CHAPTER 7:

PRODUCTION THEORY

PART I: REVIEW OF CONCEPTS FROM PREVIOUS CHAPTER

Prior to reading chapter 7, match statements at left with the appropriate concept at right.

___1. Situation where there is more than one possible outcome a. risk lovers
and the probability of each outcome is known b. risk premium
___2. Measure of the dispersion of possible outcomes from c. risk
the expected value d. hedging
___3. Name for individuals who seek to minimize risks e. probability
___4. What individuals seek to maximize in the face of risk f. diversification
___5. Spreading the risk g. diminishes
___6. The maximum price an individual would pay to avoid risk h. risk averse
___7. Covering foreign exchange risk i. expected utility
___8. The chance or odds that an event will occur j. standard deviation
___9. For most individuals the marginal utility of money
___10. Name for individuals who seek to maximize risks

PART II: ANNOTATED CHAPTER OUTLINE

7.1 RELATING OUTPUTS TO INPUTS

A. Organization of Production
1. Production: transformation of resources or inputs into outputs of goods and
services
2. Firm: organization that combines and organizes resources to produce goods
and services for sale at a profit
B. Classification of Inputs
1. Inputs: resources or factors of production used to produce goods and services;
classified broadly into labor or human resources (including entrepreneurial
talent), capital or investment goods, and land or natural resources
2. Entrepreneurship: the ability of some individuals to see opportunities to
combine resources in new and more efficient ways to produce a particular
commodity or to produce entirely new commodities
3. Fixed inputs: resources which cannot be varied (or can be varied only with
excessive cost) during the time period under consideration
4. Variable inputs: resources which can be varied easily and on short notice
during the time period under consideration
5. Short run: time period during which at least one input is fixed
6. Long run: time period during which all inputs can be varied

7.2 PRODUCTION WITH ONE VARIABLE INPUT

A. Total, Average, and Marginal Product
1. Production function: a unique relationship between inputs and outputs

59
 Chapter 7: Production Theory

2. Total Product (TP): the output per period of time

3. Average product of labor (APL): TP divided by the quantity of L used
4. Marginal product of labor (MPL): the change in TP divided by the change in
L used
B. The Geometry of Average and Marginal Product Curves
1. APL at any point on the TP curve is equal to the slope of a straight line drawn
from the origin to that point on the TP curve
2. MPL between any two points on the TP curve is equal to the slope of the TP
curve between those two points
C. The Law of Diminishing Returns: as more units of a variable input are used
with a fixed amount of other inputs, after a point, a smaller and smaller return
will accrue to each additional unit of the variable input (the MP of the variable
input eventually declines)

7.3 PRODUCTION WITH TWO VARIABLE INPUTS

A. What Do Isoquants Show?
1. Isoquants show various combinations of two inputs that can be used to
produce a specific level of output.
2. A higher isoquant (further from the origin) refers to a larger output, whereas a
lower isoquant refers to a smaller output.
B. Derivation of Total Product Curves from the Isoquant Map
1. If we draw a horizontal line across an isoquant map at the level at which the
input measured along the vertical axis is fixed then we can generate the total
product curve for the variable input measured along the horizontal axis.
2. We can find the output level from the isoquant and then find the amount of the
variable input (read off the horizontal axis) which, when combined with the
fixed input, results in that amount of output

7.4 THE SHAPE OF ISOQUANTS

A. Characteristics of Isoquants
1. Negatively sloped in economically relevant range
2. Convex to the origin (looking away from the origin)
3. Do not intersect
4. Slope equals the marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS, usually
written as MRTSLK meaning substitution of L for K, meaning of labor for
capital): the change in K divided by the change in L (assuming L is on the
horizontal axis). Equals the ratio of the marginal products of the two inputs.
B. Economic Region of Production (assuming L is on the horizontal axis)
1. Ridge lines: separate the relevant (i.e., negatively sloped) portions of the
isoquants from the irrelevant (i.e., positively sloped) portions
2. Bottom ridge lines: MPL = MRTSLK = 0
3. Top ridge lines: MPK = 0 and MRTSLK = infinity
C. Fixed-Proportions Production Functions: isoquants shaped as the letter L (with
origin of each having a fixed K/L ratio)

7.5 CONSTANT, INCREASING, AND DECREASING RETURNS TO SCALE

A. Constant Returns to Scale
1. when output changes by the same proportion as inputs
B. Increasing Returns to Scale
1. when output changes by a greater proportion than inputs
2. arise because as the scale of operation increase, a greater division of labor and
specialization can take place and more specialized and productive machinery
can be used
 Chapter 7: Production Theory

