Overview of the Nervous System

• Total mass of about 2kg

• Comprises of an intricate network of billions of
neurons supported by a greater number of
neuroglia.
• Two main divisions:
Nervous System – – Central nervous system – consists of the brain and
Human Anatomy the spinal cord.
• Processes incoming sensory (afferent) information.
and Physiology
• Source of thoughts, emotions, and memories.
Tristan Angelo M. Calaquian, MD
Faculty, Angeles University Foundation
• Generate output (motor/efferent) signals to
Fellow, Philippine Society of Anatomists, Inc stimulate effector organs (glands or muscles)

Overview of the Nervous System

• Two main divisions:
– Peripheral nervous system – all nervous tissue outside the CNS.
• Components include nerves and sensory receptors.
• Nerve – bundle of hundreds to thousands of axons plus associated
connected tissues and blood vessels.
– Cranial nerves (12 pairs)
– Spinal nerves (31 pairs)
• Somatic nervous system – conveys output of CNS to the skeletal
muscles, under voluntary control.
• Autonomic nervous system – conveys output of CNS to the smooth
muscles, cardiac muscle, and glands, involuntary.
• Enteric nervous system – regulate activity of the smooth muscle
and glands of the gastrointestinal tract.

Overview of the Nervous System

• Functions of the nervous system
– Sensory function – detection of both internal
and external stimuli. Inputs from sensory
receptors are then carried into the brain and
spinal cord via the cranial or spinal nerves.
– Integrative function – processing of sensory
inputs, analyzing and making decisions for
appropriate responses (integration).
– Motor function – elicit motor response by
activating effectors (muscles and glands).
 Electrical Potentials
• Transmission of information between neurons is
possible due to the cell being electrically excitable.
Basic • All neurons have a resting membrane potential.
• Two types of electrical signals:
Neurophysiology – Graded potentials – used for short-distance
communication. Vary in amplitude depending on the
strength of the stimulus.
Neuronal electrophysiology – Action potentials – sequence of rapidly occuring
Membrane potentials events that decrease and reverse the membrane
Synaptic transmissions potential and eventually restore to the to the resting
state.
Neurotransmitters
 Factors Influencing The Speed of
Propagation of Action Potentials
• Amount of myelination
• Axon diameter
• Temperature

Synaptic Transmissions
• Synapse – region of communication between
two neurons or between a neuron and an
effector cell (muscle or glands).
– Presynaptic neuron – neuron carrying signal
towards a synapse.
– Postsynaptic neuron – neuron receiving a signal.
• Most are axodendritic (axon to dendrite).
– Can also be also axosomatic or axoaxonic.
• Electrical vs chemical synapse.
 The Brain

The Central Nervous • Control center for registering sensations, correlation of

these sensory inputs, making decisions, and taking

System action.
• Center of intellect, emotions, behavior, and memory.
Embryology
• Composed of:
Blood Supply and the Blood-Brain Barrier
Cerebrospinal Fluid
– 8.5 x 109 neurons.
Brain – 1 to 5 x 1013 neuroglia.
Brainstem
Cerebellum
– 1015 synapses.
Diencephalon
Cerebrum
Spinal Cord
 The Brain
• Four major parts:
– Brainstem – continuous
with the spinal cord and
consists of the medulla
oblongata, pons, and
midbrain.
– Cerebellum – posterior to
the brainstem.
– Diencephalon – of the
thalamus, hypothalamus,
and epithalamus.
– Cerebrum – superior to the
diencephalon, largest part
of the brain.

Protective Coverings of the Brain

• The brain is protected by the cranium and the meninges.
• Meninges – triple-layer of protective connective tissue
covering:
– Dura mater – most superficial. Thick strong layer of dense irregular
connective tissue,
– Arachnoid – middle layer, thin, avascular covering comprised of cells
and thin, loosely arranged collagen, the arrangement of which
resembles that of a spider’s web (hence, arachnoid).
• Subdural space – between the dura and arachnoid. Filled with
interstitial fluid.
– Pia mater – innermost layer, thin transparent connective tissue layer
consisting of thin squamous to cuboidal cells within interlacing bundles
of collagen fibers and some fine elastic fibers.
• In contact with the surface of the brain and spinal cord.

Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Clear, colorless liquid consisting of water and small
amounts of O2, glucose, and other needed chemical.
• Continuously circulates through cavities in the brain and
spinal cord and around the brain and spinal cords in the
subarachnoid space.
• Total volume of CSF is around 80 to 150ml.
• Functions:
– Mechanical protection
– Chemical protection
– Circulation
 Blood Flow to the Brain and the Blood Flow to the Brain and the
Blood-Brain Barrier Blood-Brain Barrier
• Blood supply to the brain is provided by the: • Blood-brain barrier – restricts traffic of different
– Internal carotid arteries – anterior circulation substances to and from the brain tissue. Consists of:
– Vertebral arteries – posterior circulation – Capillary endothelial cells
• Venous drainage by the dural venous sinuses  – Basement membrane
internal jugular veins  superior vena cava  right – Astrocytes
atrium. • Permeability of substances in the blood-brain barrier:
• The organ utilizes around 20% of the oxygen and – Most permeable: lipid-soluble substances (steroid hormones,
glucose. alcohol, barbiturates, nicotine, and caffeine, O2 , CO2 and water,
via simple diffusion.
– Under normal circumstances, the brain can only utilize glucose
– Intermediate permeability: glucose, amino acids; via
as its metabolic fuel.
facilitated transport.
– Cannot tolerate prolonged hypoxia (>4 minutes – permanent
– Low permeability: charged molecules (ions).
injury ensues).
– Impermeable: proteins, most antibiotics.
 The Brain - Brainstem and the
Reticular System
• Part of the brain between the spinal cord and the
diencephalon.
• Consists of:
– Medulla oblongata
– Pons
– Midbrain
• Reticular formation – netlike region of interspersed
gray and white matter.
– Contains the reticular activating system, responsible for
maintaining consciousness.

The Brainstem – Medulla

Oblongata
• Medulla oblongata – most inferior part of the brainstem.
– Begins at the foramen magnum and extends to the inferior
border of the pons.
– contains all sensory (ascending) tracts and motor (descending)
tracts that extend between the spinal cord and other parts of the
brain.
• Pyramids – formed by large corticospinal tracts that pass from the cerebrum
to the spinal cord.
• Majority of the axons in the corticospinal tract cross to the other side –
decussation of the pyramids.
– Also contain several nuclei.
• Some of these nuclei regulate vital signs (cardiovascular and medullary
respiratory centers) – damage leads to irregularities in vital signs.
• Nuclei for controlling vomiting, swallowing, sneezing, coughing, and
hiccupping.
• Nuclei of cranial nerves IX, X, XI, XII.

The Brainstem – Pons The Brainstem – Midbrain

• Pons – lies directly superior to the medulla and anterior • Midbrain (mesencephalon)
to the cerebellum. – Extends from the pons to the diencephalon.
– Anterior part contains the cerebral peduncles – paired bundles
– Bridge that connects parts of the brain with one another in the
of axons of the corticospinal tract, corticobulbar, and
form of bundles of axons.
corticopontine tracts.
– Two major structural components: • Conducts nerve impulses from the motor areas in the cerebral cortex to the
• Ventral region – forms a large synaptic relay station consisting of scattered spinal cord, medulla, and pons respectively.
gray centers called the pontine nuclei – plays a role in coordinating and
maximizing the efficiency of voluntary motor output of the body. – Posterior part is called the tectum – containing four rounded
• Dorsal region – contains ascenting and descending tracts along with the elevations:
nuclei of the cranial nerve. • Two superior colliculi – reflex centers for certain visual activities.
– Pontine respiratory group – helps control breathing (together • Two inferior colliculi – part of the auditory pathway, relaying impulses from
the receptors in the inner ear to the brain.
with the medullary respiratory center.
– Also contain several nuclei:
– Cranial nerve nuclei V, VI, VII, VIII.
• Substantia nigra (loss leads to parkinson disease)
• Red nuclei
• Cranial nerve nuclei III, IV
 The Brainstem – Reticular
Formation The Cerebellum
• Occupies the inferior and posterior aspects of the cranial
• Reticular formation
cavity.
– Region within the brainstem encompassing its entire length.
– Net-like arrangement of white and gray matter consisting of • Highly folded – increases gray matter surface area to
small clusters of neuronal cell bodies interspersed among small allow for greater number of neurons.
bundles of myelinated axons. • Primary function is to evaluate how well movements
– Ascending portion – the reticular activating system. initiated by motor areas in the cerebral cortex are
• Sensory axons that project to the cerebral cortex.
actually being carried out.
• Induction and maintenance of consciousness.
• Inactivation produces sleep. – Coordinates skeletal muscle contraction.
• Damage leads to coma. • Regulates posture and balance.
– Descending portion – connections to the cerebellum and spinal – Allows skilled muscular activities (dancing, catching a baseball,
cord. speaking.
• Helps regulate muscle tone, regulation of heart rate, blood pressure, and
respiratory rate. • Ataxia – loss of coordinated movement due to damage /
dysfunction to / of the cerebellum.

