03.

76
Technical Information

Load Dynamics 78-83 Pipe Transport 101

Methods of Load Restraint - Tie Down 84-85 Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums 102

Basic Material Guidelines 86 Checking the Load 103

Maintaining Friction 87 Sharp Edges 104

Pretension 88 Cut and Abrasion Protection 105

Tie Down Angle Effect 89 Operating Temperatures 106

Dunnage (Packing) 90 Atmospheric Effects 107

Direct Load Restraint 91 The Effects of Various Substances 108

Direct Lashing Angles 92-93 The Effects of Acids on Polyester 109

Selecting Lashing Combinations 94 The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising Agents

on Polyester 110-111
Direct Lashing Examples 95-96
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
Combined Tie Down and Direct Restraint 97
on Polyester 112
Friction and Direct Restraint 98
Lashing Deficiencies 113
Curtain Sided Vehicles 99
Tensioning Devices 114
Rubber Tyre Bounce 100
Handling the Load Securing Equipment 115-116

NOTE: The information in this technical chapter is intended as

a guide only. For specific lashing and chemical guidance please
contact the SpanSet Australia Ltd Technical Department.

77
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Load Dynamics

These are brought about by changes in speed,

direction, braking or road surface conditions.
Additionally, cambered and hilly roads as well
as airflow can affect the dynamics of the vehicle
and its load.

Forces Occurring During Transport Operations

Static weight force

Starting forces

Cornering forces

Cornering forces

Braking forces

78
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Load Dynamics

Mass Forces Which Can Have an Effect on the Load in Comparison Different modes of transport have different
with the Means of Transport effects on the load due to varying dynamics.
ie A truck will stop much more abruptly than a
ship or a train.

1.0 G 0.3 G

4.0 G
0.5 G
0.5 G

0.5 G

0.5 G 0.5 G

0.8 G

4.0 G
1.0 G

0.5 G

At least 0.3 G

0.5 G

At least 0.3 G 1.0 G

79
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Load Dynamics

When braking or accelerating the load can shift

forwards or rearwards.

When cornering, the load can shift sideways Cambered roads can also have an effect on the
with increasing force as the speed increases and load stability.
the corner gets tighter.

80
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Load Dynamics

Travelling up and down hilly or undulating terrain

can cause the load to move forwards or rearwards.

Rough road surfaces can have a vibratory effect Wind forces at high speeds can have an adverse
causing loads to settle and bounce. effect on loads, especially light components with
large surface areas.

81
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Load Dynamics

The forward restraint will prevent the load

shifting on heavy vehicles and the majority of
light vehicles in emergency braking situations.
Sideways restraint is to avoid the load shifting
during cornering or evasive actions and
destabilising the heavy vehicle.

Australian Load Restraint Requirements

20% of the weight of the load upwards (rough roads)

0.2 W

Half the weight of the load

rearwards (accelerating,
braking in reverse)
0.5 W
Half the weight of the
load sideways (cornering)
0.5 W

0.5 W
Half the weight of the
load sideways (cornering)
0.8 W
80% of the weight of the
load forwards (braking)

82
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Load Dynamics

To ensure there is always friction between the

load and the deck, a force of 20% of the load
must be applied downward by the tensioning of
the lashings.

Australian Load Restraint Requirements

Restraint against sideways movement = 50% of load

Restraint = 5 tonnes

Restraint R against upward movement

= 20% of load

Weight 10 tonnes

Restraint = 8 tonnes R = 2 tonnes Restraint = 5 tonnes

Restraint against sideways movement Restraint against sideways movement

= 80% of load = 50% of load

Restraint = 5 tonnes

Restraint against sideways movement = 50% of load

83
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Methods of Load Restraint

– Tie Down
The most common form of restraint is tie down If the load is standing on the load floor, a "micro- Coefficient of friction x Weight force
lashing which prevents the load from moving interlocking" between the surface of the load
by increasing the friction between the load and floor and the surface of the load occurs, which
the vehicle. will be stronger, the rougher the surface is.

These lashings work like a giant G clamp and also This micro-interlocking characterises the µD x
prevent the load from moving upwards. The total coefficient of kinetic friction
friction is achieved by both the weight of the load
and the downward force of the tie downs.

