Unit -3

Effect of cooking & heat processing on the nutritive

value of foods.
Almost all foods consumed need some form of cooking and processing
for making it fit for consumption. The nutrients we receive from the meals
depend largely on the extent of cooking practices used. Some of the
nutrients are lost during cooking. Cooking also has its benefits like:
 It increases palatability
 It makes food easily digestible
 Pathogenic micro-organisms are destroyed, thus safe.
 The appearance of food improves
Food prepared in large quantities in institutional kitchens or food
processing plants is more prone to loss of nutrients if adequate care is
not taken to preserve its nutrients. In the initial stages of cooking the
soaking of food in water leads to leaching of vitamins and minerals.
These losses can be minimized by washing the uncut fruits and
vegetables and not soaking them in water.
Various effects seen on the nutrients are primarily because of the HEAT,
ALKALI, and ACID.
Effect Of Heat On The Nutrients
 In carbohydrates, cooking has a beneficial effect as it leads to
gelatinization of starch and caramelization of sugar which gives color
and flavor to food.
 Proteins get denatured thus access to enzymes and digestibility
increases.
 Moist heating of pulses improves protein quality.
 Chemical reactions take place when oil is continuously heated.
Reactions like hydrolysis, oxidation, and polymerization of the oil. Oil
becomes dark and foamy, such an oil should not be used for
consumption
 Blanching inactivates certain enzymes that lead to undesirable browning.
 Heat labile vitamins are lost.
 Fat-soluble vitamins are lost during fat frying if a product is not coated
properly.
Effect Of Alkali On Nutrients
 Alkali is used during cooking and processing to soften vegetables. Pinch
of sodium bicarbonate added to green vegetables helps in brightening
the green color.
 B complex vitamins and Vit.C are destroyed in an alkaline medium.
 Excessive cooking in the alkaline medium not only destroys vitamins but
makes the texture mushy and gives a soapy taste to the product.
Effect Of Acid On Nutrients
 An acidic medium while cooking helps to preserve water-soluble
vitamins and retards enzymatic browning of certain fruits and
vegetables.
 Vegetables and pulses take a longer time to cook in an acidic medium
as acids precipitate pectin and harden vegetables.
 Vegetables lose their color, so to overcome this allow the volatile acids
to escape first, hence greens should be cooked without lid for the first
few minutes.
Guidelines For Preserving Nutrients
 Wash vegetables, fruits and rice in just a sufficient amount of water. It is
advisable either to cook in a minimum amount of water or to use the
cooking water in soups and gravies.
 Cutting vegetables to small pieces and exposing them to air before
cooking leads to loss of vitamins particularly vitamin C. Thus it is
advisable to cut large pieces and cook for a shorter period.
 The 3 R’s of cooking to conserve nutrients are:
1. Reduce the amount of water
2. Reduce the length of the cooking period
3. Reduce the amount of surface area exposed
 Oil heated repeatedly should not be consumed as repeated heating
during frying leads to the production of toxic substances due to pre-
oxidation and rancidity.
What are the effects of heat processing and how can we
reduce it?
Heat processing is one of the most important methods for extending the storage
life of foodstuffs. Because of this extended storage life, foods which are
abundantly available only during relatively short harvesting periods are made
available throughout the year. There is no doubt that this has increased the
availability of nutrients to the consumer. However, heat processing also has a
detrimental effect on nutrients since thermal degradation of nutrients can and
does occur. Therefore, thermal processing makes it possible to extend and
increase availability of a foodstuff to the consumer, but the foodstuff may have a
lower nutrient content (compared to the fresh foodstuff). The challenge to the
food processing industry is to minimize the loss of nutrients during thermal
processing while providing an adequate process to ensure an extended storage
life. Several processes involving the use of heat are currently applied to
foodstuffs. For some, the primary objective is to increase the palatability of the
food. An example is cooking which includes baking, broiling, roasting, boiling,
frying, and stewing. For other thermal processes, the objectives are to increase
storage life of the foodstuff and to minimize food-borne diseases. Blanching,
pasteurization, and sterilization are examples of these processes. Reduction in
nutrient content of the foodstuff as a result of a thermal process depends on the
severity of the process.

