Marriage and Family Life,

UNIT 10 EARLY TAMIL SOCIETY – Notions of Untouchability,

Changing Patterns in
REGIONS AND THEIR CULTURES Varna and Jati

AND CULT OF HERO WORSHIP

Structure
10.0 Introduction
10.1 Sources
10.1.1 Sangam Literature
10.1.2 Foreign Accounts
10.1.3 Archaeological Materials
10.1.4 Tamil Brahmi Inscriptions
10.1.5 Coins – Indian and Roman
10.2 Regions and their Cultures (Aintinai/Five Fold Landscape)
10.2.1 Tinai Concept
10.2.2 Kurinji
10.2.3 Mullai
10.2.4 Marutam
10.2.5 Neytal
10.2.6 Palai
10.3 Polity
10.4 Cult of Hero Worship
10.5 Summary
10.6 Glossary
10.7 Exercises

10.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we will study the Early Historic period in the Tamil country that witnessed
significant developments in a number of areas. One of the important contributions of
this period was the composition of the early Tamil texts, collectively known as the
Sangam literature. The other important characteristics of this period include the Indo-
Roman trade, which became active from the first century A.D. onwards, introduction
of Tamil Brahmi script, beginning of urbanisation, and the continuing tradition of
megaliths. The Early Historic period, which is also called the Sangam Age, is generally
placed between fifth century B.C. and fifth century A.D. We are particularly concerned
with the cult of hero worship in the context of the regions and their cultures.

Geographically, the ancient Tamil country was bounded by Venkatam (Tirupathi Hills
in Andhra Pradesh) in the north, Kumari (Kanyakumarai or Cape Comarin) in the
south and the seas (the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea) on the east and the
west. Thus the ancient Tamil country covered the modern states of Tamil Nadu and
Kerala.

10.1 SOURCES
Here we will familiarise you with various sources of studying the early Tamil society.
10.1.1 Sangam Literature
The Sangam literature forms the main source of information for the Early Historic
period. The literature derives its name from Sangam, where it is believed to have
been composed or compiled. According to Tamil tradition, there were three Sangam 19
Early Historic Societies: Ages, each extending over a period of thousands of years and these Sangams were
6th Century B.C. to 4th patronised by the Pandya rulers. The Sangam perhaps functioned as an academy or
Century A.D.
assembly, where a number of poets were present. The extant works, which are
attributed to the third Sangam Age, were compiled in the early medieval period. All
the Tamil works that were produced in the first two Sangams are said to have been
lost. However, there is very little historical or linguistic evidence to prove the authenticity
of this legend. It has also been stated that the term ‘Sangam’ is of very late origin.
The Sangam literature is the oral bardic literature of the ancient Tamils. Most of the
works were composed by the bards and poets who praised the kings and received
their patronage in return. They are also the emotional outpourings of the poets. The
literature offers vital information for reconstructing the socio, economic and political
history of the Early Historic Tamil country. Though the situations in the poems were
described according to the poetic conventions, the poets have taken real life situations
and the happenings in the society for similes, metaphors and other codes and symbols.
The symbols and codes have hidden meanings, which are not obvious. A careful
analysis of these symbols and codes can offer valuable information.
These works are preserved mainly due to the efforts of scholars including U.V.
Swaminatha Iyer, who collected the manuscripts and published them in the modern
period.
The major works produced during this era are grouped into Pathinenmelkanakku
(eighteen major works - narrative) and Pathinenkilkanakku (eighteen minor works
–didactic). Pathinenmelkanakku is divided into Ettutokai and Paththupattu. Besides
these works, there is Tolkappiyam, an ancient Tamil grammatical treatise.
There are five major Tamil epics, Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, Sivaka cintamani,
Valaiyapati and Kundalakesi, which postdate the Sangam Age. Among these,
Silapatikaram and Manimekalai are the famous works. There are also five minor
epics, Yasodhara-kaviyam, Chulamani, Perunkathai, Nagakumara-kaviyam and
Nilakesi, written by Jain authors.