Varying surface conditions can give a different

friction performance, ie A “grippy” surface
gives a high friction coefficient while a slippery
surface gives a low friction coefficient.

Tie Down Load Restraint

Tie down Tie down Clamping force

Friction

Weight of load + Tie down lashings

Friction Surface Friction Surface

84
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Methods of Load Restraint

– Tie Down
If the load does not shift, it is not the strength
of the lashing that determines the holding
ability of a tie-down lashing. It is determined
by the amount of tension in the lashing from
initially operating the ratchet, winch or dog, in
conjunction with the amount of friction present. Weight 10 tonnes Weight 10 tonnes
Tie-downs should not be used on slippery loads
because too many lashings are needed

Friction cannot be increased by additional

surface area. Adding extra timber dunnage as Friction = 4 tonnes Friction = 4 tonnes
at right achieves exactly the same result.

Friction between smooth surfaces such as steel

can be increased using anti-slip rubber mat. Oil,
water, dust and sand can also act as a lubricant
and greatly reduce friction.

85
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Basic Material Guidelines

Load Friction Typical Friction Coefficient

Wet or greasy steel on steel VERY LOW 0.01-0.1

Smooth steel on smooth steel LOW 0.1-0.2

Smooth steel on rusty steel LOW TO MEDIUM 0.2-0.4

Smooth steel on timber MEDIUM 0.3-0.4

Smooth steel on conveyor belt MEDIUM 0.3-0.4

Rusty steel on rusty steel MEDIUM TO HIGH 0.4-0.7

Rusty steel on timber HIGH 0.6-0.7

Smooth steel on rubber load mat HIGH 0.6-0.7

86
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Maintaining Friction

In order to maintain friction force during normal Smooth, rounded corner protectors can minimize
driving, the load must always be in contact with this reduction as can specialized sleeves with
the vehicle with the correct downward lashing low internal friction such as Spanset sliP.
force, therefore the tie down lashings must Alternatively, two tensioners can be used on
always be tensioned correctly. each lashing.

The maximum lashing tension is applied to the Note: For calculation purposes the pretension is
side of the load where the tensioner is located. multiplied 1.5 times on single lashings and
The tension on the opposite side can be 50% 2 times on double sided lashings.
less due to the snagging and friction of the strap
passing over the load.

1.5 x Pretension 2 x Pretension

87
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Pretension

Lashing Type Size Tensioner Pretension Example

Rope 10mm Single hitch 50kg 10,000kg load, smooth steel on timber,
friction coefficient (µ) 0.4 = 10,000 kg x 0.4
12mm Double hitch 100kg = 4,000 kg of friction force

Webbing Strap 25mm Hand ratchet 100kg Forward restraint requirement (0.8) 8,000kg
minus 4,000kg friction force from weight of load
35mm Hand ratchet 250kg leaves 4,000kg clamping force required

50mm Truck winch 300kg Standard 50mm ratchet pretension

300kg x 1.5 = 450kg (9 required)
50mm Hand ratchet (push up) 300kg
20020 ratchet pretension
50mm 20020 Hand Ratchet (push up) 600kg 500 x 1.5 = 750kg (6 required)

50mm 20035 ERGO Ratchet (pull down) 750kg 20035 ratchet pretension
Chain 7mm and over Dog 750kg 750 x 1.5 = 1120kg (4 required)

Turnbuckle 1000kg
Web Dog 8mm Hand ratchet (pull down) 1500kg

Note: Values are multiplied by 1.5 for LC calculations as pretension is applied to 2 sides of the load,
minus the friction derating caused by the edges of the load. If using tensioners on both sides or
SpanSet SliP sleeves multiply by 2.0.

88
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Tie Down Angle Effect

Approximate Tie down Tie down A tie down is not 100% effective unless it is
angle degree angle effect effectiveness vertical or at 90˚ to the deck. If the angle is
less than 90° (most loads!) its effectiveness is
reduced and this must be reflected in the load
restraint calculations.
60 0.85 85%
Tie downs are most efficient if they are vertical
and tensioned correctly.