Blanching is a heat process frequently applied to tissue systems prior to freezing,

drying, or canning. The objectives of the blanching process depend on the
subsequent treatment of the foodstuffs. For example, blanching prior to freezing
or drying is used primarily to inactivate enzymes which would contribute to
undesirable changes in color, flavor, or nutritive value during storage. Blanching
prior to canning serves several different functions including wilting the tissue to
facilitate packing, removing tissue gases prior to container filling, increasing the
temperature of the tissue prior to container closing, and inactivating or activating
enzymes. Although the objectives of the blanching process are dependent on the
subsequent treatment, a criterion frequently used for evaluating the adequacy of
the blanching operation, regardless of subsequent treatment, is enzyme
inactivation. An important concept about blanching is that microbial destruction
is not a primary objective of the process.

Pasteurization is a heat process designed to inactivate part, but not all, of the
vegetative microorganisms present in the food. Since the food is not sterile,
pasteurization, like blanching, must also be used in conjunction with other
preservation techniques such as fermentation (e.g., pickles), refrigeration (e.g.,
milk), maintenance of anaerobic conditions (e.g., beer), or must be used on
products such as high acid fruit juices where the environment is not particularly
suited for growth of spoilage and health hazard microorganisms. The basis of the
process may be a spoilage microorganism (e.g., yeast in beer, yeast and molds in
high acid fruit juices)

Sterile is a term that refers to a condition in which no viable microorganisms are

present, a viable organism being one that is able to reproduce under conditions
optimum for its growth. Sterilization, then, is a term applied to any process that
produces a sterile condition in food. Some microorganisms and their spores are
extremely heat resistant and generally it is not practical to render a food sterile by
heat processing. Therefore, the "sterilization" process used in heat processing
foods is also used in conjunction with other preservation techniques, namely,
packaging and control of storage temperature.
Developing Embedding Secure Confident +Excellence
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods

impact on nutritional value.

Key Learning AC1.4: Cooking Methods Key

Question Learning Outcomes Terms:
Do I understand P Key Words:
how methods of Boiling
cooking impact I can outline how cooking methods impact on
nutritional value. My evidence is mainly Baking
the nutritional
value of food? descriptive with limited reasoning. Steaming
Grilling
M Stir Frying
I can explain how a range of food production Roasting
methods impact on nutritional value. I can Poaching
present reasoned statements.
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods

impact on nutritional value.
Nutrient Content Is Often Altered During Cooking
Cooking food improves digestion and increases absorption of many nutrients.
For example, protein in cooked eggs is 180% more digestible than in raw eggs.
However, several key nutrients are reduced with some cooking methods.

The following nutrients are often reduced during cooking:

• Water-soluble vitamins: Vitamin C and the B vitamins — thiamin (B1),
riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6), folic
acid (B7) and cobalamin (B8).
• Fat-soluble vitamins: Vitamins A, D, E and K.
• Minerals: Primarily potassium, magnesium, sodium and calcium.

BOTTOM LINE:
Although cooking improves digestion and the absorption of many nutrients,
the levels of some vitamins and minerals may decrease.
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Boiling, & Poaching

Boiling, simmering and poaching are similar methods of
water-based cooking.

These techniques differ by water temperature:

• Poaching: Less than 82°C.
• Boiling: 100°C.

Vegetables are generally a great source of vitamin C, but

a large amount of it is lost when cooked in water.

In fact, boiling reduces vitamin C more than any other cooking

method. Broccoli, spinach and lettuce may lose up to 50%
or more of their vitamin C when boiled.
Because vitamin C is water-soluble and sensitive to heat, it can leach
out of vegetables when they're immersed in hot water.
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Boiling & Poaching

Poaching is also a water based method of cooking. We poach foods at less
than 82c, therefore it does not loose as much vitamin C as boiling.

Vitamins B1, B2 & B3 are damaged by heat as B vitamins are similarly heat
sensitive. Up to 60% of thiamin, niacin and other B vitamins may be lost
when meat is simmered and its juices run off.

However, when the liquid containing these juices is consumed,

100% of the minerals and 70–90% of B vitamins are retained.

On the other hand, boiling fish was shown to preserve omega-3 fatty
acid content significantly more than frying or microwaving.

BOTTOM LINE:
While water-based cooking methods cause the greatest losses ofwater-
soluble vitamins, they have very little effect on omega-3 fats
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4 : Grilling & Broiling

Grilling and broiling are similar methods of cooking with dry heat.
When grilling, the heat source comes from below, but when broiling, it comes from above.
Grilling is one of the most popular cooking methods because of the great flavour it gives food.

However, up to 40% of B vitamins and minerals may be lost during grilling or broiling
when the nutrient-rich juice drips from the meat.

