Module 1

INTRODUCTION TO PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE

OVERVIEW
Prestressing can be defined in general terms as the preloading of a structure,
before application of the required design loads, in such a way to improve its
overall performance. Although the principles and techniques of prestressing have
been applied to structures of many types and materials, the most common application is
in the design of structural concrete.
Concrete is essentially a compression material. Its strength in tension is much
lower than that in compression, and in many cases in design the tensile resistance is
discounted altogether. The prestressing of concrete, therefore, naturally involves
application of a compressive loading, prior to applying the anticipated design loads, so
that the tensile stresses that otherwise would occur are reduced or eliminated.
The original concept of prestressing concrete was to introduce sufficient axial
precompression in beam so all tension in the concrete will be eliminated in the loaded
member. However, with the development of new form of construction, in the present
design practice tensile stresses in the concrete, even some limited cracking, is
permitted. By varying the amount of compressive prestress, the number and the width
of cracks can be limited to the desired degree. Of equal importance, the deflection of
the member may be controlled. Beams may even be designed to have zero deflection at
a specified combination of prestress and external loading. In the sense of improved
serviceability, such partial prestressing represents a substantial improvement, not only
over conventional reinforced concrete construction, but also over the original form of full
prestressing which, while eliminating service-loading cracking, often produced
troublesome upward camber. Moreso, prestressing makes it possible to employ
economical and efficient high tensile strength steel reinforcement and high strength
concrete.
Cracks widths in conventional reinforced concrete beams are roughly
proportional to the stress in the tensile reinforcement, and for this reason steel stresses
must be limited to values far less than could otherwise be used. In prestressed beams,
high steel stress is not accompanied by wide concrete cracks, because much of the
strain is applied to the steel before it is anchored to the concrete, and before the
member is loaded.
The dramatic improvements in the performance of concrete structures that could
be obtained by prestressing were first recognized by the renowned French engineer
Eugene Freyssinet. His studies of the time-dependent effects of shrinkage and creep
of concrete, which began as early as 1911, led him to realize the importance of using
steel at a high initial stress to prestress concrete members. In 1940 he introduced a
system for prestressing using wedge-anchored high strength cables, an arrangement of
great practicality that is still in wide used.
COURSE MATERIALS
Prestressed Concrete
Prestressed Concrete, according to the American Concrete Institute, is a material
that has had internal stresses induced to balance out to a desired degree, stresses due
to externally applied loads.

1.0 EFFECTS OF PRESTRESSING

There are at least three ways to look at the prestressing of concrete:

1) As a method of achieving concrete stress control, by which the concrete is
precompressed so that tension normally resulting from the applied loads is
reduced or eliminated;
2) As a means for introducing equivalent loads on the concrete member so that
the effects of the applied loads are counteracted to the desired degree; and,
3) As a special variation of reinforced concrete in which prestrained high-
strength steel is used, usually in conjunction with high-strength concrete.
Each of these viewpoints is useful in analysis and design of prestressed concrete
structures.

2.0 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSED CONCRETE

1). Advantages:
a) Minimal or crack-free concrete under working loads and as a result, look
better and more watertight, providing better corrosion protection for the steel
and provides lowest overall cost for maintenance.
b) Reduction in diagonal tension stresses, sections with greater stiffness under
working loads, and increased fatigue and impact resistance as compared to
ordinary reinforced concrete.
c) The negative moments caused by prestressing produce camber in the
members, with the result that the total deflections are reduced.
d) Smaller sections resulting in less dead weight.

2). Disadvantages:
a) Requires the use of higher-strength concrete and steels and the use of
more complicated formwork, resulting to a higher labor cost.
b) Closer control required in manufacture.
c) Losses in the initial prestressing forces.
➢ When the compressive forces due to prestressing are applied to the
concrete it will shorten somewhat, partially relaxing the cables. The
result is a reduction in cable tension with a resulting loss in
prestressing force. Shrinkage and creep of concrete add to this effect.
d) Additional stress conditions must be checked in design, such as the
stresses occurring when prestress forces are first applied and then after
prestress losses have taken place, as well as the stresses occurring for
different loading conditions.
e) Cost of end anchorage devices and end-beam plates that may be required.
3.0 SOURCES OF PRESTRESS FORCE (Prestressing Methods)

