BEADS: Journal of the Society of Bead Researchers

Volume 24 Volume 24 (2012) Article 8

1-1-2012

Guide to the Description and Classification of Glass Beads Found

in the Americas
Karlis Karklins

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Repository Citation
Karklins, Karlis (2012). "Guide to the Description and Classification of Glass Beads Found in the
Americas." BEADS: Journal of the Society of Bead Researchers 24: 62-90. Available at:
https://surface.syr.edu/beads/vol24/iss1/8

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 GUIDE TO THE DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OF GLASS BEADS
FOUND IN THE AMERICAS1

Karlis Karklins

This guide provides information relevant to the description and and wound-on-drawn, mold-pressed, blown, and Prosser-
classification of glass beads recovered from archaeological sites molded beads are not dealt with at all. Furthermore, many
in North and South America and the Caribbean. It is partly based of the bead classes and some of the terms are not adequately
on and intended to be used with “A Classification System for Glass defined, making the system difficult to use at times. Another
Beads for the Use of Field Archaeologists,” by Kenneth and Martha drawback centers on the fact that the system, developed
Kidd. Material presented includes a critical evaluation of several using beads derived from early historical period sites in the
bead classification schemes, an overview of bead manufacturing Northeast, has been found to be of little utility by several
techniques, a descriptive listing of the various classes and types researchers in the Pacific Northwest who dealt with beads of
of beads that have been recorded to date, and an explication of a later period (Ross 1976:671-673; Sprague 1971:128-129).
the physical attributes of a bead, as well as interpretative material In its favor is the fact that it is an open-ended system so that
concerning dating and likely origins. new categories, classes, types, and varieties can be added as
required.
In the same year that the previous report was
INTRODUCTION
published, Lyle M. Stone completed his treatise on Fort
Michilimackinac. Published four years later, it contains a
Several systems have been proposed for the classification substantial section on beads wherein the primary sorting is
of glass beads over the years. Although the majority are based on function as revealed by relative size (Stone 1974).
elementary in nature and have limited application, four are The two pertinent functional categories (necklace beads and
noteworthy. seed beads) are each further subdivided into Class (method
The first classificatory scheme for beads was published of manufacture), Series (structure or form), Type (shape),
in 1928 by Horace C. Beck. Comprehensive though it and Variety (color and diaphaneity). All of the varieties are
was, his “Classification and Nomenclature of Beads and illustrated in color photographs.
Pendants” was aimed primarily at Old World researchers and A drawback to Stone’s approach is that relative size
never achieved popularity in North America. Nevertheless, and function do not always equate; “large” beads were not
Beck’s work remains a valuable research tool especially as used just for necklaces while “seed” beads sometimes were.
concerns bead shape and is a classic in its own right. There is also the problematic “medium” size group which
overlaps both categories. Furthermore, having the method
Little progress was made during the next two decades.
of manufacturing as a secondary trait is awkward as it is
Then, in the 1950s, Kenneth E. Kidd formulated a scheme
considered the primary classification trait for glass beads
which, with modifications and the collaboration of his wife
(Sprague 1985:87). Like the Kidd system, this one only
Martha, was published in 1970 as “A Classification System
deals with drawn and wound beads and has not found broad
for Glass Beads for the Use of Field Archaeologists.”
acceptance.
Utilizing primarily the process of manufacture to sort
beads and secondarily the physical attributes, the system is The final classification system to be dealt with herein
most notable for its extensive color plates illustrating each appeared in 1976. In that year, Lester A. Ross completed
recorded bead variety. Also noteworthy is the extremely his monograph “Fort Vancouver, 1829-1860: A Historical
well-developed typological flow chart for drawn beads Archeological Investigation of the Goods Imported and
(Kidd and Kidd 1970:51). Unfortunately, the wound-bead Manufactured by the Hudson’s Bay Company” which
chart (Kidd and Kidd 1970:52) is woefully inadequate, contains a lengthy and well-illustrated section on glass

BEADS 24:62-90 (2012)

 63

beads. The system he used was refined and published in drawn, wound, wound on drawn, mold pressed, blown, and
1990 (Ross 1990). The specimens are classified using a Prosser molded.
typological scheme reminiscent of and apparently lightly
influenced by that of Kenneth and Martha Kidd (1970).
The Fort Vancouver typology, however, is much more Drawn Beads
comprehensive, covering all the major manufacturing
types. While it is well thought out, the use of relatively Also called tube, cane, and hollow-cane beads, the
complicated variety codes makes it difficult to work with appellation “drawn” is preferred because it refers to the
and typographical errors could be a significant problem. production process rather than the form of the finished
Notwithstanding, Ross’ scheme is a milestone for a part of product. In the manufacture of drawn beads, a tube possibly
the continent where the typical classification “system” had up to 150 ft. in length was drawn out from a hollow globe
for so long consisted of a loosely ordered list of inadequately of molten glass by two men (Carroll 1917:7, 2004:30).
described bead types. Depending on what stylistic variation was required, the
Although each of the foregoing systems has its gather may have been 1) composed of several differently
drawbacks, the one that seems to offer the most potential colored layers; 2) supplied with rods or lumps of colored
and appears to have found the most universal acceptance is glass to create stripes; 3) marvered or thrust into a mold
the one devised by Kenneth and Martha Kidd. Consequently, to create a specific shape; and/or 4) twisted during the
it has been chosen to form the basis for this guide. As it drawing process to impart a spiral effect. Starting in 1917,
has long been out of print and not readily available to monochrome tubes were also produced using an automated
researchers, it has been published as a companion article. process developed by Edward Danner of the Libbey Glass
Company wherein molten glass flowing over a metal
The typology for drawn and wound beads that follows mandrel was mechanically drawn out into a continuous
is a corrected and expanded version of that proposed by tube (Douglas and Frank 1972:46-51; Ross 2005:43).
the Kidds. The other manufacturing types are classified Compressed air pumped from the end of the mandrel
using a similar coding system and attribute hierarchy, created the perforation. If the mandrel (which formed the
with the classes and types being defined on the basis of perforation) was polyhedral, the perforation of the resultant
archaeological specimens and several 19th-century bead tube was the same shape. This is the only characteristic that
sample cards and books. Although every attempt has been distinguishes “mandrel-drawn” beads from those produced
made to make the typology as comprehensive as possible, it using the older method.
is inevitable that some categories will have been overlooked
and new ones will be encountered as more bead assemblages When the tubes created by either process were
are analyzed. Should you record a new class or type, please sufficiently cool, they were broken into manageable lengths
inform the author so that it can be added to the inventory. which were then sorted according to their diameter. If
Although instructions for defining varieties are presented desired, enamel paint was sucked up into the tubes to color
for each manufacturing type, no varieties are listed because them internally. The tubes were subsequently chopped into
they are far too numerous. Furthermore, the practicability bead lengths. In the early days this was accomplished by
of recording varieties in a comprehensive classification placing them on a sharp broad chisel set in a bench or block
system becomes doubtful when one considers that well over of wood and striking them with another similar blade. About
100,000 varieties of glass beads have been produced in the 1822, a mechanical tube-cutting machine was developed
world to date (Liu 1975b:31). which greatly increased the speed and efficiency of this task
(Karklins and Adams 1990:72).
If a new variety is encountered and thus lacks a Kidd
variety number, it can be designated with an asterisk (*). The resultant tube segments were either left unaltered,
To facilitate the discussion of such varieties in a report, a except for the possible grinding of facets, or their broken ends
sequential letter may be appended to the appropriate Kidd were heat rounded. Prior to 1817, this was accomplished by
type designation; e.g., Ia*(a). placing the segments (those generally under about 6 mm
in diameter) in a copper pan with sand or ground charcoal
(Karklins and Adams 1990:73) or a mixture of sand and
GLASS BEAD CLASSIFICATION ash (Karklins and Jordan 1990:6) and then heating the pan.
The contents were continually stirred with a hoe-like tool
The primary criterion for sorting glass beads into until the tube segments became sufficiently rounded. A
typological categories is the technique of manufacture. Six contemporary method for rounding larger beads involved
major types are pertinent to researchers in the Americas: the use of a spear-like tool (a speo) (Gasparetto 1958:186)
64

