Understanding and Optimizing Emc in S Mps
Understanding and Optimizing Emc in S Mps
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ABSTRACT
Electromagnetic noise issues have long been a concern with switching power supplies, as their high-
frequency switching of voltage and current generate higher order harmonics that have the potential to
cause interference with system operation. While international specifications and standardized testing
procedures have at least provided a greater understanding of the problems, optimum solutions must still
come from techniques that are applied during the design process. This topic attempts to describe the
more significant causes of EMI in power supplies and offer design techniques to minimize their impact.
I. INTRODUCTION
And electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) is
While switchmode power supplies are well
the absence of EMI. Two things follow from this
known and appreciated for their significant
definition. The first is that EMC is a system-level
benefits in reductions to both physical size and
consideration. While it is common to test for
internal power loss, the threat of generating
electromagnetic noise generation from a power
electromagnetic interference (EMI) from the high
supply as a stand-alone box, the ultimate
frequencies inherent in their fast-changing
standards that have to be met apply to the system
voltage and current waveforms has always been a
as a whole with the power supply as an internal
serious concern. As advances in power supply
component or subsystem. And the second aspect
technology have increased switching frequencies,
of this definition of EMI is that it involves three
and allowed these supplies to be used in closer
elements:
proximity to the systems they power, these
concerns – and the demands that designers react • A generator of electromagnetic energy:
to them – have only heightened. Thus, designing (a source).
for electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) has • Transmission of that energy between
become a requirement every bit as important as equipments: (a coupling means).
meeting a given set of power conversion • A receptor circuit whose operation is
performance specifications, and it is the purpose negatively impacted by the transmitted
of this discussion to address some of the more energy: (a victim circuit).
important principles and techniques involved. All three elements must be present for EMI to
First, note that while we have used the terms take place – remove any one and there can be no
EMI and EMC interchangeably, it should be clear interference. However, while shielding or
that one is the inverse of the other. The accepted separation may solve a specific interference
definition of EMI is: the interference of one piece problem by attacking the coupling or
of electronic equipment on the operation of susceptibility part of the system, the preferable
another by means of electromagnetic energy approach is to remove the problem at the source –
transfer. and that will be the thrust of this discussion.
1-1
II. UNDERSTANDING EMI One important point to keep in mind on this
While it may at times seem otherwise, EMI is subject is that EMI is a very low energy
not a black art. Although often neglected in basic phenomenon! Because it can take an extremely
circuit design education, and appearing small amount of energy, induced at the right
place in the victim, to upset system performance,
sometimes to be quite complex in practice, the
noise specification limits have been established at
basic principles for both causing and correcting
very small values. For example, at 1 MHz, it
EMI are relatively simple. Fundamentally, it
takes only 20 nW of measured EMI power to fail
requires a recognition of the fields caused by
FCC requirements. This could be experienced
rapidly changing currents and voltages. While
with energy coupling of just a few parts per
these characteristics are quantitatively described
billion. Thus an easy trap to fall into is to
by Maxwell’s equations, we need only to know
discount some possible noise sources as too
that electronic noise may be induced by coupling
insignificant to be worth considering.
between circuit elements through the action of
either a magnetic or an electric field.
III. MEASURING EMI
A magnetic field will cause a changing
current in a conductor to induce a voltage in When we describe a potential noise-
another according to: generating system, the transmission of the noise
out of the system is by either or both of two
e = M • di dt separate coupling paths: as radiated energy from
where M is the mutual inductance between the system itself by way of magnetic or electric
the source and the victim. fields (as described above), or as conducted
Similarly, an electric field will cause a energy flowing in either the input, output, or
changing voltage on a surface to induce a current control lines connecting the system under
to flow in another conductor according to: evaluation to the “rest-of-the-world”, where these
lines can then become secondary radiators. These
i = C • dv dt conducting and radiating EMI noise sources are
where C is the capacitance coupling the considered as separate and distinct and are
source to the victim. typically specified separately when evaluating the
These equations tell us that where we have external characteristics of a definable system.
rapidly changing currents – as in the conductors One helpful characteristic, however, is that the
in series with power switching devices – we can efficiency of noise coupling is frequency
expect to see an induced voltage across other dependent - the higher the frequency, the greater
conductors coupled by a mutual inductance. And the potential for radiated EMI, while at lower
where there is a high dv/dt – as on the drain frequencies, problems are more likely to be
contacts of the power switching FETs – any caused by conducted noise. There seems to be
parasitic capacitance can couple an induced universal agreement that 30 MHz is the crossover
current into another path. While it may not be frequency between conducted and radiated EMI.
