Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-03923-3

ORIGINALPAPER

Success Factors Enabling Employment for Adults on the Autism

Spectrum from Employers’ Perspective
Jessica Dreaver1,2 · Craig Thompson1,2 · Sonya Girdler1,2 · Margareta Adolfsson3 · Melissa H. Black1,2 ·
Marita Falkmer1,2,3

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2019

Abstract
Employment outcomes for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are poor and there is limited understanding on
how best to support individuals with ASD in the workplace. Stakeholders involved in the employment of adults with ASD,
including employers and employment service providers have unique insights into the factors influencing employment for this
population. Organisational and individual factors facilitating successful employment for adults with ASD across Australia
and Sweden were explored, including the supports and strategies underpinning employment success from an employers’
perspective. Three themes including Knowledge and Understanding of ASD, Work Environment and Job Match emerged,
suggesting that a holistic approach was key to supporting success, with employer knowledge and understanding of ASD
underpinning their ability to facilitate employment.

Keywords  Autism · Competitive employment · Employment outcomes · Vocational support

Given the increasing prevalence of autism spectrum disorder are case examples of people with ASD successfully gain-
(ASD) over recent decades, there is an unprecedented num- ing employment, others continue to be unemployed and/
ber of young people with ASD transitioning to adulthood, or underemployed (Howlin et al. 2004; Shattuck et al. 2012).
and seeking adult roles (Gerhardt and Lainer 2011). Like all These poor employment outcomes negatively impact not
young people, a primary aspiration of individuals with ASD only individuals with ASD, but also incur substantial soci-
in the post-secondary years is gaining successful employ- etal cost through increased reliance on government supports
ment (Hendricks 2010). While individuals with ASD have and productivity loss (Krieger et al. 2012; Lounds-Taylor
the need and ambition to work, in Australia, their labour et al. 2012; McCrone and Fombonne 2007).
force participation rate stands at 42%, compared to 53% for The characteristics of ASD may be challenging to manage
individuals with other disabilities, and 83% for individuals in unpredictable and demanding work environments (Van-
without disabilities (Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Bergeijk et al. 2008). People with ASD frequently experi-
2014). The equivalent labour force participation in Sweden ence difficulty in the job application process, in mastering
for people with disabilities is 62%, compared to 78% for the social demands of the workplace, remembering and
the total population (Statistics Sweden 2015). While there following instructions, and managing the sensory demands
of the work environment (Müller et al. 2003; VanBergeijk
et al. 2008). Contextual factors including employers’ atti-
* Marita Falkmer tudes towards ASD, and concerns in relation to employee
[email protected]
productivity and safety also impact successful employment
1
School of Occupational Therapy, Social Work and Speech outcomes (Unger 2002). While people with ASD possess
Pathology, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, abilities and skills likely to be highly valued in many indus-
WA 6845, Australia tries (Bölte et al. 2014), leveraging these skills depends on
2
Curtin Autism Research Group, Curtin University, Perth, achieving a match between individual needs and the employ-
WA, Australia ment situation (Levy et al. 2015). The potential for people
3
CHILD, Swedish Institute for Disability Research, School with ASD to contribute to the workplace remains largely
of Education and Communication, Jönköping University, unrealised given they are afforded few opportunities to
Jönköping, Sweden

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 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

