Mechanical condition assessment of Transformer windings using Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) WG A2.26 Members: Patrick PICHER (CA) ~ Convenor John LAPWORTH (UK) ~ Leader of Task Force 1 Tim NOONAN (IR) ~ Leader of Task Force 2 Jochen CHRISTIAN (DE) ~ Leader of Task Force 3 Micheal ALPATOV (RU), Dierk BORMANN (SE), Richard BREYTENBACH (ZA), Peter DICK (CA), Alexander PROBYSHEVSKI (RU), lonel DUMBRAVA (RO), Robin FISHER (CH), Hans Kristian HOIDALEN (NO), Paul JARMAN (UK), Istvan KISPAL (HU), Alexander KRAETGE (AT), Thomas LEIBFRIED (DE), Ryszard MALEWSKI (PL), Rodrigo OCON (MX), Emesto PEREZ (SP), Johannes RICKMANN (US), Yukiyasu SHIRASAKA (JP), Stefan TENBOHLEN (DE), Martin TIBERG (CH), Zhongdong WANG (UK), Peter WERELIUS (SE), Rafal ZALESKI (PL). Copyright © 2008, “Ownership of a CIGRE publication, whether in paper form or on electronic support only infers right of use for personal purposes. Are prohibited, except if explicitly agreed by CIGRE, total or partial reproduction of the publication for use other than personal and transfer to a third party; hence circulation on any intranet or other ‘company network is forbidden”. Disclaimer notice “CIGRE gives no warranty or assurance about the contents of this publication, nor does it aecept any responsibility, as to the accuracy or exhaustiveness of the information, All implied warranties and conditions are excluded to the ‘maximum extent permitted by law”. ISBN: 978- 2- 85873- 030-8ISBN: 978- 2- 85873- 030-8TABLE OF CONTENTS Summary Chapter 1: Introduction to FRA. i 12 13 14 15 16 17 174 172 Chapter 2: FRA Practices. 24 22 22.1 2.22 2.23 22.4 225 23 24 24.1 242 2.43 244 245 2.4.6 247 248 Introduction Purpose of FRA Measurements. Definitions... 2 Short-circuit Forces and Winding Deformation Failure Modes 2 Comparison of Diagnostic Techniques. 5 Development and Variations in FRA Practices. - s 6 Examples of FRA Results 8 Axial collapse after clamping failure. 8 Conductor tilting . 10 Introduction . FRA Test Types.. ‘Test Cireuit and Connections .. End-to-end (Figure 13, b) ono aoe 12 End-to-end short-circuit (Figure 13¢, d).... sn ID Capacitive inter-winding (Figure 13e)... Inductive inter-winding (Figure 134). Summary of WG Workshops ... ona 1S Recommended Standardisation of FRA practices .....n.nesnnnennnsnn "7 Test Leads. Measurement Impedance... Determination of the Maximum Usable Frequency for Interpretation, 18 Parameters Influencing FRA Measurements to be Recorded with the Test Data....18 ‘Test Equipment Requirements et sone 1D Test Types 20 Data Format... — Sermon 21 ‘Summary of Rules to perform a Good FRA Measurement...Chapter 3: FRA Interpretation 3.1, Introduction 3.2. Basics of FRA Interpretation...ssnnmsmmnnesnnnnnnnennnnninnnnnnnnnts 23 3.2.1 Presentation of FRA Responses... 23 3.2.2. Expected Resonance Frequency Range vs. Transformer Size and Winding Type .24 3.23 Typical FRA Responses. 25 3.2.4 Frequency Range for Interpretation .. ea 3.3. Interpretation Methodology oe 33 3.3.1 Evaluation by Fingerprint Results... 33 3.3.2. Comparison of Twin and Sister Transformers 33 3.3.3. Symmetry of Windings of a Transformer... 35 3.4 Examples of FRA Interpretation... 3.4.1 Hoop Buckling of LV Winding, 34.2 Localized Movement on the Regul: 3.43 Floating Shield between HV and LV 3.4.4 Shorted-core Laminations. 34.5 Effect of the Oil one al 3.4.6 Effect of Shorted Tus... seen 3.4.7 _ Effect of Core Residual Magnetisation 42 3.4.8 _ Effect of Resistive Connection of the Test Cables. 42 3.5 Perspectives on FRA Interpretation 4B 3.5.1 Tools for Assisted or Automatic Interpretation of FRA Results. 4B 3.5.2 Simulation of FRA Responses Based on Geometric Parameters os... 44 3.5.3 Parameterisation of FRA Data based on Pole-Zero Representation 45 3.6 Recommendations 46 References. Appendix: Evaluation of FRA Practices - WG Workshops. itiiv SUMMARY The objective of this brochure is to provide a guide for assessing the mechanical condition of transformer ‘windings using Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) CIGRE WG A2.26 was set up to evaluate the FRA technique following evidence provided at the 2003 CIGRE SC A2 Colloquium that it was more sensitive than conventional techniques. Two key tasks, required before the technique can be accepted as a standard test, were to recommend standardisation of test techniques where this is justified and provide guidance on interpretation, Accordingly, efforts were divided into three task forces: 1. To provide an introduction for interested parties with limited previous experience in FRA to summarise the essential features and highlight key advantages 2. ‘To compare the various FRA practices and make relevant recommendations for standardisation 3. To develop a guide for data interpretation and make proposals for research activities to support further improvements, ‘The task force contributions are presented in the corresponding three chapters of this brochure. ‘The key elements are summarised below. The FRA method involves injecting a signal at one terminal of a transformer and measuring the response of the windings to that signal, usually at another terminal. ‘The main purpose of FRA is to detect winding displacements after over-currents caused by through faults, tap-changer faults, faulty synchronisation, ete. Other applications of FRA include mechanical