CELLS AND TISSUES  Separates cell contents from surrounding

environment
PART I: CELLS  Fluid mosaic model is constructed of:
 Cells are the structural units of all living things - Two layers of phospholipids arranged “tail to tail”
 The human body has 50 to 100 trillion cells - Cholesterol and proteins scattered among the
phospholipids
OVERVIEW OF THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE - Sugar groups may be attached to the
 The Cell Theory phospholipids, forming glycolipids
1) A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of  Phospholipid arrangement in the plasma membrane
living organisms - Hydrophilic (“water loving”) polar “heads” are
2) The activity of an organism depends on the oriented on the inner and outer surfaces of the
collective activities of its cells membrane
3) According to the principle of complementarity, - Hydrophobic (“water fearing”) nonpolar “tails”
the biochemical activities of cells are dictated by form the center (interior) of the membrane
their structure (anatomy) which determines their  This interior makes the plasma
function (physiology) membrane relatively impermeable to
4) Continuity of life has a cellular basis most water-soluble molecules
 Most cells are composed of four elements:  Role of proteins
1) Carbon - Responsible for specialized membrane functions:
2) Hydrogen  Enzymes
3) Oxygen  Receptors for hormones or other
4) Nitrogen chemical messengers
 Cells are about 60% water  Transport as channels or carriers
 Role of sugars
ANATOMY OF A GENERALIZED CELL - Glycoproteins are branched sugars attached to
 In general, a cell has three main regions or parts: proteins that abut the extracellular space
1) Nucleus - Glycocalyx is the fuzzy, sticky, sugar-rich area on
2) Cytoplasm the cell’s surface
3) Plasma Membrane  Cell membrane junctions
- Cells are bound together in three ways:
THE NUCLEUS 1) Glycoproteins in the glycocalyx act as an
 Control center of the cell adhesive or cellular glue
 Contains genetic material known as deoxyribonucleic 2) Wavy contours of the membranes of adjacent
acid or DNA cells fit together in a tongue-and-groove
- DNA is needed for building proteins fashion
- DNA is necessary for cell reproduction 3) Special cell membrane junctions are formed,
 Three regions: which vary structurally depending on their
1) Nuclear envelope (membrane) roles
2) Nucleolus  Main types of cell junctions
3) Chromatin - Tight junctions 
 Impermeable junctions 
 Nuclear envelope (membrane)   Bind cells together into leakproof sheets
-Consists of a double membrane that bounds the  Plasma membranes fuse like a zipper to
nucleus prevent substances from passing through
- Contains nuclear pores that allow for exchange of extracellular space between cells
material with the rest of the cell - Desmosomes 
- Encloses the jellylike fluid called the nucleoplasm  Anchoring junctions, like rivets, that
 Nucleolus prevent cells from being pulled apart as a
- Nucleus contains one or more dark-staining result of mechanical stress
nucleoli  Created by buttonlike thickenings of
- Sites of ribosome assembly adjacent plasma membranes
- Ribosomes migrate into the cytoplasm through - Gap junctions (communicating junctions)
nuclear pores to serve as the site of protein  Allow communication between cells
synthesis  Hollow cylinders of proteins (connexons)
 Chromatin  span the width of the abutting
- Composed of DNA wound around histone proteins membranes
- Scattered throughout the nucleus and present  Molecules can travel directly from one
when the cell is not dividing cell to the next through these channels
- Condenses to form dense, rod-like bodies called
chromosomes when the cell divides

THE CYTOPLASM
THE PLASMA MEMBRANE  The cellular material outside the nucleus and inside
 Transparent barrier for cell contents the plasma membrane 
 Contains cell contents   Site of most cellular activities
 Includes cytosol, inclusions, and organelles  Break down free radicals (highly reactive
 Three major components of the cytoplasm: chemicals)
1) Cytosol: Fluid that suspends other elements and  Free radicals are converted to hydrogen
contains nutrients and electrolytes peroxide and then to water
2) Inclusions: Chemical substances, such as stored - Replicate by pinching in half or budding from the
nutrients or cell products, that float in the cytosol ER
3) Organelles: Metabolic machinery of the cell that
perform functions for the cell  Cytoskeleton
- Many are membrane-bound, allowing for - Network of protein structures that extend
compartmentalization of their functions throughout the cytoplasm
- Provides the cell with an internal framework that
 Mitochondria determines cell shape, supports organelles, and
- “Powerhouses” of the cell provides the machinery for intracellular transport