The less the angle, or closer to horizontal, the

less clamping force is applied to the load which
means more lashings are required to achieve the
required force.
45 0.70 70%
Example
If a ratchet/strap combination is tensioned to
750kg but only at an angle of 15° then it is only
applying a clamping force of 187.5kg or 25% on
one side of the load. Therefore it would take 4
90 1.00 100% straps to apply the full 750kg of force. Hence the
term “angle effect”.

30 0.50 50%

15 0.25 25%

89
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Dunnage (Packing)

Many loads are too low for tie-down lashings to For easy tie down calculations refer to our
be fully effective. Lashing Controller App for Apple and Android.

✗ 15°

Low tie down angle (not recommended)

Dunnage (packing) can be used to lift the load

height and increase the effective angle.

✓ 30°
✓
Dunnage 30°
Dunnage

90
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Direct Load Restraint

Direct restraint
Containing Blocking Attaching

Tankers – Tipper bodies Headboards – Side/Tail gates Twist locks – Direct lashings

91
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Direct Lashing Angles

Direct lashing relies on the strength of the Example of 2500kg Assembly For easy direct lashing calculations refer to our
assembly to restrain the load, as opposed to Angle effect (E1) Forwards Lashing Controller App for Apple and Android
friction to clamp the load. = Distance (1.0) ÷ Length of Lashing (1.5)
= .666% of lashing assembly capacity
The lashing is at its most efficient in a straight ie Each 2500kg assembly is reduced to
line but needs to be de-rated when angles are 1665kg LC
introduced (most loads).
Angle effect (E1) Sideways
To determine the effectiveness of a lashing in = Distance (0.5) ÷ Length of lashing (1.5)
relation to its applied angles, use the following = .333% of lashing assembly capacity
calculations. ie Each 2500kg assembly is reduced to 825kg LC

For Lashing L1 For Lashing L2

Angle effect (E1) Forwards = Distance (F1)
÷ Length of lashing (L1) Angle effect (E2) Rearwards = Distance (R2) ÷
= % of lashing assembly capacity. Length of Lashing (L2)

Angle effect (E1) Sideways = Distance (S1) Angle effect (E2) Forwards = Distance (S2) ÷
÷ Length of Lashing (L1). Length of Lashing (L2)

L2 L1
E2 E1
S2 S1

R2 F1

92
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Direct Lashing Angles

Lashing angle too vertical Lashing angle at 25 degrees

Simple rule of thumb

– 1:2 equals approximately 25º

93
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Selecting Lashing
Combinations
A simple rule is to select lashings whose
combined lashing capacity is:
–– In the forwards direction - twice the weight
of the load
–– In the sideways direction - the weights of
the load

–– In the rearward direction - the weight

of the load.

2 tonne chain 4 tonne chain

Weight 4 tonnes

2 tonne chain 4 tonne chain

94
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Direct Lashing Examples

With lifting sling With edge angles With pallet

Side and end blocking

95
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Direct Lashing Examples

Possibility 1 Possibility 2

Possibility 3 Possibility 4

Note: Where straps cross each other, ensure

abrasion protection is in place.

96
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Combined Tie Down and

Direct Restraint
Combined tie-down and direct restraint uses
both friction and direct restraint. Figure
illustrates load restraint provided by:
–– Friction force from the weight of the load;
and
–– Friction force from tie-down lashings;
and

–– Blocking (the front part of the load is blocked

by the headboard and the rear part of the
load is then blocked by the front part).

The load is prevented from moving forwards by

a combination of friction force from the weight
of the load and the lashing tension, and also
blocking against the headboard.

The load is prevented from moving rearwards

and sideways only by friction. The load is
prevented from moving upwards by the lashings.

97
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Friction and Direct Restraint

Figure illustrates load restraint provided by:

–– Friction force from the weight of the load,
plus
–– Friction force from the downward force from
the lashings, plus

–– Direct restraint from lashings that are

attached to the load.

98
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Curtain Sided Vehicles

Curtain sides are used primarily for protection

from the elements and are a safer alternative to
tarpaulins.