very helpful, it should probably be noted that one Most regulating agencies throughout the world
of the most obvious ways to reduce generated have thus established measurement standards
EMI would be to slow down the switching specifying the evaluation of conducted EMI at
transitions, but the cost in increased switching frequencies up to 30 MHz, with a separate set of
losses typically makes this a less viable solution. standards applicable above 30 MHz for radiated
EMI. We will discuss these two types of noise
sources separately, but before doing so, some
additional comparative information might be
helpful.
1-2
Conducted noise is primarily driven by In the United States, the Federal
current but is measured as a noise voltage by Communications Commission (FCC) owns the
using a 50-Ω current shunt. Moreover, with our responsibility for the control of electromagnetic
discussion herein limited to power supplies, the interference through the Code of the Federal
FCC position is that only the ac input power lines Register (CFR), Title 47. Within this document,
are of concern, since it is here where noise Part 15 controls Information Technology
currents could most readily couple to other Equipment (ITE), Part 18 covers Industrial,
systems through the power distribution network. Scientific and Medical Equipment (ISM), and
While the maximum frequency of interest for Part 68 regulates equipment connected to a
conducted noise is 30 MHz, the minimum telephone network.
frequency limit can vary. In the United States and International EMI specifications have been
Canada, that limit is usually 450 kHz but many led by the International Electrotechnical
international specifications place the lower limit Commission (IEC), which has published a
at 150 kHz. And some telecom specs require European Union generic standard for emissions
testing all the way down to 10 kHz. (EN50081), and the French-led Comité
With radiated noise specifications starting International Spécial des Perturbations
with a lower limit of 30 MHz, the upper limits Radioélectriques (CISPR). This latter body has
can range from a few hundred MHz to 1 GHz or issued their specification - CISPR Publication 22
more. And while conducted noise can be - which is gaining world-wide acceptance and, in
evaluated with not much more laboratory so doing, is applying pressure for FCC
equipment than a spectrum analyzer and a acceptance of the same standards.
coupling device, radiated noise requires the At the time of this writing, noteworthy
measurement of magnetic or electric fields in free differences between the FCC and CISPR
space, causing the testing to become much more specifications include, in addition to some limit
complex. For this reason, radiation testing is value differences, a lower frequency range for
usually performed by a separate, specialized test CISPR conducted noise measurements, and
facility, where variables inherent in the testing radiation tests made at a fixed distance of 10
environment may be very closely defined and meters vs 3 to 30 meters for FCC testing. By
controlled. extrapolating the FCC radiation limits to 10
And speaking of variables, a non-trivial meters (linearly proportional to 1/distance) the
decision that needs to be made right at the comparisons can be better illustrated with the
beginning, is which specification to use. We have frequency plots shown in Figs. 1 and 2. [Ref. 2]
already alluded to the fact that each country has 70
FCC
its own set of specifications for EMI, but within
65 CLASS A
this distinction, there are additional determinates
defined by product type and usage. For example, 60
CISPR
Voltage - dBµV
1-3
50
conducted noise on a power line, a device is
Measuring Distance = 10 m
45 FCC needed to separate the high-frequency noise
CLASS A CISPR
signals from the input current, and that device is
Field Strength - dBµV/m
40
called a Line Impedance Stabilization Network,
35 FCC or LISN, and shown schematically in Fig. 3.
CLASS B CISPR LISN
30 Power
Power 50 µH Supply
25 Source Input
20 10 nF
10 20 30 50 100 200 300 500 1000 10 µF to
Frequency - MHz Ground 50 Ω 330 nF*
Fig. 2. Radiated noise limits, To
(FCC Part 15 vs. CISPR 22). Spectrum
* Capacitor value determined by lowest Analyzer
Note that the units in these specifications are specified frequency.
given as dBµV for direct measurements of
Fig. 3. A 120/240 VAC, 60 Hz LISN circuit. All
conducted noise and dBµV/m for field strength
measurements are made with respect to ground.
measurements of radiated noise as sensed with an
antenna. These are decibel values giving the ratio This device allows the use of a spectrum
between the actual voltage measurement and one analyzer to measure the noise current through a
microvolt. The calculation is: 50-Ω source impedance while isolating the
measurement from any high-frequency shunting
V
dBµV = 20 log10
which might exist in the power distribution
1.0µV network. Typically, a LISN network is added to
each of the input power lines and the noise
and it applies to both volts and volts/meter.
signals are measured with respect to ground.