- Mitochondrial wall consists of a double membrane - Three different types of elements form the
with cristae on the inner membrane cytoskeleton:
- Carry out reactions in which oxygen is used to 1) Microfilaments (largest)
break down food into ATP molecules 2) Intermediate filaments
3) Microtubules (smallest)
 Ribosomes
- Made of protein and ribosomal RNA  Centrioles
- Sites of protein synthesis in the cell - Rod-shaped bodies made of nine triplets of
- Found at two locations: microtubules
1) Free in the cytoplasm - Generate microtubules 
2) As part of the rough endoplasmic - Direct the formation of mitotic spindle during cell
reticulum division

 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) CELL EXTENSIONS

- Fluid-filled tunnels (or canals) that carry  Surface extensions found in some cells
substances within the cell - Cilia move materials across the cell surface
- Continuous with the nuclear membrane  Located in the respiratory system to move
- Two types: mucus 
1) Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum - Flagella propel the cell 
 Studded with ribosomes  The only flagellated cell in the human body is
 Synthesizes proteins  sperm
 Transport vesicles move proteins within cell - Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike extensions of the
 Abundant in cells that make and export plasma membrane
proteins  Increase surface area for absorption
2) Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
 Lacks ribosomes CELL DIVERSITY
 Functions in lipid metabolism  - The human body houses over 200 different cell
 Detoxification of drugs and pesticides types
- Cells vary in size, shape, and function
 Golgi Apparatus  Cells vary in length from 1/12,000 of an inch to
- Appears as a stack of flattened membranes over 1 yard (nerve cells)
associated with tiny vesicles  Cell shape reflects its specialized function
- Modifies and packages proteins arriving from the - Cells that connect body parts
rough ER via transport vesicles  Fibroblast
- Produces different types of packages  secretes cable-like fibers
 Secretory vesicles (pathway 1)  Erythrocyte (red blood cell)
 In-house proteins and lipids (pathway 2)  carries oxygen in the bloodstream
 Lysosomes (pathway 3) - Cells that cover and line body organs
 Epithelial cell
 Lysosomes  Packs together in sheets
- Membranous “bags” that contain digestive  Intermediate fibers resist tearing
enzymes during rubbing or pulling
- Enzymes can digest worn-out or non-usable cell - Cells that move organs and body parts
structures  Skeletal muscle and smooth muscle cells
- House phagocytes that dispose of bacteria and cell  Contractile filaments allow cells to
debris shorten forcefully

 Peroxisomes
- Membranous sacs of oxidase enzymes - Cell that stores nutrients
 Detoxify harmful substances such as alcohol  Fat cells
and formaldehyde  Lipid droplets stored in cytoplasm
- Cell that fights disease
  White blood cells, such as the macrophage (a  Particles tend to distribute themselves evenly
phagocytic cell) within a solution
 Digests infectious microorganisms  Kinetic energy (energy of motion) causes the
- Cell that gathers information and controls body molecules to move about randomly
functions  Size of the molecule and temperature affect
 Nerve cell (neuron)  the speed of diffusion
 Receives and transmits messages to  Molecules will move by diffusion if any of the
other body structures following applies:
- Cells of reproduction  The molecules are small enough to pass through
 Oocyte (female) the membrane’s pores (channels formed by
 Largest cell in the body membrane proteins)
 Divides to become an embryo upon  The molecules are lipid-soluble
fertilization  The molecules are assisted by a membrane
 Sperm (male) carrier
 Built for swimming to the egg for  Types of diffusion
fertilization  Simple diffusion
 Flagellum acts as a motile whip  An unassisted process
 Solutes are lipid-soluble or small enough to
CELL PHYSIOLOGY pass through membrane pores
 Cells have the ability to:  Osmosis—simple diffusion of water across a
- Metabolize  selectively permeable membrane
- Digest food  Highly polar water molecules easily cross the
- Dispose of wastes plasma membrane through aquaporins
- Reproduce  Water moves down its concentration gradient
- Grow  Osmosis—A Closer Look
- Move  Isotonic solutions have the same solute and
- Respond to a stimulus water concentrations as cells and cause no visible
changes in the cell
MEMBRANE TRANSPORT  Hypertonic solutions contain more solutes than
 Solution—homogeneous mixture of two or more the cells do; the cells will begin to shrink
components  Hypotonic solutions contain fewer solutes (more
 Solvent—dissolving medium present in the water) than the cells do; cells will plump