Although many methods have been used to produce the desired state of pre-
compression in concrete members, all prestressed concrete members can be placed in
one of two categories of prestressing:
1) Pretensioning
2) Post-tensioning

1) Pretensioning:
Pretensioning may be defined as the method of prestressing concrete in which
the tendons are tensioned before the concrete is placed. After the concrete has
hardened sufficiently, the tendons are cutted and the prestressed force is transmitted to
the concrete by bond. This method is particularly well for mass production because the
casting beds can be constructed several hundred meters long. (See Figure 4)

Steps Process in Pretensioning

a) The tendons are placed in a prescribed pattern on the casting bed between two
anchorages. The tendons are then tensioned to a value not to exceed 80% of the
specified tensile strength of the tendons or 94% of the specified yield strength.
The tendons are then anchored so that the load in them is maintained .
b) Concrete forms are then assembled around the tendons if they are not already
set in place.
c) Concrete is then placed in the forms and allowed to cure. Extreme care must be
exercised in quality control and curing wherein concrete will bond to the tendons.
Curing acceleration may be done by steam or other methods.
d) Normally within 24 hours or less, when concrete attains a prescribed strength,
the tendons are cut at the anchorages. Since the tendons are now bonded to the
concrete, the high prestress force is transferred to the concrete as they are cut
from their anchorages. The high tensile force of the tendons creates a
compressive force on the concrete section and the concrete will tend to shorten
slightly. Once the tendons are cut, the stresses that exist are often called
stresses at transfer.
e) The prestressed member in then removed from the forms and moved to storage
area so that casting bed can be prepared for further use.

2) Post-tensioning:
Post-tensioning may be defined as the method of prestressing concrete in
which the tendons are tensioned mechanically to ducts attached to the ends of the
member after the concrete has hardened and cured sufficiently. In this method, the
prestressing force is transmitted to the concrete by the end bearing and not by bond.

Step Process of Post-tensioning

a) Concrete forms are assembled at specified locations of the structure with the
flexible hollow tubes (metal or plastic) placed in the forms and held at designated
points.
b) Concrete is then placed in the forms and allowed to cure to a prescribed
strength.
c) The tendons are then inserted to the tubes or already assembled in place
together with the tubes prior to pouring of concrete.
d) The tendons are tensioned by jacking against an anchorage device or end plate
which has been previously imbedded in the end of the member. A method of
gripping the tendon to hold the load is incorporated in the process.
e) The tendons are bonded by grouting the spaces within the tube by pumping
grout.
 f) The end anchorages are then covered by protective coatings.

Illustrations

1) Pretensioning

Figure. Methods of pretensioning: (a) Beam with straight tendon. (b) Beam with
variable tendon eccentricity. (c) Long-line stressing and casting.

2) Post-tensioning:

Figure . Methods of post-tensioning: (a) Beam with hollow conduit embedded in

concrete. (b) Hollow cellular beam with intermediate diaphragms.
(c) Continuous slab with asphalt-coated wrapped tendons.
4.0 STAGES OF LOADING

One of the considerations peculiar to prestressed concrete is the plurality of stages of

loading to which a member or structure is often subjected. Some of these stages of
loading occur also in nonprestressed structures, but other exists only because of
prestressing. For a cast-in-place structure, prestressed concrete has to be designed for
at least two stages; the initial stage during prestressing and the final stage under
external loadings. For precast members, a third stage, that of handling and
transportation, has to be investigated. During each of these three stages, there are
again different periods when the member or structure may be under different loading
conditions.