The Diencephalon

• Forms a central core of brain tissue just superior to the

midbrain.
• Includes:
– Thalamus
– Hypothalamus
– Epithalamus
 The Diencephalon – Thalamus
• Thalamus
– Makes up 80% of the diencephalon.
– Paired oval masses of gray matter organized into nuclei with
interspersed tracts of white matter.
– Function is to serve as the major relay station for most sensory
impulses from the spinal cord and brainstem to the cerebral
cortex.
– Contributes to motor functions by transmitting information from
the cerebellum and basal nuclei to the primary motor cortex
– Also relays nerve impulses between different areas of the
cerebrum and plays a major role in the maintenance of
consciousness..

The Diencephalon – Hypothalamus The Diencephalon – Hypothalamus

• Hypothalamus - located inferior to the thalamus. • Hypothalamus - located inferior to the thalamus.
– Consists of four major regions: – Major regulator of homeostasis
• Mammillary region – nipple-shaped, relay stations for reflexes related to • Control of the autonomics
the sense of smell. • Production of hormones
• Tuberal region – widest part of the hypothalamus, includes the dorsomedial • Regulation of emotion and behavioral patterns
and ventromedial nuclei, infundibulum (connects to the hypothalamus). • Regulation of eating and drinking
• Supraoptic region – contains the paraventricular, supraoptic, anterior • Control of body temperature
hypothalamic, and suprachiasmatic nuclei. Axons coming from the 1st two
nuclei form the hypothalamohypophyseal tract – connects to the posterior • Regulation of circadian rhythm
pituitary.
• Preoptic region – anterior to the supraoptic region. Contains the medial and
lateral preoptic nuclei.

The Diencephalon – Epithalamus

• Epithalamus
– Small region superior and posterior to the thalamus.
– Consists of the pineal gland and habenular nuclei.
– Pineal gland – secretes melatonin, a hormone that regulates
circadian rhythm.
– Habenular nuclei – involved in the emotional responses to
odors.
 The Diencephalon –
The Cerebrum
Circumventricular Organs
• Circumventricular organs • “Seat of intelligence”
– Lie in the wall of the third ventricle. • Consists of:
– Lacks a blood-brain barrier. – Cerebral cortex
– Monitor chemical changes in the blood. – Cerebral white matter
– Coordinate homeostatic activities of the endocrine and nervous – Gray matter nuclei
systems

The Cerebrum – Cerebral Cortex

• Cerebral cortex:
– Region of gray matter that forms the outer rim of the cerebrum.
– Contains billions of neurons arranged in distinct layers.
– Surface features:
• Gyri (sing. gyrus) – convolutions, folds.
• Sulci ( sing. sulcus) – grooves in between the gyri.
• Fissures – deepest grooves.
– Right and left cerebral hemispheres – formed by the
longitudinal fissure.
• Both are connected with each other by a broad band of white matter called
the corpus callosum.

The Cerebrum – Lobes of the The Cerebrum – Cerebral White

Cerebral Cortex Matter
• Lobes of the cerebral cortex • Cerebral white matter
– Frontal lobe – Consists primarily of myelinated axons in three types of tracts.
– Parietal lobe • Association tracts – contain axons that conduct nerve impulses between
gyri in the same hemisphere.
– Temporal lobe • Commisural tracts – contain axons that conduct nerve impulses from gyri
– Occipital lobe in one cerebral hemisphere to corresponding gyri in the other cerebral
hemisphere. (corpus callosum, anterior and posterior commissure)
– Insula
• Projection tracts – contain axons that conduct nerve impulses from the
cerebrum to lower parts of the CNS (thalamus, brainstem, or spinal cord) Or
vice versa. (internal capsule)
 The Cerebrum – Basal Nuclei
• Collection of 3 nuclei deep within each cerebral
hemisphere.
– Globus pallidus
– Putamen
– Caudate nucleus
• Receive input from the cerebral cortex and provide
output to motor parts of the cortex via the medial and
ventral group nuclei of the thalamus.
– Regulation of movement.
– Subconscious control of skeletal muscles.
– Initiate and terminate cognitive processes, attention, memory.
– Regulate behavior (with the limbic system).