or a large fork-like instrument with sturdy prongs protruding based on bead shape and the number, color, and diaphaneity
from a metal handle (Karklins 1993). The tube segments of the structural elements.
were slipped onto the prongs so that they did not touch and
the tool was revolved in a furnace, rounding the segments. Beads made by the hand-drawn method were often
cased in clear glass to increase their brilliance. This was
A much more efficient process for rounding beads came frequently done for translucent grayish white and opaque
into use in 1817. It involved mixing the rough beads with Indian-red beads but apparently never for transparent blue,
lime and charcoal to plug the holes and then placing them opaque black, or opaque white beads. The presence of this
in a metal drum containing sand occasionally mixed with layer, often microscopic, should be noted but does not
charcoal dust (Karklins and Adams 1990:72). The drum was qualify an otherwise Class I or II bead for inclusion in one
then placed in a furnace at an angle and rotated at a slow of the multilayered classes (III and IV).
speed, a technique commonly referred to as “tumbling.”
In this and the pan method, the heat and agitation rounded The various classes and types recorded to date are listed
the broken ends while the various packing mixtures kept below and illustrated in Figures 1-4. Drawn and wound
the beads from sticking together and prevented their types marked with an asterisk (*) were encountered after the
perforations from collapsing as the glass became viscid. Kidds’ classification system was published. The varieties
Depending on the temperature and the amount of time that are too diversified to be listed; see Kidd and Kidd (1970:
the tube segments were heat treated, they might range from 67-83) for the ones they classified.
practically unaltered tube segments to practically globular. Three of the bead types included here (Io, IIg, and IIj)
After cooling, the beads were cleaned and then sized need a bit of explanation. All three consist of drawn beads
by passing them through a series of graduated screens. that were subsequently modified at the lamp to impart an
They were generally then polished and strung in bunches “alternating twist” pattern to type Io, and to apply insets
or packaged loose for the world market. During the 17th and wavy lines to IIg and IIj, respectively. Although they
century, however, certain beads were subsequently turned might best be assigned to a “lamp-worked” category, they
over to lampworkers who reheated each of the beads and have been retained in the drawn-bead section to prevent
applied insets (“flush-eye” beads) or trailed decoration (e.g., confusion as these types have been referred to in a number
“Roman” beads). Others were heated until soft and pressed of research reports.
with a tool to flatten them.
Drawn beads exhibit certain characteristics. They may Class I. Tubular beads with simple (monochrome) bodies
consist of unaltered tube segments (generally known as which may exhibit adventitious surface decoration. Cross-
“bugles”) with uneven broken ends. Bubbles in the glass and sections are round unless otherwise noted.
striations on the surface, if present, are oriented parallel to
Ia Undecorated
the axis of the perforation. The perforation is usually parallel
sided and has a smooth surface. Beads rounded using the a Ib Decorated with straight simple stripes
speo method sometimes exhibit a slight projection at one
end or a scar where two beads had fused but were later Ib’ Decorated with spiral simple stripes
broken apart. Two drawn beads fused end to end with Ibb Decorated with straight compound stripes
their perforations perfectly aligned may also indicate spit
rounding (Note: these features should not be confused with Ibb’ Decorated with spiral compound stripes
similar ones found on some wound beads; for a thorough Ic Beads with straight polyhedral bodies
discussion, see Karklins 1993).
Ic’ Beads with twisted polyhedral bodies
For additional details regarding the manufacture of
drawn beads, consult the following creditable accounts: Id Beads with straight polyhedral bodies decorated
Anonymous (1835), Carroll (1917, 2004), J.P.B. (1856), with straight simple stripes
Karklins and Adams (1990), Karklins and Jordan (1990), Id’ Beads with twisted polyhedral bodies decorated
and The Pottery Gazette (1987, 2009). with spiral simple stripes
In the Kidds’ system, drawn beads are divided into four
*Idd Beads with straight polyhedral bodies decorated
classes according to their structure (simple or compound)
with straight compound stripes
and manufacturing sub-type (tubular or non-tubular). Each
class is segregated into types on the basis of the general form Ie Beads with straight ribbed (rounded crests) or
of the beads and their decorative elements. Varieties are ridged (angular crests) bodies
 65

Ie’ Beads with twisted ribbed (rounded crests) or *IIId Beads with straight polyhedral bodies decorated
ridged (angular crests) bodies with simple stripes
If Polyhedral beads whose surfaces have been *IIId’ Beads with twisted polyhedral bodies decorated
modified by grinding with simple stripes

*Irr Beads with straight ribbed (rounded crests) or IIIe Beads with straight ribbed (rounded crests) or
ridged (angular crests) bodies decorated with ridged (angular crests) bodies
straight compound stripes
IIIe’ Beads with twisted ribbed (rounded crests) or
ridged (angular crests) bodies
Class II. Non-tubular (heat-rounded) beads with simple
IIIf Polyhedral beads whose surfaces have been
(monochrome) bodies which may exhibit adventitious
modified by grinding
surface decoration.
IIIk Chevron beads with straight bodies and plain outer
IIa Undecorated
layers (any of the chevron and semi-chevron beads
IIb Decorated with straight simple stripes except type IIIm may have facets ground on the
ends and these should be noted)
IIb’ Decorated with spiral simple stripes
*IIIkk Semi-chevron beads (all layers except the core are
IIbb Decorated with straight compound stripes “starry”) with plain outer layers
IIbb’ Decorated with spiral compound stripes *IIIl’ Chevron beads with twisted polyhedral bodies and
plain outer layers
IIe Melon (lobed bodies)
IIIm Chevron beads made by grinding large, multi-
*IIf Beads whose surfaces have been modified by the
layered tubes into round or oval forms to show the
application of ground facets
ridges of the second layer and the end design of the
IIg “Flush eye” beads (decorated with insets; lamp- various layers
worked) IIIn Chevron beads decorated with straight simple
IIh “Flush eye” beads with insets and straight simple stripes on the outer layer
stripes (lamp-worked) *IIInn Chevron beads decorated with straight simple
*IIhh “Flush eye” beads with insets and straight stripes on the outer layer; these resemble porcelain
compound stripes (lamp-worked) imitations of type IIIn beads and are the tubular
counterparts of type IVnn beads
IIj “Roman” beads encircled by two or more wavy
lines (lamp-worked) *IIInn-a Chevron beads decorated with straight compound
stripes on the outer layer (properly, this should be
type IIInn but the Kidds assigned that designation
Class III. Tubular beads with compound (multi-layered) to the former type)
bodies which may exhibit adventitious surface decoration.
Cross-sections are round unless otherwise noted. *IIIp Chevron beads decorated with straight simple
stripes on the surface of the second layer
IIIa Undecorated
*IIIpp Semi-chevron beads (all layers except the core are
IIIb Decorated with straight simple stripes “starry”) decorated with straight simple stripes on
the surface of the second layer
*IIIb’ Decorated with spiral simple stripes
*IIIq Semi-chevron beads (all layers except the core are
IIIbb Decorated with straight compound stripes “starry”) decorated with straight simple stripes on
*IIIbb’ Decorated with spiral compound stripes the outer layer

IIIc Beads with straight polyhedral bodies *IIIr Beads with straight ribbed (rounded crests) or
ridged (angular crests) bodies decorated with
IIIc’ Beads with twisted polyhedral bodies straight simple stripes
 66
C la

Ila
lb lb'

O) lbb lbb'
11b IIb1 llb llb'

Ic le
Ic1IIbb IIbb1
Id
llbb

Id1
Id

Ie1
Id' ldd
IIe lie llf

®
le

If
IIg IIh
IIhhIlg llh llhh

Irr II j

Figure 1. Recorded types of Class I drawn beads (all drawings by Dorothea Larsen). Figure 2. Recorded types of Class II drawn beads.
67
(o) )
Illa
IVa
IIIb1 IVa

IVbIVb1
lllb lllb'

C : IIIbb
lllbb
0
lllbb'
IVb IVb'

) IIIc1
IIIc Ille

IIId IIId1
)
Ille'
r,
IVbb
0
.
IVbb
0
IVbb'
llld llld'

IIIe
Ille
IIIe1
® Ille' lllf IVg
IIIk ) IIIkk
IVg IVh IVhh
)
lllk

IIIl1 IIIm
lllk k

@}) IVk IVj IVk

1111' lllm

IIIn IIInn-a
)
j

llln

IIIp IIIpp :,
lllnn lllnn- a

IVn IVn IVnn IVnn'

lllp

IIIq
)J
lllq
{p)
lllpp

IIIr
lllr
Figure 3. Recorded types of Class III drawn beads.
IVp IVp IVpp
Figure 4. Recorded types of Class IV drawn beads.
68