engage in meaningful and competitive employment (Hen- delivered by the Swedish Public Employment Services,
dricks 2010). a government-funded agency, with Samhall being one of
Support from employment services (Müller et al. 2003), the services this agency may offer applicants. Through
vocational training (Migliore et al. 2012), and other appro- this investigation, the strategies and supports facilitat-
priate supports (Unger 2002) may underpin the successful ing employment for individuals with ASD, as well as
employment of individuals with ASD (Westbrook et al. the strengths and skills of individuals with ASD in the
2012). However, relatively few employment services have workplace were explored and compared in Australia and
an in-depth understanding of the specific services and sup- Sweden.
ports associated with developing successful employment
outcomes for individuals with ASD (Westbrook et al. 2012).
Individuals with ASD often require multiple and varied
individualised vocational supports, including job training, Methods
support for placement and sustained employment, task assis-
tance, communication and social support (Belcher and Smith Design
1994; Burgess and Cimera 2014). Employers and employ-
ment support organisations need to be equipped to support An inductive qualitative research method (Sekaran 2003)
employees with ASD to work at their full capacity (Jacob was employed, using semi-structured interviews to enable
et al. 2015). Without this adequate support and informa- the exploration, description, and explanation of factors sup-
tion provision, employers and co-workers may be at risk of porting the successful employment of individuals with ASD
allowing stigma or attitudes to guide judgement, negatively (Rowley 2002). The ICF guided data collection and thematic
influencing employment outcomes for individuals with ASD analysis, enabling exploration of the facilitators and barriers
(Brostrand 2006). to employment participation (WHO 2001).
While employment success for individuals with ASD
has traditionally been viewed as dependant on the individ-
ual, there is increasing recognition of the need to consider Participants
employment using a bio-psycho-social approach, which
accounts for the role of factors including the environment, Data were obtained at both the organisational and individual
activities, and participation that may also influence employ- level, from four company directors and 16 line managers
ment outcomes (Scott et al. 2018). The World Health Organ- of persons with ASD in Australia and Sweden (Table 1).
ization (WHO) International Classification of Functioning, Recruitment of participants ceased when data saturation
Disability and Health (ICF) offers a holistic framework of was achieved (Strauss and Corbin 1998). Recruitment was
functioning, conceptualised as the interaction between body conducted via purposive and snowball sampling across the
functions and structures, activities and participation, envi- two countries, through disability employment service pro-
ronmental, and personal factors (WHO 2001). This frame- viders, research groups, parent support groups for persons
work provides an effective mechanism to understand a per- with ASD and businesses on social media. The sampling
son’s everyday functioning, allowing for the evaluation of strategy aimed to recruit cases of ‘successful employment’,
both strengths as well as limitations (WHO 2001). To facili- which was defined as a person with ASD maintaining com-
tate the assessment and description of a persons’ functioning petitive employment for 6 months or more. Competitive
in different contexts, tailored selections of ICF categories, so employment was defined as employment in a competitive
called core sets, have been identified for a sample of health market, whereby an individual obtains compensation at, or
conditions, ASD included (Bölte et al. 2014, 2018). above minimum wage. This could be part-time or full-time
The aim of this study was to explore the organisational employment, with full-time employment defined as working
and individual factors facilitating successful employment at least 32 h a week. Volunteer work, group or facility-based
of adults with ASD from the perspective of line managers employment contexts were excluded.
and directors of disability employment support organisa- In Australia, participants represented companies employ-
tions and companies in both Australia and Sweden. The ing at least one person with ASD, with first-hand experience
implementation of systems to support individuals with dis- and in-depth knowledge of a case of successful employment
ability in the workforce varies considerably between these of a person with ASD. In Sweden, participants were pur-
countries, allowing for the influence of various environ- posively sought from Samhall, a not-for-profit nationwide
mental, activity and participation factors on employment company, with extensive experience in supporting people
outcomes to be explored. While Australia relies heavily on with disability (Holmqvist et al. 2009). Samhall is owned by
private or non-profit disability employment service pro- the Swedish government and is one of Scandinavia’s largest
viders, Sweden provides disability employment services corporations with over 23,000 employees with a disability.

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Table 1  Overview of the participants

Participant Participant’s role within organi- Country Organisation Employee with ASD
sation

Organisational level
 Disability employment Director and three line managers Australia Disability employment service NA
service provider provider
 Work experience provider Director Australia Software testing NA
 Case 1 ‘Samhall’ Director Sweden Samhall NA
 Case 2 ‘Samhall’ Director Sweden Samhall NA
Individual level
 Case 1 Line manager Australia Australian University “Harry”, working part-time at
University in Australia for
4 years
 Case 2 Line manager Australia Australian public school “George”, working part-time at
school for 1.5 years
 Case 3 Line manager Australia Commonwealth department “Hannah”, working full-time
within the department for over
a year
 Case 4 Line manager Australia Private carer “Clair”, working on a casual basis
in a private carer arrangement
for 3 years
 Case 5 Line manager Australia Australian University Four males, working part-time in
an Australian university for over
2 years
 Case 6 Line manager Australia Australian bank Multiple employees of both gen-
ders, work part-time or full-time
for 13 week allocations
 Case 7 Line manager Australia Retail store “James”, working part-time at
retail store for over a year
 Case 8 Line manager Australia Government department “Daniel”, working part-time
within the department for
7 years
 Case 9 Line manager Australia Horticulture organisation “Liam”, working part-time for
horticulture organisation for over
2 years
 Case 10 Line manager Australia Australian University “Steve”, working full-time at Aus-
tralian University for 4 years
 Case 11 Line manager Australia Science museum “Emma”, working part-time at sci-
ence museum for over a year
 Case 12 Line manager Sweden Samhall “Cesar”, working full-time at
Samhall for over 10 years
 Case 13 Line manager Sweden Samhall “Adam”, working part-time at
Samhall for 20–25 years
 Case 14 Line manager Sweden Samhall “David”, working part-time at
Samhall for almost 10 years
 Case 15 Line manager Sweden Samhall “Ben”, working full-time at Sam-
hall less than a year
 Case 16 Line manager Sweden Samhall “Eric”, working full-time at Sam-
hall for 6 years

