speed
• If f > 0.15 calculate restricted speed or allowable speed
Va

4. Allowable speed Va can be calculated from,

e + f = Va2 / gR ( V in m/s)
where, e = 0.07 & f = 0.15
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Widening of pavement on horizontal curves
• Mechanical widening, Wm = nl2 / 2R

• Psychological widening Wps = V / 9.5 (R) 1/2

Where, n = number of traffic lanes
l = length of wheel base, m
V = design speed (kmph)
R = Radius of horizontal curve, m

• We = Wm + Wps
= nl2 / 2R + V / 9.5 (R)1/2
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
▪ Length of transition curves

• Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration

Ls = 0.0215V3 / CR
Ls = Length of transition curve, m
C = allowable rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration = 80 / 75+V (0.5<C<0.8)
R = radius of circular curve, m
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• Rate of introduction of superelevation
If pavement is rotated about the centerline
Ls = EN/2 = eN(W + We) / 2

If pavement is rotated about the inner edge

Ls = EN = eN(W + We)
Where,
Ls = Length of transition curve, m
e = designed rate of super elevation
W+ We = total width of pavement
N = rate of introduction of super elevation
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
N can be adopted as,
1in 150 for plain terrain or open country areas
1 in 100 for built up areas
1 in 60 for hill roads

• By empirical formula
For plain and rolling terrain
Ls = 2.7V2 / R

for mountainous and steep terrain

Ls = V2 / R

• Shift of transition curve S = Ls2/ 24R

 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
A national highway passing through Rolling terrain in
heavy rainfall area has a horizontal curve of radius 500 m.
design the length of transition curve assuming suitable
data
CURVES
 REFERENCES
• Highway Engineering by S. K. Khanna, C.E.G. Justo and A. Veeraragavan, 10th
Edition
• Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning by Dr. L. R. Kadiyali
• https://www.slideserve.com/oksana/welcome-2394264 by Dr. Khaled Ali
• https://www.slideshare.net/DhrubajyotiMajumdar/types-of-curve-in-hill-
road