Finally, with all the variables we have been
Conducted noise at the power supply’s input
discussing, we have not mentioned one that you
can be further sub-categorized into two separate
might consider quite important - the operating
modes of current flow: differential mode (DM)
conditions of the equipment under test. The
noise, as measured between the power feed and
reason is that this raises so many other questions
its return path; and common mode (CM) noise
that it defies definition. For example, do you test
which is measured between each of the power
at the highest input voltage where dV/dt will
lines and ground. The contributors to these two
likely be at a peak, or at the lowest voltage,
modes are inherent to the basic operation of a
maximum load where dI/dt will probably be
switching power supply. The action of the
highest? And in the power circuitry, there is one
internal power switches causes rapid dI/dt
current path when the power switch is on and
changes in the differential current at both the
another when it is off, so duty cycle is likely to
input and outputs of the power supply, as
be a variable. As a result, in most cases the
illustrated in Fig. 4. Of course, input and output
operating conditions are left to whatever the
filters ideally would eliminate any high
manufacturer defines as “typical” but suppliers
frequency noise external to the power supply, but
should recognize this as a potential issue in
neither can do the job completely. So residual
correlating data.
ripple and switching spikes exist as a differential
IV. CONDUCTED EMI mode noise source with current flow
bidirectionally into one terminal and out the
We now will delve more specifically into the other.
causes and design implications of each of the two
major categories of EMI, focusing initially on
conducted noise as measured on the power
supply’s input power feed lines. To observe
1-4
very simplified form in Fig. 6, which also shows
the application of two LISN devices, in series
INPUT OUTPUT with both the power line input and its return.
NOISE NOISE
Note that both CM and DM modes of current
are present in each LISN but, with the polarities
shown, the power line LISN measures CM +
Fig. 4. Differential mode (DM) noise current is
DM, while the LISN on the neutral return
produced by normal switching action.
measures CM – DM. Both of these quantities are
There are also sources of rapidly changing vector sums and, where necessary, there are
voltage within the power supply which can circuit networks that can be used to separate CM
couple noise through parasitic capacitance to and DM signals,[Ref. 9] but the specifications
earth ground, some of which are shown in Fig. 5. typically do not differentiate. The total noise at
This type of noise in the ground path, which can each input must be measured because, with the
be seen as common mode noise on all power possibility of multiple current paths within the
supply terminals, is measured with respect to power supply, there is no reason to assume that
ground. the values of the CM and DM contributions at the
The paths for both DM and CM noise two inputs are identical.
currents at the power supply’s input are shown in
Capacitive Currents Primary
to Secondary
Input Output
Noise Noise
Fig. 5. Common mode (CM) noise occurs when transients from switching voltages are coupled to earth
(or chassis) ground through parasitic capacitances.
Two LISN Circuits CM
LINE
SMPS OUTPUTS
GROUND DM
NEUTRAL
CM
CM
1-5
V. MINIMIZING CONDUCTED DM NOISE the power source, and Vout which is the input to
The first line of defense against conducted the power supply. In reality the filter provides
current attenuation between current at the Vout
noise is the use of filters, but often this is easier
terminal into the power supply, and the current at
said than done. The practical aspects of effective
the filter’s Vin terminal from the power source,
filter design are reviewed in Figs. 7 and 8, which
should be referred to in the following discussion. as measured through a LISN 50-Ω source
Some confusion could be created by the impedance. However, either a voltage or a
nomenclature used in Fig. 7. We will analyze the current analysis will yield the same attenuation
filter performance in terms of voltage attenuation performance.
between the VIN terminal, which is connected to
20 µH 20 µH 20 µH
VIN VOUT VIN VOUT VIN VOUT
+ 500 pF 500 pF
3200 µF ESL 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH
(b) Actual Filter Circuit Including Parasitics (c) Paralleling Four Smaller Capacitors for Reduced ESL
5 pF
20 µH 20µH
1 µH
VIN VOUT VIN VOUT
50 pF 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH 50 pF 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH 16 nH
(d) Reduced Inductor Capacitance, Single Layer Winding. Bypassed Core (e) Adding a Small Second Stage Inductor
Fig. 7. DM noise minimized by a filter design that pays careful attention to component parasitics.
