1. a) What is computer aided tomography?

2M
Computer tomography (CT), originally known as computed axial
tomography (CAT or CT scan) and body section rentenography.
b) Discuss the properties of Ultrasound and how Ultrasound can be used for 3M
diagnostics.

c) With a neat illustration, explain the principle of Magnetic Resonance Imaging. How 10M
is it different from X-ray and CT-imaging system?
MRI is a radiology technique

That uses magnetism, radio waves, and a computer to produce

images of body structures.

MRI is based on the principles of NMR

In1997 the first MRI exam was performed on a human being.

It took 5 hours to produce one image.

PRINCIPLE:

MRI makes use of the magnetic properties of certain atomic nuclei.

Hydrogen nucleus (single proton) present in water molecules, and

therefore in all body tissues. The hydrogen nuclei partially aligned by
a strong magnetic field in the scanner.

The nuclei can be rotated using radio waves, and they subsequently
oscillate in the magnetic field while returning to equilibrium.

Simultaneously they emit a radio signal. This is detected using

antennas (coils).Very detailed images can be made of soft tissues.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF MRI:

Scanner Computers
Recording hardware
SCANNER:

An MRI scanner is a large tube that contains powerful magnets.

Main components of scanner
– Static magnetic field coils
– Gradient coils
– RF (radiofrequency) coils
Static Magnetic Field Coils:

Three methods to generate magnetic field

1. Fixed magnet
2. Resistive magnet
3. Super conducting magnet
Fixed magnets and resistive magnets are generally restricted to field
strengths below 0.4t
High-resolution imaging systems use super conducting magnets.
The super-conducting magnets are large and complex
They need the coils to be soaked in liquid helium to reduce their
temperature to a value close to absolute zero.
GRADIENT COILS:

Gradient coils are used to produce deliberate variations in the main

magnetic field
There are usually three sets of gradient coils, one for each direction.
The variation in the magnetic field permits localization of image slices as
well as phase encoding and frequency encoding.
The set of gradient coils for the z axis are helmholtz pairs, and for the x and
y axis paired saddle coils.
 RADIOFREQUENCY COIL:
RF coils act as transmitter and receiver
RF coils are the "antenna" of the MRI system
That transmit the RF signal and receives the return signal.
They are simply a loop of wire either circular or rectangular
Helmholtz pair coils consist of two circular coils parallel to each other.
They are used as the z gradient coils in MRI scanners
Paired saddle coils are also used for the x and y gradient coils.
ADVANTAGES OF MRI:
No ionizing radiation
Variable thickness in any plane Better contrast resolution
Many details without iv contrast
DISADVANTAGES OF MRI:
Very expensive
Dangerous for patients with metallic devices placed within the body
Difficult to be performed on claustrophobic patients Movement during
scanning may cause blurry images RF transmitters can cause severe burns if
mishandled

2. a) What is Radiography? 2M
When radiation pass through an object it creates its internal structure image
on the Photographic film.
b) Discuss the properties of Ultrasound and how Ultrasound can be used for 3M
diagnostics.
• Ultrasound (US) is the most widely used imaging technology
worldwide
• Popular due to availability, speed, low cost, patient-friendliness (no
radiation)
• Applied in obstetrics, cardiology, inner medicine, urology,...
• Ongoing research to improve image quality, speed and new
application areas such a intra- operative navigation, tumour
therapy,...
Ultrasound is a useful way of examining many of the body's internal
organs, including but not limited to the:
• heart and blood vessels, including the abdominal aorta and its
major branches
• Liver
• Gallbladder
• Spleen
• Pancreas
• Kidneys
• Bladder
• Uterus, ovaries, and unborn child (fetus) in pregnant patients
• Eyes
• Thyroid and parathyroid glands
• Scrotum (testicles)
• brain in infants
• hips in infants
Properties of Ultrasound
The frequencies of medical Ultrasound waves are several magnitudes
higher than the upper limit of → human hearing.
• Although ultrasound is better known for its diagnostic capabilities,
it was initially used for therapy rather than diagnosis.
• In the 1940s, ultrasound was used to perform services similar to
that of radiation or chemotherapy now.
• Ultrasonic waves emit heat that can create disruptive effects on
animal tissue and destroy malignant tissue.
• Although ultrasound is better known for its diagnostic capabilities,
it was initially used for therapy rather than diagnosis.
• In the 1940s, ultrasound was used to perform services similar to
that of radiation or chemotherapy now.
• Ultrasonic waves emit heat that can create disruptive effects on
animal tissue and destroy malignant tissue.
c) Explain the different types of biotelemetry system. 10M
 Biotelemetry is an electrical measurement of biological activities in
living organism.
 It is used to monitor the patient who are in job or work place and also
monitor the athlete during practice to improve the performance.
 There are two types
1.single channel telemetry system
2.multichannel telemetry system
• Single channel telemetry system:
• A miniature battery operated radio transmitter is connected to the
electrodes of the patients
• Radio receiver which detects the radio signals and recovers the
signals for further processing.
• Receiving system can even be located in a room separate from the
patient
• few hundred kHz to about 300mHz
Transmission of bio electric variables:
 Active measurement:
 bioelectric variables like ECG,EMG and EEG are measured directly
with out using any excitation voltage
 Passive measurement:
 Here the physiological variables like blood
pressure,temperature,blood flow etc are measured indirectly using
transducer and excitation voltage.
Multiple channel telemetry system:
 There are two types :
• 1.Frequency division multiplex
2.Time division multiplex
• Frequency division multiplex system:
• Each signal is frequency modulated on a subcarrier frequency
• Then these modulated subcarrier frequencies are combined to
modulated the
main R.F. carrier.
 The frequency of the subcarriers has to be carefully selected to avoid
interference
 The low pass filters are used to extract the signals without any noise.
Time division multiplex telemetry system:
 The transmission channel is connected to each signal-channel input
for a short time to sample and transmit that signal
 When all the channels have been scanned once a cycle is completed
and the next cycle will start
 At the reciever end,the process is reversed
 If the number of scanning cycles per second is large and if the
transmitter and the reciever are synchronized, the signal in each
channel at the reciever side can be recovered without noticeable
distortion.

