Name: Flores, Emilio Joaquin C.

Yr./Course: BSME- 5A

Topic: Review on Refrigeration Fundamentals

Objectives:

1. To conduct a comprehensive review on the fundamentals of Refrigeration

2. To know and understand important terminologies in line with Refrigeration
3. To be able to apply the knowledge of Refrigeration in the field of work in Mechanical Engineering
4. To be able to evaluate different problems in society today and how refrigeration can be of help in
alleviating them.

Significance:

The purpose of this activity is for the students to be familiar with the concepts and
terminologies of refrigeration plants before conducting a performance evaluation and efficiency test.
This activity also serves as a refresher for their previous course on refrigeration.

Refrigeration is one of the most integral fields to study on especially in mechanical

engineering because refrigeration is big on the industrial aspect of engineering. Refrigeration and
Air-conditioning is the study of manipulating the heat flow inside a system or room to induce comfort
(if air conditioning) and to preserve food (if refrigeration). A mechanical engineer can also work in a
Refrigeration plant in different fields such as maintenance, design and construction. So with this
experiment, the proponents would be able to explore more and discover different opportunities in
studying refrigeration.

Background of the Study:

Refrigeration is defined as a method of removing/extracting unwanted heat from lower-

temperature heat source, substance, or cooling medium and transferring it to a higher-temperature
heat sink. While a refrigeration system is a combination of sequentially linked components and
equipment to produce the refrigerating effect. A ton of refrigeration is defined as the amount of
refrigeration effect produced in 24 hours by a uniform melting of one ton (1000 kg) of ice at and from
0 degrees Celsius.
History of Refrigeration

The earliest form of heating was the open fire. The addition of a chimney to carry away
combustion by products was the first important step in the evolution of heating systems. By the time
of the Romans, there was sufficient knowledge of ventilation to allow for the installation of ventilating
and panel heating in baths. Leonardo da Vinci had invented a ventilating fan by the end of the15th
century. [1]

Vapor Compression Cycle

One of the fundamental approaches to refrigeration is the study of the vapor compression
cycle. It is used for refrigeration as a comparison to the gas cycles. It makes use of the latent heat and
enables a huge amount of heat to be extracted for a selected working fluid known as a refrigerant. As
the system boils and condenses the fluid, there is a change of state from liquid to gaseous phase based
on the temperatures. [2]

(a) The ideal reversed Carnot cycle circuit and the temperature entropy diagram (b)

Heat is put into the fluid at the lower temperature and pressure, thus fluid at the lower
temperature and pressure, thus providing the latent heat to make it vaporize. The vapor is then
mechanically compressed to a higher pressure and a corresponding saturation temperature at which
its latent heat can be rejected so that it changes back to a liquid. [3]
Heating Ventilation and Air conditioning

The primary function of an HVAC system is either the generation or maintenance of comfort
for occupants in a conditioned space the supplying of a set of environmental conditions (high
temperature and high humidity, low temperature and high humidity, etc.) For a process or product
within a space. Human comfort design conditions are quite different from conditions required in
textile mills or for grain storage and vary with factors such as time of year and the activity and
clothing levels of the occupants. [4]

A Simple Heating, Ventilation and Air conditioning in a residential home

HVAC stand for Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning. They describe the functions of an
HVAC system. This mechanical system’s design is primarily an attempt to take control of the
environmental conditions inside the space you work. An HVAC system is designed to control the
environment in which it works. It achieves this by controlling the temperature of a room through
heating and cooling. It also controls the humidity level in that environment by controlling the
movement and distribution of air inside the room. The system also ensures cleanliness of air inside
the said environment. [4]

Industrial Refrigeration Plants

Industrial refrigeration can be defined as custom-built plant to provide cool-fined as custom-

built plant to provide cooling for large-scale processes. Applications of refrigeration for chemical
plants, for example separation of gases, solidification of substances, and removal of reaction heat,
together with refrigeration in manufacturing and construction and environmental test chambers are
included. [5]