The high heat in grilling can easily over cook the protein

There are also concerns about polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are potentially
cancer-causing substances that form when meat is grilled and fat drips onto a hot surface.

Luckily, researchers have found that PAHs can be decreased by 41–89% if drippings
are removed and smoke is minimized.

BOTTOM LINE:
Grilling and broiling provide great flavour but also reduce B vitamins.
Grilling generates potentially cancer-causing substances!
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Microwaving
Microwaving is an easy, convenient and safe method of cooking.

Short cooking times and reduced exposure to heat preserve the

nutrients in microwaved food.

Studies have found that microwaving is the best method for retaining
the antioxidant activity in garlic and mushrooms.

About 20–30% of vitamin C in green vegetables is lost during microwaving,

which is less than most cooking methods.

BOTTOM LINE:
Microwaving is a safe cooking method that preserves most nutrients
due to short cooking times.
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Roasting and Baking

Roasting and baking refer to cooking food in an oven with dry heat.

Although these terms are somewhat interchangeable, the term

"roasting" is typically used for meat while "baking" is used for
bread, muffins, cake and similar foods.

Baking Most vitamin losses are minimal with this cooking method, The
high heat used in baking can easily be over-cook protein and
damaged B vitamins and vitamin C.

Roasting most vitamin losses are minimal with this cooking method.
However, due to long cooking times at high temperatures, B
vitamins in roasted meat may decline by as much as 40% and due
to the high heat most of the vitamin C will be destroyed.

BOTTOM LINE:
Roasting or baking does not have a significant effect on most
vitamins and minerals, with the exception of B vitamins.
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Sautéing and Stir Frying

With sautéing and stir-frying, food is cooked in a saucepan over
medium to high heat in a small amount of oil or butter.

These techniques are very similar, but with stir-frying the food
is stirred often, the temperature is higher and the cooking
time is shorter.

In general, this is a healthy way to prepare food.

Cooking for a short time without water prevents loss of B
vitamins, and the addition of fat improves the absorption
of plant compounds and antioxidants and vitamin A

The heat will damage some vitamin C and B vitamins, but as they
are only cooked for a short time , the damage is minimal.
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Sautéing and Stir Frying

One study found that absorption of beta-carotene was 6.5 times
greater in stir-fried carrots than in raw.

In another study, blood lycopene levels increased 80% more when

people consumed tomatoes sautéed in olive oil rather than
without. On the other hand, stir-frying has been shown to
significantly reduce the amount of vitamin C in broccoli
and red cabbage.

BOTTOM LINE:
Sautéing and stir-frying improve the absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins and some plant compounds, but they decrease the
amount of vitamin C in vegetables.
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Frying
Frying involves cooking food in a large amount of fat, usually oil,
at a high temperature. The food is often coated with batter or
bread crumbs.

It's a popular way of preparing food because the skin or coating

maintains a seal, which ensures that the inside remains moist
and cooks evenly. The fat used for frying also makes the food
taste very good.

However, not all foods are appropriate for frying.

Fatty fish are the best sources of omega-3 fatty acids, which have
many health benefits. These fats are very delicate and prone
to damage at high temperatures.
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Frying
Frying tuna has been shown to degrade its omega-3 content by up to 70–85%,
while baking caused only minimal losses.

In contrast, frying preserves vitamin C and B vitamins, and it may also

increase the amount of fibre in potatoes by converting their starch into
resistant starch.

When oil is heated to a high temperature for a long period of time, toxic
substances called aldehydes are formed. Aldehydes have been linked to
an increased risk of cancer and other diseases.

The type of oil, temperature and length of cooking time affect the amounts
of aldehydes produced. Reheating oil also increases aldehyde formation.
If you're going to fry food, don't overcook it, and use one of the healthiest
oils for frying.

BOTTOM LINE:
Frying makes food taste delicious, and it can provide some benefits when
healthy oils are used. It's best to avoid frying fatty fish and minimize
frying time for other foods.
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Steaming
Steaming is a water based cooking method and is one of the
best cooking methods for preserving nutrients, including
water-soluble vitamins that are sensitive to heat and
water.

Researchers have found that steaming broccoli, spinach and

lettuce reduces their vitamin C content by only 9–15%,
because the food does not come in direct contact with the
boiling water

The downside is that steamed vegetables may taste bland.

However, this is easy to remedy by adding some seasoning
and oil or butter after cooking.