C. Decreasing Returns to Scale

1. when output changes by a smaller proportion than inputs
2. arise because as the scale of operation increases it becomes ever more difficult
to manage the firm effectively and coordinate the various operations and
divisions of the firm

7.6 TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS AND INTERNATIONAL

COMPETITIVENESS
A. Meaning and Importance of Innovations
1. Technological progress: the development of new and better production
techniques
2. Product innovation: the introduction of new or improved products
3. Process innovation: the introduction of new or improved processes
B. Innovations and the International Competitiveness of U.S. Firms
1. Product cycle model: firms with innovations lose export markets and
domestic markets to foreign imitators
2. Intraindustry trade: the basis for much of international trade among
industrial nations; trade in differentiated manufactured products

z AT THE FRONTIER z
THE NEW COMPUTER-AIDED PRODUCTION REVOLUTION AND THE
INTERNATIONAL COMPETITIVENESS OF U.S. FIRMS

Computer-aided design (CAD): allows research and development engineers to design

a new product or component on a computer screen, quickly experiment with different
alternative designs, and test their strength and reliability. Computer-aided
manufacturing: issues instructions to a network of integrated machine tools to
produce a prototype of the new or changed product.

PART III: KEY CONCEPTS IN THIS CHAPTER

1. The inputs that do not vary as production is raised are called ___________.
2. The ___________ is the relationship between the maximum output that can be
produced per period of time and inputs such as land, labor, capital, and
entrepreneurship.
3. The ___________ is the change in total product divided by the change in inputs.
4. The law of ___________ states that after a point, the marginal product of the
variable input declines due to the existence of fixed inputs.
5. ___________ show the various combinations of two inputs that can be used to
produce a specific level of output.
6. An increase in the stock of capital will cause a(n) ___________ shift in the total
product curve.
7. The optimal production technique involving two or more inputs requires that the
ratio of ___________ be equal to the ratio of ___________ for all inputs involved
in the production process.
8. The isoquants are _____ sloped in the economically relevant range, are
___________ to the origin, and do/do not intersect.
9. The change in capital divided by the change in labor, which equals the ratio of the
marginal products of the two inputs is called the ___________.
 Chapter 7: Production Theory

10. In the long run, the law of diminishing marginal returns is/is not applicable since
there are no fixed inputs. Hence, the relevant question in the long run becomes
that of ___________ to ___________.
11. When output increases by a larger proportion than inputs, the firm must be
experiencing a(n) ___________ to scale. This phenomenon is relevant to the
short run/long run.
12. The development of new and better production techniques is ___________.
Whereas the introduction of new or improved processes is called ___________.
13. The model that stipulates that firms lose export markets and domestic markets to
foreign imitators is the ___________ model.
14. If the firm increases all of its inputs by 25%, and output increases by 25%, the
firm must is experiencing increasing/decreasing/constant returns to scale.
15. The slope of an isoquant is the negative ratio of the ___________ of the two
inputs.
16. Isoquants that are L-shaped indicate a ___________ production function.
17. The further the isoquant is from the origin, the greater/smaller the level of output
it represents.
18. A firm would not operate above a ridge line where the isoquants were
negatively/positively sloped.
19. Increasing returns to scale can be illustrated by isoquants that become closer
together/further apart as we move along a ray away from the origin.
20. A production function that is homogeneous of degree 1 means that there will be
___________ returns to scale.

PART IV: MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS

___1. Total product (TP), bales of cotton, associated with the first five units of the
variable input labor (L) (assuming a fixed amount of land) are 5, 12, 19, 27, and
36. The marginal product (MP) of increasing from the third to the fourth unit of L
is:
a. 19 bales.
b. 36 bales.
c. 8 bales.
d. 6.33 bales.

___2. Marginal product (MP), bushels of corn, associated with the first five units of the
variable input labor (L) (assuming a fixed amount of land) are 3, 5, 4, 3, and 1.
The total product (TP) of the first three units of L is:
a. –12 bushels.
b. 12 bushels.
c. 4 bushels.
d. –4 bushels.

___3. Total product (TP), feet of rope, as associated with the three units of the variable
input labor (L) (assuming a fixed amount of land) is 14. Marginal product (MP)
associated with an increase from the third to fourth unit of L is 6. What is the
average product of four units of L?
a. 5 feet.
b. 14 feet.
c. 6 feet.
d. 20 feet.
 Chapter 7: Production Theory

___4. If marginal product (MP) associated with increasing the variable input labor (L)
(assuming a fixed amount of capital) from the first to the second unit is 5, and
from the second to the third unit is 4:
a. the total product (TP) associated with the third unit is 9.
b. the slope of the total product (TP) curve is increasing at an increasing rate.
c. the average product (AP) of L is falling.
d. the average product (AP) of L may be increasing or decreasing.