The Cerebrum – Limbic System The Cerebrum – Limbic System

• Limbic system • Limbic system
– Encircles the upper part of the brainstem and the corpus – Plays a role in a range of emotions.
callosum. • Stimulation of the amygdala or certain hypothalamic nuclei – rage.
– Composed of: • Ablation of the amygdala – loss of fear and aggression.
• Limbic lobe (cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus). – Functions in memory (hippocampus).
• Dentate gyrus – lies between the hippocampus and parahippocampal • Neurons are believed to be capable of mitosis in the hippocampus.
gyrus.
• Amygdala – composed of several groups of neurons located close to the tail
of the caudate nucleus.
• Septal nuclei
• Mammillary bodies
• Olfactory bulbs
• Fornix, stria terminalis, stria medullaris, medial forebrain bundle, and
mammillothalamic tract.

Functional Organization of the

Cerebral Cortex
• Specific types of sensory, motor, and integrative signals
are processed in certain regions of the cerebral cortex.
• Generally:
– Sensory areas – receive sensory information and are involved
in perception, the conscious awareness of a sensation.
– Motor areas – control the execution of voluntary movements.
– Association areas – deal with more complex integrative
functions such as memory, emotions, reasoning, will, judgment,
personality traits, and intelligence.
 The Spinal Cord
• Elongated part of the central nervous system.
– Extends from the medulla oblongata to the superior border of the
second lumbar vertebrae.
• Consists of 100 million neurons.
• Contains neural circuits that control reflex reactions in
response to a noxious stimuli.
• Spinal cord grey matter – site of integration of
excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potential.
• Spinal cord white matter – contain tracts conveying
sensory and motor impulses to and from the brain.
– “Information superhighway”.

The Spinal Cord – Protective

Structures
• The spinal cord is protected by:
– Vertebral column – provide a sturdy shelter for the spinal cord.
– Meninges – triple-layer connective tissue covering the length of
the spinal cord.
• In addition, the cerebrospinal fluid circulates through the
subarachnoid space of the spinal meninges.
– Suspends the spinal cord tissue while providing a shock-
absorbing, hydraulic cushion.
 The Spinal Cord – External
Anatomy
• Oval in shape, slightly flattened anteriorly and
posteriorly.
• In adults, it extends from the medulla oblongata to the
superior border of the second lumbar vertebra.
– In newborns, up to the 3rd or 4th lumbar vertebra.
• Two conspicuous enlargements – due to the large
amount of axons going to and from the upper or lower
limbs exiting or entering at these sites to innervate
– Cervical enlargement (C4– T1)
– Lumbar enlargement (T9 to S3)

The Spinal Cord – External The Spinal Cord – External

Anatomy Anatomy
• Conus medullaris – tapering conical structure found • Roots – bundles of axons found at the posterior or
below the lumbar enlargement. anterior surface of the spinal cord.
– Terminus of the spinal cord. – Posterior: dorsal root ganglion – sensory axons.
– Found at the level of the intervertebral disc between the first and – Anterior: ventral root ganglion – motor axons.
second lumbar vertebra. • Rootlets – smaller bundles connecting a root to a spinal
• Filum terminale – formed by the merging of the pia cord segment.
mater with the arachnoid and dura mater. • Cauda equina – “horse’s tail”, composed of roots arising
– Anchors the spinal cord to the coccyx. from the lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions arranged
• Thirty-one (31) pairs of spinal nerves forms like a wisps of hair.
communication between the spinal cord and specific
regions of the body.
 The Spinal Cord – Internal The Spinal Cord – Internal
Anatomy Anatomy
• Transverse section of the spinal cord reveals regions of
white matter surrounded by an inner core of gray matter. • Gray matter – divided into regions called horns.
– White matter – bundles of myelinated axons. – Posterior: dorsal horns – axons of incoming sensory
– Gray matter – unmyelinated axons, cell bodies, and dendrites. neurons as well as cell bodies and axons of
• Two grooves penetrate the white matter of the spinal interneurons.
cord and divide it into right and left sides. – Anterior: ventral horns – somatic motor nuclei, which are
clusters of cell bodies of somatic motor neurons that provide
– Anterior median fissure
nerve impulses for contraction of skeletal muscles.
– Posterior median sulcus
– Lateral: lateral horns – autonomic motor nuclei which are
• “Butterfly-shaped” gray matter at the center clusters of cell bodies of autonomic motor neurons that regulate
– Gray commissure – center of the gray matter. the activity of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands.
– White commissure – anterior to the gray commissure, connects • Only found in the thoracolumbar segment (T1 to L2).
white matter of the right and left sides of the spinal cord.
• Central canal – filled with cerebrospinal fluid.