Class IV. Non-tubular (heat-rounded) beads with compound mold to produce a symmetrical form. The beads could
(multi-layered) bodies which may exhibit adventitious also be clamped in tong-like molds to impart a design or a
surface decoration. uniform shape (this should not be confused with the “mold-
pressed” process (cf.) where production begins with a glob
IVa Undecorated of molten glass and not an already formed wound bead).
IVb Decorated with straight simple stripes When cool, the beads were stripped from the mandrel which
was sometimes tapered and covered with chalk, graphite, or
IVb’ Decorated with spiral simple stripes clay to facilitate this step (Kidd and Kidd 1970:49; Sprague
1979:8).
IVbb Decorated with straight compound stripes
A variation of this technique that was not common
IVbb’ Decorated with spiral compound stripes
in Europe and appears to have only been used in the
IVg “Flush eye” beads (decorated with insets; lamp- Fichtelgebirge region of Germany is called furnace winding.
worked) In this process, a worker gathered a glob of glass onto the
point of an iron rod directly from a pot of molten glass and
*IVh “Flush eye” beads with insets and straight simple formed it into the desired shape with a tool that may have
stripes (lamp-worked) been an open-faced mold. Once the bead had cooled, it was
removed from the iron rod and put into a clay annealing box
*IVhh “Flush eye” beads with insets and straight
next to the furnace (Kenyon et al. 1996, 2009).
compound stripes (lamp-worked)
The surfaces of wound beads usually exhibit swirl
*IVj “Roman” beads encircled by two or more wavy
marks that encircle the axis. Bubbles are either round, or
lines (lamp-worked)
elongate and oriented like the swirl marks. The perforation
IVk Chevron beads with plain outer layers (any of the may taper slightly and have an uneven surface.
chevron and semi-chevron beads may have facets
The Kidds segregate wound beads into three classes
ground on the ends and these should be noted)
according to their structure (simple or compound) and the
IVn Chevron beads decorated with straight simple relative complexity of their shape (Figure 5). Types are
stripes on the outer layer determined according to the shape and general configuration
of the decoration, if any, whereas varieties are based on the
IVnn Chevron beads decorated with straight simple color and diaphaneity of the structural elements.
stripes on the outer layer; these resemble porcelain
imitations of type IVn beads A listing of the various classes and types recorded
to date follows. Types marked with an asterisk (*) were
*IVnn’ Chevron beads decorated with straight compound encountered after the Kidds’ classification system was
stripes on the outer layer printed. The diversity of the varieties precludes their
*IVp Chevron beads decorated with straight simple being listed; see Kidd and Kidd (1970:84-86) for the few
stripes on the surface of the second layer they recorded. Forms not listed below will certainly be
encountered and should be identified using the terminology
*IVpp Semi-chevron beads (all layers except the core are and codes in Beck (1928, 2006).
“starry”) decorated with straight simple stripes on
the surface of the second layer
Class WI. Single-layered, monochrome and polychrome
beads with simple shapes.
Wound Beads WIa Cylinder
Wound beads, also termed wire wound and mandrel WIb Round (includes globular, oblate, and barrel
wound, were produced by winding a viscid rod or a strand shaped; specify which)
drawn therefrom around a rotating metal mandrel one or
more times until the desired size and shape were achieved. WIc Oval
While still soft, the beads might be decorated with any of a WId Doughnut-shaped
myriad of inlays or appliques. They might also be pressed
with small paddles to impart soft facets or rolled in a trough *WIe Conical
 69

(o) )
Wla
WIbWIc WIdce:J
Wlb Wle Wld Wle
WIf
Wit

WIg WIh
WIi
Wig Wlh Wli

0 Wlla
WIIbWIIcWIId
Wllb WIie WIid
WIIeWIie
WIIf
WIit

WIIg Wllg
WIIk
WIIhWIIi WIIjWIIl Wllh Wlli Wllj WIik WIii

WIIm WIInWIIo
WIim Wlln Wllo
WIIp
WIIq
WIIr
Wllp Wllq Wllr

WIIsWIItWIIuWIIv
Wll s WIit Wllu Wllv
WIIwWIIy
WIIx
Wllw Wll x WIiy
WII Wllz

(9
WIIbb
WIIaa WIIdd WIIee
Wllaa Wllbb Wllee Wlldd Wllee

WIIIaWIIIb (©
WIiia Wlllb WIiie
WIIId
WIIIe Wllld WIiie Wll lf

WIIIk
WIIIh WIIIiWIIIj
WIIIgWlllg Wlllh WIiii WIiii Wlllk

WDIa
'

WDla
Figure 5. Recorded types of wound and wound-on-drawn beads (Note: Class WIII bead types
may exhibit shapes and design elements other than those depicted; see descriptions for details).
70

*WIf Spiral cylinder (shaped like a compressed *WIIs Truncated pentagonal convex bicone (type
cylindrical spring, this type consists of a glass rod XII.C.1.f.)
wound in a spiral fashion)
*WIIt Truncated hexagonal convex bicone (type
*WIg Round raised spiral (formed by winding a glass rod XIII.C.1.f.)
into a round form; there is no core, the interior is
hollow) *WIIu Truncated hexagonal bicone (type XIII.D.2.f.)

*WIh Oval raised spiral (formed as above) *WIIv Short barrel (type I.B.1.b.)

*WIi Truncated teardrop *WIIw Round ribbed (apparently rolled in a linear ribbed
mold to impart a contiguous series of ribs or
rings that encircle the bead perpendicular to the
Class WII. Single-layered, monochrome and polychrome perforation)
beads with relatively elaborate shapes formed by pressing,
pinching, molding, grinding, or some other form of *WIIx Oval ribbed (formed like type WIIw)
manipulation. *WIIy Ribbed truncated teardrop (formed like type WIIx)
WIIa Corn (tabular beads in the shape of corn kernels) *WIIz Oval ribbed with medial band (formed like type
WIIb Flat disc (tabular beads with circular outlines) WIIy but with a plain broad band around the
middle)
WIIc Faceted “five-sided” or pentagonal (each has eight
or ten pentagonal pressed facets) *WIIaa Round spiral lobed (twisted melon)
WIId Raspberry (these exhibit several rows of prominent *WIIbb Oval spiral lobed
nodes)
*WIIcc Round/irregular with irregular pressed facets
WIIe Melon (lobed beads resembling melons)
*WIIdd Flattened oblate (beads pressed flat parallel to the
WIIf Ridged tube (tubular beads with rectangular perforation)
pressed facets that extend their entire length)
*WIIee Round knobbed (similar to the WIId “raspberry”
WIIg Beads with complex pressed designs (specify the form but with only a single row of knobs about the
exact configuration) equator)
*WIIh Flattened teardrop (teardrop-shaped beads pressed
flat) Class WIII. Single-layered, monochrome and polychrome
*WIIi Round-faceted (round beads whose surfaces have beads with adventitious decoration, and multi-layered beads
been modified into facets by grinding) with or without adventitious decoration or faceting.

*WIIj Oval-faceted (oval beads whose surfaces have been WIIIa Class WI beads with a surface coating of a different
modified into facets by grinding) color or material

*WIIk Circular convex bicone (Beck [1928] type I.A.1.e - WIIIb Class WI beads with inlaid decoration (incorrectly
I.B.1.e.) described in Kidd and Kidd [1970:86] as “overlaid
in a design”)
*WIIl Standard circular truncated convex bicone (type
I.C.1.f.) WIIIc Class WII beads with inlaid decoration
*WIIm Short square barrel (type IX.B.1.b.) WIIId Class WI beads with overlaid decoration
*WIIn Standard square barrel (type IX.C.1.b.) WIIIe Class WII beads with a surface coating of a
different color or material (incorrectly described in
*WIIo Long square barrel (type IX.D.l.b.) Kidd and Kidd [1970:86] as “overlay of material
*WIIp Long square truncated bicone (type IX.D.2.f.) other than glass”)

*WIIq Standard square bicone (type IX.C.2.e.) *WIIIf Class WI beads with internal decorative elements
*WIIr Truncated square convex bicone (type IX.B.1.f.) *WIIIg Class WII beads with internal decorative elements
 71