BOTTOM LINE:
Steaming is one of the best cooking methods for preserving
nutrients, including water-soluble vitamins.
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Tips to Maximize Nutrient Retention

During Cooking
Here are 10 tips to reduce nutrient loss while cooking:

1. Use as little water as possible for poaching or boiling.

2. Consume the liquid left in the pan after

cooking vegetables.

3. Add back juices from meat that drip into the pan.

4. Don't peel vegetables until after cooking them. Better yet,

don't peel at all to maximize fibre and nutrient density.

5. Cook vegetables in smaller amounts of water to reduce

loss of vitamin C and B vitamins.
Unit 2: Cooking Methods
AC1.4: Explain how cooking methods impact on nutritional value. 08 February 2022

AC1.4: Tips to Maximize Nutrient Retention

During Cooking
6. Try to finish cooked vegetables within a day or two, as BOTTOM LINE:
vitamin C content may continue to decline when the cooked There are many ways
food is exposed to air. to preserve the
nutrient content in
7. Cut food after rather than before cooking, if possible. foods without
When food is cooked whole, less of it is exposed to heat and water. sacrificing taste or
other qualities.
8. Cook vegetables for only a few minutes whenever possible.

9. When cooking meat, poultry and fish, use the shortest cooking
time needed for safe consumption.

10. Don't use baking soda when cooking vegetables. Although it helps
maintain colour, vitamin C will be lost in the alkaline environment
produced by baking soda.
Retention of Nutritive Value

During Preparation It is important that all efforts should be made to retain the nutritive value of foods,
during preparation. Another important objective in food preparation is to make food that is enjoyed by
those who eat it. It is important to ensure that while retaining the nutritive value of the food,
palatability is not sacrificed. It’s good to remember that the food can provide nutrients to the body only
after it is eaten. For example, some loss of thiamin (a vitamin of the B-complex) occurs when beans are
cooked. But as we do not relish uncooked beans, we do cook beans and try to take care in the
preparation to ensure that the loss is minimal. Thus we cook beans in just enough water to avoid loss of
nutrients in the cooking water. We cook beans for the minimum time required. We can reduce, cooking
time by using a pressure cooker, if possible. We can prepare the food just before serving, so that
reheating before serving, is avoided. Some simple rules for retaining nutritive value and flavour are
given below:

1. Wash vegetables before cutting.

2. Cut vegetables just before cooking and introduce cut vegetables into boiling water, if to be cooked in
water.

3. Use just enough water for cooking, if the vegetables or other foods are to be served as such.

4. Cook foods until just done and serve immediately.

5. When preparing soups, the slowest cooking ingredient should be added first, followd by addition of
other ingredients, which cook in shorter time. For example, meat needs longer time and hence can be
cooked half-way before adding vegetables, which need much less time. This procedure helps to avoid
overcooking of the vegetables.

6. Spices and other flavour ingredients should be added in the oil used for seasoning, as the flavour
compounds which are soluble in fat, are thus easily dispersed in the preparation with the oil or fat.

7. Vegetables, salads should be prepared just before serving.

8. Use of acid foods, such as lime juice, tomatoes, vinegar or yogurt as dressings in salads prevents loss
of vitamin C, because it is stable in acid medium.

9. Fruits are best eaten as they have been customarily eaten in tropics. Bananas are eaten right after
peeling. Oranges are usually sucked after peeling. Grape fruit is usually peeled and eaten. Mangoes are
sucked to get the juice. In this manner of eating, no loss of vitamin C occurs, as the fruit is not much
exposed before eating.

RAW MATERIAL USED IN SUPPLEMENTARY FOODS

The supplementary foods that are considered here are entirely or mainly based on raw material of
vegetable origin. The basic ingredient is a cereal, to which are added pulses and/or oilseed flours.
Animal products, such as fish or fish-protein concentrate and milk-powder products, could, or
should, be added if feasible, acceptable, and economical. To increase the energy density, fat
(and/or sugar) should be included among the ingredients or added to the food when it is eaten.

All milled cereals may be used to make supplementary foods. Certain cereals with a high fibre
content such as millet, sorghum, and teff should be processed in such a way as to reduce the fibre
content.

The combined use of cereals and pulses takes advantage of the fact that cereals
(except rice) are relatively deficient in lysine while pulses have a high lysine content.
A mutual amino acid complementation is thereby achieved by the combination, and
the protein quality is improved. Tentatively, the ratio of cereal to pulses should be in
the range of 3:1 or 4:1 in order to obtain the best mutual lysine complementation
[6]. The quality may be improved further by adding small amounts of fish or milk
products (or L-methionine). These additions, although desirable, may increase costs
and may not be necessary if even small amounts of breast milk are given, or if the
children are eating a reasonably mixed diet. The importance of these additions
increases, however, if the supplementary foods are to be used for long periods as
the only food.