condition assessment after transportation and the detection of any other problems which result in changes to the inductance or capacitance distribution in transformers (core faults, faulty grounding of core or screens, etc.). Lastly, there is also an interest in using FRA results and high frequency modelling to understand interactions between a transformer and the network to which itis connected. Comparison with other diagnostic techniques show that the key advantages of FRA are its proven sensitivity to a variety of winding faults and a lesser dependency on previous reference measurements, but there is a need for an objective and systematic interpretation methodology. In order to take full advantage of this proven sensitivity, the FRA user must use a reproducible test practice (test leads, measurement impedance, test equipment specifications, ctc.). The concept of maximum usable frequency for interpretation, classified by the bushing rated voltage, is introduced to clearly discriminate a potential fault inside the transformer from a variation caused by the way in which test leads are attached. Recommended good cabling practices to maximise the usable frequency range for interpretation are presented and supported by test results obtained during WG workshops. Recommendations for other aspects of FRA testing are also given, based on agreed best practice. More research is needed to compare the sensitivity of each test to detect typical mechanical failure modes. Since data format may become an issue if not supported several years after the reference measurement is ‘made, a suggestion for a minimum common format is provided.‘The interpretation of FRA results is generally done today by a visual comparison with previous measurements on the same transformer, between identical transformers or between phases of a three- phase transformer. To support the interpretation of differences in responses, some case studies and modelling results are presented to show the expected changes in the FRA curves for typical failure modes. ‘The main features of typical FRA responses for different types of winding are discussed and are explained in general terms by the natural frequencies of the various winding designs and the interactions with the measurement system, ‘The WG recognizes that there are several approaches for using objective automated techniques to compare FRA results (cross correlation coefficients, pole-zero modelling, etc.) but it is concluded that further work is required before recommendations can be made regarding any such automated interpretation procedures. It is expected that the increasing use of FRA in a more standardised way, following the lines described here, will facilitate comparison of the results obtained by different FRA users and help improve interpretation.Introduction to FRA (Task Force 1) 1 Chapter 1: Introduction to FRA 4.4. Introduction This chapter is intended to provide an introduction for interested parties with limited previous ‘experience of Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) measurements on transformers. It summarises the essential features and highlights key advantages, 1.2 Purpose of FRA Measurements ‘The main interest of FRA measurements on transformers is to detect winding deformations that may result from the very large electromagnetic forces arising from over-currents during through faults, tap-changer faults, faulty synchronisation, ete: Winding deformation eventually results in a transformer failure by damaging the inter-turn insulation, resulting eventually in shorted turns, which means the immediate end of service life ‘Transformers are expected to survive a number of short circuits without failure but, once any significant winding deformation is produced, the likelihood of surviving further short circuits is greatly reduced because of locally increased electromagnetic stresses. Furthermore, any reduction in winding clamping due to insulation shrinkage caused by ageing will also increase the likelihood of failure by reducing the mechanical strength of the winding assemblies, In addition to diagnosing failures after a short-circuit event, there is increasing interest in detecting winding deformation damage prior to eventual failure during planned outages, i ‘mechanical-condition assessments to assess the expected reliability of transformers in terms of any suspected increased susceptibility to failure under further short circuits. ‘There is also an interest in using FRA measurements to detect any other problems that result in changes to the inductance or capacitance distribution in transformers, e.g. core faults or faulty grounding of cores or screens. Another application for FRA measurements is to check the mechanical integrity of a transformer afier transportation, which usually means providing a reliable means of confirming that the core and winding assembly have not suffered any mechanical damage despite sustaining jolts during transportation, Note that for this application it may be necessary to have reference results without oil and bushings, if that is how the transformer is transported. Since transportation shocks are more likely to cause damage to the core structure than to the windings, there is a slightly different focus for this application Because FRA measurements can provide information about the consistency