Tolkappiyam – Grammatical Work

Tolkappiyam, the ancient extant Tamil grammar work, was written by Tolkappiyar,
who was believed to be a disciple of the mythical sage Agasthya. The Tolkappiyam
lays down the rules and regulations for Tamil literature. The Tolkappiyam is divided
into three components:
Eluttatikaram (Orthography)
Collatikaram (etymology and syntax) and
Porulatikaram (deals with akam [the inner life] and puram [outer life] and prosody).
Chronology of Tolkappiyam is debatable. Some scholars date it to around the
beginning of the Christian era, while others place it in fifth century A.D.
Pathinenmelkanakku (the Eighteen Major Works)
Pathinenmelkanakku comprises Ettutokai (eight anthologies) and Paththupattu
(ten Idylls), which are the earliest Sangam works.
Ettutokai (the eight anthologies)
The Ettutokai is a collection of eight long and short poems. The Ettutokai works are:
1) Narrinai: The general theme of Narrinai is love and it consists of 400 stanzas,
composed by 175 poets.
2) Kuruntokai: It is a ‘short anthology’, consisting of 402 love poems.
3) Ainkurunuru: This ‘short five hundreds’ deals with love songs of five fold
landscape.
20
4) Pattirrupattu: The ‘ten tens’ consists of ten long poems divided into ten sections. Marriage and Family Life,
It is a puram work praising the valour of the Chera kings. The work is valuable Notions of Untouchability,
Changing Patterns in
for reconstructing the history of the early Chera rulers. Varna and Jati
5) Paripatal: It is a composition of devotional songs dedicated to deities such as
Vishnu and Karthikeya.
6) Kalitokai: It consists of 150 stanzas with most of the songs dealing with love
theme and a few songs on moral values.
7) Akananuru: It contains 401 stanzas of poems composed by nearly 145 poets.
All the songs deal with love theme.
8) Purananuru: It comprises of 400 heroic poems, composed by 157 poets.
Paththupattu (Ten Idylls)
The Paththupattu is a collection of ten long poems. Out of them, five belong to the
arrupatai class in which a bard directs another to a person/king for the acquisition
of wealth. They are:
1) Tirumurukarruppatai: A bard directs another to the abode of Lord Muruga, to
acquire spiritual wealth. All the important shrines of Lord Muruga are described
in this work. It was composed by Nakkirar.
2) Porunararruppatai: It praises the valour of the Chola king Karikala. It was
composed by Muttatamakanniyar.
3) Ciruppanarruppatai: In this work, the bard directs the minstrel to the court of
Nalliyakotan, a chieftain. While describing his kingdom, the work also portrays
the capital cities of three major kingdoms, namely, the Cheras, the Cholas and
the Pandyas. It was written by Nattattanar.
4) Perumpannarruppatai: This arrupatai is in praise of the ruler of Kanchi,
written by the poet Uruttirakkannanar. Administration of the city of Kanchi and
its trading activities are widely described in this work.
5) Mullaipattu: The shortest of ten idylls, containing 103 lines was composed by
Naputtanar. This work deals with the akam concept.
6) Maturaikanci: The longest of ten poems, contains 782 lines. Mankuti Marutanar
praises the valour of the Pandya king Netunceliyan and describes in detail the
trade, commerce and administrative aspects of the Pandya Kingdom.
7) Netunelvatai: This puram work was written by Nakkirar in praise of
Netunceliyan, the Pandya ruler.
8) Kurincipattu: Kapilar’s work deals with akam concept.
9) Pattinapalai: In praise of the Chola ruler Karikala, this work was composed by
Uruttirankannanar. This work deals with the trade relations between ancient
Tamil country and foreign countries.
10) Malaipatukatam: Composed by Perumkaucikanar, the work is an arrupatai,
directing the fellow bard to the kingdom of Nannan.
Pathinenkilkanakku (Eighteen Minor Works)
The eighteen minor (Kilkanakku) works which are didactic in nature are later than
the Melkanakku works. They show more influence of Prakrit and Sanskrit cultural
traditions than the Melkanakku works. The impact of Jainism and Buddhism is also
seen in these works, which mostly contain codes of conduct for kings and people.
The Kilkanakku literature was composed in fourth-fifth centuries A.D., when the
Tamil country was under the Kalabhra rule. The most famous among these works
is Muppal or Tirukural, written by Tiruvalluvar. It deals with philosophy and maxims.

21
Early Historic Societies: The eighteen minor works are:
6th Century B.C. to 4th
Century A.D. 1) Naladiyar;
2) Nanmani Kadigai;
3) Palamoli Nanuru;
4) Aintinai Elupathu;
5) Aintinai Aimbathu;
6) Tinai Malai Nurrambathu;
7) Acharakovai;
8) Tinaimoli Aimbathu;
9) Muppal (Tirukural);
10) Tirikadugam;
11) Cirupanchamulam;
12) Kalavali Narpathu;
13) Kar Narpathu;
14) Inna Narpathu;
15) Iniyavai Narpathu;
16) Kainilai;
17) Innilai; and
18) Eladi.