All names of employees are pseudonyms

Materials direct experience at supporting individuals with ASD

in employment. Interview guides were informed by ICF
Two semi-structured interview guides were developed, one core sets for ASD (Bölte et al. 2018), previous research
directed at participants representing organizations, and (Scott et al. 2015) and a reference group comprising peo-
one for participants at an individual level, exploring their ple with ASD, their families and relevant community and

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 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

employment organisations (Appendix). At the organisational assumptions, thus improving the internal validity of the
level, interview guides covered the structure of organisa- study (Shenton 2004). To ensure trustworthiness of the find-
tions including access to the service, employment model/ ings, themes were confirmed by peer examination, increas-
process, supports provided, and collaborations with work- ing the dependability of results (Taylor and Bogdan 1998).
places and treatment teams. The individual interview guides The researchers own predispositions were noted in ongoing
included questions relating to the participants’ workplaces reflective commentary throughout the data collection and
and their employee(s) with ASD (referred to as ‘cases’) per- analysis stages to reduce the effect of investigator bias and
sonal characteristics such as skills, job requirements, sup- promote confirmability (Ortlipp 2008).
ports required/available and work environment. Participants
were encouraged to share their reflections and knowledge of Ethical Considerations
their experience working with persons with ASD. Interview
guides were piloted with three interviewees with experience This study complied with the Helsinki Declaration (World
in employing or line managing persons with ASD in Aus- Medical Association 2008) and ethical approval was
tralia. These interviews resulted in minor changes regarding obtained by the Curtin University Human Research Ethics
the wording of and the sequence in which questions were Committee (HR 16/2014), Perth Western Australia. Written
presented. informed consent was obtained from all participants and all
names have been changed for confidentiality reasons.
Procedure

Data were obtained using semi-structured interviews con- Results

ducted via telephone, Skype or face-to-face interview.
Following an expression of interest, potential participants Three interrelated themes of factors facilitating successful
were contacted and written informed consent was obtained. employment of people with ASD emerged from the thematic
Swedish interviews were conducted in Swedish by a first coding of the data obtained at both the organizational and
language Swedish speaker and all Australian interviews were individual levels; Knowledge and Understanding of ASD,
conducted in English by first language speakers. Interviews Work Environment and Job Match. Patterns in the data
ranged from 30 to 60 min in length, with one interview last- revealed that findings from both Australia and Sweden were
ing 3 h. Each interview was audio taped. Data collected in encompassed within these three overarching themes. Direct
English were transcribed verbatim. Data obtained from Swe- quotes are denoted by the use of italics.
den were transcribed in Swedish and translated verbatim
to English by a bilingual researcher. All data analysis was Knowledge and Understanding of ASD
completed in English.
An understanding of ASD by co-workers was identified
Data Analysis in Australia and Sweden as key in fostering successful
workplace relationships. Knowledge of ASD underpinned
Thematic analysis using a conventional content approach relationships between employees with ASD and their co-
(Hsieh and Shannon 2005) aided by NVivo 11 software workers, and was fundamental in increasing the confidence
(QSR International 2015) was undertaken. The thematic of employees with ASD, and helping them feel “accepted”
coding of data aimed to identify strategies and supports and part of “the team”.
that facilitated successful employment. Thematic coding
Emma has said quite a few times how much she loves
was undertaken using principles discussed by Fereday and
coming in and how everyone is friendly and accept-
Muir-Cochrane (2006), involving the thorough reading of
ing regardless of who they are and where they come
transcripts to identify meaning and patterns within the data,
from.—Line manager of Emma (Case 11)
followed by the identification of pertinent concepts, and the
development of initial themes, subsequently leading to the Autism education and awareness training was described
development of the final and overarching themes. as the most effective approach to facilitating positive rela-
Coding of the themes was an iterative process ini- tionships and minimising conflicts and misunderstandings.
tially conducted by one author (JD), subsequently, the All directors and line managers in the present study reported
whole research team explored the initial themes to refine knowledge of ASD, obtained via formal training, private
and develop them and to achieve a consensus. Debriefing research or personal experience. However, participants uni-
sessions between all researchers and peer scrutiny of the versally agreed that further formal education and training
research project occurred fortnightly to monthly to dis- regarding communication strategies, behaviours associated
cuss alternative approaches, identify flaws, and challenge with ASD, strategies to “tap into skills” and minimise the