of geometric structures of windings and core, such tests are increasingly being used as quality assurance checks. Lastly, there is a growing interest in using information obtained on the frequency responses of windings to assess their response to system-generated impulses and understand resonant interactions of transformers with the network, e.g. investigating the possibilities of remote switching initiating damaging internal resonances.Introduction to FRA (Task Force 1) 2 4.3. Definitions Frequency Response Analysis (FRA) Any measurements of the frequency dependency (to high frequencies, e.g. MHz) of the electrical responses (transfer functions) of transformer windings to applied signals which are made with the primary intention of detecting winding deformation through the effects of resulting changes to capacitance or inductance distributions. Sweep Frequency Method A frequency response measured directly by injecting a signal of a variable frequency at one terminal and measuring the response at another. Impulse Voltage Method ‘A frequency response measured indirectly by injecting an impulse signal of a particular shape at one terminal and measuring the response at another, and then transforming the time domain ‘measurements into frequency domain results. FRA Amplitude The magnitude of the response relative to that of the injected signal, usually expressed in dB calculated as 20*10g 10( Veesponse! V njocion): FRA Phase Angle The phase angle shift of the response relative to that of the injected signal. Resonance Frequency The frequencies corresponding to any local maxima or minima in the measured amplitude response, 1.4 Short-circuit Forces and Winding Deformation Failure Modes The origins of short-circuit forces and the resulting winding deformation failure modes have been comprehensively described elsewhere [1], (2]. Only the key points are summarised here. When a transformer is subjected to a short circuit in the attached network, then it experiences considerably increased current flows for the duration of the external fault. ‘The magnitudes of the resulting ‘through fault” currents are usually much higher (maybe up to 20 times greater) than normal in-service currents, because they are no longer limited by the load impedance and may only be limited by the impedance of the transformer itself. The amplitude of the first current peak ‘may reach nearly twice the steady-state short-circuit value. The short circuit may arise because of a defect arising in another item of network equipment, or as a result of a system or environmentally generated transient, e.g. a close-up lightning strike, which causes phase-to- earth fault. Transformers which are subjected to out-of-phase synchronisation into a network will experience currents ofa similar, if not greater, magnitude than short-circuit through faults.Introduction to FRA (Task Force 1) 3 Through-fault currents in transformer windings (just like normal load currents) set up a magnetic field in the inter-winding gap. This so-called ‘leakage flux’ is in addition to the normal core ‘magnetising flux, and the resulting ‘leakage reactance’ or ‘short-circuit impedance’ is the main factor in limiting short-circuit currents, and is one of the main transformer performance parameters specified. Over most of the axial height of the windings of a core form transformer, the interaction between the predominantly axial leakage flux and the circumferential winding currents results in radial electromagnetic forces on the windings which tend to push these apart. The most critical of these are the inward forces on the inner winding, which can result in ‘hoop buckling’. At the ends of the windings of a core form transformer, the leakage flux is no longer purely axial but “fringes’ out through both windings. The interaction between the radial components of this field and the winding currents produce electromagnetic forces acting axially and tending to compress the windings. Extremely high pressure can lead to tilting of individual conductors in a winding, In the design and manufacture of large transformers, a great deal of attention is paid to making sure that both windings are symmetrical about their electromagnetic centres. If this is not done or there is some subsequent displacement resulting from insulation shrinkage, for instance, then the clectromagnetic stresses are no longer balanced and there can be much larger net axial forces acting on individual windings. Because core form windings are not wound entirely circumferentially but have some degree of spiralling, then there are also twisting forces acting on ‘windings which tend to tighten them up. Arising from the radial and axial forces acting on windings, the major deformation modes caused by fault currents are co Radial buckling (Figure 1); © Conductor tilting (Figure 2); © Conductor bending between supporting spacer columns, local distortion of the winding; ‘© Conductor telescoping in windings of limited radial thickness and restraint where conductors have been able to pass axially past each other (typical for layer windings): © Spiral tightening under twisting forces (Figure 3): (© Collapse of the winding end supports (Figure 4) © Movement of winding leads, particularly tap leadsIntroduction to FRA (Task Force 1) 4 Figure 3: Spiralling in the LV winding. _ Figure 4: Collapse of