10.1.2 Foreign Accounts

The Periplus Maris Erythraei (The Periplus of Erythrean Sea), compiled in first
century A.D., serves as an important source of Indo-Roman Trade. The anonymous
author of this work was a Greek merchant or sailor from Egypt. This work mentions
about the major ports and towns in India during the Early Historic period and also
the items of Indo-Roman trade.
Accounts of the Roman Writer, Pliny the Elder (23-79 A.D.) are also useful for
investigating the Indo-Roman trade. Pliny speaks about the draining of wealth of the
Roman Empire due to the demand for spices, especially pepper, in Rome. These
accounts are quite useful in knowing about the Indo-Roman Trade.
Claudius Ptolemy’s Geographia is another important source for Indo-Roman Trade.
He was a Greek. He lived in Alexandria, the Roman capital of Egypt and was the
head of the renowned library at Alexandria from 127 to 150 A.D.
Certain important information is also available in the Buddhist chronicles of Sri Lanka,
namely, Mahavamsa and Deepavamsa.

10.1.3 Archaeological Materials

The archaeological evidence includes megalithic burials or monuments, coins and
excavated sites, especially urban centres.
Megaliths are a class of burial or memorial monuments, erected as a part of ancestral
worship. The term ‘Megalith’ means ‘large stone’. Since the monuments were made
of large stones, they are called megaliths. The megaliths are found all over the Tamil
country. The dead were buried with grave goods like iron objects, black-and-red ware
pottery and beads and other materials, and monuments were erected. Sometimes
precious materials were also placed along with the remains of dead as offerings. Iron
objects, especially, weapons of offence are found in large numbers in the burials.
The burial types are: Cairn circle, Urn burials, Dolmens, Topikals and Kodaikkals.
Numerous megalithic sites have been excavated in Tamil country. Sanur, Kunnathur,
22
Amirthamangalam, Kodumanal, Porkalam and Mangadu are a few of them.
Excavated Habitation Sites Marriage and Family Life,
Notions of Untouchability,
Apart from the megalithic burials, many habitation sites, especially urban centres of Changing Patterns in
the Early Historic period have been excavated in Tamil Nadu. These sites offer a lot Varna and Jati
of information about the Early Historic period. Vasavasamudram near the mouth of
the Palar, Kanchipuram on the bank of the Palar, Arikamedu near Pondichery,
Kaveripattinam near the mouth of the Kaveri, Uraiyur on the bank of the Kaveri,
Alagankulam near the mouth of the Vaigai and Korkai near the mouth of the
Tambrabarani River are the important excavated Early Historic habitation sites in
Tamil Nadu. They give valuable evidence for the Indo-Roman trade, and towns of
the Sangam Age. Brick structures, pottery with Tamil Brahmi inscriptions and imported
pottery from Rome (e.g. Amphora) have been found at these sites. The excavated
sites are also indirectly useful in determining the chronology of the Sangam literature.

10.1.4 Tamil Brahmi Inscriptions

Another category of evidence is the Tamil Brahmi inscriptions found on the rock
shelters carved with stone beds for the residence of Jain monks and on pottery. They
serve as corroborative evidence for dating the literature. They have been found at
several sites near Madurai and Karur. The inscriptions at Pugalur near Karur give
information about the genealogy of the Chera rulers.

10.1.5 Coins – Indian and Roman

Coins of Early Historic period have been found at many sites in Tamil Nadu. They
include coins of the Sangam Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas. Besides these local coins,
gold, silver and copper Roman coins have also been found in large numbers from
several sites. Most of the Roman coin hoards are concentrated in the Coimbatore
region. This is attributed to the important role this region had played in the Indo-
Roman trade.
Chronology
Dating the Sangam literature has not been an easy task in the absence of specific
evidence. As a result, there is no unanimous opinion among the scholars on the date
of the Sangam literature. Some scholars date it between third century B.C. and fifth
century A.D., while others place it between first century and fifth century A.D. Some
of the criteria used for dating the Sangam literature are listed below:
• Based on the linguistic development of Tamil language used in the Sangam literature,
the works are dated between second century B.C. and third century A.D.
• Tamil Brahmi inscriptions with similar individual names mentioned in the Sangam
literature are dated from second century B.C. to fourth century A.D.
• Foreign accounts such as Periplus Maraei of Erythrei date the trading centres
mentioned in the Sangam literature to the early centuries of Christian era.
• No reference to the Pallava rulers in the Sangam literature denotes a pre-Pallava
chronology for the works.
Though the broad time range of the entire corpus of Sangam literature can be easily
fixed, the internal chronology is a problematic. Among the Sangam works, the texts
grouped under the Pathinenmelkanakku are considered earlier than the
Pathinenkilkanakku texts. Within the Pathinenmelkanakku, Ettutokai with the
exception of Kalitokai and Paripatal was the earliest. Some of the arruppadai
literature is also dated to early period.