1) Initial stage
The member or structure is under prestress but is not subjected to any super
imposed external loads. This stage can be further subdivided into the following periods,
some of which may not be important and therefore may be neglected in certain designs.

a) Before Prestressing. Before the concrete is prestressed, it is quite weak in

carrying load; hence the yielding of its support must be prevented. Provision
must be made for the shrinkage of concrete if it might occur. When it is desirable
to minimize or eliminate cracks in prestressed concrete, careful curing before the
transfer of prestress is very important. Drying or sudden change in temperature
must be avoided. Cracks may or may not be closed by the application of
prestress, depending on many factors. Shrinkage cracks will destroy the capacity
of the concrete to carry tensile stresses and may be objectionable.
b) During Prestressing. This is a critical test for the strength of the tendons. Often,
the maximum stress to which the tendons will be subjected throughout their life
occurs at that period (0.80 f pu or 0.94 f py ). It occasionally happens that an
individual wire may be broken during prestressing, owning to defects in its
manufacture. But this break is seldom significant, since there are often many
wires in a member, and the broken wire can be replaced. For concrete, the
prestressing operations impose a severe test on the bearing strength at the
anchorages. Since the concrete is not age at this period while the prestress is at
its maximum, crushing of the concrete at the anchorages is possible if its quality
is inferior or if the concrete is honeycombed. Again, unsymmetrical and
concentrated prestress from the tendons may produce overstresses in the
concrete.
c) At Transfer of Prestress. For tensioned members, the transfer of prestress is
accomplished in one operation and within a short period. For posttensioned
members, the transfer is often gradual, the prestress in the tendons being
transferred to the concrete one by one. In both cases there is no external load on
the member except its own weight. Thus the initial prestress, with little loss as yet
taking place, imposes a serious condition on concrete and often controls the
design of the member. For economic reasons the design of a prestressed
member often takes into account the weight of the member itself in holding down
the cambering effect of prestressing. This is done on the assumption of a given
condition of support for the member. If that condition is not realized in practice,
failure of the member might result.
d) Decentering and Retensioning. If a member is cast and prestressed in place, it
generally becomes self-supporting during or after prestressing. Thus the
falsework can be removed after prestressing and no new condition of loading is
imposed on the structure. Some concrete structures are tensioned, that is,
prestressed in two or more stages. Then the stresses at various stages of
tensioning must be studied.
2) Intermediate Stage
This is the stage during transportation and erection. It occurs only for precast
members when they are transported to the site and erected in position. It is highly
important to ensure that the members are properly supported and handled at all times.
For example, a simple beam designed to be supported at the ends will break if lifted at
mid span, see Figure

Figure . Failure of beam due to careless handling

3) Final Stage.
This is the stage when the actual working loads come on the structure. For
prestressed-concrete structures, especially those of unconventional types, it is often
necessary to investigate their cracking and ultimate behavior, their behavior under the
actual sustained load in addition to the working load. These will be discussed as follows,

a) Sustained Load. The camber or deflection of a prestressed member under its

actual sustained load (which often consists only of the dead load) is often the
controlling factor in design, since the effect of flexural creep will eventually
magnify its value. Hence it is often desirable to limit the camber or deflection
under sustained load.
b) Working Load. To design for the working load is a check on excessive stresses
and strain. It is not necessarily a guarantee sufficient strength to carry overloads.
However, an engineer familiar with the strength of prestressed-concrete
structures may often design conventional types and proportions on the basis of
working-load computations, and then check the strength.
c) Cracking Load. Cracking in a prestressed-concrete member signifies a sudden
change in the bond and shearing stresses. It is sometimes a measure of the
fatigue strength. For certain structures such as tanks and pipes, the
commencement of cracks presents a critical situation. For structures subject to
corrosive influences, for unbonded tendons where cracks are more
objectionable, or for structures where cracking may result in excessive
deflections, an investigation of the cracking load seems important.
d) Ultimate Load. Structures designed on the basis of working stresses may not
always possess a sufficient margin for overloads. Since it is required that a
structure possess a certain minimum factored load capacity, it is necessary to
determine its ultimate strength. In general, the ultimate strength of a structure is
defined by the maximum load it can carry before collapsing. However, before this
load is reached, permanent yielding of some parts of the structure may already
have developed. Although any strength beyond the point of permanent yielding
may serve as additional guarantee against total collapse, some engineers
 consider such strength as not usable and prefer to design on the basis of usable
strength rather than the ultimate strength. However, ultimate strength is more
easily computed and is commonly accepted as a criterion for design in
prestressed concrete as with other structural systems.