winding end support.Introduction to FRA (Task Force 1) 4.5 Comparison of Diagnostic Techniques ‘The relative strengths and weaknesses of the techniques that have been used to detect winding deformation are discussed and compared with Frequency Response Analysis in Table 1. ‘Table 1: Comparison of main electrical diagnostic techniques for winding deformation. Diagnostic technique Advantages Disadvantages Magnetising (exciting) current Requires relatively simple equipment. Can detect core damage. Not sensitive to winding deformation, Measurement strongly affected by core residual magnetism, Impedance (leakage reactance) Traditional method currently specified in short-circuit test standards. Reference (nameplate) values are available. ‘Very sinall changes can be significant Limited sensitivity for some failure modes (best for radial deformation), Frequency Response of Stray Losses (FRSL) Can be more sensitive than impedance measurement. Almost unique to detect short circuits between parallel strands. Not a standard use in the industry. ‘Winding capacitance Can be more sensitive than impedance measurements. Standard equipment available. Limited sensitivity for some failure modes (best for radial deformation). Relevant capacitance may not bbe measurable (c.g. between series/common/tap windings for auto transformers), Low Voltage Impulse (LVI) (Gime domain) Recognised as very sensitive. Specialist equipment required. Difficult to achieve repeatability Difficult to interpret. Frequency Response Analysis Better repeatability than LVI with the same sensitivity. Easier to interpret than LVI (frequency instead of time domain) Increasing number of users. Standardisation of techniques required, Guide to interpretation required. To summarise, most of the alternative techniques suffer the disadvantages of lack of sensitivity, lack of reference results, or both. The key advantages of FRA are a proven sensitivity to a varietyIntroduction to FRA (Task Force 1) 6 ‘of winding faults, while in most cases comparison between phases can be used in licu of reference results, Obviously, it would be preferable if several techniques provided complementary indications, but experience shows that this is not always the ease. 4.6 Development and Variations in FRA Practices Its important to realise that @ great variety of FRA measurement techniques are currently being used, not all of which have produced good results. This section presents a historical review of the development and variations in FRA practices. A detailed analysis of FRA practices and the recommendations to make a good measurement are presented in chapter 2, Most of the variations in the FRA technique can be traced to how the technique developed from LVL. Differences in FRA practices arise from two main aspects: © How the measurement is made © Which measurement is made ‘The main variation in how FRA measurements are made concems whether a sweep frequency method (referred to as ‘SFRA’) or an impulse method (referred to as “IFRA’) is used. The first IFRA techniques [4], (5] used an impulse method with the same double exponential type of impulse signal as used by LVL, with appropriate rise and fall times to include components of the ange of frequencies of interest, The impulse is applied to one terminal and the form of the applied and the transmitted signal at another terminal are recorded by a dual channel digital data acquisition system. One key development from time domain LVI [6] is that the two measured impulses are then transformed into the frequency domain using the Fast Fourier Transform algorithm, and then the calculated amplitudes of frequency components of the transmitted signal are divided by the corresponding amplitudes of the applied signal to derive the frequency response indirectly. This frequency response has the advantage over the LVI time response that it is independent of the shape of the applied impulse, so that the result is more closely related to the test object and less to the test set-up, thereby simplifying interpretation and improving repeatability. ‘The impulse method of performing FRA measurements being a development of traditional high-voltage impulse testing, some transformer manufacturets use their modern digital impulse testing recorders to perform FRA measurements but recently purpose-built transformer test instruments have become available to perform IFRA measurements, Since the objective of FRA measurements is to obtain the frequency response of windings, an altemative technique was proposed [7] to measure this directly using a sweep frequency technique. A sine wave signal is applied to one terminal and the amplitude and phase of the transmitted signal at another terminal are measured relative to the applied signal for various frequencies over the frequency range of interest. Early practitioners had to use general-purpose laboratory Network/Spectrum Analyser instruments, but more recently purpose-built transformer test instruments have become available to perform SFRA measurements. In principle, everything else being equal, the sweep frequency and impulse techniques should be capable of producing the same result, and this has been demonstrated on several occasions [8] For sweep frequency measurements, the accuracy depends on the ability of the equipment to perform over the frequency range of interest, and