The Spinal Cord – Internal

Anatomy
• White matter
– Columns – delineated by the anterior and posterior horns.
• Contains bundles of axons having a common origin or destination, carrying
similar information.
• May extend long distances up or down the spinal cord
– Dorsal columns
– Ventral columns
– Lateral columns
• Sensory vs motor tracts
 The Peripheral
Nervous System
Anatomy of a peripheral nerve
Cranial nerves
Spinal nerves
Autonomics

The Peripheral Nervous System

• Consists of neuronal cell bodies, axons and associated
connective tissues that are located outside the central
nervous system.
• A nerve (or peripheral nerve) is referred to as a bundle
of axon located outside the central nervous system.
– Contains connective tissues which function to provide support
and protection to the axons.
• Twelve (12) pairs of cranial nerves.
• Thirty-one (31) pairs of spinal nerves.
• Motor vs sensory nerve vs mixed nerve.

Spinal Nerves

• Thirty one (31) pairs of nerves associated with the spinal

cord.
• Named and numbered according to the region and level
of the vertebral column from which they emerge.
• Always a mixed nerve.
• Branches:
– Rami (ramus): formed by division of the spinal nerve a short
distance away from the intervertebral foramen.
• Anterior and posterior rami.
– Plexuses: networks formed by merging of the anterior rami of
spinal nerves with other axons.
 Cranial Nerves
• Pass through the various foramina in the bones of the
cranium.
• Arises from the brain inside the cranial cavity.
• Twelve pairs.
• Designated by roman numerals
• Special sensory nerves – I, II, VIII
• Motor nerves – III, IV, VI, XI, XII
• Mixed nerves – V, VII, IX, and X
 Autonomic Nervous System
• Functions to regulates cardiac muscle, smooth muscle,
and glands.
• Operates without conscious control.
• Divided into:
– Sympathetic – effects allow the body for emergency situations
(“fight-or-flight”).
– Parasympathetic – effects allow the body to conserve and
restore body energy during rest or digesting a meal (”rest-and-
digest“).

Selected Diseases
Affecting the Nervous
System
Diseases of the peripheral nerve
Diseases affecting the spinal cord
Diseases affecting the brain
 Peripheral Nerve Diseases Peripheral Nerve Diseases

• Diabetic neuropathy – occurs as a result of long- • Leprosy – most common infectious cause of peripheral
standing diabetes mellitus. neuropathy.
– Longest nerves are most affected. – Infection with Mycobacterium leprae.
– “Glove and stocking” pattern of numbness. – Tend to involve the nerves closest to the skin where it is cooler.
– Can present with painful sensations. – Loss of sensation at affected areas of the skin.
– Treatment: control of blood glucose level. – Secondary bacterial infections can occur due to repeated injury.
• Bell palsy – occurs due to damage to the facial nerve. • Guillaine-Barré syndrome – immune-mediated
– Can occur due to an infection (shingles), trauma, tumors or demyelination of peripheral nerves.
stroke. – Can occur after a trivial infection (Campylobacter jejuni infection,
– Presents with paralysis of the facial muscles, loss of taste, flu).
decreased salivation, and loss of ability to close the eyes, even – Loss of myelin sheath results in weakness or paralysis.
during sleep.

Spinal Cord Diseases Brain Diseases

• Trauma to the spinal cord – can result from automobile • Cerebrovascular accident (stroke) – characterized by
accidents, falls, contact sports, diving, and acts of abrupt onset of persisting neurological symptoms, such
violence. as paralysis or loss of sensation.
– Effects of the injury depend on the extent of direct trauma to the – Results from destruction of brain tissue due to hypoxia as a
spinal cord or compression of the cord by fractured or displaced result of occlusion or rupture of a blood vessel in the brain.
vertebrae or blood clots. – A leading cause of death worldwide.
– Paralysis may occur, depending on the extent of damage. – Can result from atherosclerosis (hardening of the blood vessels
• Poliomyelitis – viral disease that infects the anterior due to deposition of cholesterol), high blood pressure, smoking,
horn cells. diabetes.
– Survivors are often left with long-term disabilities (paralysis,
– Weakness/paralysis may occur due to loss of neurons
blindness, language deficits etc…).
innervating the muscles.
– Can be mitigated with early administration of clot-dissolving drug
– Can be prevented by vaccination.
(tissue plasminogen activator)