These curtains are not considered primary load

restraints. Despite many of the fastening straps
being rated, they do not prevent the internal load
from shifting and destabilising the vehicle and
potentially leading to an accident.

0% protection

99
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Rubber Tyre Bounce

During braking, pneumatic rubber tyred Direct lashings should be angled at no more than
equipment can pull down and compress the 25° to the horizontal or use and over the tyre, in
tyres causing the load to bounce repeatedly, line lashing.
leading to wear in chains and lashing points.
Over tyre lashings eliminate these issues.
In extreme circumstances the chains can become
slack in the compression process and the grab
hook can release from the chain especially on
rough roads.

100
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Pipe Transport

Bundling or unitising is an effective way of

preventing pipes, bars and billets from rolling.
This can be done by belly strapping or belly
wrapping the lashings around the products.

This is not suitable for slippery, soft or

crushable products.

Belly strap Belly strap Belly wrap

✗ ✓
101
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils

and Drums
Rolls reels, coils and drums must be lashed
to the deck and blocked to prevent forward
movement or otherwise completely contained.
If they are not bundled or unitised on a pallet or
stored in a suitable container, each item should
be individually lashed.

102
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Checking the Load

Some loads can settle and shift during the Reading off the Initial Tension Force
journey causing the lashings to lose tension, with the TFI
causing objects to fall off. The driver must
regularly check their loads and restraints to
ensure the load is secure and cannot fall off.
The type of load and the road conditions will
determine the frequency of these checks.

A critical aspect of these precautions is the

actual ability to check the amount of tension
in each strap. All SpanSet 50mm and 75mm
250 daN tension force: The first tooth starts to
premium ratchets come fitted with tension
overlap the recessed indicator range of 250 daN.
force indicators (TFI) allowing the tension to be
checked at a glance.

500

daN 500 daN tension force: The second tooth

starts to overlap the outside indicator range.

TFI - Tension Force Indicator

ERGO ABS lashing straps are fitted with the TFI,
Tension Force Indicator, as standard. The TFI
indicates the attained pretension force which
you can read off either on the left side (250daN
and 500 daN), or on the right side (750 daN).

Knowledge of the actual tension force allows 750 daN tension force: The two halves are
precise securing of the cargo. The required pressed together (positive engagement).
number of lashing straps can then be determined
and the labour time calculated.

103
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Sharp Edges

Definition of Sharp Edges Relating to

Synthetic Lashings Around Loads

If the radius (r) of the edge of the fitting is the

same or less than the compressed thickness (d)
of the lashing strap. A fitting with insufficient
diameter such as a shackle pin is still considered
a sharp edge.

104
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Cut and Abrasion Protection

Sleeve Cut/Abrasion Protection Protection of lashing from sharp edges is critical

and a sharp edge does not have to be a razor-like
Cut Protection Abrasion Oil/Grease/Fuel
contact point. The use of protective sleeves
Webbing No Yes Yes can safeguard against cutting and prolong the
life of lashing.
PVC Hose No Yes Yes

Leather No Yes Yes It is important to note that protective sleeves

fall into two categories – cut protection and
secutex® Polyurethane Yes Yes Yes
abrasion protection.

105
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Operating Temperatures and

Atmospheric Effects
PES (Polyester) PA (Polyamid) PP (Polypropylene) Resistance to Ultra-Violet
In its level of resistance to sunlight (measured
as a percentage of the original tensile strength),
polyester may be regarded as a highly-
120 120 120 resistant fibre.
110 110 110
100 100 100 Calculated on the basis of units of weight it
90 90 90 has a considerably higher original strength than
natural fibres, and since it is, generally speaking,
80 80 80
more resistant to degradation by the action of
70 70 70 steam, chemicals and micro-organisms, one
60 60 60 finds in practice that polyester will give greater
50 50 50 service life than many other fibres.
40 40 40
30 from + 100°C 30 from + 100°C 30 from + 80°C When exposed to ultra-violet behind glass,
20 to – 40°C 20 to – 40°C 20 to – 40°C polyester exhibits a considerably higher
resistance and is better than the majority of
10 10 10
other fibres.
0 0 0 0 0 0
10 10 10 SpanSet ultra-violet stabilised polyester retained
20 20 20 more than 95% of its strength after six months
30 30 30 continuous exposure in the sunshine of Florida.
40 40 40