to reject noise at frequencies away from the measurement frequency. In order to obtain an accurate derivation of the frequency response using the impulse technique, the sampling frequency and record length of the digitisingIntroduction to FRA (Task Force 1) 7 equipment must be adequate to faithfully record all frequency components of interest in both input and output impulses, which must both return to zero at the end of the sampling period for the FFT algorithm to be valid (in case no window function is applied), and the applied impulse amplitude must be large enough to ensure that all noise components in the output frequency distribution ate insignificant. The introduction of Spectral Density Estimates to the impulse technique [9] helped to overcome the influence of noise in the output signal and the result of the FRA measurement, ‘The other main way that variations in FRA results can be introduced by how the measurement is ‘made concerns practices involving test leads. A three-lead system (separate leads for applying ‘and measuring the signal at the input terminal) is recommended to avoid including the input lead in the measurement. When making high-frequency measurements, it is good practice to use coaxial test leads with a good high-frequency bandwidth, and to ensure that the test leads are terminated in their characteristic impedance, usually 50 ohms, to avoid reflections. Good practice for grounding the shields of the coaxial cables is of primary importance to achieve good repeatability. The most basic and important variation in FRA results is introduced by which type of measurement is made, Most SFRA users perform an end-to-end measurement in which the input signal is applied to one end of every winding and the transmitted signal at the other end is ‘measured, as for a simple resistance measurement. For some impulse users, following traditional impulse measurement practice, itis more usual to inject a voltage at one terminal (usually an HV terminal) and measure the transferred voltages to other windings, or currents in the injected winding (usually at the HV neutral) to derive self or transferred impedances (or admittances). Variation can also be introduced by different values of measuring impedances (5002/100/1MQ etc.) andor by the way other untested terminals are terminated. Some users prefer a practice of ‘grounding untested windings while others prefer to leave all other terminals floating. Not surprisingly, these different measurements are not necessarily equally effective in detecting mechanical displacement. Some recent work has been done to compare the relative sensitivities of different connection techniques [10], [11]. Lately, a technique has been demonstrated where a complete transformer fingerprint is measured such that subsequently any type of FRA curve can be calculated on demand [13]. A device connects to all the transformer terminals at the same time and automatically measures all the linear properties of the transformer, i.e. the full admittance matrix, without requiring any reconnection. In addition, this technique allows the automated generation of high frequency terminal models of transformers for network simulation purposes. In view of the wide variety of FRA practices in use, there would obviously be benefit in carefully examining these with a view to standardising those that have been shown to be most effective, while allowing variety where this does not impact on performance. This is the scope of chapter 2.Introduction to FRA (Task Force 1) 8 1.7. Examples of FRA Results The following two examples are included here with the intention of illustrating the power of FRA ‘measurements. A more complete list of case examples will be provided in chapter 3. 1.7.1 Axial ci lapse after clamping failure ‘A. 35-year-old 400/132-KV 240-MVA autotransformer was switched out of service for investigation after a Buchholz alarm. Buchholz gas and main tank oil samples indicated a serious fault but was this repairable? Traditional diagnostic tests, including impedance measurements, failed to clearly identify any problem. FRA measurements showed a small but significant shift of the resonances of the phase-A LV winding which had not been there seven years previously, when the transformer had been tested after a close-up lightning strike (Figure 5). An irreparable collapse of the LV winding was diagnosed and a decision was made to scrap the transformer ‘without an intemal inspection [3]. A subsequent strip-down confirmed the diagnosis (Figure 6). After Buchholz alarm: ‘Amplitude (dB) 05 Frequency (MHz) —Aphase — 8 phase — C phase Amplitude (dB) Frequehy (MHz) —Aphase — B phase — C phase Figure 5: FRA signatures before and after axial collapse due to clamping failure.Introduction to FRA (Task Force 1) Figure 6: Axial collapse after clamping failure.Introduction to FRA (Task Force 1) 10 1.7.2. Conductor tilting A 40-year-old 275/132-KV 240-MVA autotransformer suffered a flashover in a line-end tap- changer selector compartment when the diverter failed to operate during tap changing. The resulting explosion blew off an inspection cover on the selector compartment and shattered the barrier board separating the selector compartment from the main tank, The tap-changer was clearly in need of repair but had the tap winding been damaged as result of the tap-to-tap