*WIIIh Type WIIIa (multi-layered) beads with inlaid In a variation of this, termed “mandrel-pressing” by
decoration Ross (2003), a tapered pin attached to the interior of one
half of the mold formed the perforation. As the pin did not
*WIIIi Type WIIIa (multi-layered) beads with overlaid
extend all the way to the other side of the mold when it was
decoration
closed, the narrow end of the perforation was sealed and had
*WIIIj Class WII beads with overlaid decoration to be ground down and/or broken through once the bead had
hardened.
*WIIIk Class WIIIe beads with pressed facets
In the second method, two pieces of viscid glass, one
in either half of a two-piece mold, were pressed together
Wound-on-Drawn Beads to fuse them. This permitted the production of beads with
complex colored patterns that would have been distorted or
This is a rare manufacturing type recorded at only a few destroyed in the previous processes. The movable pin that
sites in the Pacific Northwest (e.g., Burgess and Dussubieux formed the perforation usually extended from one half of the
2007:64; Sprague 1979:9). It consists of a short section mold to the other in the case of round and oblate beads and
of drawn tubing about which has been wound a layer of across the open face of the mold for flattened and elongated
contrastingly colored glass. Having a red exterior and specimens. Consequently, the beads in the former group
white core, the only variety observed to date is practically have seams about their equators, whereas those in the latter
indistinguishable from its more common, all-wound group have seams along their edges. Some faceted beads
counterpart. The only difference is that the cores of the have mold seams that zig zag around the middle, following
former contain linear bubbles that parallel the perforation. the edges of the central facets. The nature of the mold seam,
Preliminary chemical analysis suggests that these beads if visible, should be noted (Ross 2003:46).
may be the products of the Bohemian beadmaking industry
After the beads were removed from their respective
(Burgess and Dussubieux 2007:70).
molds, any flash along the mold seam was removed by
As only one variety has been observed to date, it tumbling and facets imparted by the mold were frequently
is impossible to do more than make a few suggestions ground smooth. If the perforation remained sealed off at one
concerning a classificatory scheme for wound-on-drawn end as in the case of the mandrel-pressed beads, the closed
beads (Figure 5). Using the wound bead system as a basis, end of the bead was ground down and, if need be, punched
the wound-on-drawn category (designated WD) may be through.
classified as follows:
Mold-pressed beads are usually symmetrical though
they may display tiny flattened areas. They may also have
Class WDI. Multi-layered, undecorated. uneven “orange peel” surfaces, or exhibit mold marks in
the form of slight to bold ridges and linear bulges, seams in
*WDIa Barrel shaped
colored patterns, or slightly differently colored linear zones
Additional types would be designated according to the caused by differential light refraction. The perforations (and
shape of the beads. Varieties would be based on the color there may be several) sometimes taper distinctly, especially
and diaphaneity of the structural components. in the case of the mandrel-pressed beads, and frequently have
crackled surfaces. It is sometimes difficult to distinguish
mold-pressed beads from Prosser-molded beads (cf.) having
Mold-Pressed Beads a high silica content.
Mold-pressed beads were produced in a wide variety
Variously cited in the literature as molded, pressed,
of forms, styles, and colors (Neuwirth 1994, 1995, 2011).
and mold pressed, the latter designation is adopted here as
While relatively few of these appear in archaeological
it seems to best describe the process of manufacture. Two
collections, a basic classificatory framework may be created
basic methods were employed to produce the mold-pressed
on the basis of recovered specimens and those illustrated in
beads found on North American sites. In the first, the end of
various publications
a glass rod was heated over an oil flame or in a furnace until
it melted. A piece was then pinched from it and pressed in a The mold-pressed category (designated MP) is divided
tong-like two-piece mold. As the glass was compressed, any into two major classes based on the presence or absence of
excess was forced out at the seam while a moveable pin (or faceting or molded designs2 (Figure 6). Shape determines
pins, depending on how many holes were desired) pierced the type, whereas varieties are defined according to the color
the glass and formed the perforation. and diaphaneity of the structural elements, the configuration
72

MPla MPlb MPlc MPld

MPIf
MPIg
MPle MPlf MPlg

MPIIb
MPlla MPllb MPllc

MPlld MPlle MPllf

I
> I
I

MPllg MPllh MPII i MPllj

Figure 6. Recorded types of mold-pressed beads (Note: Class MPII bead types may exhibit shapes and design elements other
than those depicted; see descriptions for details).
 73

of the decoration, the shape, number, and configuration slow process; a more common technique was to individually
of the perforation(s), the number, shape, and type (mold blow one or more bubbles in a glass tube heated at the lamp.
imparted or cut) of facets, and the nature of the mold seam, If desired, a design could be trailed onto the surface while
if visible. In all cases where the manufacturing sub-type can the glass was hot.
be determined, it should be appended to the description; e.g.,
There were two basic methods in mold blowing as well.
MPIIa. Round-faceted (mandrel pressed). For a detailed
A simple technique was to blow a small bubble at the end
study of 19th-century faceted mold-pressed beads, see Ross
of a glass tube which was quickly inserted into a two-piece
(2003).
mold. Additional air was then blown in so that the bubble
filled the cavity. A more complicated (and more productive)
Class MPI. Undecorated monochrome and polychrome process involved placing a glass tube in a two-piece mold
beads. with up to 24 connected cavities. The mold and tube were
MPIa Round heated until the glass became viscid and air was blown into
the tube either by mouth or mechanically using compressed
MPIb Oval air to expand the tube and make it conform to the shape
MPIc Doughnut-shaped of the mold. Mold blowing could produce beads with very
complicated designs. If a row of beads was produced, it
MPId Truncated teardrop was either used as such or the individual segments could
MPIe Barrel disk be broken apart to form individual beads. In either case,
the protruding ends were usually fire polished to round the
MPIf Rectangular tabular broken edges.
MPIg Rectangular multi-hole spacer beads (describe “Constricted-tube” beads (Figure 7, BIk-l) are a related
exact configuration) form that was made at the lamp but apparently did not
involve increasing the diameter of the tube by blowing.
Class MPII. Monochrome and polychrome beads exhibiting Consisting of thin, unaltered tube sections with constricted
various forms of surface decoration such as facets or molded ends, the beads were apparently produced by heating a small
designs (specify which and describe). section of a tube over a flame and then pulling the tube in
opposite directions to form a narrow waist. After a series
MPIIa Round faceted (describe exact configuration)
had been produced, the segments were broken apart and the
MPIIb Long hexagonal barrel (Beck type XIII.D.1.b.) constricted ends fire polished. These beads retain the same
diameter as the original tube and are usually in the form of
MPIIc Long octagonal barrel (type XIV.D.1.b.)
long cylinders or standard barrels.
MPIId Square-faceted
The beads created using any of the aforementioned
MPIIe Faceted pentagonal barrel (pentagonal cross- methods could subsequently be decorated or otherwise
section) enhanced by painting designs on their surfaces or introducing
paint, colored wax, powdered fish scales, or metal dust into
MPIIf Plano-convex faceted (circular outline, plano-
their interiors (Pazaurek 1911:2). They were often filled with
convex cross-section)
white wax to render them less fragile (Lardner 1972:236).
MPIIg Round beads with molded designs Blown beads are easy to identify as they are all hollow.
MPIIh Oval beads with molded designs Blown beads were produced in a myriad of forms
and styles (Neuwirth 1994, 1995, 2011) but are rarely
MPIIi Rectangular multi-hole spacer beads with facets or
encountered at archaeological sites because of their fragility.
molded designs (describe exact configuration)
Consequently no attempt has been made to list all the
MPIIj Oval multi-hole spacer beads with facets or molded possible types as most will probably never be encountered
designs (as for above) by researchers. An examination of recorded specimens
and those illustrated by Neuwirth (1994, 1995, 2011)
does, however, allow the creation of a basic classificatory
Blown Beads framework.
Beads in this category were either free blown or mold Beads in the blown category (designated B) are divided
blown. In the former case, one method entailed blowing a into two major classes based on the presence or absence of
bubble of molten glass at the end of a blowpipe. This was a surface decoration, whether faceting, painting, or applied
74

components. Types are distinguished according to shape because of its similarity to the molding technique for ceramic
and form (Figure 7). Varieties are defined by the color and buttons that was patented by Richard Prosser (1840).
diaphaneity of the components; the nature of the coloration Although the beads are technically ceramic, depending on
(external, internal, or in the glass itself); and where the amount of silica in the composition, they sometimes have
applicable, the number, shape, and type (mold imparted or the appearance of grainy glass so are included here. Unlike
cut) of facets; the nature and configuration of the decoration; the beads discussed previously, Prosser-molded or “tile”
and the number of segments. beads, as they are generically called in the manufacturer’s
parlance, are not produced from viscid glass but from a
Class BI. Undecorated monochrome and polychrome beads powdered mixture consisting of feldspar, calcium fluoride,
including those with gilded, silvered, or otherwise coated silica sand, and a colorant. Milk is used as a binding medium
exteriors or interiors. and the paste is then pressed in a gang mold to impart the
desired shape (Opper and Opper 1991:49). The mold is then
BIa Round
inverted and the beads are expelled onto a metal sheet which
BIb Barrel is then placed in a furnace until the material fuses. Some
BIc Oval varieties had colored stripes or other decoration of colored
glaze applied to them prior to firing. The bead could also
BId Segmented be rolled in glaze and/or the ends could be dipped in it to
BIe Teardrop impart the appearance of a cored or multi-layered body. The
beads may be glazed or have the appearance of unglazed
BIf Melon (lobed) porcelain. Beads with a high silica content have a glassy
BIg Round ribbed appearance and a granular structure is visible if the material
is sufficiently transparent.
BIh Oval ribbed
BIi Round spiral ribbed Prosser-molded beads often exhibit a broad, slightly
raised equatorial band. Generally, one end is rounded and
BIj Oval spiral ribbed smooth, while the other is somewhat flattened and rough or
BIk Barrel shaped (constricted tube) pebbled. The perforation tapers toward the rounded end.
BIl Long ribbed cylinder (constricted tube) Neuwirth (1994, 2011) illustrates a wide range
BIm Ribbed double-bulge oblong of Prosser-molded beads (designated PM). Using her
illustrations, coupled with an examination of archaeological
BIn Hexagonal alternating twist (lamp-worked bead specimens and beads on 20th-century sample cards, it is
apparently produced by twisting a heated possible to group the beads into two major classes based
hexagonal tube one way and then the other until on the presence or absence of surface decoration, including
a series of undulations were formed in the body stripes, dots, or elaborate faceting (Figure 8). Types are
facets; formerly drawn type Io) determined based on shape and the nature of the decoration,
if any, while varieties are determined by the color and
Class BII. Monochrome and polychrome beads exhibiting diaphaneity (most beads are opaque but those with a high
various forms of surface decoration including facets (specify silica content are translucent) of the structural components
which and describe). and the color and configuration of the decoration. As there
BIIa Round with painted or gilded decoration are so many different forms of Prosser-molded beads and
relatively few have been found in American archaeological
BIIb Oval with painted or gilded decoration assemblages, no attempt has been made to list them all. The
BIIc Round with trailed glass decoration and/or facets most common ones are listed below. New types may be
added as they are encountered.
BIId Oval with trailed glass decoration and/or facets
BIIe Faceted teardrop
Class PMI. Undecorated monochrome and polychrome
BIIf Complex molded (describe exact configuration) beads.