Brain Diseases Brain Diseases

• Alzheimer disease – a form of age-related loss of • Parkinson disease – progressive disorder of the CNS
intellectual capabilities (including impairment of memory, that typically affects its victims around age 60.
judgment, abstract thinking, and changes in personality). – Degeneration of neurons in the substantia nigra, putamen, and
(senile dementia). the caudate nucleus.
• Loss of dopamine-releasing neurons.
– Characterized by loss of acetylcholine releasing neurons,
• Imbalance between dopamine and acetylcholine neurotransmitters.
deterioration of the hippocampus, beta-amyloid plaques and
neurofibrillary tangles. – Involuntary movements (tremors), increase in muscle tone
(rigidity), slowness of movements (bradykinesia).
– Individuals with Alzheimer disease presents with forgetfulness,
confusion, paranoia, and would experience hallucinations and – Treatment to slow down the progression of the disease is
mood changes. directed towards increasing levels of dopamine and decreasing
the levels of acetylcholine.
– Loss of previously learned skills (reading, writing, talking, eating,
• Dopamine precursors (levodopa).
walking).
• Monoamine oxidase inhibitor (selegiline)
– Progressive, patients become bedridden and succumb to • Anticholinergics (benztropine)
complications such as pneumonia.
 Brain Diseases Brain Diseases
• Epilepsy – characterized by short, recurrent attacks of • Depression – a mood disorder affecting 264 million
motor, sensory, or psychological malfunction referred to worldwide.
as epileptic seizures. – Characterized by depressed mood (sadness), lack of interest in
– Initiated by abnormal, synchronous electrical discharges from previously enjoyed activities, sleep disturbance, and suicidal
millions of neurons in the brain. thoughts.
– Caused by: – Believed to be caused by imbalance in neurotransmitters
• Brain damage at birth (the most common cause); serotonin, norepinephrine and dopamine in the brain.
• Metabolic disturbances (hypoglycemia, hypocalcemia, uremia, hypoxia); – Factors such heredity, stress, chronic illness, certain personality
• Infections (encephalitis or meningitis); traits (low self-esteem) and hormonal changes can contribute to
• Toxins (alcohol, tranquilizers, hallucinogens); its development.
• Vascular disturbances (hemorrhage, hypotension);
– Treated with agents such as selective serotonin reuptake
• Head injuries; and
inhibitors.
• Tumors and abscesses of the brain.
• Genetic predisposition
– Treated with antiepileptic drugs: phenytoin, valproate,

Other Diseases of the Nervous

Brain Diseases System
• Schizophrenia – a chronic and severe mental disorder • Bacterial meningitis – acute, purulent (pus-forming)
affecting 20 million people worldwide. infection of the meninges and subarachnoid space.
– Characterized by distortions in thinking, perception, emotions, – Result of bacterial invasion of the subarachnoid space from
language, sense of self and behaviour. hematogenous dissemination.
• Common experiences include hallucinations (hearing voices or seeing things – Caused by different species of bacteria, depending on the age of
that are not there), delusions (fixed, false beliefs), disorganised thoughts
and/or behaviour, and disturbance in emotion (apathy).
the individual.
– Results from imbalance of the neurotransmitter dopamine in – Fever, vomiting, photophobia, headache, nuchal (nape) rigidity,
certain brain region. and a decreased level of consciousness ranging from lethargy to
stupor, obtundation, or coma.
– Significant public mental health problem.
– Cerebrospinal fluid analysis – gold-standard method of
– Treatable with medications or psychotherapy.
diagnosing meningitis.
– Treated by antibiotics, specific agents depends on the most
likely cause.
 End of Session
References:
1. Tortora G., Derrickson B. (2017). Principles of Anatomy and
Physiology. 5th edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
2. Netter F., Jones HR., Burns T, Aminoff M, Pomeroy S. (2013).
The Netter Collection of Medical Illustrations: The Nervous
System, Part I: Brain 2nd edition. Saunders Elsevier.
3. Netter F., Felten D., Shetty A. (2010) Netter’s Atlas of
Neuroscience 2nd edition. Saunders Elsevier