larger quantity; the body’s main solvent is  Facilitated diffusion
water  Transports lipid-insoluble and large
 Solutes—components in smaller quantities substances 
within a solution  Glucose is transported via facilitated diffusion
 Intracellular fluid  Protein membrane channels or protein
 Nucleoplasm and cytosol molecules that act as carriers are used
 Solution containing gases, nutrients, and salts  Passive processes
dissolved in water  Filtration
 Extracellular fluid (interstitial fluid)  Water and solutes are forced through a
 Fluid on the exterior of the cell membrane by fluid, or hydrostatic, pressure
 Contains thousands of ingredients, such as  A pressure gradient must exist that pushes
nutrients, hormones, neurotransmitters, salts, solute-containing fluid (filtrate) from a high-
waste products pressure area to a lower-pressure area
 The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable  Filtration is critical for the kidneys to work
barrier properly
 Some materials can pass through, while others  Active processes
are excluded  ATP is used to move substances across a
 For example:  membrane
 Nutrients can enter the cell  Active processes are used when:
 Undesirable substances are kept out  Substances are too large to travel through
 Two basic methods of transport membrane channels
 Passive processes: substances are transported  The membrane may lack special protein
across the membrane without any input from the carriers for the transport of certain
cell substances
 Active processes: the cell provides the metabolic  Substances may not be lipid-soluble
energy (ATP) to drive the transport process  Substances may have to move against a
concentration gradient
 Passive processes: diffusion and filtration
 Diffusion  Active transport and vesicular transport
 Molecule movement is from high  Active transport
concentration to low concentration, down a  Amino acids, some sugars, and ions are
concentration gradient transported by protein carriers known as
solute pumps
  ATP energizes solute pumps  Highly selective process of taking in
 In most cases, substances are moved substances such as enzymes, some
against concentration (or electrical) hormones, cholesterol, and iron
gradients
 Active transport example: sodium-potassium pump CELL DIVISION
 Necessary for nerve impulses  Cell life cycle is a series of changes the cell
 Sodium is transported out of the cell experiences from the time it is formed until it divides
 Potassium is transported into the cell  Cell life cycle has two major periods
 Vesicular transport: substances are moved across 1) Interphase (metabolic phase)
the membrane “in bulk” without actually crossing  Cell grows and carries on metabolic processes
the plasma membrane  Longer phase of the cell cycle
 Types of vesicular transport 2) Cell division 
 Exocytosis   Cell reproduces itself
 Endocytosis  Preparations: DNA Replication
 Phagocytosis  Genetic material is duplicated and readies a
 Pinocytosis cell for division into two cells
 Exocytosis  Occurs toward the end of interphase
 Mechanism cells use to actively secrete  Process of DNA replication
hormones, mucus, and other products  DNA uncoils into two nucleotide chains, and each
 Material is carried in a membranous sac called a side serves as a template
vesicle that migrates to and combines with the  Nucleotides are complementary
plasma membrane  Adenine (A) always bonds with thymine (T)
 Contents of vesicle are emptied to the outside  Guanine (G) always bonds with cytosine (C)
 Refer to pathway 1 in Figure 3.6  For example, TACTGC bonds with new
 Exocytosis docking process nucleotides in the order ATGACG
 Docking proteins on the vesicles recognize  Events of cell division
plasma membrane proteins and bind with  Mitosis—division of the nucleus 
them  Results in the formation of two daughter
 Membranes corkscrew and fuse together nuclei
 Endocytosis  Cytokinesis—division of the cytoplasm
 Extracellular substances are enclosed (engulfed)  Begins when mitosis is near completion
in a membranous vesicle  Results in the formation of two daughter cells
 Vesicle detaches from the plasma membrane and  Events of mitosis: prophase
moves into the cell   Chromatin coils into chromosomes; identical
 Once in the cell, the vesicle typically fuses with a strands called chromatids are held together by a
lysosome centromere
 Contents are digested by lysosomal enzymes  Centrioles direct the assembly of a mitotic
 In some cases, the vesicle is released by spindle 
exocytosis on the opposite side of the cell  Nuclear envelope and nucleoli have broken down
 Types of endocytosis  Events of mitosis: metaphase
1) Phagocytosis- “cell eating”  Chromosomes are aligned in the center of the cell
 Cell engulfs large particles such as bacteria on the metaphase plate (center of the spindle