Prosser-Molded Beads PMIa Round

PMIb Oblate
This manufacturing type was defined by Sprague (1973,
1983) and Ross (1974:18) who termed it “Prosser molded” PMIc Oval
 75

Bia Bib Blc Bid Ble

Bit Big Blh Bli Blj

BIk Blk
BIl

Bil
BIm
OJJcID
Blm Bin

0 Bila
BIIb Bllb
BIIc
@) Bile Bild

Bile Bllf

Figure 7. Recorded types of blown beads (Note: Class BII bead types may exhibit shapes and design elements other than
those depicted; see descriptions for details).

PMId Barrel shaped Class PMII. Monochrome and polychrome beads exhibiting
surface decoration such as stripes, facets, or nodes or other
PMIe Demi-oval (an oval cut in half perpendicular to the
protrusions (specify which and describe).
perforation)
PMIIa Oval with straight stripes
PMIf Cylinder (indicate whether long, standard, or short)
PMIIb Oval with spiral stripes
PMIg Barrel disk
PMIIc Oval with dots or eyes
PMIh Ring
PMIId Cylinder with straight stripes
PMIi Interlocking (beads with crenelated ends that allow
the beads to interlock; specify exact form) PMIIe Cylinder with colored nodes
PMIj Elaborate forms (describe exact configuration) PMIIf Round faceted
76

PMla PMlb PMlc PMld

PMle PM If PMlg
PMIh PMlh

PMli PMlj

PM Ila PMllb PM lie PMlld

PMIIf
PMIIg
PMIIh
PMlle PMII f PMllg PMllh
Figure 8. Recorded types of Prosser-Molded beads (Note: Some MP bead types may exhibit shapes and design elements other
than those depicted; see descriptions for details).
 77

PMIIg Round with complex molded surface decoration incorporates beads that are not only globular or spheroidal,
(describe exact configuration) but also oblate and barrel-shaped. The specific shape should
be indicated. If there is shape overlap within a sample, the
PMIIh Long hexagonal barrel
description should reflect this (e.g., round to barrel shaped).
Some oval beads are somewhat barrel-shaped while others
are shaped like olive pits. These forms should be identified;
GLASS BEAD ATTRIBUTES
e.g., oval (olive-pit shaped).
The following attributes are listed in descending order The Kidds use the term flat to define those drawn beads
of their relative importance in the classification of glass that have been pressed flat parallel to the perforation while
beads. the glass was still viscid. As this does not reveal anything
about the bead’s pre-flattened shape, the term should be
Structure modified to include this information. For example, a flattened
round bead would be recorded as “flat-round.” Doughnut-
The physical composition of a bead defines its structure. shaped refers to those beads in the wound category that
There are four structural categories (Stone 1974:88-89): have extremely oblate bodies and large perforations, much
like a typical lifesaver.
Simple – beads composed of a single undecorated layer
of glass (includes flashed specimens). Other shapes are defined and illustrated in the Glass
Bead Classification section of this guide. Should new
Compound – beads composed of two or more
forms be encountered, the use of Beck’s (1928, 2001)
undecorated layers of glass.
system and terminology to designate them is recommended.
Complex – simple specimens with adventitious Unfortunately, as multi-faceted specimens are not adequately
decoration. covered in the latter, a few comments are appropriate. For
beads with more than 21 facets, if the exact shape cannot be
Composite – compound specimens with adventitious determined using Beck, it is suggested that the general form
decoration. of the bead be given followed by the qualifier “faceted”
(for example, round-faceted or elongate-faceted). To this
should be appended a description of the type (cut or mold
Shape imparted), shape, number, and location of the various facets.
Although the shape nomenclature utilized by the Kidds
is basically self-explanatory, a few comments will help Decoration
elucidate some of the terms.
All tubular beads are assumed to have round cross- Applied adornment encountered on beads found in
sections unless otherwise noted. If not, the specific cross- the Americas falls into three major categories. Overlaid:
section shape should be appended (e.g., tubular-hexagonal). appliques of glass or another material that either rest on
As they often grade imperceptibly into the circular group, or protrude noticeably from the surface of the bead (this
tubular specimens may be segregated using the following includes painted decoration). Inlaid: embedded elements
criteria. A bead of any length is classified as tubular if it whose surfaces are either flush with or only slightly above
has broken or cut ends that have not been altered by heat the surface of the bead. Internal: decorative elements, such
rounding. If the ends have been rounded, a bead is tubular if as colored cylinders, spiral bands, and metal foil, located
its length exceeds twice its diameter. Tubular beads of types within the body of the bead.
If and IIIf that have hexagonal-, heptagonal-, and octagonal-
Beads may be decorated using multifarious techniques
sectioned bodies whose corners have been removed
and decorative elements, the most common of which
by grinding are termed tubular, cornerless hexagonal/
include the following. Aligned with the perforation, stripes
heptagonal/octagonal (whichever pertains). In certain cases,
may be simple (monochrome) or compound (polychrome),
it is useful to note if the walls of a tubular bead are thin or
and straight (Figure 9, a) or spiral (Figure 9, b). In some
thick in regard to the size of the perforation.
cases straight lines intersect to form a lattice (Figure 9,
Circular specimens, shaped like little rings or tori, c). Rings are lines that encircle a bead perpendicular to
have lengths that are less than twice their diameter. As there the perforation (Figure 9, d). Wavy lines, either simple or
is so much variability in the shape of heat-rounded drawn compound, are those that undulate around a bead (Figure 9,
beads as well as some wound beads, the round category e). Also called “double wave,” interwoven lines consist of
78

Figure 9. Some common forms of bead decoration: a, straight stripes; b, spiral stripes; c, lattice; d, rings; e, wavy lines; f,
interwoven lines; g, combed designs; h, eyes; i, floral designs; j, crumb; k, mosaic; l, facets.

two intersecting wavy lines that encircle a bead (Figure 9, (Container Corporation of America 1958). As the latter is
f). In the case of combed designs, a wire is drawn through obscure and no longer produced, the equivalent codes in the
freshly applied viscid rings or spiral stripes to produce a better-known Munsell color notation system should be used
series of scallops, ogees, zigzags, or feather-like patterns instead. (The codes for the colors recorded by the Kidds are
(Figure 9, g). Specimens adorned with simple or compound provided in Table 1 of the reprint of the Kidds’ taxonomic
dots are called “eye beads” (Figure 9, h). Floral designs system that accompanies this report; see p. 44).
include various designs in the form of simple or compound
Although some researchers have used the colored
wreaths, flowers, blossoms, and plants whose appearance
plates in Kidd and Kidd (1970) to identify the colors of their
ranges from highly stylized to realistic (Figure 9, i). Crumb
specimens, this practice is not endorsed. For one thing, the
beads are made by embedding contrastingly colored crushed
color rendition in the plates, especially that in the French
glass into the body of a bead while the glass is viscid and
edition and a subsequent reprint (Kidd and Kidd 1983:219-
then fire polishing it to fuse the components; the crumbs
257), is not true enough to permit proper identification.
may protrude from the surface or be flush with it (Figure 9,
For another, the list of recorded colors has dramatically
j). Wound mosaic beads consist of fused sections of fancy
increased since 1970 so that the plates provide far from
cane generally embedded in a glass core to create elaborate
adequate coverage.
designs (Figure 9, k). Facets may be applied with the use
of paddles or molds while the glass is soft or they may be The correct procedure is to compare the beads to the
ground after the glass has hardened (Figure 9, l). Other glossy finish chips in the Munsell Book of Color (Munsell
forms of decoration that may be encountered are described Color 2010) or the smaller and less-expensive Munsell Bead
and illustrated in Beck (1928) and van der Sleen (1967). Color Book (Munsell Color 2012) which lists all the colors
encountered in archaeological and ethnographic materials in
North America to date.
Color
To properly determine the color of a bead, it must
In the Kidds’ system, colors are designated using the first be cleaned of all dirt. If the surface is eroded, dull, or
names and codes proposed in the Color Harmony Manual lightly patinated, the specimen should be wet with water,
 79