The proportions in which the different raw materials are to be included should be governed by
the desired final composition of the supplementary food as it relates to the total diet and by the
intended use. Economic aspects should also be considered, particularly when it comes to the
possible inclusion of animal food ingredients.

Although pulses provide a good source of protein (20-24 per cent), too high a proportion of
pulses may be undesirable because of their content of anti-nutritional factors [1, 2], their need for
long cooking times, and their tendency to produce flatulence. Examples of anti-nutritional factors
are lectins (haemagglutines), trypsin, and chymotrypsin inhibitors. These factors can be
destroyed by heating, pressure cooking, or prolonged cooking [2]. Fava beans should not be used
when a deficiency of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) is known to be prevalent
because of the danger of favism in certain areas. Heating does not inactivate the toxic principles
vicin and covicin in fava beans.

Oilseed flours (50 per cent protein), protein concentrates, and protein isolates (95 per cent
protein) that are suitable for infants and young children include soya bean, groundnut, sesame,
cottonseed, and sunflower seed.

Dried, ground, edible fish species and edible fish-protein concentrates (with protein content of
70-80 per cent and a high lysine content) when produced under appropriate conditions may be
suitable to include as a protein source. Fish products, however, may introduce odours and
flavours that are unacceptable in some cultures.

Refined or crude natural sugars are acceptable in moderation as raw ingredients to be added to
increase the energy density and to improve palatability.

Fats also may be added to increase energy density and palatability. Vegetable oils and fats
containing polyunsaturated fatty acids are preferred, but where advanced packaging technology
is unavailable, these may reduce the shelf life because of oxidative changes (rancidity).
Therefore, in many situations it is more advisable to add fat to the supplementary food at the
time of feeding.

In selecting raw materials, attention should be paid to the colour, flavour, odour, texture, and
consistency of the final product, realizing that these qualities must be acceptable to the mother
before she will feed the product to her child. Traditional flavours added to supplementary foods
may enhance acceptability. In addition, the raw ingredients in the formulated supplementary food
should meet national and/or international standards with regard to wholesomeness and purity,
content of toxic substances, and the inclusion of food additives

NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE FORMULATION OF SUPPLEMENTARY

FOODS

Energy density

Because the energy content of the main components of supplementary foods (cereals, pulses,
defatted oilseed flours) is relatively low, the energy density of the product will also be low,
resulting in bulky voluminous food. Such food is unsuitable for older infants and young children,
whose stomach capacity is limited. With no extra fat (or sugar) added, the vegetable-based
supplementary food has only 350-400 kcal per 100 g dry weight. The energy density may be
increased by adding fat (or sugar) to reduce bulkiness and by special processing of the main
ingredients. This processing may include toasting (roasting) of pulses and oilseeds, which
improves flavour, taste, and digestibility (through dextrinization of starch) and reduces bulkiness.

Processing may also include sprouting and malting of cereals and pulses. This induces
germination and predigestion of the starchy components, resulting in reduced bulk and increased
nutrient density. Extrusion cooking and enzymatic predigestion are examples of more advanced
processing technology to achieve basically the same results. For nutritional reasons,
supplementary foods prepared from raw materials that have been specially processed as above do
not require boiling during reconstitution with water. For hygienic reasons, however, boiling is
usually required.

If processing alterations to reduce bulkiness are not feasible and packaging and storage
conditions preclude pre-addition of fat, instructions should be given to add fats (and/or sugar)
when preparing the supplementary food for consumption.

Protein
In the age range of 4-6 months to 3 years, the safe intake level of protein ranged
between 14 and 15.5 g (protein quality equivalent to that in milk or eggs). Assuming
a digestibility and quality in vegetable-based supplementary foods of about two-
thirds that in milk or eggs (amino acid score of 65), the total daily safe level of
protein intake would be 21 to 23 g. Therefore, to contribute two-thirds to three
fourths of the recommended protein intake, the supplementary food should
contribute 14-17 g protein.

Fibre

Because dietary fibres are slowly absorbed and fermented by intestinal flora, thus causing a
laxative effect, the crude fibre content of the supplementary food should not exceed 5 g per 100 g
dry matter.