or dead body cells midway between the centrioles)
 Pseudopods are cytoplasmic extensions  Straight line of chromosomes is now seen
that separate substances (such as bacteria  Events of mitosis: anaphase
or dead body cells) from external  Centromere splits 
environment  Chromatids move slowly apart and toward the
 Phagocytosis is a protective mechanism, opposite ends of the cell
not a means of getting nutrients  Anaphase is over when the chromosomes stop
2) Pinocytosis- “cell drinking” moving
 Cell “gulps” droplets of extracellular fluid  Events of mitosis: telophase
containing dissolved proteins or fats  Reverse of prophase
 Plasma membrane forms a pit, and edges  Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin
fuse around droplet of fluid  Spindles break down and disappear
 Routine activity for most cells, such as those  Nuclear envelope re-forms around chromatin
involved in absorption (small intestine)  Nucleoli appear in each of the daughter nuclei 

 Cytokinesis
3) Receptor-mediated endocytosis  Division of the cytoplasm
 Method for taking up specific target  Begins during late anaphase and completes
molecules during telophase
 Receptor proteins on the membrane surface
bind only certain substances
  A cleavage furrow (contractile ring of  Occurs in the cytoplasm and involves three major
microfilaments) forms to pinch the cells into two varieties of RNA
parts  Steps correspond to Figure 3.16 (step 1 covers
 Two daughter cells exist transcription)
 In most cases, mitosis and cytokinesis occur together  Step 2: mRNA leaves nucleus and attaches to
 In some cases, the cytoplasm is not divided  ribosome, and translation begins
 Binucleate or multinucleate cells result  Step 3: incoming tRNA recognizes a
 Common in the liver and skeletal muscle complementary mRNA codon calling for its
amino acid by temporarily binding its
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS anticodon to the codon
 DNA serves as a blueprint for making proteins  Steps correspond to Figure 3.16
 Gene: DNA segment that carries a blueprint for  Step 4: as the ribosome moves along the
building one protein or polypeptide chain mRNA, a new amino acid is added to the
 Proteins have many functions growing protein chain
 Fibrous (structural) proteins are the building  Step 5: released tRNA reenters the
materials for cells cytoplasmic pool, ready to be recharged with
 Globular (functional) proteins can act as enzymes a new amino acid
(biological catalysts)
 DNA information is coded into a sequence of bases
 A sequence of three bases (triplet) codes for an
amino acid
 For example, a DNA sequence of AAA specifies the
amino acid phenylalanine
 The role of DNA
 Most ribosomes, the manufacturing sites of
proteins, are located in the cytoplasm
 DNA never leaves the nucleus in interphase cells
 DNA requires a decoder and a messenger to carry
instructions to build proteins to ribosomes
 Both the decoder and messenger functions are
carried out by RNA (ribonucleic acid)
 How does RNA differ from DNA? 
 RNA is single-stranded
 RNA contains ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose
 RNA contains uracil (U) base instead of
thymine(T)
 Three varieties of RNA
 Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers appropriate
amino acids to the ribosome for building the
protein
 Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): Helps form the
ribosomes where proteins are built
 Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries the instructions
for building a protein from the nucleus to the
ribosome
 Protein synthesis involves two major phases:
 Transcription 
 Translation 
 We will detail these two phases next
 Transcription
 Transfer of information from DNA’s base
sequence to the complementary base sequence
of mRNA
 DNA is the template for transcription; mRNA is
the product
 Each DNA triplet corresponds to an mRNA codon
 If DNA sequence is AAT-CGT-TCG, then the mRNA
corresponding codons are UUA-GCA-AGC

 Translation
 Base sequence of nucleic acid is translated to an
amino acid sequence; amino acids are the PART II: BODY TISSUES
building blocks of proteins  Tissues
- Groups of cells with similar structure and function
 - Four primary types:  Single layer, but some cells are shorter than
1) Epithelial tissue (epithelium) others giving a false (pseudo) impression of
2) Connective tissue stratification
3) Muscle tissue  Location: respiratory tract, where it is ciliated and
4) Nervous tissue known as pseudostratified ciliated columnar
epithelium
EPITHELIAL TISSUE  Functions in absorption or secretion
 Locations:  Stratified epithelia
 Body coverings  Consist of two or more cell layers
 Body linings  Function primarily in protection
 Glandular tissue  Stratified squamous epithelium