5.0 CHANGES IN PRESTRESS FORCE

The magnitude of prestressing force in a concrete member is not constant, but assumes
different values during the life of the member. Some of the changes are instantaneous
or nearly so,some are time-dependent, and some are a function of the superimposed
loading. All such changes must be accounted for in the design. Neglect of time-
dependent losses, in particular, accounts for the lack of success of all early attempts to
prestress concrete.
With the exception of conditions at severe overloading, the greatest force that
acts is during the jacking operation. The jacking force will be referred to subsequently
as PJ. For a post-tensioned member, this force is applied as a reaction directly upon the
concrete member, while with pretensioning, the jacking force reacts against external
anchorages and does not act on the concrete at all.
At the moment of transfer of prestress force from the jack to the anchorage
fittings that grip the tendons, there is an immediate reduction in force. There is inevitably
a small amount of slip as the wedges or grips seat themselves into the steel tendons,
and the shortening of the tendon that results is accompanied by loss in tensile strain
and stress. This is always a factor to consider in post-tensioned beams. Corresponding
slip loss occurs in pretensioning too, because temporary grips are normally used at the
jacking abutment to hold the strand as the concrete is poured.
There is an instantaneous stress loss because of the elastic shortening of the
concrete, as the prestress force is transferred to it. This always occurs in pretensioning,
but occurs in post-tensioning only if there are two or more tendons, and if they are
tensioned sequentially.
Another source of immediate loss of prestress force, applying to post-tensioned
members only, is the friction between the steel and the conduit through which it passes,
as the tendon is stretched. The tensile force at the jack will always be larger than that at
the far end, where the tendon is anchored. This loss can be minimized by overstretching
the steel slightly if necessary, the reducing the jacking force to the desired value. In
some cases, tendons are jacked from both ends in order to minimize frictional losses,
particularly when the tendon profile has several reversals of curvature.
As a consequence of all instantaneous losses, including those due to anchorage
slip, elastic shortening, and friction, the jacking force PJ is reduced to a lower value Pi,
defined as the initial prestress force.
With the passage of time, the steel stress is further reduced. The changes that
cause this reduction occur rather rapidly at first, but the rate of change of stress soon
decreases. A nearly constant stress level is approached, but only after many months, or
even several years.
The main causes of time-dependent loss are shrinkage of the concrete and
concrete creep under sustained compressive stress. Both of these produce shortening
of the member, which results in a reduction in steel strain and stress. In addition, the
steel experiences a gradual relaxation of stress, as it is held at nearly constant strain.
The result of all time-dependent effects, including concrete shrinkage and creep and
steel relaxation, is that the initial prestress force is gradually reduced to what will be
termed the effective prestress force Pe.
 As a summary, the different types of prestressing force are:

a) Jacking Force, PJ : the greatest force that act during the jacking operation.
For post-tensioned member, this force is applied as a reaction directly upon
the concrete member, while in pretensioning, the jacking force reacts against
external anchorage and does not act on the concrete at all.
b) Initial Prestress Force, Pi : it is a lower value of the jacking force after all
instantaneous losses such as anchorage slipping, elastic shortening, and
friction are considered. It is also known as force immediately after transfer
(before time-dependent losses).
c) Effective Prestress Force, Pe : force after all time-dependent effects,
including concrete shrinkage, creep and steel relaxation.

Note: The sum of all losses, immediate and time-dependent, may be of the order of
20 to 35 percent of the original jacking force. All losses must be accounted for in
the design of prestressed concrete.

6.0 CAUSES OF PRESTRESS LOSSES

1) Tendon seating at transfer (anchorage seating loss)

2) Elastic shortening of concrete
3) Creep of concrete
4) Shrinkage of concrete
5) Relaxation of tendon stress
6) Friction loss due to intended or unintended curvature in post-tensioning
tendons.

1) Slippage in Post-tensioning End Anchorage System

When the jacks are released and the prestress forces are transferred to the end
anchorage system, a little slippage of the tendons occurs. The amount of slippage
depends on the system used and tends to vary from about 0.10 in. to 0.20 in. Such
deformations are quite important if the members and thus the tendons are short, but if
they are long, the percentage is much less important.