preferably deionized, or clean saliva to bring out the true Patination and Luster
color. Those covered with a thick patina need to be cleaned
in a small area before being moistened if this will not harm Beads are often patinated and this feature may
the specimen. The bead should then be mounted on the sometimes be the only clue to its relative age. The color
tip of a teasing needle and compared to the Munsell chips and degree of the patination should be noted. Researchers
against a white background in natural daylight or daylight- should keep in mind that the patina on beads may be thin yet
approximating fluorescent light. Incandescent and regular have an almost imperceptible yellowish (or other) tint that
fluorescent lighting should be avoided as they impart an can change the color of, say, a bright blue bead to turquoise
orange or a greenish hue to the glass, respectively. Also keep blue. Removing the patina from one or two specimens will
in mind that early morning and late afternoon sunlight may usually reveal the true color.
also affect color determination.
Unpatinated beads will generally exhibit one the
The color of opaque beads must obviously be following types of luster. The two most common types
ascertained using reflected light. In the case of translucent are shiny (smooth and bright) and dull (not shiny). Others
and transparent beads, transmitted light should be used with that may be encountered, especially on 19th- and 20th-
the reflected color being noted if it varies significantly (e.g., century specimens, are metallic (having a metallic sheen),
transparent reddish purple or green beads which appear iridized (having an iridescent surface), greasy (having
black unless held up to a strong light). If the glass is dichroic an oily appearance), matte (etched with acid), and satin
(i.e., it has a distinctive golden or opalescent cast), this (characterized by a fibrous structure).
should also be noted. For multi-layered beads, record colors
from the outside inward.
Size
As there is a great deal of variation in the color of beads
produced before about 1850, the range should be noted for Although the five arbitrary size categories (very small,
a group of beads that comprise a variety with the modal hue under 2 mm; small, 2-4 mm; medium, 4-6 mm; large, 6-10
being used to determine the specific variety. mm; and very large, over 10 mm) proffered by the Kidds
are useful in relating relative size, research conducted by
To facilitate an ordered inventory, beads in each type Ross (1976:684-766, 1990) and Karklins (1983b:188) has
category should be listed on the basis of their body color revealed that they are too broad to be of any use in establishing
and decorative elements as arranged in the Munsell system. historical size groups where the inter-size interval can be
The neutral values (white, gray, black) come first, followed as little as 0.2 mm. Minimally, the range of each variety’s
by red, yellowish red, yellow, greenish yellow, green, bluish least diameter and length should be recorded to the nearest
green, blue, purplish blue, purple, and reddish purple. tenth of a millimeter using vernier calipers. Least diameter
is indicated as this dimension is the one that determines a
bead’s size as it passes through a series of screens during
Diaphaneity the sizing process at the factory. The pertinent dimensions
for most beads are length (parallel to the perforation) and
diameter (perpendicular to the perforation). In the case of
The diaphaneity of beads is described using the terms
flattened specimens, however, they are length (parallel to
opaque (op.), translucent (tsl.), and transparent (tsp.).
the perforation), width (perpendicular to the perforation),
Although the Kidds use “clear” in lieu of “transparent,” the
and thickness (perpendicular to the width). Where there is
latter term is preferred as it is more descriptive and clear
more than one specimen per variety, the size range should be
is generally taken as meaning “colorless.” Simply defined,
recorded. When a large sample is present (say 100 or more
beads that are opaque are impenetrable to light except on
specimens), means and modes should be computed as well
the thinnest edges. Translucent specimens transmit light,
as they may provide information about historic bead sizes.
yet diffuse it so that a pin inserted in the perforation appears
only as a shadow when viewed through the body of the bead. While measuring the perforations of common
Transparent beads are such that a pin in the perforation is “seed” beads has generally not been found to be useful, in
clearly visible. Sometimes diaphaneity will vary slightly in some cases drawn tubular beads will be encountered where
an otherwise like batch of beads. In such an instance, list all the physical attributes are identical (i.e., shape, color,
the range (e.g., tsl./op.). As the presence of numerous tiny diaphaneity) but in one the walls are thin and the perforation
bubbles will affect the diaphaneity of a bead, their presence very large whereas in the other, the opposite holds true. These
should be noted. are clearly not the same variety and should be described as
80

variants of a variety (e.g., Ia2 variant). Perforation size may Blair, Pendleton, and Francis (2009), Pluckhan’s (1996-
also help segregate wound from mold-pressed beads; e.g. 1997) report on early historic Creek beads (Georgia),
the holes of the latter may have very small diameters while Deagan’s (1987) study of the beads of Spanish Florida and
those of wound beads are sometimes quite large. the Caribbean, Smith’s (1983) synopsis of Spanish-period
beads, and Brain’s (1979) study of the beads from the Tunica
Treasure (Louisiana).
Post-Production Modification
Quimby (1966) remains a solid source for the Great
Lakes region and Stone (1974) and Mason (1986) should
Beads were occasionally modified after they left the
also be consulted. One of the best sources for the Midwest
factory or workshop, generally on this side of the Atlantic.
is Good (1972). An overview of Northern Plains and Upper
This includes grinding a bead to remove its exterior layer(s)
Missouri beads is provided by Davis (1972), an abbreviated
or to modify its form, as well as intentional heating or
version of which appears in Davis (1973). The studies
accidental burning, processes that frequently alter a bead’s
of the beads recovered from Fort Union, North Dakota,
diaphaneity, color, and shape. These characteristics should
are especially useful (DeVore 1992; Ross 2000), and the
always be noted. In the case of grinding, an attempt should
Leavenworth site (South Dakota) report by Bass, Evans, and
be made to determine the original form and color sequence
Jantz (1971) is also recommended. For the Southern Plains,
of the bead (based on intact accompanying specimens or
see Good (1983), Harris and Harris (1967), and Sudbury
those in similar collections) and it should then be recorded
(1976). They cover the period from 1700 to 1885.
as that variety with a note stating what alterations have been
made. Miller (1994) discusses Alaskan trade beads. As for the
Northwest Coast, Quimby (1978) presents an overview of
the state of the knowledge of beads in the Northwest, and
HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL INTERPRETA- Woodward (1965, 1970) provides generalized dates for some
TIONS of the more common bead types. For comparative purposes,
Ross’ (1976, 1990) studies of the beads from Fort Vancouver
Chronology (1829-1860), Washington, are essential. As for California,
the typology compiled by Clement Meighan (n.d.) must be
Despite decades of research, no one has as yet worked mentioned as it has been used widely by local researchers.
out a comprehensive chronology for glass beads found on Unfortunately, it is so far only in manuscript form and not
North or South American sites. Fortunately, there are several readily available. Other reports that should prove helpful to
regional chronologies as well as a number of detailed reports researchers in California are Dietz (1976), Karklins (2009),
which describe significant archaeological collections that Motz and Schulz (1980), and Van Bueren (1983).
will help researchers date their assemblages. For the New
England area and the adjacent Atlantic provinces, James More comparative information on beads from North
W. Bradley’s (1983) summary of the beads of 16th-17th- American sites may be found by checking the indices in
century New England may be of use. Ontario lacks a the two annotated bibliographies by Karklins and Sprague
comprehensive chronology, but for those working on 17th- (1980, 1987). These are available online at <http://
century sites in the southeastern part of the province, the beadresearch.org/Pages/Bead_Bibliography.html>.
chronology prepared by Ian and Thomas Kenyon (1983)
Researchers in Mexico should find DiPeso (1974, Vols.
is a must. Walter Kenyon’s (1982) report on Neutral beads
3, 8) and Kelly (1992) of interest. For adjacent Belize, see
is also recommended. Researchers in New York state have
Smith, Graham, and Pendergast (1994). Spanish Colonial
a large body of information to consult, including Bennett
beads from Peru are discussed in Donnan and Silton (2010),
(1983), Pratt (1961), Rumrill (1991), and Wray (1973,
Liu and Harris (1982), and Smith and Good (1982).
1983). Especially useful for Seneca beads of the late 16th
and early 17th centuries are Sempowski and Saunders In the Caribbean region, Deagan (1987) deals with
(2003) and Wray et al. (1987, 1991). Kent (1983, 1984) is Spanish material in general, Karklins and Barka (1989)
a good source for Pennsylvania and several of the volumes cover St. Eustatius, Karklins (1998) discusses beads from
in Fenstermaker’s Archaeological Research Booklet series Jamaica, and Handler and Lange (1978:274-281) record the
may also be of use (Fenstermaker 1974a, 1974b, 1977). beads found on a plantation site on Barbados.
Researchers in the Mid-Atlantic states will need to rely
on Miller et al. (1983). For the Southeast and central Gulf A number of distinctive bead types are also good horizon
Coast, there is the St. Catherines Island, Georgia, report by markers. These include man-in-the-moon beads (Lorenzini
 81