circulating fault current? FRA measurements made across the tap winding by accessing tap selector contacts showed small but definite resonance frequency shifts for the response of the A phase that had suffered the fault (Figure 7). A decision was made to scrap the transformer. During the subsequent strip-down inspection, the phase-A tap winding was discovered to have suffered conductor tilting deformation (Figure 8). ‘Amplitude (dB) 0 05 i Frequency (MH2) —A phase —B phase — C phase Figure 7: FRA measurements across the tap winding (conductor tilting deformation in phase A). be NNN = TNT) Figure 8: Conductor tilting (normally, all conductors should be completely vertical),FRA Practices (Task Force 2) u Chapter 2: FRA Practices 2.1 Introduction [As presented in chapter 1, various FRA practices are used for several applications. An important objective of this WG was to make recommendations for standardisation of the best practices in order to improve the quality of the measurement and take advantage of the demonstrated sensitivity of this high-frequency measurement, ‘Two test sessions (workshops) were performed to evaluate the actual practices, to demonstrate the practical limitations of FRA, and to clearly illustrate the WG recommendations for standardisation. ‘This chapter presents the description and purposes of the main FRA test types, a summary of the WG workshops and the recommendations to standardise FRA practices. Recommendations are made for standardisation of the following items: test leads, measurement impedance, methodology to determine the maximum usable frequency for interpretation, parameters influencing FRA measurement to be included in test data, test equipment requirements, test types and data format. 2.2: FRA Test Types 2.2.1 Test Circuit and Connections ‘To make an FRA measurement, a voltage (either a sweep frequency or an impulse signal) is supplied to a transformer terminal with respect to the tank. The voltage measured at the input terminal is used as the reference for the FRA calculation. A second parameter (response signal) is usually a voltage taken across the measurement impedance connected to a second transformer terminal with reference to the tank (it may also be a current measured at the input terminal or at some other grounded terminal). ‘The FRA response amplitude is the ratio between the response signal (Vr) and the source voltage (VS) as a function of the frequency (generally presented in dB). The following ‘standard’ method for connecting the terminals and the tank using extension leads is mainly used: ‘© The input and reference coaxial cables are tapped together near the top of the bushing. A ground extension is run along the body of the bushing, down to the flange, to connect the cables shields to the tank. The same principle applies for the response cable. An alternative technique, referred to the ‘reverse’ method was also investigated by the WG: ‘© The input and reference coaxial cables are tapped together near the flange of the bushing ‘The cables shields are connected to the tank using a short lead. A lead extension is run along the body of the bushing to connect the signal to the bushing terminal. The same principle applies for the response cable. ‘The following sections 2.2.2 to 2.2.5 describe the main FRA test types. Examples are given for cach test type with measurements (using 50-Q input impedance) performed on a generator step~ up transformer rated 266 MVA, 420/3/ 21 / 21 kV. A three-phase HV (wye) ~ LV (delta) transformer is used to illustrate the test configurations (Figure 13), ‘The same principles can be applied to all other transformer winding systems,FRA Practices (Task Force 2) 2 2.2.2 End-to-end (Figure 13a, b) In the ‘end-to-end’ (or ‘end-to-end open’) test, the signal is applied to one end of each winding in tum, and the transmitted signal is measured at the other end. The magnetising impedance of the transformer is the main parameter characterising the low-frequency response (below first resonance) using this configuration. This test is the more commonly used because of its simplicity and the possibility to examine each winding separately (Figure 9). ‘The end-to-end tests can be made with the source applied on the phase terminal or on the neutral terminal. In principle, both should give similar results but the FRA user should specify the test set-up used and keep that information along with test data since it will influence the results. HV winding ° § “0 a gs a oo i $35 320 fo E25 “0 “ 0 ot — t —4000 «1000 Y0000 tno t00 000 «10000 Frequency iH) Froquancy ee) Figure 9: Examples of end-to-end measurements (266 MVA, 420/ V3 / 21/21 kV). 