2) Elastic Shortening of the Concrete

When the tendons are cut for a pretensioned member, the prestress force is
transferred to the concrete, with the result that the concrete is put in compression and
shortens, thus permitting some relaxation or shortening of the tendons. An average
value of prestress loss in pretensioned members due to elastic shortening is about 3%
of the initial value.
For post-tensioned members, the situation is a little more involved because it is
rather common to stress a few of the strands at a time and connect them to the end
plates. As a result, the losses vary, with the greatest losses occurring in the first strands
stressed and the least losses occurring in the last strands stressed. For this reason, an
average loss may be calculated for the different strands. Losses due to elastic
shortening average about 1 ½% for post-tensioned members. It is, by the way, often
possible to calculate the expected losses in each set of tendons and overstress them by
that amount so the net losses will be close to zero.

3) Shrinkage and Creep of the Concrete

The losses in prestressing due to the shrinkage and creep in the concrete are
quite variable. For one thing, the amount of shrinkage that occurs in concrete varies
from almost zero to about 0.0005 in./in. (depending on dampness and on the age of the
concrete when it is loaded), with an average value of about 0.0003 in./in being the usual
approximation. The shrinkage loss is approximately 7% in pretensioned sections and
6% in post-tensioned ones.
The amount of creep in the concrete, on the other hand, depends on several
factors which vary from 1 to 5 times the instantaneous elastic shortening. An average
losses used for the pretensioned members are about 6% and about 5% for post-
tensioned member.

4) Relaxation or Creep in Tendons

Relaxation is defined as the loss of stress in a stressed material held at constant
length. (The same basic phenomenon is known as creep when defined in terms of
change in length of a material under constant stress). In prestressed concrete member,
creep and shrinkage of the concrete as well as fluctuations in super imposed load cause
changes in tendon length. However, in evaluating loss of steel stress as a result of
relaxation, the length may be considered constant.
The plastic flow or relaxation of steel tendons is quite small when the stresses
are low, but the percentage of relaxation increases as the stresses become higher. In
general, the estimated loss is from about 2% to 3% of initial stresses. The amount of
these losses actually varies quite a bit for different steel and should be determined from
test data available from the steel manufacturer in question.

5) Friction Along the Ducts Used in Post-tensioning

These are losses in post-tensioning due to friction between tendons and the
surrounding ducts. In other words, the stress in the tendons gradually falls off as the
distance from the tension points increases due to friction between the tendons and the
surrounding material. These losses are due to the so-called length and curvature
effects.
The length effect is the friction that would have existed if the cable had been
straight and not curved. Actually, it is impossible to have a perfectly straight duct in
post-tensioned construction, and the result is friction, called the length effect or
sometimes the wobble effect.
The curvature effect is the amount of friction that occurs in addition to the
unplanned wobble effect. The resulting loss id due to the coefficient of friction between
the materials caused by the pressure on the concrete from the tendons, which is
dependent on the stress and the angle change in the curved tendons.
The ACI Code (18.6.2) requires that frictional losses for post-tensioned members
be computed with wobble and curvature coefficients experimentally obtained and
verified during prestressing operation.
In the past it was quite common to estimate total prestress losses rather than
calculating each own separately. Values in the range of 15-20% of the initial steel stress
were frequently used. The usual practice is to assume total losses in the tendons, not
including friction, as 242 MPa (35,000 psi) for post-tensioned members and 173 MPa
(25,000 psi) for post-tensioned ones.

7.0 PRESTRESSING SYSTEMS AND ANCHORAGES

7.1 Pretensioning

Prestressing steel is pretensioned against independent anchorages prior to the

placement of concrete around it.Such anchorages are supported by large and stable
bulkheads rto support the high concentrated forces applied to the individual tendons.
The term “pretensioning” means pretensioning of the steell, not the beam it serves.
Consequently, a pretensioned beam is a prestressed beam in which the prestressing
tendons is tensioned prior to casting the section. Pretensioning is normally performed at
precasting plants, where a precasting stressing bed of a long reinforced concrete slab
is cast on the ground with vertical anchor bulkheads or walls at its ends. The steel
strands are stretched and anchored at the vertical walls, which are designed to resist
the large eccentric prestressing forces. Prestressing can be accomplished by
prestressing individual strands, or all the strands at one jacking operation.
Since the bed can be several meters long, several precast prestressed elements
can be produced in one operation, and the exposed prestressing strand between them
cut be cut after the concrete hardens. Pretensioning several elements in a prestressing
bed is represented schematically in Figure 1. For harped tendon profiles, the
prestressing bed is provided with hold-down devices as shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1. Schematic of pretensioning bed.