10.2 REGIONS AND THEIR CULTURES

(AINTINAI/FIVE FOLD LANDSCAPE)
Here we describe the econiches in which the early Tamil Society lived. 23
Early Historic Societies: 10.2.1 Tinai Concept
6th Century B.C. to 4th
Century A.D. The ancient Tamils had divided the Tamil country into five distinct ecological zones,
with each zone having its own characteristics. Each zone with its distinct characteristics
is called Tinai. The concept of tinai can be compared to the modern ecosystem
approach adopted in the study of cultures. The five tinai are
1) Kurinci – mountainous zone;
2) Mullai – pastoral zone;
3) Marutam – riverine zone;
4) Neytal – coastal zone; and
5) Palai- arid zone.
These zonal classifications were adopted for the composition of poems. Besides, they
also more or less reflected the actual ecological systems of Tamil country. However,
it should not be considered that the five fold divisions were found as distinct units in
reality. They were idealised landscapes. Though such distinct units existed in some
areas, quite a few regions had overlapping of various tinais. Tolkappiyam refers to
such a situation as tinai mayakkam.
Each zone or tinai includes the conduct code ascribed to love situations (akam) and
war situations (puram). The tinais have distinct characteristic features, namely, time,
season, fauna, flora, avifauna and occupation. In the composition of poems the poets
followed these conventions. While composing a poem on Marutam tinai, the plants,
animals and the way of life seen in that zone are incorporated in the poems. While
creating these conventions the poets have visualised the way of life they saw in each
tinai and created the conventions. In actual life, the subsistence and various aspects
of the life in these zones are varied depending upon the landscape patterns. The
Akam and puram tinais also reflect the predominant behavioural patterns among the
people of each landscape. It can be concluded that these poems more or less reflect
the ground reality, though it is quite possible that certain generalisations and
exaggerations found their place.

10.2.2 Kurinji
The Kurinji landscape was the mountainous zone. The people who lived in this zone
are called kuravan. Hunting and gathering was the main occupation here. Muruga
was the God of Kurinji.
Characteristics of Kurinji Landscape
Tinai or Landscape: Kurinji, mountainous zone (named after a flower of
the hilly region (Phelophylum Kunthianum nees).
Time: Midnight.
Season: Early winter and early dew season.
Flora: Jackfruit and bamboo.
Fauna: Elephant, monkey, tiger.
Avifauna: Peacock, parrot.
Settlement: Small settlement (cirukuti).
Subsistence Pattern: Hunting of wild animals and gathering of honey
and plant produce, slash-burn cultivation.
Food/Crops: Rice, pepper, tinai, tuber, honey.
People: People of mountains (Kuravar, Kanavar & Vetar).
Deity: Muruga, the God of warfare.
Conduct Code (Akam): Clandestine meeting of the hero and the heroine
(punartal).
Conduct Code (Puram): cattle lifting (vetci).
24
10.2.3 Mullai Marriage and Family Life,
Notions of Untouchability,
Changing Patterns in
Mullai was the pastoral zone. Pastoralists lived in this region and animal husbandry Varna and Jati
was the main occupation. Vishnu was the God of this region.

Characteristics of Mullai Landscape

Tinai or Landscape: Mullai, the pastoral or forest zone (named after
white jasmine flower (Jasmimum auriculatum).
Time: Evening.
Season: Winter and early rainy season.
Flora: Indian laburnum, iron wood tree.
Fauna: Cow, bull, sheep, goat and deer.
Avifauna: Sparrow and wild fowl.
Settlement: Pastoral villages and hamlets.
Subsistence Pattern: Animal husbandry and small scale cultivation.
People: Pastoralists, cowherds & shepherds (Ayar and Itaiyar).
Deity: Vishnu.
Conduct Code (Akam): patient waiting on the part of wife for the return
of her husband from a journey (iruttal).
Conduct Code (Puram): Invasion (Vanji).