106
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Atmospheric Effects

The Effect of Humidity The table on page 108 shows the weekly (168 –– The loss of strength is proportional to the
hours) percentage reduction in strength when duration of treatment
The normal moisture content of polyester is very
polyester is exposed to a moist atmosphere at
low, whilst for nylon it is considerably higher. –– Strength is lost at a rate of 0.12% per hour at
different levels of saturation ranging from 10 to
100°C or approximately 20% per week
100% relative humidity.
As a result of the extremely low absorption of
moisture by polyester its physical properties –– The level of reduction in strength increases
Reduction in the strength of more than 100% is or decreases by a factor of 1.082 per °C of
such as strength, elasticity and modulus vary only
unrealistic, but these values have been included temperature. This is equivalent to 1.08210 or
slightly in moist or dry conditions below 70°C.
since they illustrate the deterioration at different 2.2 times per 10°C.
levels of temperature and humidity and, therefore,
On the other hand, nylon loses about 10-20% of
may be used for estimating the damage which By applying these general principles it will
its strength when wet accompanied by a change
may occur in periods of less than one week. enable an estimate to be made in the reduction
in the load/extension curve. After drying, the
of strength resulting from exposure to water or
strength is, of course, regained.
The loss of strength in water is extraordinarily saturated steam for a measured period of time.
slow at normal temperatures. At 70°C it is For example, there is a reduction in the strength
The Effect of Water and Steam barely noticeable after four weeks. The speed of of 10 x 0.12 x 2.2 or approximately 62% on
The effect of steam on polyester is to cause deterioration increases with the temperature, and exposure to saturated steam at a temperature of
hydrolytic breakdown with a consequent at 100°C the reduction of mechanical properties 150°C for 10 hours. In a similar way, a period of
reduction in the mechanical properties of is significant in the long term, eg About 60% of 5 hours spent in water at 94°C causes a reduction
the fibres. The extent is dependent upon the tensile strength is lost after three weeks' in strength of 5 x 0.1211.08255, or about 0.4%.
temperature and the duration of exposure. continuous immersion in boiling water.
These examples should only be regarded as a
In spite of polyester being a hydrophobic fibre, Water saturated steam at 100°C causes the general indication, since pre-treatment of a fibre
its attack by the moisture is a process which same strength loss and there is nothing to may further alter the physical properties.
does not simply occur on the surface and this suggest that water in liquid form would have a
breakdown is believed to be the result of the different effect.
shortening of the molecular chains throughout
the fibre. Sometimes tensile strength is not the only
significant property, it is nevertheless the very
Unsaturated water vapour at temperatures in factor which determines the length of service,
excess of 100°C occurs in some important areas and is a useful measurement of the changes
of application, eg In the filtration of dust from occurring which provide a convenient yardstick
gases, and it is necessary to be familiar with for checking the durability of the fibre. The effect
the effect of various levels of saturation and the of water or saturate steam on polyester may be
incidence of related loss. summarised as follows:

107
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

The Effects of Various

Substances
Perspiration Dimethyl Phthalate Hydrocarbons
Fuel at Room Temperature
Neither acidic nor alkaline synthetic perspiration Although dimethyl phthalate quickly dissolves
formulations have any effect on the strength of polyester at boiling point, this substance has Residual strength in
polyester or nylon. little effect at ambient temperatures. Total Substance % after exposure for
immersion for one month at 30°C does not bring 28 weeks
Cooling Agents about any reduction in strength. Petroleum 100 100