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Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

impact of challenging behaviours on the work performance Within this theme, knowledge and understanding of ASD,
would further improve their ability to support employees facilitated by providing training, utilising effective commu-
with ASD and create more inclusive and accepting work nication strategies, and enabling relationships were iden-
environments. In the Australian context, while ASD educa- tified by line managers as key to improving employment
tion and advice on managing and supervising employees outcomes. Knowledge and understanding of ASD encour-
with ASD was often available, this support was only pro- aged a sense of acceptance and confidence among employ-
vided upon request of the organisation or the line manager. ees with ASD, while enabling employers and co-workers to
In contrast, in the Swedish context, Samhall actively offered better support individuals within the workplace. Improved
ongoing leadership training to all line managers believing knowledge and understanding underpinned the process of
that “well-functioning leadership is an important factor for job matching and identification of appropriate workplace
success in the workplace”—‘Samhall Director (Case 1)’. modifications, being interconnected with the ‘work environ-
Patterns in the data revealed the importance of commu- ment’ and ‘job match’ themes.
nication in supporting effective workplace relationships.
Line managers and directors described the importance of Work Environment
supervisors and co-workers adopting “succinct”, “clear” and
“explicit” communication styles when working with indi- The provision of supports for line managers and employees
viduals with ASD. Consistency in verbal and non-verbal with ASD from expert employment providers was a signifi-
messages also emerged as important. Line managers and cant factor in facilitating successful employment for both
directors believed that for employees with ASD, commu- Australian and Swedish line managers (see Fig. 1). Line
nication was aided by confidence, particularly in regard to managers described support from experts as enhancing
asking for help: their supervision and as particularly critical when attempt-
ing to manage challenging situations. Line managers high-
But Harry is getting more confident with his supervisor
lighted limitations of the model of service in Australia
at work he can now go directly to her and tell her that
which focused on meeting the support needs of employees
he needs help with something. Harry can verbalise that
with ASD, with minimal consideration of those of the line
now. At the beginning he would just have stopped and
managers. Australian line managers consistently expressed
not known how to proceed, what to do or how to get
their need for greater support from autism-specific or gen-
help. So he would just sit there and a long time would
eral disability vocational support providers. Line manag-
have been wasted.—Line manager of Harry (Case 1)
ers expressed a desire for further support in “developing

Strategies and Supports that Facilitate Successful Employment of persons with ASD

Social Support Adaptive Strategies Cognitive supports Employment Support Services Vocational Training Supports
“Additional supervision” for “Written step by step “Reinforce positive behavior” Job matching support Personal care training and
employee with ASD procedures” Co-workers model expected Initial support and leadership education
“Open, honest conversations” “Written job description” behavior training for line manager Transport training
Supportive work team Introducing routine and “Reassurance” Ongoing “general autism “Formulating realistic goals”
Low number of immediate team structure into the workplace “Encouragement” training” for line manager and Education about appropriate
members Restructuring job role to avoid “Problem solving strategies” co-workers physical boundaries
Line managers and co-workers unsuitable tasks Preparation for new tasks or “Regular catch-ups” for line “Business writing skills”
with an “open door policy” Established and defined lines of disruptions managers and employees with training
“Open minded line managers communication “Regular feedback” and ASD “Integrity training”
and co-workers” Alternative to interview process “informal evaluations” Open communication between Education about “workplace
Co-worker to mentor and Alternative transport options “Strategies to overcome stress” line manager and external basics” (i.e. shared workspaces)
support employee with ASD Accommodations to sensory support worker
Regular communication and demands of the environment “Expert” available to assist
support between line manager (i.e. dimming lights, blinds, with “unexpected” or “difficult
and employee with ASD head phones, reducing ambient situations”
Employee with ASD is aware of noise) “External support” for
line manager’s expectations employee with ASD
“One-on-one support within the
workplace” for employee with
ASD, if necessary