Vitamins and Minerals

Minimum Adequate Daily Intakes

The addition of extra vitamins should take the following into account:

- the vitamin and mineral content of the ingredients of the supplementary food itself,
- local nutrition and health problems, - the distribution of vitamins and minerals at MCH centres,
and
- relevant national legislation.

PROCESSING

The choice of processing method depends on many factors, among them the primary purpose of
the product, the social and economic conditions of the area into which it is being marketed, the
local dietary habits of infants and young children, the hygienic conditions in which it is being
used, the technology available, and local cost-benefit considerations

PREPARATION FOR USE

Non-heat-processed mixtures of raw ingredients should be adequately boiled during preparation,

while boiling (for nutritional reasons) may not be required for heat-processed or enzymatically
pretreated mixtures. The option not to boil such processed mixtures after addition of water
depends above all on the quality of the water available, sanitary conditions in the surroundings,
and personal hygiene practices. Food that is safe as consumed is of primary importance in
feeding infants and young children, especially those at risk for malnutrition. Therefore, if there is
any doubt about food safety, even heat-processed products should be boiled before they are fed.

HYGIENE AND PACKAGING

When tested by appropriate methods, the final processed product should be free from pathogenic
micro-organisms (and/or substances originating from such) in amounts that may represent a
hazard to health, and should not contain any poisonous or deleterious substances . The product
should be prepared, packed, and stored under sanitary conditions. It should be packed in
containers that will safeguard hygienic and other qualities of the food.

FOOD SANITATION implies cleanliness in the producing, preparing, storing and serving of food and
water. Food sanitation is an essential aspect of food preparation. It needs to be emphasised at every
stage of food handling and preparation. Some of the items which need particular attention are:

(i) a safe and potable water supply,

(ii) selection of wholesome ingredients and
(iii) hygienic handling, during preparation and serving. These steps prevent entry of
spoilage and pathogenic organisms in the food. In addition, all the equipment
coming in contact with food should be scrupulously clean; the surroundings should
be clean and there should be a proper and safe method for the disposal of waste.
Inculcation of hygienic habits would help in preventing foods from being
contaminated during handling.
Food sanitation and hygiene
Food sanitation implies

• Cleanliness
• Preparing
• Storing &
• Serving of food & water

Food sanitation is essential aspect of food preparation

Some items need particular attention are

A safe and potable water

supply

Selection of wholesome
ingredients &

Hygienic handling
Water
• Is essential in food preparation

Water is used to

Wash food before cooking

Clean the containers

Make beverage
It should be free from pathogenic bacteria
Potable water

• Water which is free from pathogenic bacteria

• Water should be free from harmful bacteria

• Water may contain dissolved salts or minerals

• Special treatment should be given to remove these impurities &

make it safe for potable purposes
Sources of contamination of water

• Through the seepage of sewage

• Sewage can be carrier of many pathogenic bacteria

• Many healthy persons may be carriers

• Human excreta is deposited near shallow wells, ponds or even

rivers especially in rural areas
• Hutment dwelling without proper sanitary & water facilities
develop into health hazard

• There is no facility for drainage & used water and sewage

stands, encouraging breeding of mosquitoes & flies
What you can do about pesticide residue

• It can cause a serious problem in the diet

Precautions
Thoroughly rinse & scrub fruits &
vegetables

Remove outer leaves of leafy

vegetables

Trim fat from meat, poultry & fish

Throw back the big fish

Food
• Wash the vegetables & fruits before using

• All exposed foods must be washed with clean water

• Outer layers, skin of plant material contain thousands of

microorganisms & must be washed before use

• The skin, hair, feathers, intestines of animals contain a number of

microorganisms should be removed before preparation
Food handling
• Food comes into contact with human hands during harvesting,
storage, preparation and serving

• Food handlers should be free from any communicable diseases

• Human hair, nasal discharge, skin can also be source of

microorganism
Persons handling food must

• Wash hands with soap

• Refrain from touching hair or wiping nose
• Food sanitation is a way of life
• A number of gastrointestinal disorders are communicated by
use of contaminated water or food
Spread of diseases through fecal contamination
Diseased person

Feces

Water
Hands Flies Soil

Food

New victim
 Food contamination
foods may be contaminated if the

Water is not Soil not

potable removed

Utensils are not

cleaned

Unhygienic
habits Communicable
Disease
Equipment

• It is necessary that all equipment coming in contact with food

should be kept clean

• They should be scrubbed, cleaned with detergent & water then

rinsed with potable water

• The equipments are dipped in hot water at 80°C for at least 30

seconds or more & then drain dry
• Parts of blenders, mixers should be inspected after cleaning to
ensure that there is no food material remaining