Dichloro-difluor-methane (Arcton 6 or Freon 12) Regular Petrol

Phenols 100 100
and monochloro-trifluor-methane (Arcton 4 or
Premium Petrol 100 100
Freon 22) are commonly used in refrigeration The number of substances capable of dissolving
plant. Immersion for six months in these polyester at ambient or moderate temperatures Diesel Oil 100 100
substances has a scarcely noticeable effect on are limited, the only class of chemicals
Benzene
the strength of polyester within the temperature capable or this are the phenols. The majority 100 100
range - 20°C to + 20°C, although some swelling of phenols either cause polyester to swell or Jet Fuel JP1 100 100
does occur in the latter substance. cause dissolution, depending on the level of
concentration and the temperature. Jet Fuel JP4 100 100
Attack by Micro-organisms and Iso-Octane 100 100
insects At normal temperatures, there is good resistance
to the dilute forms of phenols, such as wood
Since neither polyester nor nylon are digestible
tar-derived creosote which may contain up to
as an animal feedstuff, their resistance to
20% of phenol substances. Polyester fibre which
bacteria, fungi, termites, silver fish, moth larvae,
was stored in creosote at 30°C for six months
etc, is excellent. It should be remembered,
exhibited an insignificant reduction in strength.
however, that certain fungi and bacteria are
At 50°C the loss is still less than 10%, but
capable of growth even on the very small
increases to 25-50% at 70°C.
amounts of impurities which may be found on
the surface of the fibres which make up the
Thus at normal temperatures, creosote
yarns and fabrics.
impregnation should not cause serious damage
to polyester. The phenols, in particular carbolic
Although this has no effect whatsoever on
acid, metacreosole and creosolic acid, are
the tensile strength of the material, it is
solvents of nylon. In low concentrations in water,
nevertheless possible for the substances
their effect is usually slight, although a certain
produced by these organisms to give rise to
amount of shrinkage of the nylon yarn does
discolouration of the polyester sling.
occur.

108
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

The Effects of Acids The Effects of Acids

on Polyester on Polyester
Inorganic and Organic Acids The Effects of Inorganic and Organic Acids
Breaking Strength
Certain chlorine-containing organic acids have
the effect of dissolving Polyester. Mono-, di- and Temp
Substance 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
trichloracetic acid dissolve all polyesters at C°
temperatures in excess of their fusion points, 20 100 100 100 99 97 96
respectively 63°, 10° and 55°. The solution
Nitric Acid 60 96 89 66 30 0
occurs rapidly at 100°C and in the case of
dichloracetic acid, this occurs even at normal pH 0.5 75 70 50 0
room temperature.
100 60 0

The acidic hydrolysis of polyester is not a 20 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
surface reaction, but continues to act upon
Sulphuric Acid 50 100 100 100 100 100 97 92
the molecules throughout the entire fibre. It is
followed by a reduction in the strength of the 75 100 100 98 90 72 0
pH 0.5
fibre and of the strain as well as in the Index of
Viscosity (IV). 100 99 96 81 42

Concentration (%) of
The reduction in the strength of the fibre
varies widely depending upon the nature, the Temp
Substance 2.5 5 10 20 30
concentration and the temperature of the acid. C°
20 100 100 100 100 100

Hydrochloric Acid 50 100 100 100 98 78

pH 0.5 75 100 100 98 66 40

100 100 91 54 5 0

Concentration (%) of
Temp
Substance 10 20 30 50 70
C°
20 100 100 100 100 100
Formic Acid
50 100 100 100 100 100
pH 1.6
70 100 100 100 100 100

109
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

The Effects of Alkalis and

Oxidising Agents on Polyester
The Effect of Oxidising and Calcium Hydroxide (Lime) Sodium Hydrosulphite
Reducing Agents In spite of the fact that it is possible to obtain Those reducing agents which are normally used
Polyester fibre has a very high resistance to only weak solutions of lime, its effect still in textile processes have no noticeable effect
oxidising and reducing agents and the fibre will seems to be 13 times more rapid than that of on polyester. Treatment for 72 hours at 80°C in
withstand stronger bleaching processes than caustic soda under similar conditions, its effect a saturated solution of sodium hydrosulphite
those normally used for textile fibres. Polyester on polyester is considerable and the loss of causes no reduction in the strength of the fibre.
products may be exposed without harm to any of strength is significant.
the common bleaching agents, including those Potassium Dichromate
based upon hypochlorite, chlorite, hydrogen Sodium Hyperchlorite
Polyester which has been treated for 3 days
peroxide, the per-salts and reducing sulphur
The resistance of polyester to sodium at 80°C in a saturated solution of potassium
compounds.
hyperchlorite under the conditions to which dichromate to which has been added 1%
textiles are normally exposed to it, is excellent. (weight/volume) of sulphuric acid exhibits a very
The Effect of Alkalis insignificant change in its properties, the loss of
Alkalis, acids or simply water can all cause the Sodium Chlorite strength being, for example, less than 5%.
hydrolysis of a polyester such as, for example,
Boiling for one hour in a 0.2% solution of sodium
polyethyleneterephthalate, but the cause of the
chlorite at pH 2-3 has no effect on the tensile
reaction and its effect on the fibre is not the
strength of polyester.
same in each case.