Fig. 1  Categories of strategies and supports that facilitate successful employment of persons with ASD, as reported by participants

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 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

employees’ [with ASD] skills”, “encouraging communica- intonation, pauses, speed) by other co-workers, breaking
tion”, “increasing general autism awareness” and “identify- tasks into sequential steps, providing email and telephone
ing appropriate duties” and how to most effectively provide scripts and suggested prompts for social interactions, and
“one-on-one support in the workplace”. providing regular feedback with regard to communication
Regularly scheduled meetings between line-managers with co-workers and customers. One line manager respon-
and employees with ASD, focusing on discussing work sible for four employees with ASD described the strategies
duties and providing feedback on performance was a key they implemented when providing instructions:
strategy reported by participants in building the confidence
“…if you’ve got something that’s multi-step, you can
of employees with ASD. Line-managers highlighted the
go and sit with them and tell them what to do, but also
importance of daily communication, “ongoing support”
have it written out so that there’s a hard copy to back it
and “continuous feedback” in promoting work performance
up.”—Line manager of multiple employees with ASD
and satisfaction (see Fig. 1). The decision to formally or
(Case 5)
informally evaluate work performance was dictated by the
needs of individual employees with ASD. Having a clearly Line managers universally discussed the importance of
designated supervisor was reported as an important strategy having knowledge that allowed them to consider the envi-
in supporting employees with ASD to communicate their ronmental conditions of their workplace, including noise,
concerns, and maximise their job performance. For exam- lights, and movement, when matching an employee with
ple, Ben’s line manager has regular follow-ups and shorter ASD to work tasks. “Loud”, “changeable”, and “unpredict-
informal talks, as Ben requires a little more follow-up and able” work environments were reported by line managers as
encouragement than other co-workers. “highly distractive” and “overwhelming” for their employees
with ASD. The organisations represented by the Australian
I work with Ben by giving him little hints and remind-
company directors (a disability employment support pro-
ers when we meet, and try to actively limit the stress
vider and a work experience provider) recognised the impact
he is exposed to, for example during workplace meet-
of the environment on individuals with ASD, seeing it as an
ings—Line manager of Ben (Case 15)
essential factor in determining the suitability of a job. Across
The structure of the physical environment and the rou- both countries, line managers highlighted that an important
tine of work tasks facilitated the successful employment of factor in successfully supporting employees with ASD was
individuals with ASD. Preparing employees with ASD in maintaining an attitude of openness and flexibility in regard
advance for work disruptions or new tasks, clarifying job to the need for workplace or job role modifications. This
expectations, clearly delineating communication channels included being prepared to change and adapt the physical
with supervisors and co-workers, and establishing routines environment, job descriptions and/or job routines (see Fig. 1
reportedly improved job performance and lowered level of for a summary of strategies and support). Undertaking envi-
stress from the perspective of line managers (Fig. 1). The ronmental modifications including reducing the brightness
vagaries of shift work, with regard to changing routines of lights, and the ambient noise in the office, and allowing
and rosters at short notice, were particularly problematic the employees with ASD some ‘time out’ if they required a
for individuals with ASD. James’ line manager highlighted break were all strategies which line managers reported using
the importance of maintaining open communication chan- to enhance job performance (Fig. 1). Modification of the
nels, particularly in regard to supporting him with work size of the immediate team reportedly impacted on the work
disruptions: performance of individuals with ASD, with smaller teams
fostering better performance and job satisfaction.
I’ve put a lot of thought into what I give James to do,
Providing a work environment which is supportive of
more than anyone else because he’s not very good with
employees with ASD, through considering the physical envi-
change or spontaneity, so any time you change some-
ronment, structure, routine, and format of work tasks was
thing or do something without telling James why and
identified as important to facilitating successful employment
in detail it sort of throws him off a little bit.—Line
for employees with ASD. Underpinning this theme was the
manager of James (Case 7)
need for knowledge and understanding of ASD, which is
Line managers consistently described the importance essential to ensure that individual and unique needs are met
of using communication strategies such as providing clear within the work environment.
instructions on tasks in both verbal and written formats
and providing support and training for engaging in social Job match
interactions in facilitating successful employment out-
comes. Effective training strategies included the modelling Participants described the importance of job match in under-
of appropriate behaviours and communication styles (i.e. pinning success in acquiring and maintaining employment