___5. The marginal product of labor (MPL) curve reaches its maximum point:
a. after the average product of labor (APL) curve.
b. at the same quantity of labor as the average product of labor (APL) curve.
c. before the average product of labor (APL) curve.
d. None of the above; the MPL never reaches a maximum.

___6. The average product of labor (APL) curve and the marginal product of labor curve
(MPL) intersect where:
a. the APL is at its lowest point.
b. the APL is at its highest point.
c. the MPL is at its lowest point.
d. the MPL is at its highest point.
 Chapter 7: Production Theory

Assume a two-variable input production function utilizing labor (L), which is on the
horizontal axis, and capital (K), which is on the vertical axis. Use the following table to
answer questions 7 – 11:

K _ / L_ 1 2 3 4 5
1 3 5 9 10 10
2 5 7 10 14 17
3 8 10 14 20 25
4 8 10 14 22 24
5 4 6 14 23 24

___7. Showing at least three combinations of inputs, identify the isoquant that would
result in the quantity of output, Q, equal to 14 units:
a. L = 3, K = 2; L = 3, K = 3; L = 3, K = 4.
b. L = 4, K = 2; L = 2, K = 3; L = 3, K = 4.
c. L = 4, K = 2; L = 3, K = 3; L = 3, K = 4.
d. L = 2, K = 4; L = 3, K = 3; L = 3, K = 4.

___8. Showing at least three combinations of inputs, identify the isoquant that would
result in the quantity of output, Q, equal to 10 units:
a. L = 4, K = 1; L = 3, K = 2; L = 3, K = 3.
b. L = 3, K = 1; L = 3, K = 2; L = 3, K = 3.
c. L = 4, K = 1; L = 3, K = 2; L = 4, K = 2.
d. L = 4, K = 1; L = 2, K = 5; L = 3, K = 3.

___9. Use the isoquant identified in question 7 to calculate the absolute value of the
marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS) of L for K (exclude values at which
MRTS of L for K equals infinity). The MRTS of L for K is:
a. the change in L divided by the change in K and is equal to 14.
b. L divided by K and is equal to 2/4 = 0.5.
c. the change in K divided by the change in L and is equal to +1.0.
d. K divided by L and is equal to 3/3 = 1.0.

___10. Along the isoquant that would result in the quantity of output, Q, = 10 identify
the input combinations that would form one of the borders of the ridge lines.
a. L = 3, K = 3, 4 and 5
b. K = 1, L = 3 and 4
c. K = 2 and 3, L = 2 and 3
d. K = 1, L = 4 and 5

___11. Holding capital (K) constant, identify the short-run production function that
results in the maximum possible quantity of output, Q.
a. K = 3, L = 5
b. K = 25, L = 25
c. K = 3, L = 25
d. K = 5, L = 5

___12. Assume that capital (K) and labor (L) are infinitesimally divisible. Given a two
variable input production function utilizing L (on the horizontal axis) and K (on
the vertical axis):
 Chapter 7: Production Theory

a. the ridge lines define the economic region of production, and connect the
points along various isoquants at which the MRTSLK is equal to zero for the
lowest ridge line and the MRTSLK is equal to infinity for the highest ridge line.
b. the ridge lines define the economic region of production, and connect the
points along various isoquants at which the MRTSLK is equal to infinity for the
lowest ridge line and the MRTSLK is equal to zero for the highest ridge line.
c. the ridge lines define the economic region of production, and connect the
points along various isoquants at which the MRTSLK is equal to zero for the
highest ridge line and the MRTSLK is equal to infinity for the lowest ridge line.
d. the rational range of production is below the lowest ridge line and above the
highest ridge line.

___13. Assume a two-variable input production function utilizing labor (L), which is on
the horizontal axis, and capital (K), which is one the vertical axis. Assume that
K/L is a constant for each of the most efficient production possibilities. Which of
the following is true?
a. The MRTS of L for K is always equal to infinity.
b. The MRTS of L for K is always equal to zero.
c. The MRTS of L for K is never equal to infinity nor zero.
d. The slope of the isoquant is made up of two parts, one part vertical and one
part horizontal.

___14. A two variable input production function utilizes labor (L) and capital (K) with
initial values L1 = 4, K1 = 2, and quantity of output Q1 = 50. Final values are L2
= 6, K2 = 3, and Q2 = 75. What returns to scale are present?
a. Increasing returns to scale because Q is larger than either input.
b. Decreasing returns to scale because fewer units of K are used compared to
units of L.
c. Constant returns to scale since Q increases by the same percentage as the
percentage increase of each of the inputs.
d. Increasing returns to scale when you increase both inputs and decreasing
returns to scale when you decrease both inputs.