Many industrial systems use ammonia, R717. The engineering and servicing requirements
are well established. 4. Ammonia can be detected by its characteristic odor at very low concentrations
and this acts as an early warning signal. The safety aspects of ammonia plants are well documented
and there is reason to expect a sustained increase in the use of ammonia as a refrigerant. R744 (CO2)
is now being applied in low stage for cascade systems. [5]

A Condenser Cascade (Star Refrigeration)

Definition of Terms

In this experiment, the proponent aims to evaluate and enumerate terms and principles that
are related to Refrigeration. The purpose of this evaluation is to have a short assessment on the
knowledge in Refrigeration and how it co relates to the experiment and how it also can be integral to
the field of expertise of the aspiring proponents.
Sensible Heat

Sensible Heat is the energy of molecular motion. It is measured by temperature and always
causes a temperature change in the substance being heated. In a sensible heating process, the
temperature changed, but the state has not. If it is heating a liquid to a certain high temperature, the
state of the object has not changed, therefore, No boiling has occurred. In relation to refrigeration, a
characteristic of refrigerant is its ability to boil. That is, to change from a liquid to a gas at a low
temperature. [6]

Heat Transfer

The science of heat transfer is concerned with the analysis of the rate of heat transfer taking
place in a system. The energy transfer by heat flow cannot be measured directly, but the concept has
physical meaning because it is related to the measurable quantity called temperature. It has long
been established by observations that when there is temperature difference in a system, heat flows
from the region of high temperature to that of low temperature. [7]

Since heat flow takes place whenever there is a temperature gradient in a system, a
knowledge of the temperature distribution in a system is essential in heat transfer studies. Once the
temperature distribution is known, a quantity of practical interest, the heat flux, which is the amount
of heat transfer per unit area per unit time, is readily determined from the law relating the heat flux
to the temperature gradient. [7]

Refrigeration in the simplest terms is cooling by removing heat. It could also be said that
Refrigeration is the transfer of heat from one place where it is not wanted. The normal strategy in
mechanical refrigeration is to get the heat to the refrigerant. Then transfer the refrigerant to a place
where the heat can be removed from it. The refrigerant makes the heat transfer possible. Presented
another way, the refrigerant is a fluid that picks up heat by evaporating at a low pressure and
temperature and then give up this heat by condensing at a higher pressure and temperature. [6]

Latent Heat of Fusion

The latent heat of fusion refers to the phase change between solid and liquid. Take note that
although 'heat' is often thought as state of being hot, heat actually refers to the transfer of heat energy
between objects. Thus, the latent heat of fusion encompasses the process of adding heat to melt a
solid and the process of subtracting heat to freeze a liquid. [8]The latent heat of fusion, noted as Lf,
has the same equation as the general equation for latent heat:

𝑄 = 𝑚𝐿𝑓
This equation states that the heat Q that must be added or removed for a phase change to
occur is proportional to the mass of the substance m times its unique latent heat of fusion, Lf. [8] In
relations to refrigeration, Latent heat transfer is the main way mechanical refrigeration systems
move heat. As the refrigerant flows through the coil, and more air comes in contact with the coil,
more of the liquid refrigerant boils off until all that remains is a gas. [6]
Change of State
Changes of state are physical changes in matter. They are reversible changes that do not
involve changes in matter’s chemical makeup or chemical properties. Common changes of state
include melting, freezing, sublimation, deposition, condensation, and vaporization. [9] In relation to
Refrigeration, the change of state is an easy observation in the fluid flow of the refrigerants as it
changes state when it undergoes evaporation, boiling and condensation.

Latent Heat of evaporation

Latent heat of vaporization is a physical property of a substance. It is defined as the heat
required to change one mole of liquid at its boiling point under standard atmospheric pressure. It is
expressed as kg/mol or kJ/kg. When a material in liquid state is given energy, it changes its phase
from liquid to vapor; the energy absorbed in this process is called heat of vaporization. The heat of
vaporization of water is about 2,260 kJ/kg, which is equal to 40.8 kJ/mol. [10]