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Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

for people with ASD. Line managers described job per- The Australian company directors considered it important
formance as fundamentally linked to how “well matched” that all barriers were addressed and ensuring their clients
employees with ASD were to their job, in terms of their were “job ready”, prior to beginning the job search process.
skills, strengths, and interests. “…it is amazing to see how The director of the work experience provider reported that
a person’s job satisfaction and sense of self-worth can significant time was spent “developing and enhancing” the
increase noticeably after a successful job matching” Line interpersonal skills of individuals with ASD and improv-
manager to David (Case 14). Participants consistently ing their understanding of “workplace basics” including
emphasised the importance of recognising the abilities and “handshakes”, “integrity training”, “business writing skills”,
skills of employees with ASD which included having “vast “appropriate touch”, “personal care” and “workplace skills”
knowledge”, and “great talent”, and being “very loyal” and (i.e. working in shared spaces, performance expectations,
“dependable” (see Table 2 for a summary of abilities and work routines). Australian company directors described the
skills of employees with ASD reported by participants). Line process of identifying potential jobs for their clients with
managers discussed the importance of providing opportu- ASD by “matching the capabilities and skills” with the dis-
nities for growth and advancement by “slowly building up ability employment service providers’ analysis of the skills
the work role” and “figuring out how to challenge” their and abilities required for the job and worksite, and the indi-
employees. Job match required consideration of the predict- viduals with ASD job capacity assessment. The interview
ability and structure of work tasks, with greater structure was recognised as particularly challenging by the director
resulting in the need for less supervision and increased job of the disability employment service provider who consid-
satisfaction: ered interviews to be “not conducive to an autistic person’s
thinking”, describing the importance of considering other
Harry feels comfortable if there is structure in the
alternatives, such as work experience or work trials.
work, he is very efficient and effective if he has clear
The director of Samhall reported they had developed their
steps to follow. He is able to maintain a high level of
own tool enabling them to assess the person’s skills, and
accuracy and work consistently for a long time. Harry
achieve an effective job match based on a strengths-based
enjoys having something that is slightly repetitive
approach. This strengths-based approach to job matching
because it’s familiar and consistent.—Line manager
made no reference to diagnosis and was described as an
of Harry (Case 1)
important factor underpinning the success of their company
The Australian directors of the disability employment ser- in supporting people with ASD and other disabilities. The
vice provider and work experience program had a slightly “Samhall method” considers various qualities and abilities
different focus to line managers. The directors of both organ- of their clients, both physical (such as endurance, fine motor
isations highlighted the importance of considering, holisti- ability) and mental (such as concentration and focus, inde-
cally, clients’ “skills”, “interests”, “abilities” and “barriers” pendent work) generating a profile of “what a person is good
and their impact on all stages of the employment process. at”. Jobs are also assessed according to their requirement
for the same qualities and abilities, and clients are matched
to jobs compatible with their individual profile. Individual
Table 2  Absolute and relative frequencies of persons’ with ASD abil- profiles are further matched to characteristics of the work
ities and skills as reported by participants (n = 20) team, with consideration of the teams combined skill set and
Abilities and skills N (%) an individual fit with the team.
Ensuring a person-job match through identifying an
Attention to detail 8 (40%)
individual’s unique skill and talent profile was believed to
Goal-directed behaviour 8 (40%)
contribute to long term success. As identified within this
Passion 8 (40%)
theme, this job-match is dependent upon assessing not only
Task focus 8 (40%)
the individual’s profile but the also the work environment
Intellectual functions 7 (35%)
and on the broader knowledge and understanding of ASD
Loyalty 7 (35%)
among co-workers and line-managers.
Trustworthiness and dependability 7 (35%)
Ability to adhere to routine 7 (35%)
Expertise in a certain area 6 (30%)
Discussion
Good memory 6 (30%)
Ability to tolerate monotonous tasks 6 (30%)
Across both Australia and Sweden, similar results emerged
Honesty 6 (30%)
regarding the factors contributing to successful employment
Technical abilities (e.g. computer skills and knowledge) 5 (25%)
for individuals with ASD. Many of these factors were envi-
N number of participants ronmental, including attitudes, knowledge, understanding,