___15. The Hildred Company makes machine parts necessary for the rockets used in the
space program. The production process is very capital (K) intensive. Hildred
engineers have found that the following relationships hold as they try to expand
the quantity of output, Q, to meet the needs of the space program: Labor, L1 =
100, K1 = 10,000 and Q1 = 10; L2 = 200, K2 = 20,000 and Q2 = 15. What returns
to scale are present?
a. Increasing returns to scale since all values increase.
b. Decreasing returns to scale since both inputs increased 100% but the output
increased only 50%.
c. Constant returns to scale since each of the inputs increases by the same
amount, 100%.
d. Decreasing returns to scale when you increase both inputs and increasing
returns to scale when you decrease both inputs.

___16. In the real world, most firms seem to exhibit near:

a. increasing returns to scale.
b. decreasing returns to scale.
c. constant returns to scale.
d. None of the above; returns to scale is a theoretical construct that has no
counterpart in reality.
 Chapter 7: Production Theory

___17. Technological progress refers to:

a. the introduction of new improved products.
b. the introduction of new or improved production processes.
c. the investment in human capital.
d. the development of new and better production techniques.

___18. Most innovations are:

a. found by U.S. firms.
b. incremental and involve continuous small improvements.
c. found in single, major technological breakthroughs.
d. not measured by new isoquant maps.

___19. Strong domestic rivalry and geographic concentration stimulate:

a. antitrust legislation in the United States.
b. inventions in Japan.
c. innovations in Japan.
d. the product cycle.

___20. According to the _____ model, firms that first introduce an innovation eventually
lose their export market and their domestic market to foreign imitators who pay
lower wages and have generally lower costs.
a. product cycle
b. production possibilities
c. supply and demand
d. comparative advantage

___21. Firms can exploit the benefits of successful innovations:

a. because they are adequately protected by international patent law.
b. forever.
c. for shorter and shorter periods before foreign imitators take away the market.
d. because they are adequately protected by domestic patent law.

___22. The law of diminishing returns applies because:

a. increasing returns to scale are exhausted.
b. at least one input is more inefficient that the others.
c. at least one input is paid more than the others.
d. each additional unit of the variable input has less and less of the fixed inputs
with which to work.

___23. An isoquant shows the various combinations of:

a. a fixed input and a variable input that give the same level of output.
b. two commodities that provide the consumer equal satisfaction.
c. two inputs that give the same level of output.
d. two commodities that provide the consumer equal satisfaction, assuming that
their prices are the same.

___24. The marginal rate of technical substitution (MRTS) of labor (L) for capital (K) is:
a. the slope of the total product (TP) curve.
b. the marginal product of labor (MPL) divided by the average product of labor
(APL).
c. analogous to the marginal rate of substitution (MRS) of one good for another
in consumption, which MRS is given by the absolute value of the slope of the
indifference curve.
 Chapter 7: Production Theory

d. analogous to the MRS of one good for another in consumption, which MRS is
given by the slope of the isoquant.

Assume that the variable input labor time (L) is infinitesimally divisible and that the
amount of capital (K) is fixed. Use Figure 7-1 to answer questions 25 – 29:

FIGURE 7-1

___25. At approximately what value for L is the average product of labor (APL) equal to
the
marginal product of labor (MPL)?
a. 45
b. 20
c. 15
d. 25
 Chapter 7: Production Theory

___26. What is the value of the marginal product of labor (MPL) at L = 45?
a. zero
b. 140/40 = 3.5
c. 140/50 = 2.8
d. [140/40 + 140/50]/2 = 3.15

___27. Note that the total product of labor (TPL) is 120 when the quantity of labor (L) is
30
and 60. What can be concluded?
a. The APL at the two points are equal.
b. The APL have equal but opposite signs at the two points.
c. The MPL between L = 30 and L = 40 is equal to the MPL between points L =
50 and L = 60.
d. The MPL between points L = 30 and L = 40 is less than the MPL between
points L = 50 and L = 60.

___28. A ray from the origin to the point on the TP curve where Q = 120 and L = 60
measures:
a. the slope at that point which is a MPL of –2.
b. the inflection point where APL equals MPL at a value of 4.
c. the APL = 120/60 = 2.
d. the APL = 120/2 = 60.

___29. In the economic region of production:

a. the MPL is positive and declining and the MPK is negative.
b. the MPK is positive and declining and the MPL is negative.
c. the MPL and the MPK are both negative but rising.
d. the MPL and the MPK are both positive but declining.

___ 30. Homogeneous of degree 1 means:

a. increasing returns to scale.
b. decreasing returns to scale.
c. constant returns to scale.
d. no implications for returns to scale.