2.2.3. End-to-end short-circuit (Figure 13c, d) This testis similar to the end-to-end measurement above, but with a winding on the same phase being short-circuited. Such measurements allow the influence of the core to be removed below about 10-20 kHz because the low-frequency response is characterised by the leakage inductance instead of the magnetising inductance, ‘The response at higher frequencies is similar to the one obtained using end-to-end measurement (Figure 10), ot 1 10 100 © 100010000, Frequency (kH2) Figure 10: Comparison of HV end-to-end ‘open’ and ‘short-circuit’ tests (266 MVA, 420/¥3 / 21/21 kV).FRA Practices (Task Force 2) 13 The short-circuited winding can be floating or grounded. For three-phase transformers, there are two levels of variations, either per-phase or three-phase short-circuit, Furthermore, the end-to- end short-cireuit tests can be made with the source applied on the phase terminal or on the neutral terminal. This test can be made if there is an interest in obtaining information related to the leakage impedance at low frequency, or removing uncertainties related to analysis of the core influence when residual magnetism is present 2.2.4 Capacitive inter-winding (Figure 13e) ‘The signal is applied to one end of a winding and the response is measured at one end of another ‘winding on the same phase (not connected to the first one). By definition, this test is not possible between the series and common windings of autotransformers. The response using this configuration is dominated at low frequencies by the inter-winding capacitance (Figure 11). O11 40 1001000 +0000 Frequency (kH2) Figure 11: Example of capacitive inter-winding test between HV and LV windings (266 MVA, 420/ J3 /21/21 KV). 2.2.5 Inductive inter. \ding (Figure 13f) The signal is applied to a terminal on the HV side, and the response is measured on the corresponding terminal on the LV side, with the other end of both windings being grounded (Figure 12). The low-frequency range of this testis determined by the winding turns ratio. ° 8 Amplitude (4B) B8 a1 110100. 100010000 Frequency kH2) Figure 12: Example of inductive inter-winding test between HV and LV windings (266 MVA, 420/ 3 / 21/21 kV).FRA Practices (Task Forve 2) 4 (a) End-to-end (source on phase terminal)+ (b) End-to-end (source on neutral terminal)* terminal) 9 (c) End-to-end short-circuit (source on phase “End-to-end (open and short-circuit) tests can be performed in either direction, i.e. with the source applied on the phase terminal or on the neutral terminal ** For three-phase transformers, there are two short-circuiting options, either per-phase or three phase short-circuit Note: for auto-transformers, the end-to-end tests can be made across the series winding, the common winding or the series and common winding together. Figure 13: FRA test types.FRA Practices (Task Force 2) 15 2.3. Summary of WG Workshops Two FRA test workshops were carried out by the WG members to evaluate the actual FRA practices, to demonstrate the needs for standardisation and to make relevant recommendations. ‘The details of the test programmes and the analysis of the results are presented in appendix. This section summarises the main objectives and findings of each workshop. The objectives of the first FRA tests carried out on a generator step-up transformer rated 266 MVA, 420/V3 / 21 / 21 KV were to: ‘© characterise the differences in FRA practices used by experienced users (impulse, sweep frequency, measurement impedance, test leads, grounding, etc); © compare FRA measurement types i.e. end-to-end (open and short-circuit), inter-winding (capacitive and inductive) and determine the usefulness of each for diagnosing transformer defects; © standardise good FRA practices and point out practical limitations. Analysis of the results indicated the following: All test practices using a low measurement impedance (50 Q and below) produced essentially the same measured responses for the test object over a mid range of frequencies from about 10 kHz to 500 kHz, but there were significant differences above and below this range. © Below 10 kHz: the impulse methods used were unable to reproduce the low-frequency response, Some sweep frequency instruments also did not have sufficient dynamic range to reproduce the typical -90 dB minimum obtained with 50-© measurement impedance. © Over S00 kHz: when the test set-up involves a connection across the HV bushing, the repeatability of measurements is reduced because of the effects of the additional inductance of the leads used for the grounding of the high-frequency cable shields. (© The value of the measurement impedance itself could also introduce a variation of the response since the impedance of the test object at higher frequency is in the same order of ‘magnitude (mainly capacitive characteristic of the windings RLC network). Measurements made with input and output leads connected together but also across the tested transformer (HV bushing) showed some deviations from the expected (0 4B) flat response above 500 kHz, including additional resonances. These resonances are attributed to the interaction between the test object RLC network and the additional impedance introduced by the grounding leads, This measurement illustrates that some resonances obtained at highest frequencies for ‘measurements across large HV bushings may not be attributed to the transformer network impedance but to the interaction between the transformer and the test leads. Doubts must therefore be raised about the significance of any changes or differences in the highest frequency responses measured across large HV bushings. For smaller low-voltage bushings, the influence of shorter ground leads is much weaker and the usable upper frequency limit for interpretation is significantly increased (to 2-5 MHz). This was demonstrated by the “zero-check’ tests across the LY bushing and the good agreement of results between both identical LV windings of the transformer.FRA Practices (Task Force 2) 16 These findings