In pretensioning, strands and single wires are anchored by several patented sytems as
shown in Figure3. One of these, a chuck system by Supreme Products, is used for
anchoring tendons in post-tensioning. The gripping mechanism of this is illustrated in
Figure 3(c). Other anchorage systems and ductile connections are shown in Figure3 (d),
(e), and (f).

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 2, Hold-down anchor for Figure 3: (a) Stress Strand Anchor,

(b) Monostrand anchor harping pretensioning tendons.
(c) Supreme Products anchorage chuck
Figure 3 (continued). (d) Multiple
anchorages, (e) Coupler, (f)
Dywidag ductile connectors for
ductile precast beam-column
connections in seismic zone.

7.2 Post – tensioning

In post-tensioning, the strands, wires, or bars are tensioned after hardening of the
concrete. The strands are placed in the longitudinal ducts within the precast concrete
element. The prestressing force is transferred through end anchorages such as the
Supreme Products chucks as shown in Figure 3.The tendons of strands should not be
bonded or grouted prior to full prestressing.

7.3 Jacking Systems

One of the fundamental components of a prestressing operation is the jacking system
applied, i.e., the manner in which the prestressing force is transferred to the steel
tendons. Such force is applied through the use of hydraulic jacks of capacity 10 to 20
tons and a stroke of 6 to 48 inches, depending on whether pretensioning or post-
tensioning is used and whether individual tendons are being prestressed or all the
tendons are being stressed simultaneously.

7.4 Grouting of Post-tension Tendons

In order to provide permanent protection for post-tensioned steel and to develop a bond
between the prestressing steel and the surrounding concrete, the prestressing ducts
have to be filled under pressure with the appropriate cement grout in an injunction
process.
1) Grouting Materials
a) Portland Cement. Portland cement should confirm to one of the following
specifications: ASTM C150, Type I,II or III. Cement used for grouting should
be fresh and should not contain any lumps or other indications of hydration or
“pack set.”
b) Water. The water used in grout should be potable, clean, and free of injurious
quantities of substance known to be harmful to Portland cement or
prestressing steel.
 c) Admixtures. Admixtures, if used, should impart the properties of low water
content, good flow, minimum bleed, and expansion if desired. Admixtures
containing chlorides, fluorides, sulphites, or nitrates should not be used.

2) Ducts
a) Forming.
• Formed Ducts. Ducts formed by sheath left in place should be of
type that does not permit the entrance of cement paste. They
should transfer bond stresses as required and should retain their
shape under the weight of the concrete. Metallic sheaths should be
of ferrous metal, and they may be galvanized.
• Cored Ducts. Cored ducts should be formed with no constrictions
which would tend to block the passage of grout. All coring material
should be removed.
b) Grout Openings or Vents. All ducts should have grout openings at both
ends. For draped cables, all high points should have a grout vent except
where the cables curvature is small, such as in continuous slabs. Grout
vents or drain holes should be provided at low points if the tendon is to be
placed, stressed, and grouted in a freezing climate. All grout openings or
vents should include provisions for preventing grout leakage.
c) Duct Size. For tendons made up of a plurality of wire, bars, or strands, the
duct area should be at least twice the net area of the prestressing steel.
For tendons made up of a single wire , bar, or strand, the duct diameter
should be at least 6.35 mm (1/4 in.) larger than the nominal diameter of the
wire, bar or strand.
d) Placement of Ducts. After the placement of ducts, reinforcement, and
forming are complete, an inspection should be made to locate possible
duct damage. Ducts should be securely fastened at close enough intervals
to avoid displacement during concreting.