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 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

and supports, with a holistic approach required to facilitate workplace. In this study, knowledge relating to ASD report-
success. While external supports had a significant role across edly underpinned the process of job matching and identify-
both countries, there were key differences in regard to their ing appropriate workplace modifications to support employ-
availability. ees with ASD. Participants indicated a need for increased
The provision of external supports were consistently iden- support to improve the organisations’, line managers’ and
tified by organisations and line managers as significantly co-workers’ knowledge in the areas of ASD education,
influencing employment outcomes for employees with ASD. communication with employees, provision of instructions,
In Australia; organisations and line managers were either appropriate work environments and allocation of tasks and
unaware of supports available, were unable to access sup- duties specialised to the unique skills and abilities of their
ports, or were receiving supports that they believed were employee/s with ASD. Improving the organisations’, line
inadequate, with limitations in the current model of service managers’, and co-workers’ knowledge of ASD fostered
in Australia reported to significantly impact on the type understanding and promoted acceptance of the employee
and amount of support provided. These findings concur with ASD. This is consistent with previous research sug-
with literature advocating for the importance of supporting gesting the most effective means of overcoming negative
employers and co-workers working with individuals with attitudes is providing new information that challenges exist-
ASD (Müller et al. 2003) and highlights the importance ing beliefs (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975).
of broadening models of service delivery to include envi- A holistic approach to job matching was essential in facil-
ronmental factors, including the provision of adequate sup- itating successful employment outcomes. Consistent with
port to line managers and co-workers. Without adjustment of previous research employees with ASD were reported to
these service delivery models, implementing environmental perform at levels equal to or superior to that of neurotypical
changes may be challenging for line managers and directors, co-workers when their job matched their interests, strengths,
particularly in the Australian context. and abilities (Hendricks 2010; Lorenz and Heinitz 2014).
Knowledge and understanding of ASD influenced all When personal factors (i.e. transport, sensory sensitivities,
stages of the employment process, with attitudes and beliefs resilience) were considered prior to matching a person with
of organisation directors and line-managers found to influ- ASD to a job or workplace, and allocated tasks and duties
ence employment outcomes in both Australian and Swedish were carefully constructed to match, employees’ skills,
contexts. Based on the current study, providing interven- successful outcomes were more likely, a finding consistent
tions and supports which target the attitudinal and social with job crafting models, enabling employees to customise
environment of the workplace may be essential to facilitate aspects of their job to improve person-job fit (Tims and Bak-
successful employment outcomes for employees with ASD. ker 2010). Samhall’s job matching also included a broader
Employees with ASD engaged in more frequent, meaningful consideration of the fit of employees within teams, empha-
interactions with line-managers and co-workers when line sising the importance of identifying occupational fields
managers and co-workers demonstrated an understanding matching each person’s profile (Hall et al. 2014; Hendricks
of ASD and positive, accepting attitudes towards the indi- 2010). These results indicated that organisations need to
vidual. Positive workplace interactions improved the confi- support line managers in conducting thorough assessments,
dence and overall job performance of individuals with ASD. not only of the employee’s abilities but also of the work tasks
Findings of the current study were in line with other studies they are expected to perform.
suggesting a supportive and understanding work environ- Results of this study should be interpreted with the fol-
ment leads to improved employment outcomes for individu- lowing limitations in mind. Given the qualitative design
als with ASD (Walsh et al. 2014). Findings align with the of this study, transferability is limited. The diversity of
ICF, pointing to the role of the environment in supporting the sample allowed the examination of disparities in out-
the functioning of persons with disability across contexts comes in various occupational fields, economic structures,
(de Schipper et al. 2016; WHO 2007). The recently released and cultural environments. As individuals with ASD were
international ASD ICF core set for persons from the age of not directly examined in this study, confirmation of diag-
17 years includes ICF categories recommended for assess- noses of employees was not obtained. While the focus of
ment and intervention in social and employment contexts this study was to examine factors influencing the successful
(Bölte et al. 2018). Of the 79 included ICF categories in employment of people with ASD, participants also briefly
the ASD ICF core sets, 27 (34%) relate to environmental mentioned that access to supports and funding, and disclo-
factors, with 18 (67%) of these relating to support and posi- sure of an ASD diagnosis to line managers and co-workers
tive attitudes from people around the person with ASD. In were issues impacting outcomes. While this study did not
the context of employment, this highlights the importance include the perspective of the employees with ASD, it is
of organisations, line managers and co-workers assessing believed this approach was consistent with the aim of the
and defining the attitudinal and social environment in the study to identify success factors from the perspective of