500 pF
500 pF
16 nH
50 pF
4 nH
4 nH
8 nH
5 pF
0
20 µH
3200 µF 0.02 Ω
20 dB 3200 µF
0.08 Ω (b)
1 µH (c) 8 nH
Attenuation - dB
50 pF
40 dB (b)
(e)
(a) 0.02 Ω 500 pF
16 µH 20 µH
(d)
60 dB
(c)
5 pF
80 dB (e) 1 µH
0.02 Ω 50 pF
100 dB 4 nH 20 µH
120 dB
100Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz 10 MHz 100 MHz 1 GHz
Frequency - Hz
Fig. 8. DM filter frequency attenuation vs. circuit configuration.
1-6
The first point to remember is that if it is
differential mode noise we are attempting to
combat, the filter must connect across the S
Windings
F
differential lines. In other words, in Fig. 7(a) -
Bobbin
which shows an ideal LC filter in the power line
where VIN is the power source and VOUT is the Core
1-7
Damping In this example, we show a single-ended
Undamped Filter
Components
power stage with a switching FET alternating
L
LINE
between driving a transformer primary and
RD ≈ 2 L
C
blocking its reset voltage of 2 VIN. With a
POWER
SOURCE C
SUPPLY
switching frequency of 200 kHz, one might
CD ≈ C
expect a FET drain voltage swing of 400 V with
RETURN
a rise and fall time of 100 nsec as shown in the
Fig. 10. A damping R-C network may be figure. If, for example, the FET is in a TO-220
necessary to minimize problems caused by filter package mounted on a grounded heat sink with
resonance. an insulating washer, the parasitic capacitance
from drain to ground could be in the 12 – 32 pF
VI. MINIMIZING CM GROUND NOISE range. Using the lower number, and solving for I
The above discussion has been with respect to = C(dV/dt) results in a peak current of +/- 48 mA
optimizing a filter for DM noise, but the same – a not insignificant amount of injected ground
considerations can apply to a filter intended to noise. Fig. 12 illustrates how this injected current
reduce CM conducted noise. As stated earlier, completes its path back to the power lines
CM noise is largely created by parasitic through the two 50-Ω LISN resistors in parallel,
capacitance to ground. A simplified example of thereby creating a noise voltage at each LISN
one of the major problem sources and its output.
potential solution begins with Fig. 11.
100 ns
+48 mA
I 20 ns
IRMS = 9.6 mA
12 pF
–48 mA
Fig. 11. A typical CM noise source is capacitive coupling of the switching FET’s drain voltage
waveform to a chassis-grounded heat sink.
1-8
LISNs SMPS
PWR
12 pF
VN
RET 25 Ω
60 VRMS
600 kHz
VN
400 V
200 kHz
VN 50 Ω 3rd harmonic eqivalent
50 Ω 12 pF noise voltage circuit
ICM
Fig. 12. Current induced in chassis ground has a return path through the LISN output impedance.
The solution for this problem is the insertion Co < 0.17 pF!
of a CM filter in series with the current path and
0.95 mV
its definition is most easily accomplished by 12 pF
419 mH VN
using the equivalent voltage noise circuit also 60 VRMS
shown in Fig. 12. This equivalent circuit is 600 kHz (Xc = 22.1 kΩ) 25 Ω
generated by starting with the 400-V peak-to- (XL = 1.58 MΩ)
(N ≅ 2 X 250T)
peak waveform at the FET’s drain terminal.
Assuming a 50% duty-cycle square wave, the Fig. 13. Achieving 37 dB attenuation with a
rms value of this signal is 200 V at the switching series inductor requires an unrealisticly low
frequency of 200 kHz. Since 200 kHz is below parasitic capacitance.
