Walberg’s theory of academic achievement posits that psychological characteristics of

individual students and their immediate psychological environments influence educational

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Discussions concerning human learning began with the early Greek philosophers. Indeed, Reynolds,
Sinatra, and Jetton (1996) provide an overview of the theories of the Greek philosophers, as well as
current-day learning theories. They suggest that these approaches be positioned along a continuum
from environment-centered (where all learning comes from stimulation outside the organism) to mind-
centered (where all learning comes from manipulations within the mind of the organism). Such a
classification helps to identify similarities and differences among the theories. If we begin with the Greek
philosophers, we see that Alcmaeon, Democritus, and Protagorus held a view that can be labeled the
“environment-centered.” They suggested knowledge or learning comes only from the senses and what is
observed. In contrast, Socrates rejected the notion that knowledge comes only from perception. He
argued that knowledge comes from ideas, concepts, and reasoning. This can be labeled “mind-
centered.” Aristotle presented a compromise view in which sensations and perceptions combined with
the organization of the mind to create higher-order concepts and processes. Thus, Aristotle provided
what might be called an “integrationist” view. Similar distinctions can be made of more current theories
of learning. Behaviorism The behaviorist approach, derived from the British Empiricists (Locke, 1690,
1995; Mill, 1929) and popular from about 1910 until about 1960, held that all learning comes from
behavioral responses to external stimuli. Thus, it provides an example of an environment-centered
approach. Watson’s seminal article (1913) stated, “Psychology as the behaviorist views it is a purely
objective experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of
behavior.” Both Pavlov (1927, 1941) and Watson (1913) focused on classical or respondent conditioning.
Pavlov introduced the principle of “frequency” according to which the more frequently an
unconditioned stimulus (e.g.,

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Initial work on behavior modeling (also called social learning) began when behaviorism was pre-
eminent. Bandura (1965a, 1965b) proposed, in contrast to the importance placed on frequency, that
most human learning involves no-trial learning. New responses are simply acquired by observing the
behavior of other people (i.e., models). The person can, thus, learn new responses without ever having
performed the task and without having 31-1 658 received any reinforcement. Nevertheless, since
observation of a model is critical to learning, this approach can be considered environment-centered.
Sorcher and Goldstein (1972) reported on the first research on behavior modeling undertaken in an
industrial setting. Goldstein and Sorcher (1973, 1974) reported on the use of such programs to reduce
the turnover among “hard-core unemployed” employees. Since then, over 50 published studies have
examined various aspects of behavior modeling. (See Russ-Eft [1997] for a review of this research.)
Elaboration of Bandura’s original notions of “no trial learning” tend to include the following steps as part
of the learning or training process: (1) a description of the behaviors to be learned, (2) a model or
models displaying those behaviors, (3) opportunities for learners or trainees to practice the behaviors,
(4) feedback and social reinforcement following practice (Decker & Nathan, 1985; Robinson, 1982;
Taylor, Russ-Eft, & Chen, 2003).
The Theory of Performance (ToP) develops and relates six foundational concepts (italicized) to form a
framework that can be used to explain performance as well as performance improvements. To perform
is to produce valued results. A performer can be an individual or a group of people engaging in a
collaborative effort. Developing performance is a journey, and level of performance describes location in
the journey. Current level of performance depends holistically on 6 components: context, level of
knowledge, levels of skills, level of identity, personal factors, and fixed factors. Three axioms are
proposed for effective performance improvements. These involve a performer’s mindset, immersion in
an enriching environment, and engagement in reflective practice. by Don Elger, University of Idaho
Rationale for a Theory of Performance Humans are capable of extraordinary accomplishments. Gandhi
led a nonviolent revolution that liberated India from colonial rule. On September 12th, 1962, JFK
challenged the country to “go to the moon in this decade and do the other things, not because they are
easy, but because they are hard, because that goal will serve to organize and measure the best of our
energies and skills...” Wonderful accomplishments also occur in dayto-day practice in higher education.
An advisor inspires students to follow their dreams. A teacher magically connects with students. A
researcher continually asks the quintessential questions that lead to revolutions in thinking. A dean
inspires an entire college to collaborate and attain wonderful outcomes. Since worthy accomplishments
are produced from highlevel performances, a theory of performance (ToP) is useful in many learning
contexts. Traditional Contexts A ToP informs learning in classrooms, workshops, and other venues that
are traditionally associated with learning. Non-traditional Contexts A ToP informs learning in contexts
that are not traditionally conceptualized as learning environments. Examples of these contexts include
academic advising, self development, departments, academic committees, professional research groups,
colleges. Organizational Learning A ToP informs learning by organizations through the idea of examining
the “level of performance” of the organization. Performance To perform is to take a complex series of
actions that integrate skills and knowledge to produce a valuable result. Examples of performance are
shown in Table 1. In some instances, the performer is an individual. In other performances, the
performer is a collection of people who are collaborating such as an academic department, research
team, committee, student team, or a university. Level of Performance Performance, as the adage goes,
is a “journey not a destination.” The location in the journey is labeled as “level of performance.” Each
level characterizes the effectiveness or quality of a performance. • As a lawyer improves her level of
performance, she can conduct legal research faster, more thoroughly, and more in-depth. • As an
academic department improves its level of performance, the members of the department are able to
produce more effective student learning, more effective research, and a more effective culture. • As a
manager advances his level of performances, he is able to organize people and resources more
effectively and to get higher quality results in a shorter time. • As a teacher advances his levels of
performance, he is able to produce deeper levels of learning, improved levels of skill development, and
more connection with the discipline for larger classes while spending less time doing this. • As an actor
improves his level of performance, he is able to learn parts quicker, play more varied roles, and produce
an deeper and more meaningful impact on audiences. Performance advancing through levels is shown in
Figure 1 where the labels “Level 1,” “Level 2,” etc. are used to characterize effectiveness of
performance. That is, a person or organization at Level 3 is performing better than a person or
organization at Level 2. As shown on the right side of Figure 2, performing at a higher level produces
results that can be classified into categories: Quality increases—results or products are more effective in
meeting or exceeding the expectations of stakeholders
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%20of%20Performance.pdf

Alos et al. (2015) greatly emphasized the importance of having qualified teachers in the field of teaching,
and said thatsuccess of any program is conditioned by the ability of the teacher to teach. If there is
failure at this point, the wholestructure fails. Hence, the implementation, selection, preparation and
supervision of education will be affected. Moreover, Dewett (2007) mentioned that good teachers are
constantly on the alert for methods and instructionalmaterials that will make learning meaningful. With
the wise selection and use of a variety of instructional materials or audio-visual materials, experiences
may be provided to develop understanding.

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Performance-in-Colleges-of-Education-in-Southwest-Nigeria.pdf