13
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

employers in order to identify supports and approaches • What supports your company to employ persons with
which facilitate success, rather than to focus on the employ- disabilities?
ees themselves. – Services, systems, policies
• What would you say that this person bought to the
workplace?
Conclusions – Specific skills/talents
• What are the personal characteristics that creates a
This study highlights the need to facilitate a person-job good job match between this person and the job he/she
match, consider environmental factors, and increase external is doing?
supports for organisations, line managers and co-workers in • Have you been involved in the job matching process?
supporting successful employment outcomes for employees • What would you regard as the most important aspects
with ASD. Models of service delivery should be holistic, of a job matching process?
rather than using approaches which only consider the needs • How would you describe that these personal character-
of autistic individuals, without consideration of the broader istics are in relation to/compared with ‘other’ employ-
context. ees?
• Did this person receive any specific training in order to
Acknowledgments  The authors would like to acknowledge the partici- succeed in this job?
pants who took part in this research.
• What are the most important things that you do in order
Author Contributions  CT, SG and MF conceptualised the study. JD
to allow this person to succeed in his/her job?
undertook data collection and data analysis. JD drafted the manuscript • What kind of support has this person got that has been
with CT, SG, MA, MB and MF. All authors contributed to the inter- successful?
pretation of results, reviewed the manuscript critically and approved • What kind of adaptations have been needed (below are
the final version.
prompts)
Compliance with Ethical Standards  – Products and technology
Conflict of interest  The authors report no conflicts of interest.
• Assistive products/technology adapted to assist
Ethical Approval  This study complied with the Helsinki Declaration everyday functioning (scanners, remote control
(World Medical Association 2008) and ethical approval was obtained systems, timers/timer switches)
by the Curtin University Human Research Ethics Committee (HR
16/2014), Perth Western Australia. Written informed consent was
• Assistive products/technology for communication
obtained from all participants and all names have been changed for • Assistive products/technology for “education” for
confidentiality reasons. example learning new tasks
• Assistive products/technology adapted to facilitate
Informed Consent  Informed consent was obtained from all partici-
pants included in the study. Participants were provided with informa-
work activities
tion outlining the aims and procedures of the study prior to providing • Assistive products/technology for transport to
written informed consent to participate and informed of their ability to work, finding way in workplace
withdraw from the study at any point without the provision of justifica- • Assistive products/technology for safety
tion or prejudice.

– Natural and human made changes to the environ-

ment
Appendix
• Light, sound, smell
Interview Guides • Time, for example hours worked/ start time, finish
time
Individual Level
– Support and relationship
• Describe the workplace, how many employees in total,
how many with disability? • Adaptions to enhance relations with peers/col-
• The individual with ASD that we are focusing on: leagues
• Adaptions to enhance relations with people in
– What is the job he/she in doing? position of authority
– How many hours a week does he/she work?
– How was this person recruited for the job? – Attitudes

13
 Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders

• Strategies to positively affect individual attitudes • Do you have collaboration with other employers/organi-
of peers, co-workers, people in position of author- sations?
ity in the workplace • How do you connect with other employers/businesses/
• Customers/ people not employed in the company organisations?
• Do you collaborate with other ‘treatment teams’ (medi-
– In the job task/s – has anything been taken out of cal, social, rehabilitation, the individuals social net-
the job description (that another employee would be work)?
expected to do) • What kind of workplaces/employment do you have
access to?
• (How) Do you evaluate job satisfaction with this
• How would an individual transfer to open employment?
employee?
• Do you follow up former employees who has transferred
• How does the team work with this employee?
“out” of your organisation?
• What kind of support is given to/would be needed for co-
workers in order to create an autism friendly workplace
(training for co-workers)?
• What kind of support do you get/would you need in order
to be successful in your role? References
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