• Use separate cutting boards for different foods (meat- veg)

• Prepare raw foods in separate area from fresh and ready to eat
foods
• Clean & sanitize equipment, work surfaces & utensils after
preparing each foods

• Use specific containers for various food products

• Make sure cloth and paper towel use for wiping spills are not
used for any other purposes
 Control of insects & rodents
and common insects contaminating foods
• Rodents which include rats, mice & bandicoots may also be
carriers of diseases such as plague

Housefly Cockroach Insects

Preventive measures to exclude the entry of
insects

• Keeping the prepared food in cupboards with wire-netting

• Filling cracks, fissures in the walls & flooring

• Covering drains, holes with wire gauze

• Spraying or dusting with an pesticide in home

• Fumigation may be resolved to in large godowns, factories as
it destroy insects & rodents

• Insecticides are poisonous must be used in very small amount

only when needed
Good sanitation before preparation

Use
cleaned
Cooked food utensils &
should be equipments
stored covered
Left over foods
should be stored
in a refrigerator
Reheat before
use
What you can do about pesticide residue Pesticide residue can pose a serious problem in the diet. There
are certain precautions which you can take to reduce dietary exposure to this hazard. These are:

1. Thoroughly rinse and scrub fruits and vegetables. Peel them if appropriate.

2. Remove outer leaves of leafy vegetables, such as cabbage and lettuce.

3. Trim fat from meat, poultry and fish; discard oils and fats in broths and drippings.

4. Throw back the big fish—the little ones have less time to take up and concentrate pesticides and
other harmful residues.

Food Handling
Food comes into contact with human hands during harvesting, storage, preparation and service. It is
important that food handlers be free from any communicable diseases—colds, any other respiratory
ailment, cuts or boils, as they may be responsible for transferring these to the food thereby spreading
the infection to persons consuming the food. Human hair, nasal discharge, skin can also be source of
microorganisms. Therefore, persons handling food, must wash hands with soap before starting
preparation, and refrain from touching hair or wiping nose during food preparation. Food sanitation is a
way of life. It can never be overemphasised. A number of gastrointestinal disorders, such as diarrhoea,
cholera and communicable diseases such as typhoid, septic sore throat, diphtheria, dysentery, etc., are
communicated by use of contaminated water or food (Figure 22.3). Therefore, it is very important that
sanitary handling of food and water is religiously adhered to

Food Contamination
Food may be contaminated if the:

1. Water used for washing or cleaning is not potable.

2. Soil adhering to foods grown close to ground is not completely removed. 3. Containers or utensils
used for storage and preparation are not clean.

4. Personnel handling food have unhygienic habits.

5. Personnel handling food suffer from communicable diseases.

Equipment
It is necessary that all equipment coming in contact with food be kept clean. This includes knives, meat
mincers, blenders, rolling pins, wooden boards, metal and porcelain dishes, utensils, etc. They should be
scrubbed, cleaned with detergent and water and then rinsed with potable water. It is a good practice to
see that such equipment are dipped in hot water at 80°C for at least 30 seconds or more and then
allowed to drain dry. This sanitary step is especially important during epidemics such as infective
hepatitis (infective jaundice), cholera, etc. Parts of blenders, mixers, etc., should be inspected after
cleaning to ensure that there is no food material left over. If allowed to remain they could allow harmful
microorganisms to grow and spoil the food. Equipment made of plastic and other such material which
cannot withstand high temperatures need not be given the dip in hot water but should be given other
treatments and then allowed to drain dry. In villages it is a common practice to scrub utensils and dishes
with ash and then rinse them with water. The utensils and dishes are then allowed to dry in the sun. The
alkaline ash acts as a good agent for killing any microorganisms adhering to the utensils and a sanitary
effect is produced by drying in the sun both because of heat and the ultraviolet rays.

Nutrition - Fitness, Athletics & Sports

Requirements for Moderate Exercise Fluids and Oxygen
Fluids: More water is needed with increase in exercise. The need to replace fluid losses during exercise
is well recorded. All cellular activities take place in an aqueous medium. Water carries nutrients and
waste products via blood stream to and from the cells. Thus sufficient blood volume is a must to ensure
loss of heat produced through skin and sweat. Water is lost from the body through sweat and
respiration. Water for sweat is taken from blood, resulting in reduced blood volume, which may
endanger heart function. Significant fluid losses may reduce sweating and blood flow, disturbing body
temperature regulation. A water loss of 4 to 5 per cent reduces work capacity by 20 to 30 per cent; a 10
per cent loss may result in circulatory collapse.