3) Grouting Process
a) Ducts with concrete walls (cored ducts) should be flushed to ensure that
the concrete is thoroughly wetted.
b) All grout and high-pointy vent openings should be open when grouting
starts. Grout should be allowed to flow from the first vent after the inlet
pipe until any residual flushing of water or entrapped air has been
removed, at which time the vent should be capped or otherwise closed.
Remaining vents should be closed in sequence in the same manner. The
pumping pressure at the tendon inlet should not exceed 250 psig.
c) Grout should be pumped through the duct and continuously wasted at the
outlet pipe until no visible slugs of water or air are ejected. The efflux time
of the ejected grout should not be less than the ejected grout. To ensure
that the tendon remains filled with grout, the outlet and/or inlet should be
closed. Plugs, caps, or valves thus required should not be removed or
opened until the grout has set.
d) When one-way flow of grout cannot be maintained, the grout should be
immediately flushed out of the duct with water.
e) In temperatures below 32oF, ducts should be kept free of water to avoid
damage due to freezing.
f) The temperature of the concrete should be 35oF or higher from the time of
grouting until job-cured 50-mm cubes of grout reach a minimum
compressive strength of 800 psi.
g) Grout should not be above 90oF during the mixing or pumping. If
necessary, the mixing water should be cooled.
8.0 MATERIALS FOR PRESTRESSING

8.1 CONCRETE

Concrete, particularly high-strength concrete, is a major constituent of all prestressed

concrete elements. Hence, its strength and long term endurance have to be achieved
through proper quality control and quality assurance at the production stage.

1) Properties of Hardened Concrete

The mechanical properties of hardened concrete can be classified into tow

categories:
a) Short-term or instantaneous properties. These are the strength in
compression, tension, and shear; and stiffness, as measured by the
modulus of elasticity.
b) Long-term properties. These can be classified in terms of creep and
shrinkage.

2) Compressive Strength

Depending on the type of mix, the properties of aggregate, and the time
and quality of the curing, the compressive strengths of concrete can be
obtained up to 138 MPa (20,000 psi) or more. Commercial production of
concrete with ordinary aggregate is usually in the range 28 MPa (4000 psi) to
84 MPa (12000 psi), with the most common concrete strength being in the 42
MPa (6000 psi) level.

3) Tensile Strength

The tensile strength of concrete is relatively low. A good approximation for

the tensile strength f ct is 0.10 f ' c < f ct < 0.20 f ' c . It is more difficult to measure
strength than compressive strength because of the gripping problems with the
testing machine.
For members subjected to bending, the value of the modulus of rupture f r
rather than the tensile splitting strength f ' t is used in design. The modulus of
rupture has a higher value than the tensile splitting strength. The ACI specifies
a value of 7.5 f ' c for modulus of rupture of normal weight of concrete.
In most cases, lightweight concrete has a lower tensile strength than doe’s
normal weight concrete. The code stipulation for lightweight concrete is:
a. If the splitting tensile strength f ct is specified.
f r = 1.09 f ct  7.5 f 'c
b. If f ct is not specified, use the factor of 0.75 for all-lightweight
concrete and 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete.

4) Shear Strength
Shear strength is more difficult to determine experimentally because of the
difficulty in isolating shear from other stresses. This is one reason for the large
variation in shear-strength values that range from 20 percent of the
compressive strength in normal loading to a considerably higher percentage up
to 85 percent of the compressive strength in cases where direct shear exists in
combination with compression. Control of a structural design by shear strength
is significant only in a rare case; since shear stresses must ordinarily be limited
to continually lower values in order to protect the concrete in diagonal tension.
8.2 PRESTRESSING REINFORCEMENT

1) Types of Reinforcement
Prestressing reinforcement can be in the form of single wires, strands composed
of several wires twisted to form a single element, and high-strength bars.. Three
types commonly used in the United States are:

a) Uncoated stress-relieved or low-relaxation wires

b) Uncoated stress-relieved strands and low-relaxation strands.
c) Uncoated high-strength steel bars.

Wires or strands that are not stress-relieved, such as straightened wires or oil-
tempered wires often used in other countries, exhibit higher relaxation losses
than stress-relieved wires or strands. Consequently, it is important to account for
the appropriate magnitude of losses once a determination is made on the type of
prestressing steel required.