10.2.4 Marutam
Marutam was the riverine zone. Farmers lived in this zone. Indra was the God of this
region.

Characteristics of Marutam Landscape

Tinai or Landscape: Marutam, riverine or agricultural zone (named after
a flower of the mystle tree (Terminalia arjuna).
Time: Last hours of night and dawn.
Season: All the six seasons, winter, autumn, early dew, late dew, early
spring and late spring.
Flora: Mango trees.
Fauna: Buffalo, fresh water fish.
Avifauna: Heron.
Settlement: Village (ur).
Subsistence Pattern: Agriculture and allied activities.
People: Ploughmen, agriculturalists, villager (Ulavar and Urar).
Deity: Indra, God of rains.
Conduct Code (akam): Lover’s quarrel due to hero’s infidelity (Utal).
Conduct Code (puram): Besieging the enemy’s fort (Ulinai).

25
Early Historic Societies: 10.2.5 Neytal
6th Century B.C. to 4th
Century A.D.
The Neytal was the coastal zone. The people who lived here were known as Paratavars.
Varuana was the God of this region. Fishing and salt mining were the main occupations.

Characteristics of Neytal Landscape

Tinai or Landscape: Neytal, coastal zone (named after the flower which
grows in the back waters (Nympheae violacea).
Time: Afternoon.
Season: All the six seasons.
Flora: Punnai.
Fauna: Crocodile, shark.
Avifauna: Seagull.
Settlement: Coastal towns (pattinam).
Subsistence Pattern: Fishing and salt collection.
People: Fisher folk (Valaiyar, paratavar & minavar).
Deity: Varuna, the God of Sea.
Conduct Code (Akam): Bemoaning the lover’s absence (Irnakal).
Conduct Code (Puram): Battle (tumpai).

10.2.6 Palai
Palai was the dry, semi arid zone. As such there is no desert land in ancient Tamil
country, the landscapes of Kurinji and Mullai, during the dry climate or in the time
of rain failure, became parched and resulted in the formation of Palai land. Korravai
was the goddess of this region.
Characteristics of Palai Landscape

Tinai or Landscape: Palai, arid zone (named after the flower of the
desert region (Wrightia tinctoria).
Time: Mid day.
Season: Late spring or summer.
Flora: Cactus and other thorny shrubs.
Fauna: Elephant, tiger, wolf.
Avifauna: Eagle.
Settlement: Small settlements on the highway.
Subsistence Pattern: Highway robbery, plundering and cattle lifting.
People: Warriors, robbers, and hunters (Maravar, Eyinar, Vetar, Kalvar).
Deity: Korravai, the Goddess of victory.
Conduct Code (Akam): Separation of lovers (Pirital).
Conduct Code (Puram): Victory (Vakai).
26
Akam and Puram embedded in the concept of the Regions: Marriage and Family Life,
Notions of Untouchability,
A unique feature of Sangam literature is the special place accorded to common men Changing Patterns in
and women. Most of the works deal with day-to-day activities of common people, Varna and Jati
who were immortalized in these poems. The literature covers all the aspects of
human life under two categories - akam and puram.

Akam indicates the inner life of the people, which encompasses the love feelings of
men and women. Puram, on the other hand, deals with the outer life of the people,
with the emphasis on war, victory, and human values.

There are three main components in the akam concept, namely, the mutalporul,
karuporul and uriporul. The mutalporul or the primary element denotes space and
time of action. The karuporul or the principal element indicates the natural elements
belonging to a particular landscape (deity, food, flora, fauna and economic activities).
The uriporul or the human elements, denotes human emotions and feelings that are
appropriate to the aspects of mudal and karu. There are five corresponding tinais
for akam situations.

Akam Conduct Code for the Five Tinais

Tinai Code of Conduct
Kurinji Clandestine meeting of the hero and the heroine
(punartal).
Mullai Patient waiting on the part of wife for the return of
her husband from a journey (iruttal).
Marutam Lover’s quarrel due to hero’s infidelity (utal).
Neytal Separation of lovers (pirital).
Palai Bemoaning the lover’s absence (irankal).

There are also two additional situations in akam poetry, namely the Porunta tinai
or mismatched love and kaikillai or unrequited love.

Puram Codes for the Five Tinais

Tinai Code of Conduct
Kurinji Cattle lifting (vetci)
Mullai Invasion (vanji)
Marutam Besieging the enemy’s fort (ulinai)
Neytal Battle (tumpai)
Palai Victory (vakai)
The two additional tinais of puram concept, namely, the Kanchi and Padantinai
deal with human values and ethics in life.