and Karklins 2000-2001), faceted mold-pressed beads Gratuze 2012; Turgeon 2001) that may be local products but
(Ross 2003), drawn beads with polyhedral perforations this is by no means certain. Factory sample cards from the
(Ross 2005), drawn white-cored cornaline d’Aleppo beads 19th and 20th centuries are plentiful and chemical analysis
(Billeck 2008), early eye beads (Smith 1982), Nueva Cadiz of the beads they hold could yield much useful data but
beads (Liu and Harris 1982), and wound pigeon egg beads such a project has yet to be undertaken. Clearly much more
(Engages 1984). research is required before chemical analysis can resolve the
question of bead origins.
It is, nevertheless, possible to determine the probable
Origins
source of many bead types and varieties on the basis of historic
sample cards, museum collections, and archaeological
Although Venice/Murano and Bohemia produced the
specimens from European manufacturing sites. While it is
bulk of the glass beads that were exported to the New World,
beyond the scope of this report to attempt a detailed account
Holland, Germany, France, England, Spain, Russia, China,
of what each country produced, the following summary
and likely some other nations also contributed their share
will provide the reader with a basic understanding of each
(Kidd 1979; Liu 1975a). Unfortunately, there is no routine
country’s principal products and identify additional sources
method for determining the country of origin for any given
of information.
bead type. Although van der Sleen (1967:108) proposed that
Dutch beads can be distinguished from those of Venetian
origin on the basis of chemical composition (Dutch beads
Venice/Murano
supposedly having a high potassium content compared
with a high sodium content in Venetian specimens), this
Venice and its factory island Murano were the main
supposition was based on limited evidence and is not
suppliers of glass beads to traders and explorers heading
supported by more recent findings (Karklins 1983a:116).
to the New World. It had no real competition until the rise
It also totally ignores the chemical make-up of beads
of the Bohemian bead industry beginning in the 1860s
manufactured in other countries which could also be high
(Francis 2008). The Venetians produced the bulk of the
in either potassium or sodium, these being the two standard
drawn embroidery beads that flowed into the Americas over
fluxes utilized in the production of glass.
the centuries but they are best known for the colorful array
Much has been done since van der Sleen’s pioneering of fancy wound beads, including a vast array of mosaic or
work to determine bead origins on the basis of chemical millefiori beads, that delighted people around the world and
composition. Most notable are the long-term neutron brought the Venetians great wealth (Karklins and Adams
activation studies conducted by Ron Hancock (Karklins 1990). Examples of Venetian products may be seen in many
et al. 2001, 2002) and summarized in Hancock (2005) museums and publications. Four well documented sources
and, more recently, the work undertaken by Burgess and are the Giacomuzzi bead sample book and folders (Karklins
Dussubieux (2007) employing Laser Ablation-Inductively 2002), the Frost trade bead collection (Illinois State
Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). They Museum 2006), the sample book of 19th-century Venetian
have brought us closer to understanding bead chemistries beads (Karklins 1982b, 1985c), and the J.F. Sick & Co.
over time and determining bead origins, but much more sample card collection (van Brakel 2006). A vast array of
work is required before we have the full story. A major beautifully photographed Venetian beads may also be seen
factor is the scarcity of comparative material from tightly in the Beads from the West African Trade Series (Picard and
dated European manufacturing sites. Aside from the beads Picard 1986a, b, 1987, 1988, 1991, 1993) and Panini (2008).
recovered from 17th-century factory sites and factory
wasters in Amsterdam (Gawronski et al. 2010; Karklins
1974, 1985a) and Middelburg (pers. observation) in The Bohemia
Netherlands and the mid-17th-century Hammersmith
Embankment site (Egan 2007:5) outside London, England, Centered on Jablonec nad Nisou (Gablonz in German)
there are no recorded assemblages of beads of like date in the Czech Republic, the Bohemian bead industry is not
from actual manufacturing sites in Europe that I know of as old as that of Venice/Murano but starting in the mid-
and thus far it has been impossible to obtain samples of the 19th century, it became a serious competitor for the world
Hammersmith beads for analysis. Excavations have also bead market. While there were major factories, much of
been conducted on manufacturing sites in Germany but the the production work was done in small workshops in the
results have yet to be published. Similarly, excavations in surrounding mountains. Like the Venetians, the Bohemians
and around Paris have produced beads (Dussubieux and churned out tons of embroidery beads, but are best known
82

for their faceted and polyhedral drawn, mold-pressed, Germany

blown, and Prosser-molded beads which were produced in
an amazing range of forms and colors. The blown beads were Nestled among the forested hills of Thuringia in east-
especially suited for Christmas tree ornaments (Neuwirth central Germany, the town of Lauscha was already producing
1995). Wound beads were also produced but only in limited glassware at the end of the 16th century. The production of
quantities. The most comprehensive work on the industry beads, however, did not begin until around 1750. The early
is Neuwirth (1994, 2011) which not only discusses its beads appear to have been free-blown followed in the early
history and technology, but provides a wealth of illustrative 1800s by those blown (utilizing locally produced glass
material. Other examples are illustrated in Picard and Picard tubes) in two-piece molds composed of brass, porcelain,
(1989). To see actual examples, a visit to the Muzeum skla a or slate. Gang molds were introduced around 1850,
bižuterie in Jablonec is a must. Some bead sample cards that greatly increasing output. The beadmaking process was
exhibit blown beads that appear typically Bohemian bear industrialized in 1862, when the beads created in individual
the wording Made in Austria (Neuwirth 2011: Plates 48B- workshops began to be finished in a factory setting. This
C, 50). These are actually Bohemian products, created when greatly reduced costs and dramatically increased production
Bohemia was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire between (Busch 2000). Nevertheless, competition from the
1867 and 1918. Bohemians who made much the same products, only better,
hurt their business and it went into decline. To compensate,
the Lauscha glassworkers turned to making technical glass,
Holland elegant tableware, and other such items, essentially leaving
beadmaking to the Bohemians (Jargstorf 1995:83).
During the 17th century, several glasshouses in Holland
The principal products of the Lauscha beadmakers
undertook the manufacture of drawn glass beads. These
were silvered components for Christmas tree ornaments,
were located in Amsterdam, Middelburg, Haarlem, and
faux pearls, and a myriad of colorful blown beads of sundry
Rotterdam (Karklins 1983a; Francis 2009a). Although the
forms to be turned into necklaces and other adornments.
products were well made and closely resembled Venetian
A sample of the latter dating from the period 1850-1880
beads, the Dutch seemingly could not compete with Venice
may be seen in Busch (2000:30). Many of the items made in
and drawn bead production in Holland does not seem to
Lauscha are very similar in appearance to those produced in
have extended past 1698 (Karklins 1983a:113). Some of the
Bohemia. Perhaps chemical analysis will provide a means
products are discussed and illustrated in Karklins (1983a,
of differentiating the two.
1985a), Gawronski (2010), and van der Made (1978). A
chemical profile has been determined for them (Gawronski The mountainous Fichtelgebirge region of northern
2010:148; Hancock 2005; Karklins et al. 2001, 2002). Bavaria was also a bead producer and production was
apparently already underway there in the 15th century
A distinctive assemblage of wound beads has been
(Kenyon et al. 1996, 2009). What was made during the
recovered from non-factory sites in Amsterdam (Karklins
early period remains unknown but seems to have involved
1985d) as well as at Dutch sites around the world that date
lampworking. In the 19th century, a principal product was
to the late 17th and 18th centuries; e.g., Karklins (1991),
a large bead (round, oval, or ring shaped) made using a
Karklins and Barka (1989), and Karklins and Schrire (1991).
technique not usually associated with European glass
These include the distinctive, large to very large, pentagonal-
beadmaking: furnace winding, a process in which a worker
faceted (WIIc), raspberry (WIId), melon (WIIe), and
removed a small gather of glass directly from a pot of molten
ridged-tube (WIIf) beads, as well as some very large round,
glass with a pointed iron rod and formed it into the desired
oval, and doughnut-shaped varieties. In North America,
shape (Kenyon et al. 1996, 2009). Some mold-pressed beads
many of these types are present in the 18th-century Tunica
were also produced during the latter part of the 19th century,
Treasure from Louisiana (Brain 1979). While it is tempting
and possibly drawn beads as well.
to conclude that they were made in Amsterdam, there is no
archaeological evidence in the form of production debris or Following World War II, the Sudetenen Germans were
malformed beads there to support this and it is quite possible expelled from Bohemia and this group included about 2,000
that these beads were obtained from Venice, Germany, or beadmakers. Many of them renewed their businesses at the
another source and were simply traded by the Dutch. It edge of the city of Kaufbeuren in Bavaria and named the new
should also be kept in mind that some of these types were community Neugablonz (New Gablonz). They continued
also produced during the 19th century and are definitely not to make what they had produced in Bohemia – principally
Dutch. Chemical analysis may help solve this conundrum. mold-pressed beads, but also wound varieties. While
 83