Because of the high creep and shrinkage losses in concrete, effective

prestressing can be achieved by using very high-strength steels in the range of
1862 MPa or higher. Such high- stressed steels are able to counterbalance
these losses in the surrounding concrete and have adequate leftover stress
levels to sustain the required prestressing force. The magnitude of normal
prestress losses can be expected to be in the range of (241 MPa to 414 MPa).
The initial prestress would thus have to be very high, on the order of 1241 to
1571 MPa.

2) Stress-Relieved and Low-Relaxation Wires and Strands

Stress-relieved wires are cold-drawn single wires conforming to ASTM standard

A421; stress-relieved strands conform to ASTM standard A416. The strands are
made from seven wires by twisting six of them on a pitch of 12-to 16-wire
diameter around a slightly larger, straight control wire. Stress-relieving is done v
after the wires are woven into the strand.

To maximize the steel area of the 7-wire strand for any nominal diameter, the
standard wire can be drawn through a die to form a compacted strand as
shown in the Figure (b) below; this is opposed to the standard 7 wire strand in
Figure (a)

(a) (b)

Figure. Standard and compacted 7-wire prestressing strands.

(a) Standard strand section. (b) Compacted strand section
9.0 SHAPES OF PRESTRESSED SECTIONS

If a member is to be made only one time, a cross section requiring simple formwork
(often rectangular) will probably be used. Simple formwork is essential for most cast-in-
place work. Should, however, the forms be used a large number of times to make many
identical members, more complicated cross sections, such as I’s and T’s, channels, or
boxes, will be used. For such sections the cost of the formwork as a percentage of each
member’s total cost will be reduced. Several types of commonly used prestressed
sections are shown in Figure 6. The same general theory used for the determination of
stresses and flexural strength applies to shapes such as these, as it does to rectangular
sections.
The usefulness of a particular section depends on the simplicity and reusability of
the formwork, the appearance of the section, the degree of difficulty of placing the
concrete, and the theoretical properties of the cross section. The greater the amount of
concrete located near the extreme fibers of a beam, the greater will be the lever arm
between the C and T forces and thus the greater the resisting moment. Of course, there
are some limitations on the widths and thickness of the flanges. In addition, the web
must sufficiently large to resist shear and to allow the proper placement of the concrete
and at the same time be sufficiently thick to avoid buckling.
A prestressed T such as the one shown in Figure 6(a) is often a very economical
section because a large proportion of the concrete is placed in the compression flange,
where it is quite effective in resisting compressive forces. Single T’s are normally used
for heavier loads and longer spans up to as high as 30 meters (100 ft) or 36 meters
(120 ft). The double T shown in Figure 6(b) is used for schools, office buildings, stores
etc. is probably the most used prestressed section. The total width of the flange
provided by a double T is in the range of about 1.50 meters (5 ft) to 2.50 meters (8 ft)
and spans of 9 meters (30 ft) to 15 meters (50 ft). Floor or roof system can be erected
easily and quickly by placing a series of precast double T’s side by side. The section
serves as both the beams and slabs for the floor or roof system.
The I and box sections, shown in parts (c) and (d) of Figure 6, have a larger
proportions of their concrete placed in their flanges, with the result that larger moments
of inertia are possible (as compared to rectangular sections with the same amounts of
concrete and prestressing tendons).The formwork, however, is complicated and placing
of concrete is difficult. Box girders are frequently used for bridge spans. Their properties
are the same as for I sections. Unsymmetrical I’s [Figure 6(e)], with large bottom flanges
to contain the tendons and small top flanges, may be economical for certain composite
sections where they are used together with a slab poured in place to provide
compression flange. A similar situation is shown in Figure 6(f) where an inverted T is
used with a cast-in-place slab.
Many variations of these sections are used, such as the channel section shown
in Figure 6(g). Such section may be made by blocking out the flanges of a double-T
form as shown, and the resulting members can be used for stadium seats or similar
applications.
Figure. Commonly used prestressed sections
Illustrations:

Post-tensioned segmental precast concrete for a viaduct.

Segmental prestressed concrete bridge construction

 Prestressed concrete segmental bridgeover a river

Precast prestressed highway bridge girders at production facility

 Prestressed bridge girder during erection

Prestressed concrete channels