10.3 POLITY
The political formations of the Sangam age were in a preliminary stage. There was
no major empire, but only three large kingdoms ruled by Ventars (crowned kings),
and many chieftains (Velirs), who controlled small territories. The Cheras and Cholas
and Pandyas were the Muventars or three major kings, who controlled large territories
and ruled independently. The Muventars performed Vedic sacrifices (e.g. Rajasuya)
to legitimise their kingship. There are references to these monarchs in the Asokan
inscriptions as Chodas, Padas and Keralaputos. The Asokan inscriptions also mention 27
Early Historic Societies: ‘Satiyaputos’ who are identified with the rulers of Tagadur region (Dharmapuri region
6th Century B.C. to 4th in western Tamil Nadu). The ventars and the chieftains frequently fought among
Century A.D.
themselves for supremacy. While a few of chieftains were independent, others were
aligned with one of the Muventars.

The history of Sangam Cheras is gleaned from Patirrupattu, a work of eight

anthologies. The Pugalur Tamil Brahmi inscription of early centuries of the Christian
era also refers to the genealogy of the Chera rulers. The Cheras ruled over most part
of Kerala and western Tamil Nadu from Vanchi and Karur. Vanji is identified with
modern Karur near Tiruchirapalli. Some scholars identify it with Kodungallore near
Thrissur in Kerala. Muziris near the mouth of Periyar was the famous port of the
Cheras. Senguttuvan was the prominent ruler of this dynasty and he was a
contemporary of Gajabahu of Sri Lanka. Bow and arrow was the emblem of the
Cheras.

The Cholas ruled over the Kaveri delta. Their capital was situated at Uraiyur. They
also had another capital at Puhar (Kaveripattinam), which also acted as a port city.
Karikala was the famous king of this dynasty, who is said to have destroyed all his
enemies at a very young age and also credited with the building of a dam or bund
across the river Kaveri. There were other rulers such as Nedunkilli. Tiger was their
emblem.

The Pandyas are considered to be the earliest rulers of the Sangam Age. There are
many references to Pandyas in literary sources such as the Ramayana, the
Mahabharata and the Arthasastra and the accounts of Megasthanes. They ruled
over the southern Tamil country. According to legends, they patronised the poets of
Sangam Age. Their capital was at Madurai. Korkai was their port city. Neducheliyan
was the famous ruler of this dynasty, who is said to have defeated the Aryan rulers.
Fish was their emblem.

There were numerous chieftains like Ori, Kari, Pari, Atiyaman, Nalliyakotan, and Ay,
ruling over small areas. There were frequent battles among the chieftains to control
territories and to collect booty. The collected booty was redistributed by the chief
among the followers (warriors, bards and others). Some of the chieftains were
powerful and received tributes from other smaller chieftains (Purananuru 97). The
chieftains also fought with the Ventars, e.g. Pari of Parambu hills.

10.5 CULT OF HERO WORSHIP

The economy of the Early Historic period was a mixed type with different modes of
production prevailing in different ecozones. Hunting-gathering and slash-burn/shifting
cultivation were practised in the hilly areas (Kurinci). Pastoralism was common in the
Mullai areas, fishing and collection of salt were the occupations in the coastal areas,
and farming was the main mode of production in the Marutam region. In the Palai
region, plundering was the occupation, besides hunting. However, these should not be
taken as the only mode of production of the respective region, but as the chief mode
of production.

Cattle or sheep rearing was the dominant mode of resource use in most of the areas.
According to the literature, it was predominant in the Mullai region. Those who
engaged in cattle rearing were called idaiyar. Cattle were treated as wealth as
indicated by the term. The frequent raids conducted by the chiefs, mainly to steal the
cattle suggest the importance of cattle. Archaeological evidence shows distribution of
cattle and sheep in most parts of Tamil Nadu except Kerala, where no Early Historic
habitation sites have been excavated. The people from the dry agro-pastoral regions
seem to have dominated the political scenario.
28
Cultivation contributed significantly to the production, but it was restricted to certain Marriage and Family Life,
ecozones. It was not as popular and dominant as cattle rearing. The amount of Notions of Untouchability,
Changing Patterns in
agricultural implements reported from the megalithic burials also indicates that Varna and Jati
agriculture was not the predominant mode of production. The method and crops of
cultivation differed from one zone to another. In Kurinji zone, milagu (pepper), tinai
and samai were cultivated. In Mullai region, cennel (a type of red rice) was cultivated.
The land was classified into vanpulam and menpulam, referring respectively to dry,
rough lands and soft, wet lands. Perhaps dry cultivation was common in the vanpulam,
while wet or rice cultivation was common in the menpulam. The poems suggest that
the people of menpulams were prosperous and those from vanpulams faced drought
situations frequently.