The fluid losses in exercise depend on the duration and intensity of exercise as also the ambient
temperature and humidity. Normal sweat production, without exercise, is 500 to 700 ml per day. It may
increase to 8 to 12 litres per day with prolonged exercise in humid conditions.

Electrolytes: Though sweat contains electrolytes, chloride, magnesium and potassium, performance is
not disturbed by electrolyte losses. In hot months, during training, a dilute salt solution (1/2 teaspoon
salt per liter) may be used as a rehydration drink to correct excessive sweat losses

During exercise, as heat is released with energy production, the body temperature rises. One sweats in
an effort to control body temperature. The loss of water due to sweat must be made up to avoid
dehydration. The amount of water needed in hot summer months is much more than in cool weather.

Oxygen: Breathing ensures a constant supply of oxygen to the body. The need for oxygen increases with
exercise, as more oxygen is needed to release extra body energy. The ability of the body to provide the
oxygen needed is known as aerobic capacity. The aerobic capacity is dependent on the fitness of tissues
involved in oxygen intake and transport — lungs, heart and blood vessels and the body composition.

Body Fitness is measured in terms of aerobic capacity. Aerobic capacity is the ability of the body to
provide the increased demands for oxygen and use it during exercise. As it varies with the body size, it is
measured as the amount of oxygen consumed per kilogram body weight. Thus it is an indirect measure
of the health of the respiratory system.

Body Composition: As mentioned in the energy balance chapter, the muscle mass (lean body mass or
the active metabolic tissues) in the body uses larger part of the oxygen. The aerobic capacity is
dependent on the percentage of lean body mass and body fat. Body composition is determined by these
two components of body weight.

Nutritional Needs for Exercise

Nutrient Reserves
Any exercise activity increases energy expenditure. Proper diet is an essential prerequisite for good
performance be it for athletic competition or for just keeping fit. It is important to have nutrient
reserves to meet the demands during periods of exercise. If the reserves are used up, the body cannot
meet its needs and fatigue and exhaustion may occur. As we know, carbohydrates and fats are the basic
suppliers of these energy reserves, as very little is drawn from protein.

Carbohydrate is the major nutrient to provide energy for exercise. Our body has two sources of
carbohydrate reserves—the glucose in the circulating blood and the glycogen, stored in muscles and
liver. For an active person, the diet needs to provide 55 to 60 per cent of total dietary calories in the
form of complex carbohydrates as they break down more slowly and help maintain blood sugar levels
more evenly. Secondly, starches are more readily converted to glycogen to maintain this reserve store.

Fat: There is no basis for increasing the level of fat in the diet. The total fat should not exceed 20 to 25
per cent of the total dietary calories. Vegetable oils, which are rich sources of essential fatty acids,
should form a part of the total fat intake.

Protein: It is important to meet one’s recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for protein. This adds up
to about 10 to 15 per cent of the total calories from protein. No additional protein is needed, as it is not
meant to serve as an energy source.

Vitamins and Minerals: They are essential only in the process of energy release as co-factors. In general,
the efficient use of vitamins and minerals by the body is increased due to exercise. Hence exercise per se
does not increase the need for vitamins and minerals. The athletes, who need more energy, take larger
amounts of good food, which increases their intake of vitamins and minerals. The only groups that need
to focus special attention in this respect are adolescent and female athletes, who may need iron
supplements, if their blood iron levels are very low.
Food guide- 5 basic groups
RELATION OF FOOD AND HEALTH
Malnutrition: Malnutrition is an impairment of health resulting from a deficiency, excess, or imbalance
of nutrients in the diet. It includes both under nutrition or deficiency and over nutrition or excessive
consumption.

Undernutrition: It refers to a deficiency of calories and/or one or more nutrients in the diet. An
undernourished person is underweight.

Over nutrition: It refers to an excess of calories and/or one or more nutrients in the diet. An excessive
intake of calories results in overweight which can lead to obesity. An excessive intake of fat soluble
vitamins can cause hypervitaminosis or vitamin toxicity.

Diet: A diet means the kinds and amounts of food and beverage consumed every day. A diet may be
normal diet or it may be a modified diet which is used in the treatment of specific disease or condition.