The effect of alkalis in an aqueous solution, with

the exception of ammonia and its derivatives,
is quite different, producing the progressive
dissolution of the fibre, whilst water, acids,
ammonia and its derivatives, eg Quaternary
ammonium bases and amines break down the
fibre without dissolving it.

110
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

The Effects of Alkalis and

Oxidising Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Alkalis
Residual strength in %
at a concentration of
Time in Temp
Substance 1% 3% 5%
Hours C°
pH 12.7 pH 12.6 pH12.5
50 20 98 94 80

Caustic Soda 50 50 93 91 71

NaOH 50 75 85 52 12

50 100 62 - -

Concentration (%) of
Time in Temp
Substance 1 2.5 5 10 20 25
Hours C°
50 20 100 100 100 100 100 100
Ammonia
50 50 100 100 98 95 60 55
HNO3
50 75 100 70 0 50 0 0

Residual strength in % after

1-12 months at room temperature
Substance pH 1 3 6 12
Concentrated Ammonia 20% 13.4 0 3 0 0

Calcium Hydroxide 50% 12.4 92 64 29 0

Potash-Lye Concentrated 40% 14.0 0 0 0 0

Soda Lye 0.1% 12.1 100 100 100 94

Soda Lye 15% 12.1 0 0 0 0

Soda Lye Concentrated 30% 11.2 0 0 0 0

111
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

The Effects of Chemicals and

Solvents on Polyester
Chemicals Organic acids such as common acetic acid, Residual Strength of Polyester with
for example, do have an effect on polyester, Organic Solvents
Danger Classes although it is negligible. The exception is mono- Temp Residual strength
di and trichloracetic acid. Substance
°C in % after 7 days
0 Solvents, Salts, Artificial Fertilizers Amyl Acetate 60 100
Polyester tolerates Sodium Carbonate.
Benzaldehyde 60 100
1 Inorganic Acids
Organic Solvents Butyl Alcohol 60 100
2 Alkalis Both nylon and polyester fibres exhibit a high Chloramine 60 100
level of resistance to the majority of common Chloroform 60 100
The danger classes have the following organic solvents. Examples of these, including
significance: Dimethyl
those which are normally used for dry-cleaning, Sulphoxide
60 100
are as follows: acetone, dioxane, ether,
0 Has no effect on polyester at temperatures Epichlorhydrin 60 100
methanol, ethanol, benzene, toluene, xylene,
below 50°C. petroleum ether, methylene chloride, chloroform, Formaldehyde 60 97
carbon tetrachloride, perchloroethylene and Formamide 60 100
1 May be used in combination with polyester trichloroethylene. Freon 11 20/40 100
in regulated forms at temperatures below
30°C, during a maximum continuous period At room temperature, these have an insignificant Freon 12 20/40 100
of use of 2 days. Where this continuous effect on the strength of either polyester or Freon 22 20/40 100
period of use is less than two days, higher nylon. Immersion for six months in methanol at Fuel Oil 100 100
concentrations of the acids and/or higher 30°C results in very little reduction in strength,
temperatures can be tolerated, since the Hexylamine 60 0
whilst the reduction at 50°C is 15%.
degradation formula for the polyester may Motor Oil 60 100
be written as: Nylon is capable of reacting with methanol Styrene 60 100
under acidic conditions to give a weaker, more Powdered Carbon
Concentration x time x temperature elastic yarn with a considerable increase in the 60 100
Tetrachloride
= resistance to degradation. diameter of the filament.
Trichloroethylene 60 100

2 May not be used in combination Neither nylon nor polyester should be heated for Xylene 60 100
with polyester. long periods in alcohol or in other compounds
of esters, since this will cause an exchange of
Phenols in concentrations above 20% and above esters which will break down the polymer.
ambient temperature will dissolve polyester.
This also applies to Hexylamine. However, the
salt, Ammonium Sulphide, is an exception, since
it is highly destructive to polyester.