illustrate the requirement to standardise the grounding practice and the measurement impedance to obtain a useful benchmark for the interpretation. Since the interaction between the transformer and the test leads can vary depending mainly on the length of the bushing across which the test leads are connected, a standardised methodology is desirable to evaluate the maximum reliable frequency for interpretation of the results. Comparing the different measurements made on the tested transformer, the end-to-end measurements made across the HV and LV windings gave very different responses and resonances, whereas inter-winding measurements between these windings gave responses which appeared to be intermediate in form to these, with a more pronounced similarity to the HV response. It was observed that the capacitive inter-winding response was almost insensitive to the tap position in the case studied. More research is needed to compare the sensitivity of each test in detecting various faults There was no evidence that the direction of end-to-end frequency response measurements (source on phase terminal or neutral terminal — as shown in Figure 13) has a significant effect on the measured responses of the tested transformer up to about 500 kHz for low measurement impedance (50 9 and below). On the other hand, the direction of the measurement had a significant effect below 100 kHz. for high input impedance tests. ‘A second test workshop on a three-phase autotransformer rated 400/275 kV, 500 MVA. was organised to: © investigate the effects of variations of cabling practices on FRA measurements; © evaluate the maximum usable frequency for each variation; © define the best practice; © compare results of several instruments using a common cabling practice versus using their own cables, Inconsistent grounding practice because of the use of different lengths and layouts of the extension lead made the measurements across large HV bushings unrepeatable from about 500 kHz. The adoption of consistent grounding practice, e.g. by using braid instead of wire to reduce the inductance of the extension leads, and by using the same length and reduced loop by pulling the braid tightly along the bushing, allowed the maximum usable frequency to be increased up to about 1.3 MHz. It was observed that, for the HV winding measured, the significant resonances are located below 500 KHz. The “standard” and “reverse” tests (as described in section 2.2.1) were evaluated and there was no evidence of any benefit for one particular set-up. ‘The deviations at highest frequencies are caused by the test leads configuration and not by the test equipment (as long as the same measurement impedance is used),FRA Practices (Task Force 2) 7 2.4 Recommended Standardisation of FRA practices This section summarises the WG recommendations for the standardisation of FRA practices. 2.4.1 TestLeads 2.4.1.1, High-frequency Cables and Termination The recommended approach is to use three shielded high-frequency cables (with a known and constant characteristic impedance) for the FRA measurement: one for the voltage input, one for the reference voltage measurement at the input terminal and one for the response voltage measurement. The length of the high-frequency cables should be enough to reach the terminal while the test equipment is at the bottom of the transformer. It is necessary to terminate the high- frequency cables satisfactorily to avoid reflections. ‘The termination is generally made at the instrument input for 50-C2 measurements. If the test is performed using a different measurement impedance, the FRA user shall apply state-of-the-art practices for cable terminations. For high- impedance measurement, it is recommended to use an active probe (for impedance matching) ot an optical transducer near the transformer to minimize the influence of the high-frequency cables. 2.4.1.2. Extension Leads and Connectors The inherent variability of the extension lead (mainly inductive characteristic) used to ground the screen of the high-frequency cable at the base of large HV bushings is one of the key parameters limiting the FRA measurement repeatability. To reduce the inductance, it is recommended to keep the extension leads as short as possible (without coiling the leads) and use flat braid (20 mm width minimum) instead of wire. The extension leads should rum tightly along the body of the bushing. Connectors for attaching the test leads should form good connections to the terminal and bushing flange (e.g. screwable connecting adapter or good clip connectors). It is also important to establish that the bushing flange has a good connection to earth. Recommended grounding practice Bad grounding practice Figure 14: Recommendations for grounding the high-frequency cables. Conceming the choice between the ‘standard’ and ‘reverse’ methods (as described in section 2.2.1) there is no clear advantage for one particular set-up. However, the instrument ‘manufacturers generally adopted the ‘standard’ method for their test lead design (high-frequency cable to the terminal and extension lead to earth the cable screen to the tank). 2.4.2. Measurement Impedance In terms of measurement impedance, the WG concludes that, whereas measurement impedance does affect the detailed form and amplitude level of the resonances, at the present time there is no