Monarchs played a significant role in promoting agriculture. King Karikala Chola is

said to have destroyed forest lands and brought more lands under cultivation. For
irrigation purpose, he built a dam or bund across the river Kaveri. Animals and
ploughs were used in cultivation. There are also references to the use of cattle and
elephant in thrashing paddy. A Purananuru poem mentions the practice of slash-burn
cultivation by the Vedars of Kollimalai (Puram 231). Tank irrigation was also known.
There is evidence for land donations in the Sangam Age. The Velvikudi copper plates
of sixth century A.D. mention about the restoration of earlier grant originally given
by the Sangam Pandya rulers, by the by the Later Pandyas. Land donation was made
to bards and warriors. According to Sangam literature, the Chera king Selvakadunkko
Valiadan is said to have donated lands. The landed classes were known as uyarntor
and landless labourers were called illisinar. Hunting gathering was the main occupation
of the hill region. Bow and arrow were used for hunting. Plant products were also
gathered for subsistence.
According to Rajan Gurukkal, kinship was the basis of contemporary relations of
production for the native people. The people of the ecozones were clan based
descent groups dispersed into domestic segments called kutis, around the clan
settlement called ur. Each kuti was an independent production unit under ur which
was controlled by headman (kilar).The kilar’s authority was based on clan-ties. He
controlled the clan’s resources, which was allocated to the clan members through
redistribution.
Agriculture and animal husbandry were dependent upon cooperative labour of affinal
or agnatic kins and thus there was no developed division of labour. The poems have
references to potters performing rituals and bards carrying out certain magico-religious
rites. This suggests that the division of labour had hardly evolved.

However, in the case of brahmana households the situation was different. As the
brahmanas were not cultivators themselves, they had to use non-kin labour for
cultivation. This gradually began to change the equations towards the end of the Early
Historic period and led to the formation of land owning and cultivating classes. From
Medieval period onwards, when more brahmanas migrated into Tamil country and
received land donations, the older institutions disintegrated and caused the formation
of a new order.

The allusions found in the Sangam poems suggest that heroism and martyrdom
received tremendous respect in the early Tamil society. The heroic ideology was very
popular and the heroes were worshiped by erecting memorial stones. Wars and
plunder raids were justified and glorified through various means. Losing one’s life in
the battle, and that too with wounds on the chest was considered a great honour. On
the contrary, wounds on the back were considered a sign of cowardice or disgrace.
Numerous poems talk about the delight of brave mothers over the death of their sons
in the battle with wounds on the chest.

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Early Historic Societies: In the Early Historic period, a number of chiefs dotted the landscape and they
6th Century B.C. to 4th frequently attacked each other. Plunder was one of the means adopted by the chiefs
Century A.D.
to generate resources and frequent raids were carried out for this purpose. More
battles were fought for the booty rather than land, as tax from land was not a well
established means of income. Cattle were the target of such raids. This was called
vetchi in the literary convention. This is because cattle were considered wealth. It
is interesting to note that the Tamil term for cattle ‘Madu’ also denoted wealth. The
booty recovered during the raids was redistributed among the kinsmen, warriors,
bards and the chief.

Ability to organise strong warriors to conduct frequent raids and to successfully lead
them were important qualities required for the chiefs. The very existence and fame
of the chiefs depended on successful raids on enemies, and effective defence in case
of enemy raids. The warriors were rewarded with the booty or land, if they happened
to be alive. What if they lose their life? Therefore, a reward, much more attractive
than a share of land and booty, was the necessity to draw and motivate the warriors.
What else could be the fitting compensation than making them on par with Gods?
Thus, was born the ideology of heroism and cult of hero worship.