the FCC minimum specified frequency of
450 kHz, we can ignore the fundamental and look We will then try a shunt capacitor as shown
to the third harmonic - 60 VRMS at 600 kHz - as in Fig. 14 to lower the impedance of the 25 Ω
the most significant contributor to the noise load to get under the 1.0 mV limit. The same
spectrum. This signal yields a noise voltage calculations in this case yield a requirement for
across the paralleled LISN resistors of 760 nF, which could have a parasitic series
approximately 68 mV which, while seemingly a inductance of 93 nH and still meet the attenuation
fairly small value, must be compared with the requirement. While this at least looks viable, we
FCC noise limit of 1.0 mV for Class A products run into another problem in that if the input to
at 600 kHz. (The limit for Class B is even lower this power supply is ac line voltage, there are
at 250 µV.) usually safety specifications that limit input line
To reduce 68 mV to less than 1.0 mV, we capacitors to less than 10 nF.
need to insert a filter that will produce an 12 pF 0.95 mV
(XC = 22.1 kΩ)
attenuation of 37 dB at 600 kHz. One way to VN
accomplish this is with the addition of a series 760 nF
60 VRMS 25 Ω
common mode inductor. Working backwards, we 600 kHz (XC = 0.35 Ω)
can calculate the required inductance from the
reactive impedance we need at 600 kHz as shown ESL < 93 nH
in Fig. 13. However, completing this analysis
would show that, while the required inductance
would be 419 mH, we cannot have more than Fig. 14. Achieving 37 dB attenuation with a shunt
0.17 pF parasitic capacitance across the capacitor requires an unacceptably large value.
inductance. Not likely!
1-9
So we finally come to the best solution for a Fig. 16 shows a possible input filter
CM input filter, which includes both inductance configuration combining both DM and CM
and shunt capacitance, but with reasonable values filters. In this figure, the input load power is
for each, even considering expected parasitic shown as flowing from left to right, from the ac
values. This solution is shown in Fig. 15 and is line to the input rectifiers of the power supply.
typically implemented with two windings on a The noise signal, however, is flowing from right
single core wound in opposition such that the to left, from internal sources within the supply
flux caused by the power supply’s dc input back toward the ac line terminals, which are the
current will cancel and not contribute to core external input power connections.
saturation. Of course, in this application the shunt Working from right to left, Cd1 and Ld1
capacitors are connected to ground instead of represent the main DM filter. Cc1 and Lc1 (2 of
differentially. each) form the CM filter for ground noise, with
Co < 66 pF the two windings of Lc1 built onto a single core.
153 mV Cd2 works with the leakage inductance between
0.95 mV
12 pF VN these windings to form a second, higher-
1.07 mH
frequency DM filter element. Ln and Cn form a
60 VRMS 4.7 nF 25 Ω notch filter at the switching frequency with Rn
600 kHz (XC = 56 Ω) (XL = 4.03 kΩ) providing both damping and some spreading of
(N ≅ 2X13T)
the notch width. Finally, Cd3 and Cc2 (2) are often
used for a last cleanup, right at the terminals
Fig. 15. Using both a shunt capacitor and a
where a pair of LISN devices would be
series inductor achieves a solution with practical
connected to evaluate noise performance. These
values for both.
last capacitive elements work against the
A CM input filter may also have to be undefined ac line impedance so their
damped to prevent problems at resonance, but performance, while helpful, is difficult to predict.
since the maximum capacitance is limited, the Additional components, not shown in this figure,
usual approach is to divide the required could be damping networks, transient protectors,
capacitance into two capacitors, and then place fuses, and other application-dependent devices.
an appropriately sized resistor in series with one
of them.
Diff. Mode
Inrush Limiter
Lc1
Cc2 LN
Cd3 Cc1 Cd1
Discharge
Cd2
AC Line
CN
Fig. 16. Multiple filter components are combined in this example of conductive noise reduction
circuitry.
1-10
VII. ADDITIONAL CM NOISE SOURCES capacitance, can become CM noise. Properly
applied, electrostatic shields can prevent this by
Before leaving the subject of CM conducted
diverting the coupled noise into the primary
noise, we should mention that the drain terminals
common bus. (As an additional hint, the shield
of the power switches are certainly not the only
could do its job connected to either the high
place where high dV/dt signals might introduce
voltage rail or the return. As a rule of thumb, if
ground noise. Heat sinks are another potential
the power FET dV/dt is greater at turnon than at
problem area, as safety requirements typically do
turnoff, connect the shield to the return, but if
not allow them to be charged to a high voltage
turnoff is faster, then connect it to the positive
potential. If the heat sink is small enough that it
rail.) Alternative shield configurations are shown
can be enclosed within the power supply’s case,
in Figs. 19 and 20.
then connecting it electrically to the circuit
Internal Heat Sink Tied to PCB Ground (return)
common rather than chassis ground may be an Insulators
acceptable solution. Using an insulated
intervening bracket connected electrically to Case at HF AC
ALTERNATE
SHIELD
CONNECTION
Unshielded
Correct Incorrect!