 Functions:  Most common stratified epithelium
 Protection  Named for cells present at the free (apical)
 Absorption surface, which are squamous 
 Filtration  Functions as a protective covering where friction
 Secretion is common
 Hallmarks of epithelial tissues:  Locations—lining of the:
 Cover and line body surfaces   Skin (outer portion)
 Often form sheets with one free surface, the  Mouth
apical surface, and an anchored surface, the  Esophagus
basement membrane  Stratified cuboidal epithelium—two layers of
 Avascular (no blood supply) cuboidal cells; functions in protection
 Regenerate easily if well nourished  Stratified columnar epithelium—surface cells are
 Classification of epithelia columnar, and cells underneath vary in size and
 Number of cell layers shape; functions in protection
 Simple—one layer  Stratified cuboidal and columnar
 Stratified—more than one layer  Rare in human body
 Shape of cells  Found mainly in ducts of large glands
 Squamous—flattened, like fish scales  Transitional epithelium
 Cuboidal—cube-shaped, like dice  Composed of modified stratified squamous
 Columnar—shaped like columns epithelium
 Simple epithelia  Shape of cells depends upon the amount of
 Functions in absorption, secretion, and filtration stretching
 Very thin (so not suited for protection)  Functions in stretching and the ability to return to
 Simple squamous epithelium normal shape
 Single layer of flat cells  Location: lining of urinary system organs
 Locations—usually forms membranes  Glandular epithelia
 Lines air sacs of the lungs   One or more cells responsible for secreting a
 Forms walls of capillaries particular product
 Forms serous membranes (serosae) that line  Secretions contain protein molecules in an
and cover organs in ventral cavity aqueous (water-based) fluid
 Functions in diffusion, filtration, or secretion in  Secretion is an active process
membranes  Two major gland types develop from epithelial sheets
 Simple cuboidal epithelium  Endocrine glands
 Single layer of cubelike cells  Ductless; secretions (hormones) diffuse into
 Locations blood vessels
 Common in glands and their ducts  Examples include thyroid, adrenals, and
 Forms walls of kidney tubules pituitary
 Covers the surface of ovaries  Exocrine glands
 Functions in secretion and absorption; ciliated  Secretions empty through ducts to the
types propel mucus or reproductive cells epithelial surface
 Simple columnar epithelium  Include sweat and oil glands, liver, and
 Single layer of tall cells pancreas (both internal and external)
 Goblet cells secrete mucus
 Locations
 Lining of the digestive tract from stomach to
anus 
 Mucous membranes (mucosae) line body
cavities opening to the exterior CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 Functions in secretion and absorption;  Found everywhere in the body to connect body parts
ciliated types propel mucus or reproductive  Includes the most abundant and widely distributed
cells tissues
 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium  Functions
 All cells rest on a basement membrane  Protection
 Support
  Binding  Loose connective tissue
 Characteristics of connective tissue  Softer, have more cells and fewer fibers than
 Variations in blood supply other connective tissues (except blood)
 Some tissue types are well vascularized  Types
 Some have a poor blood supply or are  Areolar
avascular  Adipose
 Extracellular matrix  Reticular
 Nonliving material that surrounds living cells  Areolar connective tissue
 Two main elements of the extracellular matrix  Most widely distributed connective tissue
1) Ground substance- mostly water, along with  Soft, pliable tissue like “cobwebs”
adhesion proteins and polysaccharide molecules  Functions as a universal packing tissue and “glue”
2) Fibers to hold organs in place
 Collagen (white) fibers  Layer of areolar tissue called lamina propria
 Elastic (yellow) fibers underlies all membranes
 Reticular fibers (a type of collagen)  All fiber types form a loose network
 Types of connective tissue from most rigid to softest,  Can soak up excess fluid (causes edema)
or most fluid:  Adipose connective tissue
 Bone  An areolar tissue in which adipose (fat) cells
 Cartilage dominate
 Dense connective tissue  Functions
 Loose connective tissue  Insulates the body
 Blood  Protects some organs
 Bone (osseous tissue)  Serves as a site of fuel storage
 Composed of:  Locations
 Osteocytes (bone cells) sitting in lacunae  Subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin
(cavities)  Protects organs, such as the kidneys
 Hard matrix of calcium salts  Fat “depots” include hips, breasts, and belly
 Large numbers of collagen fibers  Reticular connective tissue
 Functions to protect and support the body  Delicate network of interwoven fibers with