 The scanning frequency fn should be at least greater than twice the

maximum signal frequency fs. (i.e.)fn>2fssmax
 Tn=1/fn=scanning period, and tn is the sampling time of each
channel.
 Then the maximum channels that can be obtained is n=Tn/tn.
Problems in implant telemetry:
 For long –term telemetry, implant telemetry is more useful one. The
 whole electronic circuit is fully packed as a capsule.
 It is kept deep in the body to be closer to the signal source .
 For implement telemetry, the size and weight limitations are much
serious and the reliability requirements is more critical.
 Body reaction: size, weight , surface condition and shave of the
implant system will have effects on the body reaction. Meanwhile
medical grade silastic ,teflon,glass and some metals which are used
as enclosure causes like foreign body reaction on tissues.
 Power supply two special types of power supplies are used for long-
term implant telemetry units along with mercury and lithium cells
 Environment power supply :Radio induction has been applied to
transmit milliwatt of power to the telemetry unit for months.
 Microwatt power supply circuits using piezoelectric crystals placed
on any blood vessels or aorta.
3. a) What is Computed Radiography. 2M
X-rays penetrating the specimen stimulate the phosphors. The stimulated
phosphors remain in an excited state. After exposure imaging plate is read
electronically and erased for re-use in a special scanner system.

b) Draw an X-ray tube and explain generation of Xrays. 3M

X-ray tubes produce X-ray photons by accelerating a stream of electrons
and colliding them with a heavy metal target. X-ray radiation with a
continuous spectrum of energies is produced with a range from a few keV
to a maximum of the energy of the electron beam. When an X-ray photon
(with energy hv) knocks out an electron from inner shell of atom. The
ejected electronis called photoelectron and this effect is called photoelectric
effect. The atom will release energy by the emission of an Auger Electron.

X-rays & Gamma rays are electromagnetic type of radiations of shorter

 wavelength than visible light.

ƛ(visible)= 600 A , ƛ(x-rays)= 1 A , ƛ(gamma rays)= 0.0001 A

X-rays & Gamma rays are different because of difference in source of

origin.
c) What are the four basic modes of transmission of ultrasound? Describe 10M
briefly.

4. a) What is MRI? 2M
b) Discuss briefly about Tomography. 3M
c) With neat block diagram explain the principle of operation and working of MRI system. 10M
5. a) What is Nuclear Medicine. 2M
b) Illustrate the application of Endoscopy. 3M
c) Explain in detail about the hardware and instrumentation of Computer Tomography(CT). 5M
6. a) Illustrate about the problems associated with implant telemetry circuits. 2M

b) Mention the different types of ultrasound imaging. 3M

c) Discuss briefly about Single Photon Emission computed 10M
tomography(SPECT)

7. a) Draw the block diagram of a bio-telemetry system 2M

b) Explain computed tomography imaging technique with suitable diagram and 3M
state its applications.

c) Discuss briefly about Positron Emission Tomography(PET) 10M