112
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and
Solvents on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing Equipment

Lashing Deficiencies

Lashing straps should no longer be used if the

following deficiencies are present:

Webbing
–– Incisions greater than 10 % at the web edge
or excessive wear, since repair is then no
longer possible
–– Damage to the seams

–– Deformation from heat More than 10% cut in webbing

–– Contact with aggressive substances, if not

expressly approved by the manufacturer

–– Illegible data on the label.

–– Missing label. Use only load-securing

equipment bearing a label

–– Unidentified lashing equipment with

illegible or missing labels must be withdrawn
from use.

Worn and illegible label

Chemical burns from acid

113
03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics
Tie Down Restraint
Direct Load Restraint
Curtain Sided Vehicles
Rubber Tyre Bounce
Pipe Transport
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums
Checking the Load
Sharp Edges
Cut and Abrasion Protection
Operating Temperatures

Tensioning Devices

Deformation of the tensioning element at the Connection elements

slotted shaft or of the locking slider, wear of the
–– Widening of the hook by more than 5%
sprockets or broken ratchet handle.
–– Cracks

–– Fractures

–– Considerable corrosion

–– Permanent deformation. Lashing hooks must

not be loaded at their tips unless the hooks
are specially designed for this purpose,
otherwise the lashing equipment will no
longer be functional.

Don't mount loads on the hook point Don't use bent end fittings - remove from service

114
 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Atmospheric Effects
The Effects of Various Substances
The Effects of Acids on Polyester
The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Agents on Polyester
The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
on Polyester
Lashing Deficiencies
Tensioning Devices
Handling the Load Securing
Equipment

Handling the Load

Securing Equipment
–– The lashing strap should only be used by
suitably trained personnel.

–– Wash in a mild detergent and allow to dry

naturally.

–– Tensioning devices should be regularly cleaned

and lightly lubricated in the vicinity of the
sprockets (be sure not to lubricate the places
to which the belt is applied; the belt can
otherwise slip through and release the load).

–– Lashing equipment must not be overloaded,

since overloading will lead to breakage of or
damage to the lashing equipment.

–– Do not use lashing equipment for lifting

purposes, as it is not designed for this use.

–– Never knot lashing equipment,since Don't tie knots in lashing webbing Don't use lashing for lifting purposes. Use a sling.

considerable loss in strength can result.

Clean and lubricate the tensioner sprockets Don't overload lashing

115
03.0 CHAPTER 03.9 TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Load Dynamics Atmospheric Effects

Tie Down Restraint The Effects of Various Substances
Direct Load Restraint The Effects of Acids on Polyester
Curtain Sided Vehicles The Effect of Alkalis and Oxidising
Rubber Tyre Bounce Agents on Polyester
Pipe Transport The Effects of Chemicals and Solvents
Vertical Rolls, Reels, Coils and Drums on Polyester
Checking the Load Lashing Deficiencies
Sharp Edges Tensioning Devices
Cut and Abrasion Protection Handling the Load Securing
Operating Temperatures Equipment

Handling the Load

Securing Equipment
–– Do not crush or run over lashing equipment.
This can result in considerable loss of
strength

–– Use only lashing equipment that is not

twisted when tensioning

–– To avoid stress on tensioning devices and

fasteners, do not lay them across edges,
otherwise they may fracture. Tensioning
devices operating according to the winding
principle must not be subjected to less than
1.5 or more than 3 turns of the clamping
device (webbing) since with less than
1.5 turns the belt can slip through and with
more than 3 turns crushing of the belt begins.
In both cases, it is no longer guaranteed
that it works.
Don't run over lashing Don't twist the lashing

Don't lash over edges

116