The cult of hero worship was promoted in many ways. The bards and poets who
were patronised by the kings, mainly from the booty plundered during the raids,
immortalised the heroes and reinforced the cult of hero worship. The cult of hero
worship encouraged mothers to motivate their children, boosting the supply of warriors.
The works cited below are suggestive of the ways the society nurtured the cult of
the hero worship.
“…..Her delight
When she heard that her son fell in battle
Felling an elephant,
Was greater than at his birth”
Purananuru 277 (A.K Ramanujan 1985:181)
“..When people said
her son had taken fright,
had turned his back on battle,
she raged and shouted
“If he really broke down in the thick of the battle, I’ll slash these breasts that gave
him suck”
and went there,
sword in hand
Turning over body after fallen body
she rummaged through the blood-red battle field
till she found her son,
quartered in pieces,
and she rejoiced ‘more than on the day she gave him birth.
Purananuru 278 (A.K Ramanujan 1985:182)
“If a child of my clan should die,
if it is born dead,
a mere gob of flesh
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not yet human, Marriage and Family Life,
Notions of Untouchability,
they will put it to the sword, Changing Patterns in
Varna and Jati
to give the thing a warrior’s death….”
Purananuru 74 (A.K Ramanujan 1985:120)
Though these poems certainly have an element of exaggeration, it is clear that heroic
ideology was dominant and strong. The abundance of weapons of offence found in
the contemporary Megalithic burials also corroborates the significant role of warfare
and heroism in the Early Historic Tamil society.

Hero stones were manifestations of the cult of hero worship. It is one of the rewards
offered for the sacrifice of warriors. Most probably the tradition of erecting hero
stone evolved from the megalithic tradition that was very popular before the Early
Historic period. It seems that in the Early Historic period the memorials were mainly
erected for heroes, unlike the Pre-Early Historic (Megalithic) period where the burials
or memorials were erected for most of the of the people.

Hero-stones form part of a matrix of what has been categorized as ‘memorial’

stones. Memorial stones are spread across the subcontinent from the deep south to
the arid reaches of Rajasthan desert. There are sati stones and stones set up in
remembrance of dead men. The latter can be subdivided into those set up to
commemorate individuals who died a natural death, and those set up to honour
‘heroes’ who died in battle.

Normally the hero-stone has three panels. The lowest panel depicts the event in
which the person has died. In case the death occurred in a battle or a skirmish, the
battle is depicted on the lowest panel of the stone. Sometimes that panel is expanded
or new ones added according to the scale of the event in which death occurs. The
middle panel depicts the heavenly march of the dead, escorted by the apsara. The
top most panel depicts the dead hero, worshipping a deity, which in most cases is a
sivalinga. In this stereotype, there are variations to cater to the need of the situation.
In case more than one member of a family dies, then we find two slabs joined
together or the slab is vertically divided. We also come across quadrilaterally carved
hero-stones, which depict three panels of identical sizes.

There are many poems in Sangam literature describing about the Nadukals. There
are references to hero stones on the highways and hero stones being worshipped by
people by decorating them with peacock feathers. Tolkappiyam discusses the rituals
involved in the erection of hero stones. Sangam literature mentions that hero stones
were erected for kings (Atiyaman, Purananuru 232). In one instance, a bard while
directing another, describes the wild region with memorial stones planted on the way
side.
‘On many junctions there are planted stones
inscribed with noted names of maravars
who, finding their foes raised shouts of joy
when they retreated, were ashamed, returned,
considering the moment opportune,
and yielded up their lives. These stones too speak
with such contempt of those who flee from foes.
thou may’st go after playing on thy yal
observing ancient rules and singing songs
that please hew ear in praise of Gods that live
in planted stones’
Malaipatukatam, lines 386-396 (Chelliah 1946:31) 31
Early Historic Societies:
6th Century B.C. to 4th 10.5 SUMMARY
Century A.D.
So, you saw how nature and culture intertwined to shape the early tamil society. The
cult of hero worship was manifestation of the pastoral nomadic nature of the society.
Study of its eco zones and the developments of the pastoral nomadic society then
complement each other to give us a picture of the early tamil society.

10.6 GLOSSARY
Hero Stones : These are commemorative stones, which are erected, in
pastoral nomadic societies to honour those who died in wars
related to cattle. For the historian these are valuable sources
of information about the nature of cattle raid. By plotting
the location of each stone on a map the historian can also
map out the routes the pastoral nomads took while roaming
the countryside for pasture and water.

Eco Zones : By these we mean the ecological zones into which a region
is divided. An ecological zone normally combines certain
natural eco characteristics and is complete in itself for the
purposes of giving food, water, and shelter to the flora and
fauna in its habitat.

10.7 EXERCISES
1) Discuss the nature of the sources for the early historic period for Sangam age.
2) Discuss in detail the concept of Tinai.
3) What was the importance of cattle raids in the early Tamil society?

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