beadmaking has declined in Kaufbeuren-Neugablonz, it still beadmakers are listed in the directories, but it is uncertain
continues (Wild Things Beads 2011). if they actually produced beads or were just dealers selling
imported goods. Glass beads cease to be mentioned after
The products of Germany were distributed worldwide.
1895 (Karklins 1987).
Some 19th-century examples are illustrated in Busch (2000)
while several 20th-century varieties are illustrated in the J.F. A small group of lampworkers also worked in the
Sick and Company catalog (1921: page 44). Bethnal Green and Shoreditch area of London up to about
1857. They made simple wound beads but, being “so
careless and unpunctual,” their business came to an end
France (Hartshorne 1897:106n). Such work also took place in
Bedfordshire during the latter half of the 19th and early part
Beadmakers in Paris and elsewhere in France were of the 20th centuries (Springett and Springett 1987:14). It
already involved in the production of draw, mold-pressed, is likely that, due to the relatively crude nature of many of
and, to a lesser degree, wound beads in the 16th century. the beads mentioned above, most were used locally, many
The former appear to have been shipped to North America finding their way onto the spangles that were attached to
in fairly large quantities (Turgeon 2001:68, 70). Faux pearls, lace bobbins by lacemakers in the East Midlands. Examples
blown at the lamp and then made to look like the real thing may be seen in Springett and Springett (1987).
using a number of ingenious methods, became a French
specialty starting in the 17th century (Opper and Opper The only evidence for the manufacture of drawn
1996-1997). Unfortunately, aside from the few 16th-18th- beads in England was that found at the mid-17th-century
century beads illustrated by Dussubieux and Gratuze (2012) Hammersmith Embankment site (Egan 2007:5) outside
and Turgeon (2001:59), some of which may be imports, very London. The recovered wasters and finished beads (some
little is known about what bead varieties were manufactured are illustrated in the cited article) are very similar to both
in France during the two centuries that followed. contemporary Venetian and Dutch beads. Whether any of
these made it to North America remains unknown.
A significant product that began to be made around 1860
in Briare was the “tile” or Prosser-molded bead (Kaspers
2011; Opper and Opper 1991). Having greatly improved Spain
upon the process patented by the Prosser brothers in 1840,
Jean Felix Bapterosses was able to dramatically increase Researchers have for some time speculated that Spain
production of this product. In 1870, some workers moved may have produced beads but no concrete evidence to that
to Gablonz and thus began the Bohemian tile-bead industry. effect has as yet been encountered. Based on an examination
The Bapterosses factory continued to produce beads until of a large collection of beads recovered from the 16th-
1962. A selection of its more recent products may be seen 17th-century site of Mission Santa Catalina de Gaule,
in Kaspers (2011). Georgia, Francis (2009b) has postulated that a number of
During the 20th century, the Salvadori company in distinctive beads are likely to have been produced in Spain.
Vaulx-en-Velin produced drawn seed beads, many of which These include small wound annular beads, several types of
were used domestically to make ornate funerary wreaths gilded wound beads (with and without incised decoration),
(Opper and Opper 1991). It is visually near impossible to and lampworked segmented beads, including gold-glass
segregate them from the products of Venice and Bohemia. varieties. It is hoped that chemical analyses will corroborate
these identifications and add additional types to the list of
Spanish-made beads.
England

Little is known about glass beadmaking in England Russia

and even what is known is a bit enigmatic. While several
encyclopedias printed between 1860 and 1906 state that there There are few details about glass beadmaking in Russia
was a major bead industry in Birmingham (Karklins 1987, during the historic period. Farris (1992:2-3, 2009:24)
2009), there is no supportive evidence either in the form of reveals that there was a factory in St. Petersburg established
documentation or actual beads. A thorough examination by the renowned scientist M.V. Lomonosov which produced
of the Birmingham city directories reveals that there was “fine glass beads” during at least the latter part of the 18th
a “glass pincher” (lampworker) there as early as 1767 who century. Another factory was established in Irkutsk, Siberia,
is identified as a “necklace maker.” By 1829, four glass in 1782 by a student of Lomanosov’s and operated until the
84

1820s (Farris 1992:2-3, 2009:24). Among other items, the CONCLUSION

glassworks manufactured seed beads, likely specimens of
which have been excavated in the area. They are primarily This guide was prepared to allow archaeologists and
light blue in color and were fashioned from a low-quality others to adequately and correctly classify and interpret their
glass using a local carbonate salt as the flux. Thus they have beads. Doing this will greatly facilitate inter-site comparison
a milky appearance and exhibit leached surfaces (Farris of bead assemblages and facilitate the preparation of regional
1992:2-3, 2009:24). Some of these beads may well have chronologies that will help to date archaeological contexts.
made it to Alaska and beyond. It will also facilitate the development of distributional charts
for beads that may be characteristic of a certain period or
There was also a thriving beadmaking and beadworking
cultural group. While far from perfect, the taxonomic
enterprise in the vicinity of Moscow during at least the last
system created by Kenneth and Martha Kidd and expanded
quarter of the 19th century but the indication is that the
herein remains the best one for the logical ordering of glass
products were intended solely for the local market (Pottery
bead types, especially those in the drawn category. Those
and Glassware Reporter 1885).
who do not wish to utilize the Kidds’ variety numbers can
still use the Kidd types to organize their bead inventory.
China Even if one uses an arbitrary Type or Variety system (i.e.,
Variety 1, Variety 2, etc.), it should be ordered using the
Information on the types of glass beads imported from Kidd system as this will make comparative studies much
China is limited but the indication is that most, if not all, easier. Appending the Kidd type code to the arbitrary type
of them were wound, either at the lamp or at the furnace number would be very beneficial; e.g., Variety 1 (Kidd Ia1).
(Francis 2002:83). Examples that date to the 1850-1940 In any event, the important thing is to describe beads in a
period may be seen in Burgess and Dussubieux (2007), way that will convey as much information as possible to
Fenstermaker and Williams (1979), and Liu (1975). others. Sharp color images of the beads are a must and will
Francis (2002:83) typifies these late beads as being made generally make up for any deficiencies in their description.
of leadless, very bubbly glass of distinctive colors and with
large perforations. Burgess and Dussubieux (2007) provide
a chemical profile for the beads. An overview of the modern ENDNOTES
Chinese bead industry appears in Sprague and An (1990).
1. This guide is a greatly expanded and updated version
Function of the one first published in 1982 by Parks Canada and
reprinted in 1985 (Karklins 1982a, 1985b). New types
Unless a bead is found in an archaeologically diagnostic have been added to each manufacturing category with
context (e.g., sewn to clothing, situated at the neck of a burial, a corresponding schematic drawing being incorporated
or strung on a rosary), it is extremely difficult to assign it a into the appropriate figure. The interpretive section
specific function. Although “little” beads (those under about relating to origins has been fleshed out and the
6 mm in diameter) were commonly used in embroidery chronology section has not only had numerous
and loom work, they were frequently also employed in references added but the scope has been increased to
the formation of necklaces, earrings, and nose and hair cover all the Americas and the Caribbean.
ornaments, as well as decorative inlays in aboriginal pottery
and other items. Similarly, “big” beads (those over about 2. The mold-pressed classification system has been
6 mm in diameter) are commonly thought of as necklace simplified from that presented in the previous guides
components but also served to adorn fringes, baskets, mats, with the result that the codes for some types have
vases, and other items. Thus to arrive at the real function changed (cf., Karklins 1982a, 1985b)
of a bead, not only must its size be considered but also the
cultural, historical, and archaeological contexts.
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1982 “Eye” Beads in the Southeast. Conference on Historic Site 1976 Ka-3, the Deer Creek Site: An Eighteenth Century French
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