The Latent heat required to boil off this refrigerant from a liquid to a gas is taken from the air
as it passes through the coil, thus cooling the air. This boiling process is called evaporation, thus the
coil in which this occurs is referred to as our Evaporator. [6] The Evaporator is where we collect the
heat we want to remove. The latent heat process happens at a low temperature because of the nature
and properties of the refrigerant and the low pressure in this part of the refrigeration system. [6]

Latent heat of sublimation

Sublimation is a physical process in which a solid directly converts into a gaseous (vapor)
state without going through a liquid state. The latent heat of sublimation at a particular temperature
is the amount of heat required to convert a unit mass of solid into gas. Latent heat of sublimation is
not common in conventional refrigerators – the latent heat that is utilized is the latent heat of
vaporization. Some studies are trying to apply solid-gas sublimation flow for refrigeration, but there
is no actual type of refrigerators in the market. The closes application and to relate latent heat of
sublimation to refrigeration is utilizing it for preserving food, which is also the main goal of
refrigerators. Dry ice follows the process of sublimation, dry ice is used for preserving food in a non-
cyclic refrigeration. It is frequently used to package items that must remain cold/frozen without the
use of mechanical cooling. [11]

Saturation temperature

The term saturation defines a condition which mixture of vapor and liquid can exist together
at a given temperature and pressure. The temperature at which vaporization (boiling) starts to occur
for a given pressure is called the saturation temperature. [12] In refrigeration, we are using
refrigerants – refrigerant conditions include saturated, superheated, or subcooled. At saturated
condition, saturation is usually talked about in reference to a temperature. Thus, making saturation
temperature important fundamental in refrigeration especially when solving refrigeration problems.

Superheated vapor

A vapor that is obtained by raising the temperature of a substance above the saturation
temperature while maintaining a constant pressure. [13] Superheating is a fundamental process in a
refrigeration cycle. Boiling is when liquid gains heat and transforms the liquid/refrigerant into vapor
state. Superheat occurs when the vapor is heated above its boiling point. Superheat is critical in
refrigeration because it ensures the liquid refrigerant is boiled off before it leaves the evaporator and
heads to the compressor.

Subcooled liquid

If the temperature of the liquid is lower than the saturation temperature for the existing
pressure, it is called either a subcooled liquid. The term sub cooling refers to a liquid existing at a
temperature below its normal boiling point. [14] A subcooled liquid is an important process in
refrigeration cycle that ensures liquid refrigerant enters the expansion device. Sub cooling occur in
the condenser, then it enters the compressor to complete and continue the refrigeration cycle.

Pressure-temperature relationships, liquid

Vapor pressure acts equally in all directions and affects the entire low or high side of a
refrigeration system. As pressure increases, saturation temperature increases. As pressure
decreases, so does saturation temperature. [15] In fact, only at saturation are there pressure-
temperature relationships for refrigerants. Temperature-pressure charts show pressure and
temperature relationships at saturation. The pressure-temperature relationship is can be utilized in
solving refrigeration problems. PT charts show the relationship between pressure and temperature
of given refrigerants.

Pressure-temperature relationships, gases

In refrigeration cycle, after compressing the working fluid, its temperature and pressure also
increases.
Pressure and Fluid head
Pressure is the amount of force exerted per unit area, while the fluid head is the pressure
exerted by a liquid column on the base of the container.

Effect of fluid flow in heat transfer

The higher the velocity of the fluid would result to an increase of heat transfer. In the HVAC
and Refrigeration field, convective heat transfer can be found in heating and air conditioning systems,
whenever a moving fluid passes over a surface at a different temperature.

Refrigerants
Are liquids having a high latent heat, and which are converted into vapors under small
changes of pressure. In mechanical refrigeration, a process is required that can transfer large
quantities of heat economically and efficiently on a continuous basis. The processes of evaporation
and condensing of a liquid are the logical steps in the refrigeration process

Refrigeration Cycle
Mechanical refrigeration is accomplished by continuously circulating, evaporating, and
condensing a fixed supply of refrigerant in a closed system. Evaporation occurs at a low temperature
and low pressure while condensation occurs at a high temperature and high pressure.
References

[ "1.1 Introduction - Knovel," [Online]. Available:

1 https://app.knovel.com/web/view/khtml/show.v/rcid:kpPHVACE01/cid:kt011DVVM3/viewerTy
] pe:khtml//root_slug:1-background/url_slug:background?b-q=HVAC&sort_on=default&b-
subscription=true&b-group-by=true&b-sort-on=default&b-content-
type=all_references&include_s.
[ "2. The Refrigeration Cycle - Knovel," [Online]. Available:
2 https://app.knovel.com/web/view/khtml/show.v/rcid:kpRACHPE04/cid:kt010W2024/viewerTy
] pe:khtml//root_slug:2-the-refrigeration-cycle/url_slug:refrigeration-cycle?b-
q=refrigeration&sort_on=default&b-subscription=true&b-group-by=true&b-sort-on=default&b-
conten.
[ "2.2 Simple Vapour Compression Cycle - Knovel," [Online]. Available:
3 https://app.knovel.com/web/view/khtml/show.v/rcid:kpRACHPE04/cid:kt010W2051/viewerTy
] pe:khtml//root_slug:2-the-refrigeration-cycle/url_slug:refrigeration-cycle?b-
q=refrigeration&sort_on=default&b-subscription=true&b-group-by=true&b-sort-on=default&b-
conten.
[ 9 Septemeber 2015. [Online]. Available: https://www.servicechampions.net/blog/what-is-an-
4 hvac-system/. [Accessed 8 July 2020].
]
[ "18. Industrial Applications - Knovel," [Online]. Available:
5 https://app.knovel.com/web/view/khtml/show.v/rcid:kpRACHPE04/cid:kt010W2712/viewerTy
] pe:khtml//root_slug:18-industrial-applications/url_slug:industrial-applications?b-
q=refrigeration&b-subscription=true&b-group-by=true&b-sort-on=default&b-content-
type=all_.
[ G&D Grillers, [Online]. Available:
6 https://www.probrewer.com/library/refrigeration/refrigeration-basics/. [Accessed 8 July 2020].
]
[ "1. Introduction and Concepts - Knovel".
7
]
[ Study.com, "Heat of Fusion: Definition, Equation & Examples," [Online]. Available:
8 https://study.com/academy/lesson/heat-of-fusion-definition-equation-examples.html.
] [Accessed 9 July 2020].
[ Learnbps, [Online]. Available:
9 https://learnbps.bismarckschools.org/mod/book/view.php?id=89463&chapterid=38139#:~:tex
] t=Changes%20of%20state%20are%20physical,deposition%2C%20condensation%2C%20a
nd%20vaporization.. [Accessed 9 July 2020].
[ P. Datt, "Latent Heat of Vaporization/Condensation," 24 August 2014. [Online]. Available:
1 https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-90-481-2642-
2_327#:~:text=Latent%20heat%20of%20vaporization%20is,%2Fmol%20or%20kJ%2Fkg.&te
0 xt=The%20heat%20of%20vaporization%20of,equal%20to%2040.8%20kJ%2Fmol..
] [Accessed 7 July 2020].
[ [Online]. Available: https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-90-481-
1 2642-
1 2_329#:~:text=Sublimation%20is%20a%20physical%20process,mass%20of%20solid%20int
] o%20gas.. [Accessed 9 July 2020].
[ [Online]. Available: https://www.engineersedge.com/thermodynamics/saturation.htm.
1 [Accessed 9 July 2020].
2
]
[ [Online]. Available:
1 https://www.google.com/search?q=superheated+vapor+meaning&source=lmns&bih=744&bi
3 w=767&hl=en&ved=2ahUKEwjdx9jE77_qAhVUzIsBHd1NB3gQ_AUoAHoECAEQAA.
] [Accessed 9 July 2020].
[ [Online]. Available: https://www.thermal-engineering.org/what-is-saturated-and-subcooled-
1 liquid-definition/. [Accessed 7 July 2020].
4
]
[ [Online]. Available: https://www.achrnews.com/articles/94025-refrigerant-pressures-states-
1 and-
5 conditions#:~:text=Vapor%20pressure%20acts%20equally%20in,pressure%2Dtemperature
] %20relationships%20for%20refrigerants.. [Accessed 09 July 2020].