 Cartilage reticular cells (like fibroblasts)
 Less hard and more flexible than bone  Forms stroma (internal framework) of organs
 Found in only a few places in the body  Locations
 Chondrocyte (cartilage cell) is the major cell type  Lymph nodes
 Types:  Spleen
 Hyaline cartilage  Bone marrow
 Fibrocartilage  Blood (vascular tissue)
 Elastic cartilage  Blood cells surrounded by fluid matrix known as
 Hyaline cartilage blood plasma
 Most widespread type of cartilage  Soluble fibers are visible only during clotting
 Abundant collagen fibers hidden by a glassy,  Functions as the transport vehicle for the
rubbery matrix cardiovascular system, carrying:
 Locations  Nutrients
 Trachea  Wastes
 Attaches ribs to the breastbone  Respiratory gases
 Covers ends of long bones
 Entire fetal skeleton prior to birth
 Epiphyseal (growth) plates in long bones
 Elastic cartilage (not pictured)
 Provides elasticity
 Location: supports the external ear
 Fibrocartilage
 Highly compressible
 Location: forms cushion-like discs between
vertebrae of the spinal column

MUSCLE TISSUE
 Dense connective tissue (dense fibrous tissue)  Function is to contract, or shorten, to produce
 Main matrix element is collagen fiber movement
 Fibroblasts are cells that make fibers  Three types of muscle tissue
 Locations 1) Skeletal
 Tendons—attach skeletal muscle to bone 2) Cardiac
 Ligaments—attach bone to bone at joints and 3) Smooth
are more elastic than tendons
 Dermis—lower layers of the skin  Skeletal muscle tissue
  Packaged by connective tissue sheets into skeletal  Clean cuts (incisions) heal more successfully than
muscles, which are attached to the skeleton and ragged tears of the tissue
pull on bones or skin  Events of tissue repair
 Voluntarily (consciously) controlled  Inflammation sets the stage
 Produces gross body movements or facial  Capillaries become very permeable
expressions  Clotting proteins migrate into the area from
 Characteristics of skeletal muscle cells: the bloodstream
 Striations (stripes)  A clot walls off the injured area
 Multinucleate (more than one nucleus)  Granulation tissue forms
 Long, cylindrical shape  Growth of new capillaries
 Phagocytes dispose of blood clot and
 Cardiac muscle tissue fibroblasts
 Involuntarily controlled  Rebuild collagen fibers
 Found only in the heart  Regeneration and fibrosis effect permanent
 Pumps blood through blood vessels repair
 Characteristics of cardiac muscle cells:  Scab detaches
 Striations  Whether scar is visible or invisible depends
 One nucleus per cell on severity of wound
 Short, branching cells  Tissues that regenerate easily
 Intercalated discs contain gap junctions to  Epithelial tissue (skin and mucous membranes)
connect cells together  Fibrous connective tissues and bone
 Tissues that regenerate poorly
 Smooth (visceral) muscle tissue  Skeletal muscle
 Involuntarily controlled  Tissues that are replaced largely with scar tissue
 Found in walls of hollow organs such as stomach,  Cardiac muscle
uterus, and blood vessels  Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal cord
 Peristalsis, a wavelike activity, is a typical activity
 Characteristics of smooth muscle cells: DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF CELLS AND
 No visible striations TISSUES
 One nucleus per cell  Growth through cell division continues through
 Spindle-shaped cells puberty
 Cell populations exposed to friction (such as
NERVOUS TISSUE epithelium) replace lost cells throughout life
 Function is to receive and conduct electrochemical  Connective tissue remains mitotic and forms repair
impulses to and from body parts (scar) tissue
 Irritability  With some exceptions, muscle tissue becomes
 Conductivity amitotic by the end of puberty
 Composed of neurons and nerve support cells  Nervous tissue becomes amitotic shortly after birth
 Support cells called neuroglia insulate, protect,  Injury can severely handicap amitotic tissues
and support neurons  The cause of aging is unknown, but chemical and
physical insults, as well as genetic programming, have
been proposed as possible causes
 Neoplasms, both benign and cancerous, represent
abnormal cell masses in which normal controls on cell
division are not working
 Hyperplasia (increase in size) of a tissue or organ may
occur when tissue is strongly stimulated or irritated
 Atrophy (decrease in size) of a tissue or organ occurs
when the organ is no longer stimulated normally

TISSUE REPAIR (WOUND HEALING)

 Tissue repair (wound healing) occurs in two ways:
1) Regeneration- replacement of destroyed tissue
by the same kind of cells
2) Fibrosis- repair by dense (fibrous) connective
tissue (scar tissue)
 Whether regeneration or fibrosis occurs depends on:
1) Type of tissue damaged
2) Severity of the injury