Transformer
Fig. 18. Using an electrostatic shield in a transformer can minimize CM noise.
1-11
Shielding primary and
secondary windings. Adding a third shield for safety.
Fig. 19. Alternative shield configurations.
SEC
PRI
PRI
1-12
One potential escape from this problem is a Within the near-field region, an additional
clause in the FCC requirements which states that assumption which is usually valid is that if the
the frequency range of EMI testing is based on source has high voltage and low current, the
the highest fundamental internally generated resultant field will primarily be electric, while
clock frequency, and if that frequency is less than with a high current, low voltage source, a
1.705 MHz, then the maximum test frequency is magnetic field will predominate.
30 MHz. While this might preclude the need for An electric field is produced when switched
radiation testing on most stand-alone power voltages are present on surfaces such as heat
supplies, it is unlikely to be of much benefit sinks or magnetic cores, causing them to act as
when the power supply is combined with its load antennas. Typical locations within a power
and the entire system must be evaluated for EMI. supply where this might occur are shown in
Note that in performing system-level Fig. 22. Electric fields can usually be shielded
radiation EMI tests, the input and output relatively easily by conductive enclosures, where
connections to the power supply need to be the conductive material terminates the field by
included, and it is here where high frequency converting it to current. Of course, there must be
conducted EMI energy might generate an RF a path for this current but, with the enclosure
field and contribute to the total radiated noise. normally grounded, this current merely
For this reason, ac line cords often include a contributes to overall CM conducted noise
ferrite snubber and, if the actual system load is energy where it can be addressed with filters as
not included, the power supply should be loaded previously described.
with passive resistors rather than an electronic
load unless the effects of dynamic loading are an LARGE
objective of the testing program. E E E AREA HIGH
dV/dt
ANTENNAS
1-13
Rectifier Rectifier
Transformer
Transformer
Large Loop Area
With High dI/dt
I H
I
Fig. 24. Magnetic fields must be minimized by design as shielding can be difficult.
1-14
SEC
SEC
SEC
SEC
PRI
PRI
Core P P Core P P
Fig. 25. The transformer leakage inductance field Fig. 26. Sandwiched windings create opposite
for a single primary and secondary is a dipole leakage field dipoles that tend to cancel.
field.
Another technique for reducing stray Inductors are also potential generators of
magnetic fields from a transformer is the use of a stray magnetic fields. Fig. 28 illustrates a poor
conductive “flux strap” (also sometimes called a inductor design with significant stray field caused
“belly band”, “flux band”, or “hum strap”). This by the gaps in the core which are outside the coil
copper band, illustrated in Fig. 27, provides a winding. Changing the core design so that all the
path for the eddy currents that result from the gap is in the center leg, and now fully contained
leakage inductance magnetic dipole. The current within the winding, reduces this source of
flowing in the flux strap then creates an opposing radiated EMI. Fig. 29 shows some additional
magnetic dipole which tends to cancel the inductor designs that can create problems with
original field at close proximity to the stray fields.
transformer.
Core
Coil
1-15
Winding
Core
Magnetic fringe field around partial toroidal Drum and rod core fields, good antenna
winding on a distributed gap core. design; poor for EMI.
1-16
XII. REFERENCES
[7] Peter Bardos, Predicting the EMC
[1] Mark Montrose, Printed Circuit Board
Performance of High Frequency Inverters,
Design for EMC Compliance, Second
IEEE APEC’01 Conference Proceedings,
Edition, IEEE Press, Piscataway, NJ, 2000.
Anaheim, CA, pp. 213-219.
1-17
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Data Converters dataconverter.ti.com Automotive www.ti.com/automotive
DSP dsp.ti.com Broadband www.ti.com/broadband
Interface interface.ti.com Digital Control www.ti.com/digitalcontrol
Logic logic.ti.com Military www.ti.com/military
Power Mgmt power.ti.com Optical Networking www.ti.com/opticalnetwork
Microcontrollers microcontroller.ti.com Security www.ti.com/security
Telephony www.ti.com/telephony
Video & Imaging www.ti.com/video
Wireless www.ti.com/wireless